Northwest Coast IndiansNorthwest Coast Indians

Kwakiutl, Haida, and their NeighborsKwakiutl, Haida, and their Neighbors

Location of the Northwest Coast Location of the Northwest Coast Native peoples ranged from Native peoples ranged from

N. Oregon through British N. Oregon through British Columbia and Southern Columbia and Southern AlaskaAlaska

Best Known:Best Known: Kwakiutl (“Kwagiutl”) of Kwakiutl (“Kwagiutl”) of

Vancouver IslandVancouver Island Haida of the Queen Haida of the Queen

Charlotte IslandsCharlotte Islands Tlingit of Southern AlaskaTlingit of Southern Alaska Others: Salish, Nootka, Others: Salish, Nootka,

Bella Coola, TsimshianBella Coola, Tsimshian

Northwest Coast Natives as Complex Northwest Coast Natives as Complex ForagersForagers

Simple foragers retain a relatively simple societySimple foragers retain a relatively simple society What if, however, you can yield large amounts of What if, however, you can yield large amounts of

food without agriculture?food without agriculture? This is what we find in the Northwest CoastThis is what we find in the Northwest Coast There were regular salmon and candlefish runsThere were regular salmon and candlefish runs They could be preserved by smoking (salmon) or They could be preserved by smoking (salmon) or

rendering (oil)rendering (oil) There were other abundant food sourcesThere were other abundant food sources They were complex foragersThey were complex foragers

Complex Foraging: Primary Complex Foraging: Primary CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Food source dependence is still directFood source dependence is still direct Food sources now are richerFood sources now are richer Big game in Old and New World PleistoceneBig game in Old and New World Pleistocene Contemporary example: Salmon complex in NW Contemporary example: Salmon complex in NW

Coast societiesCoast societies Variance still occurs by season and locationVariance still occurs by season and location Carrying capacity is higherCarrying capacity is higher Minimum specified in Liebig’s Law is higherMinimum specified in Liebig’s Law is higher But sources can fluctuate by year, season, and But sources can fluctuate by year, season, and

locationlocation

Complex Foraging: Derived Complex Foraging: Derived CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Sedentary communities Sedentary communities Depend on stability and richness of resourcesDepend on stability and richness of resources Need not rely only on domesticationNeed not rely only on domestication Assemblage of Tools and ArtifactsAssemblage of Tools and Artifacts Multiply in numberMultiply in number Multiply in type (specialization)Multiply in type (specialization) Populations increasePopulations increase Societies become more complexSocieties become more complex This analysis applied to Northwest Coast peoplesThis analysis applied to Northwest Coast peoples

Subsistence Base of Northwest CoastSubsistence Base of Northwest Coast

Salmon, caught in their annual runs upstream, were Salmon, caught in their annual runs upstream, were preserved by smokingpreserved by smoking

Candlefish (olachen), a greasy fish whose oils Candlefish (olachen), a greasy fish whose oils provide heat, light, and cookingprovide heat, light, and cooking

Other fish, such as cod and halibutOther fish, such as cod and halibut Sea mammals, such as otter, seals, and (among the Sea mammals, such as otter, seals, and (among the

Nootka) whalesNootka) whales Land mammals, such as deer, elk, bear, and caribou Land mammals, such as deer, elk, bear, and caribou

(northern regions)(northern regions) Berries, pine nuts, roots, and greens in season. Berries, pine nuts, roots, and greens in season.

Salmon: The Staple SourceSalmon: The Staple Source

Every fall, salmons run up the major rivers to Every fall, salmons run up the major rivers to spawn, then return to the seaspawn, then return to the sea

Using nets and weirs (fish traps), the fishers Using nets and weirs (fish traps), the fishers catch prodigious amounts of salmoncatch prodigious amounts of salmon

The salmon are sliced in half, put on racks to The salmon are sliced in half, put on racks to dry in smokehouses and shedsdry in smokehouses and sheds

The salmon will keep during the winterThe salmon will keep during the winter

Candlefish (Olachan)Candlefish (Olachan)

Candlefish are very oily fish; it is said that a Candlefish are very oily fish; it is said that a dried candlefish can burn like a candle when litdried candlefish can burn like a candle when lit

Runs began in the early spring and were caught Runs began in the early spring and were caught by netsby nets

