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American Societ o Plumbing Engineers

Plumbing Engineering

Design Handbook A Plumbing Engineer’s Guide to Sstem Design and Specications

American Society of Plumbing Engineers

Plumbing Componentsand Equipment

Volume 4

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Copright © 2012 b American Societ o Plumbing Engineers

All rights reserved, including rights o reproduction and use in an orm or b an means, including the making o copiesb an photographic process, or b an electronic or mechanical device, printed or written or oral, or recording orsound or visual reproduction, or or use in an knowledge or retrieval sstem or device, unless permission in writing isobtained rom the publisher.

The ASPE Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook is designed to provide accurate and authoritative inormation or the design and

specication o plumbing systems. The publisher makes no guarantees or warranties, expressed or implied, regarding the data and inor-

mation contained in this publication. All data and inormation are provided with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in

rendering legal, consulting, engineering, or other proessional services. I legal, consulting, or engineering advice or other expert assistance

is required, the services o a competent proessional should be engaged.

American Society of Plumbing Engineers6400 Shafer Court, Suite 350

Rosemont, IL 60018(847) 296-0002 • Fax: (847) 269-2963

E-mail: [email protected] • Internet: www.aspe.org

ISBN 978-1-891255-22-9

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook Volume 4

Plumbing Components and Equipment

Chair L. Richard Ellis, CPD, FASPE

ASPE Vice President, Technical Timoth A. Smith, CPD, FASPE

Editor Gretchen Pienta

Graphic Designer Rachel Boger

CONTRIBUTORS

Chapter 1: Plumbing Fitures

Anthony J. Curiale, CPD, LEED AP Joseph F. Ficek, CPD

Chapter 2: Piping Sstems James Paschal, PE, CPD, LEED AP

Bruce S. Weiss, CPD

Chapter 3: Valves Anthony J. Curiale, CPD, LEED AP

Jason GellerTom A. Wilson, CPD

Chapter 4: PumpsSteven P. Skattebo, PE

Stephen F. Ziga, CPD, SET, CFPS

Chapter 5: Piping InsulationCarol L. Johnson, CPD, LEED AP

James Paschal, PE, CPD, LEED APDennis F. Richards Jr., CPD

Bruce S. Weiss, CPD

Chapter 6: Hangers and Supports Jason S.A. McDonald, CPD

Stephen F. Ziga, CPD, SET, CFPS

Chapter 7: Vibration IsolationMark Stickney

L. Richard Ellis, CPD, FASPE

Chapter 8: Grease Interceptors

Gregory G. Aymong L. Richard Ellis, CPD, FASPE

Michael GauthierMark J. Kaulas

Dennis F. Richards Jr., CPD

Chapter 9: Cross-Connection ControlLarisa Miro, CPD

Steven P. Skattebo, PE

Chapter 10: Water TreatmentDavid E. DeBord, CPD, LEED AP, ARCSA AP

Carol L. Johnson, CPD, LEED AP

E.W. Boulware, PE

Chapter 11: Thermal Epansion Jodie L. Sherven, PE, CPDKarl E. Yrjanainen, PE, CPD

Chapter 12: Potable Water Coolers andCentral Water Sstems

Frank Sanchez, CPDKarl E. Yrjanainen, PE, CPD

Chapter 13: Bioremediation Pretreatment

SstemsMax Weiss

Chapter 14: Green Plumbing David E. DeBord, CPD, LEED AP, ARCSA AP

Larisa Miro, CPD

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About ASPE

The American Society o Plumbing Engineers (ASPE) is the international organization or proessionals skilled inthe design and specication o plumbing systems. ASPE is dedicated to the advancement o the science o plumbing

engineering, to the proessional growth and advancement o its members, and to the health, welare, and saety o

the public.

The Society disseminates technical data and inormation, sponsors activities that acilitate interaction with

ellow proessionals, and, through research and education programs, expands the base o knowledge o the plumbing engineering industry. ASPE members are leaders in innovative plumbing design, eective materials and energy use,

and the application o advanced techniques rom around the world.

W orldWide MeMbership — ASPE was ounded in 1964 and currently has 6,000 members. Spanning the globe,

members are located in the United States, Canada, Asia, Mexico, South America, the South Pacic, Australia, andEurope. They represent an extensive network o experienced engineers, designers, contractors, educators, code

ocials, and manuacturers interested in urthering their careers, their proession, and the industry. ASPE is at the

oreront o technology. In addition, ASPE represents members and promotes the proession among all segments o the

construction industry.

