Perception and Learning in Organisations

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Improving Perceptions and Global Mindset at IBM

IBM New Zealand information

technology architect Mike Goddard

(shown) and other IBM employees

worldwide are developing their

empathy, cultural sensitivity, and a

global mindset by working on

community development projects in

Tanzania and other developing

nations.

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Perception Defined

The process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us• Deciding which information to

notice• How to categorise this

information• How to interpret information

within our existing knowledge framework

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Selective Attention

Objects characteristics• size, intensity, motion,

repetition, novelty Perceiver characteristics

• Emotional marker process• Expectations• Self-concept and beliefs

Confirmation bias• Screen out information

contrary to our beliefs/values

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Perceptual Organisation/Interpretation

Categorical thinking• Mostly nonconscious process of organising

people/things

Perceptual grouping principles• Similarity or proximity• Closure – filling in missing pieces• Perceiving trends

Interpreting incoming information• Emotional markers automatically evaluate

information

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Mental Models in Perceptions

Broad world-views or ‘theories-in-use’ Help us to quickly make sense of situations

• Fill in missing pieces• Help to predict events

Problem with mental models:• May block recognition of new

opportunities/perspectives

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“Your Name Says It All in France”

Hamid Senni (see photo) wears a shirt and tie whenever he strolls along the Champs Elysées in Paris. The reason for this formality? “If I'm in jeans, people think I'm a shoplifter,” says Senni, who was born and raised in France.

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Hamid Senni

Social Perception andSocial Identity

Categorisation process• Compare characteristics of

our groups with other groups

Homogenisation process• Similar traits within a group;

different traits across groups

Differentiation process• Develop less favourable

images of people in groups other than our own

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Hamid Senni

Stereotyping

Assigning traits to people based on their membership in a social category

Occurs due to:• Categorical thinking• Innate drive to understand and anticipate others’

behaviour• Enhances our self-concept

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Stereotyping Issues

Stereotyping Problems• Overgeneralises – doesn’t represent everyone in the

category• Basis of systemic and intentional discrimination

Overcoming stereotype biases• Difficult to prevent stereotype activation• Possible to minimise stereotype application

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Attribution Process

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Perception that behaviour is caused by the individual’s own motivation or ability

Internal Internal attributionattribution

External External attributionattribution

Perception that behaviour is caused by situation or

fate – beyond the individual’s control

Rules of Attribution

External attributionExternal attribution

FrequentlyFrequently

ConsistencyConsistency

SeldomSeldom

Internal attributionInternal attribution

FrequentlyFrequently

DistinctivenessDistinctiveness

SeldomSeldom

SeldomSeldom

ConsensusConsensus

FrequentlyFrequently

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Attribution Errors

Fundamental Attribution Error• Attributing own actions to external factors and

others’ actions to internal factors

Self-Serving Bias• Attributing our successes to internal factors and

our failures to external factors

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle

SupervisorSupervisorformsforms

expectationsexpectations

ExpectationsExpectationsaffect supervisor’saffect supervisor’s

behaviourbehaviour

Supervisor’sSupervisor’sbehaviour affectsbehaviour affects

employeeemployee

Employee’sEmployee’sbehaviour matchesbehaviour matches

expectationsexpectations

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Self-Fulfilling ProphecyEffect is Strongest...

...at the beginning of the relationship(eg. when employee joins the team)

...when several people have similar expectations about the person

...when the employee has low rather than high past achievement

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Other Perceptual Errors

Halo effect• One trait forms a general impression

Primacy effect• First impressions

Recency effect• Most recent information dominates perceptions

False-consensus effect• Overestimates the extent to which others have

beliefs and characteristics similar to our own

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Meaningful Interaction atAir New Zealand

Every month, Air New Zealand CEO Rob Fyfe and his top executive team fill the roster as flight attendants, check-in counter staff, or baggage handlers. These meaningful interactions improve perceptions between employees and executives who work alongside these employees.

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Air New Zealand CEO Rob Fyfe

Strategies to Improve Perceptions

1. Awareness of perceptual biases

2. Improving self-awareness• Apply Johari Window

3. Meaningful interaction• Close, frequent interaction

toward a shared goal• Equal status • Engaged in a meaningful task

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Air New Zealand CEO Rob Fyfe

Known to self Unknown to self

Knownto others

Unknownto others

OpenOpenAreaArea BlindBlind

AreaArea

UnknownUnknownAreaArea

HiddenHiddenAreaArea

Know Yourself (Johari Window)

OpenOpenareaarea

BlindBlindareaarea

HiddenHiddenareaarea

UnknownUnknownareaarea

DisclosureDisclosure

FeedbackFeedback

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Definition of Learning

A relatively permanent change in

behaviour (or behaviour tendency) that

occurs as a result of a person’s

interaction with the environment.

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Explicit vs. Tacit Knowledge

Explicit knowledge• Knowledge that is articulated through language, such

as documents

Tacit knowledge• Knowledge acquired through observation and direct

experience

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Behaviour Modification

We ‘operate’ on the environment• Alter behaviour to maximise positive and minimise

adverse consequences

Learning is viewed as completely dependent on the environment

Human thoughts are viewed as unimportant

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A-B-Cs of Behaviour Modification

ConsequencesConsequences

What happensWhat happensafter the behaviourafter the behaviour

Co-workersCo-workersthank thank

operatoroperator

Example

BehaviourBehaviour

What the personWhat the personsays or doessays or does

Machine Machine operator turnsoperator turns

off poweroff power

AntecedentsAntecedents

What happensWhat happensbefore the behaviourbefore the behaviour

WarningWarninglightlight

flashesflashes

Contingencies of Reinforcement

Behaviourincreases/maintained

Behaviourdecreases

Consequenceis introduced

Consequenceis removed

PunishmentPunishment

PositivePositivereinforcementreinforcement

ExtinctionExtinction PunishmentPunishment

NegativeNegativereinforcementreinforcement

Noconsequence

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Reinforcing the Healthy Walk

The British municipality of Stoke-

on-Kent, Staffordshire, issued

pedometers to its staff (see

photo) and encouraged them to

develop a regimen of daily

walking. The pedometers provide

instant feedback, thereby

reinforcing longer walks. The city

also introduced support groups to

further encourage people to walk

regularly.

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Stoke-on-Trent employees

Behaviour Modification in Practice

Behaviour modification is used in:• every day life to influence

behaviour of others• company programs to reduce

absenteeism, improve safety, etc.

Behaviour modification problems include:• Reward inflation • Behaviourist philosophy vs.

learning through mental processes

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Stoke-on-Trent employees

Social Learning Theory

Behavioural modelling• Observing and modelling behaviour of others

Learning behaviour consequences• Observing consequences that others experience

Self-reinforcement• Reinforcing our own behaviour with consequences

within our control

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Learning Through Experience

Most tacit knowledge and skills are acquired through experience and observation

Experiential learning steps• Engagement with environment• Reflecting on experience• Experimenting

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Developing a Learning Orientation

Value continuous learning

Reward experimentation

Recognise mistakes as part of learning

Encourage employees to question mental models and assumptions

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Organisational Learning

Knowledge acquisition• Extracting information and ideas from the external

environment as well as through insight

Knowledge sharing• Distributing knowledge to others across the

organisation

Knowledge use• Applying knowledge in ways that adds value to the

organisation and its stakeholders

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Perception and Learning in Organisations

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