Their oil was rendered and stored in leakproof Their oil was rendered and stored in leakproof wooden binswooden bins

The oil provides heat and lightThe oil provides heat and light It is also used as a preservativeIt is also used as a preservative Oil was a valuable trade item Oil was a valuable trade item

Other Food SourcesOther Food Sources

During the spring and summer, other fish were During the spring and summer, other fish were obtained by netobtained by net

The Nootka hunted whales in large seagoing The Nootka hunted whales in large seagoing canoes; other northwest coast Indians relied on canoes; other northwest coast Indians relied on beached whales beached whales

Game was hunted inland, exploited for meat Game was hunted inland, exploited for meat but especially for hidesbut especially for hides

Berries, roots, seeds, and nuts were picked in Berries, roots, seeds, and nuts were picked in seasonseason

Winter ActivitiesWinter Activities

Some hunting took place during the winterSome hunting took place during the winter Most activities were confined in the villagesMost activities were confined in the villages This was the period of feasting (assuming This was the period of feasting (assuming

substantial yield in the preceding summer)substantial yield in the preceding summer) Potlatches (major feasts) marking important Potlatches (major feasts) marking important

events were held at that timeevents were held at that time

Scarcity and Fluctuating ResourcesScarcity and Fluctuating Resources

Not all rivers supported salmon or olachan Not all rivers supported salmon or olachan runs. runs.

Many areas were short of other resourcesMany areas were short of other resources They could vary seasonallyThey could vary seasonally Result: not all years were abundant and some Result: not all years were abundant and some

groups might help others in time of needgroups might help others in time of need This was also the cause of warfare, and This was also the cause of warfare, and

competition for resource-rich areas was competition for resource-rich areas was commoncommon

WoodcraftWoodcraft

The Northwest Coast Indians were expert The Northwest Coast Indians were expert woodcrafters—carvers and builderswoodcrafters—carvers and builders

The region is densely forested and wood is The region is densely forested and wood is in plentiful supplyin plentiful supply

Products: seagoing canoes, longhouses, Products: seagoing canoes, longhouses, “totem poles” (signifying the lineage and “totem poles” (signifying the lineage and clans), decorated boxes, and many more clans), decorated boxes, and many more (upper left)(upper left)

They were also expert in carving on stone, They were also expert in carving on stone, ivory, and bone. ivory, and bone.

The thunderbird was a perennial totemic The thunderbird was a perennial totemic symbol among the Kwakiutl (lower left)symbol among the Kwakiutl (lower left)

Social Organization: KwakiutlSocial Organization: Kwakiutl

Social organization varied by locationSocial organization varied by location The Kwakiutl lived on east Vancouver Island and the The Kwakiutl lived on east Vancouver Island and the

adjacent mainland of British Columbisadjacent mainland of British Columbis The Kwakiutl were organized by patrilineal groups The Kwakiutl were organized by patrilineal groups

known as known as numaym numaym They could be flexible and valuables could be They could be flexible and valuables could be

inherited through females or obtain through marriageinherited through females or obtain through marriage Thus Thus numaymnumaym had bilateral attributes and were often had bilateral attributes and were often

flexible flexible

Social Organization: Northern Social Organization: Northern GroupsGroups

The northern chiefdoms included the:The northern chiefdoms included the: Haida on the Queen Charlotte IslandsHaida on the Queen Charlotte Islands Tsimshian in northern British Columbia, andTsimshian in northern British Columbia, and Tlingit of Southern AlaskaTlingit of Southern Alaska They were organized into matrilineagesThey were organized into matrilineages Descent was traced through the females Descent was traced through the females Their social organization was much more rigid Their social organization was much more rigid

than the Kwakiutlthan the Kwakiutl

Five Levels of Social OrganizationFive Levels of Social Organization

Family: nuclear families of father, mother, and Family: nuclear families of father, mother, and childrenchildren

House group: units residing in a common houseHouse group: units residing in a common house Lineages: varied by tribe—matrilineal, patrilineal, Lineages: varied by tribe—matrilineal, patrilineal,

and sometime bilaterallyand sometime bilaterally Villages: basic political units, led by a chiefVillages: basic political units, led by a chief Supravillage “intergroup collectivities”: alliances Supravillage “intergroup collectivities”: alliances

based on common concerns—warfare, resource based on common concerns—warfare, resource control, ceremonial exchangecontrol, ceremonial exchange