Aspe MeMbership CoMMuniCAtion — All members belong to ASPE worldwide and have the opportunity to

belong to and participate in one o the 61 state, provincial, or local chapters throughout the U.S. and Canada. ASPE

chapters provide the major communication links and the rst line o services and programs or the individual member.

Communication with the membership is enhanced through the Society’s ocial publication, Plumbing Engineer,

and the e-newsletter ASPE Pipeline.

teChniCAl publiCAtions — The Society maintains a comprehensive publishing program, spearheaded by the

proession’s basic reerence text, the Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook. The Plumbing Engineering Design

Handbook, encompassing 51 chapters in our volumes, provides comprehensive details o the accepted practices and

design criteria used in the eld o plumbing engineering. In 2011, the Illustrated Plumbing Codes Design Handbook

joined ASPE’s published library o proessional technical manuals and handbooks.

Convention And teChniCAl s yMposiuM—The Society hosts a biennial Convention & Exposition in even-numbered

years and a Technical Symposium in odd-numbered years to allow proessional plumbing engineers and designers to

improve their skills, learn original concepts, and make important networking contacts to help them stay abreast o

current trends and technologies. The ASPE Exposition is the largest gathering o plumbing engineering and designproducts, equipment, and services. Everything rom pipes to pumps to xtures, rom compressors to computers to

consulting services is on display, giving engineers and speciers the opportunity to view the newest and most innovative

materials and equipment available to them.Certified in pluMbing design— ASPE sponsors a national certication program or engineers and designers o plumbing systems, which carries the designation “Certied in Plumbing Design” or CPD. The certication program

provides the proession, the plumbing industry, and the general public with a single, comprehensive qualication o

proessional competence or engineers and designers o plumbing systems. The CPD, designed exclusively by and or

plumbing engineers, tests hundreds o engineers and designers at centers throughout the United States. Created to

provide a single, uniorm national credential in the eld o engineered plumbing systems, the CPD program is notin any way connected to state-regulated Proessional Engineer (PE) registration.

Aspe reseArCh foundAtion— The ASPE Research Foundation, established in 1976, is the only independent,

impartial organization involved in plumbing engineering and design research. The science o plumbing engineering

aects everything, rom the quality o our drinking water to the conservation o our water resources to the building codes or plumbing systems. Our lives are impacted daily by the advances made in plumbing engineering technology

through the Foundation’s research and development.

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American Societ o Plumbing Engineers

Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook (4 Volumes — 51 Chapters)

Volume 1 Fundamentals o Plumbing Engineering (Revised 2009)

Chapter 1 Formulas, Smbols, and Terminolog

2 Standards or Plumbing Materials and Equipment

3 Specications

4 Plumbing Cost Estimation

5 Job Preparation, Drawings, and Field Reports

6 Plumbing or People with Disabilities

7 Energ and Resource Conservation in Plumbing Sstems

8 Corrosion

9 Seismic Protection o Plumbing Equipment

10 Acoustics in Plumbing Sstems

11 Basics o Value Engineering

12 Ensuring High-Qualit Plumbing Installations

13 Eisting Building Job Preparation and Condition Surve

Volume 2 Plumbing Sstems (Revised 2010)

Chapter 1 Sanitar Drainage Sstems

2 On-Site Wastewater Ruse and Storm Water Harvesting

3 Vents and Venting

4 Storm Drainage Sstems

5 Cold Water Sstems

6 Domestic Water Heating Sstems

7 Fuel Gas Piping Sstems

8 Private On-Site Wastewater Treatment Sstems

9 Private Water Wells

10 Vacuum Sstems11 Water Treatment, Conditioning, and Purication

12 Special Waste Drainage Sstems

Volume 3 Special Plumbing Sstems (Revised 2011)

Chapter 1 Fire Protection Sstems

2 Plumbing Design or Healthcare Facilities

3 Treatment o Industrial Waste

4 Irrigation Sstems

5 Refecting Pools and Fountains

6 Public Swimming Pools

7 Gasoline and Diesel Oil Sstems

8 Steam and Condensate Piping

9 Compressed Air Sstems10 Solar Energ

11 Site Utilit Sstems

12 Laborator Gases

(The chapters and subjects listed or these volume are subject to modication, adjustment and change.The contents shown or each volume are proposed and ma not represent the nal contents o the volume.

A nal listing o included chapters or each volume will appear in the actual publication.)

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Table o Contents

Chapter 1: Plumbing Fitures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Fixture Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Vitreous China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Nonvitreous China. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Enameled Cast Iron. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Porcelain Enameled Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Soapstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Terrazzo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Applicable Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

LEED and Plumbing Fixtures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Water Closets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Water Closet Bowl Shape and Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Bariatric Water Closets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Water Closet Seat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Water Closet Flushing Perormance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Water Closet Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Water Closet Flushing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Urinals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Urinal Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Urinal Flushing Perormance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Urinal Flushing Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Urinal Installation Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Lavatories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Lavatory Size and Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Lavatory Installation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Kitchen Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Residential Kitchen Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Commercial Kitchen Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Service Sinks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

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ii ASPE Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook — Volume 4

Sinks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Laundry Trays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Faucets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Faucet Categories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Faucet Flow Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Backfow Protection or Faucets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Drinking Fountains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Showers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Shower Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Bathtubs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Bathtub Fill Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Bidet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Floor Drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Emergency Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Minimum Fixture Requirements or Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Single-Occupant Toilet Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Chapter 2: Piping Sstems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25Specication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Cast Iron Soil Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Hub and Spigot Pipe and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Hubless Pipe and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Ductile Iron Water and Sewer Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Concrete Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Copper Pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Copper Water Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Copper Drainage Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Medical Gas Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Natural and Liqueed Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Glass Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Steel Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Plastic Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Polybutylene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Polyethylene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

Cross-Linked Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Cross-Linked Polyethylene, Aluminum, Cross-Linked Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Polyethylene/Aluminum/Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Polyvinyl Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Polypropylene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Polyvinylidene Fluoride. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Polypropylene-Random . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Tefon (PTFE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Low-Extractable PVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

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Table o Contents iii

Fiberglass and Reinorced Thermosetting Resin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Vitried Clay Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

High Silicon Iron Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

Special-Purpose Piping Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Corrugated Stainless Steel Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56Double Containment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Pipe Joining Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Mechanical Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Compression Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Lead and Oakum Joints (Caulked Joints) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Shielded Hubless Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Mechanically Formed Tee Fittings or Copper Tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Mechanical Joining o Copper Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Joining Plastic Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Assembling Flanged Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60Making Up Threaded Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Thread Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Welding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Joining Glass Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Bending Pipe and Tubing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Electrousion Joining. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Socket Fusion Joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Inrared Butt Fusion Joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Beadless Butt Fusion Joining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Accessories and Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Anchors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Dielectric Unions and Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Expansion Joints and Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Ball Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Flexible Couplings (Compression or Slip) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Gaskets (Flanged Pipe) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Mechanical Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Pipe Supports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Pipe Unions (Flanged Connections) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

Pipe Sleeves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Service Connections (Water Piping) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Expansion and Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Appendix 2-A: Pipe and Fittings Reerence Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Cast Iron Soil Pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Ductile Iron Water and Sewer Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

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Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Polybutylene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Polyethylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

PEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

PEX-AL-PEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

PE-AL-PE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

PVC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69CPVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

ABS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Polypropylene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

PVDF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

PP-R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Vitried Clay Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

High-Silicon Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Chapter 3: Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73Types o Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Gate Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

Globe Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Angle Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Ball Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Butterfy Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Check Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Plug Valve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Valve Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Brass and Bronze. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Malleable Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Thermoplastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Valve Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Valve Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Bonnets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

End Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Water Pressure Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Regulator Selection and Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Common Regulating Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82Common Types o Regulator Installations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Valve Sizing and Pressure Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Hot and Cold Domestic Water Service Valve Specications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Gate Valves 2 Inches and Smaller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Gate Valves 2½ Inches and Larger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Ball Valves 2 Inches and Smaller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Globe Valves 2 Inches and Smaller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Globe Valves 2½ Inches and Larger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

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Butterfy Valves 2½ Inches and Larger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Check Valves 2 Inches and Smaller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Check Valves 2½ Inches and Larger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Compressed Air Service Valve Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84


Butterfy Valves 2½ Inches and Larger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Check Valves 2 Inches and Smaller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84Check Valves 2½ Inches and Larger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Vacuum Service Valve Specications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84


Medical Gas Service Valve Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85


Ball Valves 2½ Inches and Larger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Low-Pressure Steam and General Service Valve Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Butterfy Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85


Gate Valves 2½ Inches and Larger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85Ball Valves 2 Inches and Smaller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85





Medium-Pressure Steam Service Valve Specications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

Butterfy Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86







High-Pressure Steam Service Valve Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86







High-Temperature Hot Water Service Valve Specications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Nonlubricated Plug Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Gasoline and LPG Service Valve Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Plug Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Fire Protection System Valve Specications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87



Valves 4 Inches and Larger or Underground Bury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