Family HouseholdsFamily Households

The family unit is the smallest unit among all The family unit is the smallest unit among all Northwest Coast societiesNorthwest Coast societies

Most foraging, production of tools and Most foraging, production of tools and clothing, and basic activities are carried out clothing, and basic activities are carried out through the familythrough the family

They act individually during summer foragingThey act individually during summer foraging

House GroupsHouse Groups

Communal functions centered around the Communal functions centered around the multifamily house, a large wooden structure or multifamily house, a large wooden structure or set of wooden structuresset of wooden structures

Many functions were conducted at that level: Many functions were conducted at that level: drying and smoking salmon, maintaining and drying and smoking salmon, maintaining and using fishing equipment, rendering oil, making using fishing equipment, rendering oil, making and maintaining canoesand maintaining canoes

Labor and products contributed to the local Labor and products contributed to the local chief were mobilized by the house groupchief were mobilized by the house group

Productive Activities of House Productive Activities of House GroupGroup

Women formed the productive unit in the house Women formed the productive unit in the house groupgroup

They cared for children, made the clothing, They cared for children, made the clothing, smoked the salmon, rendered the oil, and kept the smoked the salmon, rendered the oil, and kept the stores of blankets, clothing, and later moneystores of blankets, clothing, and later money

Men’s work: toolmaker, carver of wood posts and Men’s work: toolmaker, carver of wood posts and so-called totem poles, builder of canoes, and all so-called totem poles, builder of canoes, and all else involving construction, carving, and else involving construction, carving, and ornamentsornaments

Women and House GroupWomen and House Group Women’s role in drying salmon, base of both Women’s role in drying salmon, base of both

subsistence and luxury wealth, gave them a subsistence and luxury wealth, gave them a great deal of powergreat deal of power

The importance of women contributed to the The importance of women contributed to the matrilineal and matrilocal structure of the matrilineal and matrilocal structure of the northern groupsnorthern groups

It also may have contributed toward the bilateral It also may have contributed toward the bilateral bias of the Kwakiutl bias of the Kwakiutl numaym.numaym.

Women of high class often owned the house and Women of high class often owned the house and sponsored potlatches in their own rightsponsored potlatches in their own right

Lineages and ClansLineages and Clans The Kwakiutl The Kwakiutl numaym numaym or or numaymna numaymna was used as a was used as a

gloss to refer to the clans and lineages of all societiesgloss to refer to the clans and lineages of all societies A single lineage might dominate a village, with all A single lineage might dominate a village, with all

members as co-ownersmembers as co-owners Lineage membership is flexible, and one could join Lineage membership is flexible, and one could join

two or more lineagestwo or more lineages Lineages could also extend across village boundariesLineages could also extend across village boundaries Served to facilitate trade and ceremonial relationships Served to facilitate trade and ceremonial relationships

between villagebetween village Also served to mitigate warfareAlso served to mitigate warfare

Village and Chiefdoms: Role of the Village and Chiefdoms: Role of the Chief 1Chief 1

Villages regulated the affairs and resources in the Villages regulated the affairs and resources in the villagevillage

Chiefs retained influence and sometimes control over Chiefs retained influence and sometimes control over the resources of the house groupthe resources of the house group

Organized a complex economy with his own Organized a complex economy with his own specialists and large scale capitalspecialists and large scale capital

Organized the construction of dams, weirs, and Organized the construction of dams, weirs, and defensive structuresdefensive structures

Regulated the use of the salmon fisheries to prevent Regulated the use of the salmon fisheries to prevent overuse and depletion of salmonoveruse and depletion of salmon

Village and Chiefdoms: Role of the Village and Chiefdoms: Role of the Chief 2Chief 2

Maintains storehouses to support specialists, pay Maintains storehouses to support specialists, pay debts, make loans, and other functionsdebts, make loans, and other functions

Requires the Native version of taxation: a successful Requires the Native version of taxation: a successful fisher or hunter must give one-fifth to one half of his fisher or hunter must give one-fifth to one half of his catch to the chief catch to the chief

In return, the chief provides for the common needs of In return, the chief provides for the common needs of the community—like feasts—and to pay his the community—like feasts—and to pay his specialists.specialists.

Finally, he sponsors large, interregional ceremonies, Finally, he sponsors large, interregional ceremonies, such as the potlatchsuch as the potlatch

Village: Big Man or Chief?Village: Big Man or Chief?

The book argues that a big man dominated the village polityThe book argues that a big man dominated the village polity The authors’ reasoning: the chief relies on group of loyal followers, The authors’ reasoning: the chief relies on group of loyal followers,

whose loyalty is not assured. whose loyalty is not assured. Problem with the analysis: the chief has an established rule of Problem with the analysis: the chief has an established rule of

successionsuccession It is a system of permanent positions that must be filled. It is a system of permanent positions that must be filled. It is a ranked society divided between elite, commoners, and slavesIt is a ranked society divided between elite, commoners, and slaves This is not like the big man of New Guinea, which is subject to This is not like the big man of New Guinea, which is subject to

competition from other big men in the tribecompetition from other big men in the tribe For this reason, we use “Chief” rather than For this reason, we use “Chief” rather than

Big Man. Big Man.

Defining the PotlatchDefining the Potlatch

Refers to ceremonies in which an important event was celebratedRefers to ceremonies in which an important event was celebrated Occasions: the installment of a new chief, the naming ceremonies, Occasions: the installment of a new chief, the naming ceremonies,

the announcement of a new heirthe announcement of a new heir Prior to the epidemics, the ceremony was simply to celebrate an Prior to the epidemics, the ceremony was simply to celebrate an

important eventimportant event It brought several tribes together It brought several tribes together There were several ritual dances in the first part of the ceremonyThere were several ritual dances in the first part of the ceremony Then the chief would arise and give a speechThen the chief would arise and give a speech The gifts were then distributed, the value matching the rank of the The gifts were then distributed, the value matching the rank of the

recipientrecipient The guests then arose and acknowledged the performance of the The guests then arose and acknowledged the performance of the

host chiefhost chief

Rivalry Potlatch: EpidemicsRivalry Potlatch: Epidemics

What Johnson and Earle describe is the rivalry potlatchWhat Johnson and Earle describe is the rivalry potlatch Like other indigenous populations, diseases were introduced Like other indigenous populations, diseases were introduced

against which they had no immunityagainst which they had no immunity Indications are that the population declined by up to 90% in Indications are that the population declined by up to 90% in

the nineteenth centurythe nineteenth century For the Kwakiutl, the population declined from 3500 in 1853 For the Kwakiutl, the population declined from 3500 in 1853

to 1345 for 1903to 1345 for 1903 In any case, there were far more titles than for people to In any case, there were far more titles than for people to

assume themassume them Some were more valued than others, and those were the object Some were more valued than others, and those were the object

of competitionof competition

Rival Potlatch: Increased Rival Potlatch: Increased CompetitivenessCompetitiveness

As disease spread, the successors were wiped outAs disease spread, the successors were wiped out As a result, it was not clear who should be the next chief or to As a result, it was not clear who should be the next chief or to

inherit the most valued titleinherit the most valued title To prove their worth, each chief competed by giving a large To prove their worth, each chief competed by giving a large

gift—stacks of blankets, copper plates, even slaves—to his gift—stacks of blankets, copper plates, even slaves—to his rivalrival

The rival could not refuse these gifts, but had to return larger The rival could not refuse these gifts, but had to return larger amounts as “interest”amounts as “interest”

Either the rival did so, or he would be “crushed,” ceding the Either the rival did so, or he would be “crushed,” ceding the contest to the challenger contest to the challenger

Because of the unrest they caused, Canadian authorities Because of the unrest they caused, Canadian authorities outlawed the potlatchoutlawed the potlatch

ConclusionConclusion

It is a myth that the potlatch described in the It is a myth that the potlatch described in the book always existed, long before the tradersbook always existed, long before the traders

Drucker points out that the potlatch was one Drucker points out that the potlatch was one way to cement intervillage relationsway to cement intervillage relations

It served to expand trade and mimimize It served to expand trade and mimimize warfarewarfare

It is one example of how a chiefdom could It is one example of how a chiefdom could develop on a subsistence system based on develop on a subsistence system based on fishing and hunting—and not on agriculturefishing and hunting—and not on agriculture