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High-Rise Service Valve Specications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Gate Valves 2½ Inches to 12 Inches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Check Valves 2½ Inches to 12 Inches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88


Butterfy Valves 4 Inches to 12 Inches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Check Valves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Chapter 4: Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Pump Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Pump Types and Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

Determining Pump Eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Centriugal Pump Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

Perormance Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

Staging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Specialty Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Domestic Booster Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Fire Pumps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Water Circulation Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Drainage Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Pump Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Environmental Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Pump Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Chapter 5: Piping Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

The Physics o Water Vapor Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Types o Insulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Fiberglass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Elastomeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Cellular Glass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Foamed Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Calcium Silicate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Insulating Cement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Jacket Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 All-Service Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Aluminum Jacket. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Stainless Steel Jacket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Plastic and Laminates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Wire Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Lagging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Installation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Insulation or Valves and Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

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Insulation or Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Insulation Around Pipe Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Selecting Insulation Thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Controlling Heat Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Condensation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Personnel Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112Freeze Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Insulation Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Chapter 6: Hangers and Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115Hanger and Support Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Thermal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Pressure Fluctuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Structural Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Natural Environmental Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Reactivity and Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Acoustics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Manmade Environmental Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Hanger and Support Selection and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Hanger Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Hanger and Support Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

Anchoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Anchor Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Sleeves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Hanger, Support, and Anchor Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Chapter 7: Vibration Isolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Vibration Isolator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Static Defection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Natural Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Disturbing Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Resonant Amplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Transmissibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

Theory o Vibration Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Types o Vibration and Shock Mountings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Cork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Elastomers and Neoprene Rubber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Steel Spring Isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

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Chapter 8: Grease Interceptors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145Principles o Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

Retention Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Flow-Through Period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Factors Aecting Flotation in the Ideal Basin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Grease Interceptor Design Example. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Practical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150Grease Interceptor Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Hydromechanical Grease Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Semiautomatic Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Separators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

Grease Removal Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

FOG Disposal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

Gravity Grease Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154

Guidelines or Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155Code Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

UPC Requirements or Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

IPC Requirements or Hydromechanical Grease Interceptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Operation and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Chapter 9: Cross-Connection Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .159Hydrostatic Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Causes o Reverse Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

Hazards in Water Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Control Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Classication o Hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Control Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Passive Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

Active Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Hybrid Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Installation Shortalls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Quality Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Product Standards and Listings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Field Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Regulatory Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

Chapter 10: Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173Basic Water Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Raw Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Potable Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

Process Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Sot and Hard Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

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Deionized Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Distilled Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Puried Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Water Conditions and Recommended Treatments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Turbidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Aeration and Deaeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176Minerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Chlorination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Clarication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Filtration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Gravity Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

Pressure Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Backwashing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Diatomaceous Earth Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Demineralization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

Ion Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Water Sotening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Water Sotener Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

Salt Recycling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Salt Storage Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

The Distillation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

Distillation Equipment Applications and Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

Feed Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Distribution Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Specialized Water Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Ozone Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

Ultraviolet Light Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Reverse Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

Nanoltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Ultraltration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Copper-Silver Ionization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Chapter 11: Thermal Epansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205Thermal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

Expansion Loops and Osets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206Expansion Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

Aboveground Piping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Pressure Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Drain, Waste, and Vent Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

Thermoplastic Piping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Underground Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Expansion Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

Expansion o Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

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Expansion o Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Boyle’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Chapter 12: Potable Water Coolers and Central Water Sstems . . . . .215 Water and the Human Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Unitary Coolers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Water Cooler Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

Options and Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

Water Cooler Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Stream Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Rerigeration Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

Water Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Central Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222

Standards, Codes, and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

Chapter 13: Bioremediation Pretreatment Sstems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .227Principle o Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

Separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Retention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228

Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Sizing Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Design Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Stainless Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Fiberglass-Reinorced Polyester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Polyethylene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Structural Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Dimension and Perormance Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

Installation and Workmanship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Chapter 14: Green Plumbing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 What Is Sustainable Design? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Assessment and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

The USGBC and LEED. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Real-Lie Financial Benets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

How Plumbing Systems Contribute to Sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

Domestic Water Use Reduction or Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

Domestic Water Use Reduction or Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Wastewater Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Rainwater Capture and Reuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

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Graywater and Black Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Biosolids Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Energy Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Energy Eciency and Energy-Saving Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Solar Water Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Geothermal Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Inde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243

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Figures

Figure 1-1 Blowout (A) and Siphon-Jet (B) Water Closets ................................................................... 3

Figure 1-2 (A) Close-Coupled, (B) One-Piece, and (C) Flushometer Water Closets ............................ 3

Figure 1-3 Floor-Mounted, Back-Outlet Water Closet .......................................................................... 4

Figure 1-4 Wall-Hung Water Closet ....................................................................................................... 4Figure 1-5 Standard Rough-In Dimension or Water Closet Outlet to the Back Wall ........................ 4

Figure 1-6 Water Closet Compartment Spacing Requirements ........................................................... 6

Figure 1-7 Minimum Chase Sizes or Carriers ...................................................................................... 7

Figure 1-8 (A) Gravity Tank and (B) Flushometer Tank ..................................................................... 8

Figure 1-9 Required Urinal Spacing ...................................................................................................... 9

Figure 1-10 Minimum Chase Sizes or Urinals ....................................................................................... 9

Figure 1-11 Recommended Installation Dimensions or a Lavatory ................................................... 10

Figure 1-12 Minimum Chase Sizes or Lavatories ................................................................................ 10

Figure 1-13 Standard Dimensions or a Residential Kitchen Sink ...................................................... 11

Figure 1-14 Commercial Kitchen Sink Discharging to a Grease Interceptor ...................................... 11

Figure 1-15 Typical Drinking Fountain Height ................................................................................... 13

Figure 1-16 Built-in-Place Shower ........................................................................................................ 16

Figure 1-17 Standard Bathtub ............................................................................................................... 17

Figure 1-18 Floor Drain ......................................................................................................................... 18

Figure 1-19 Trench Drain ...................................................................................................................... 18

Figure 1-20 Emergency Shower ............................................................................................................ 18

Figure 2-1 Cast Iron Soil Pipe Joints ................................................................................................... 26

Figure 2-2 Cast Iron Soil Pipe (Extra-Heavy and Service Classes) .................................................... 26

Figure 2-3 Hubless Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings .......................................................................... 26

Figure 2-4 Joints and Fittings or Ductile Iron Pipe .......................................................................... 31

Figure 2-5 Copper Tube Flared Fittings .............................................................................................. 39

Figure 2-6 Copper and Bronze Joints and Fittings ............................................................................. 39

Figure 2-7 Copper Drainage Fittings ................................................................................................... 40

Figure 2-8 Standard Glass Pipe ........................................................................................................... 41

Figure 2-9 Standard Glass Pipe Couplings .......................................................................................... 41

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Figure 2-10 Typical Glass Pipe Joint Reerence Chart ......................................................................... 41

Figure 2-11 Standard Glass Fittings ...................................................................................................... 42

Figure 2-12 Plastic Pipe Fittings ........................................................................................................... 48

Figure 2-13 Fusion Lock Process in Operation ..................................................................................... 51

Figure 2-14 (A) Duriron Pipe and (B) Duriron Joint ............................................................................ 53

Figure 2-15 Copper Pipe Mechanical T-joint ......................................................................................... 58

Figure 2-16 Typical Welding Fittings ..................................................................................................... 58

Figure 2-17 Types o Welded Joints ....................................................................................................... 58

Figure 2-18 Anchors and Inserts ............................................................................................................ 59

Figure 2-19 Dielectric Fittings ............................................................................................................... 62

Figure 2-20 Expansion Joints and Guides ............................................................................................. 62

Figure 2-21 Compression Fittings .......................................................................................................... 63

Figure 2-22 Mechanical Joint ................................................................................................................. 63

Figure 2-23 Hangers, Clamps, and Supports ......................................................................................... 64

Figure 2-24 Pipe Union ........................................................................................................................... 65

Figure 2-25 Sleeves ................................................................................................................................. 66

Figure 3-1 Gate Valve ............................................................................................................................ 73

Figure 3-2 Globe Valve .......................................................................................................................... 74

Figure 3-3 Angle Valve .......................................................................................................................... 75

Figure 3-4 Ball Valves ........................................................................................................................... 75

Figure 3-5 Butterfy Valves ................................................................................................................... 76

Figure 3-6 Check Valves ........................................................................................................................ 76

Figure 3-7 Valve Stems ......................................................................................................................... 78

Figure 4-1 Portion o a Close-Coupled Centriugal Pump With an End-Suction Design ................. 92

Figure 4-2 Inline Centriugal Pump with a Vertical Shat ................................................................. 92Figure 4-3 Enclosed Impeller ............................................................................................................... 93

Figure 4-4 Centriugal Pump with a Double-Suction Inlet Design .................................................... 93

Figure 4-5 Net Fluid Movement From an Impeller Represented by Vector Y .................................. 95

Figure 4-6 Typical Pump Curve Crossing a System Curve ................................................................ 95

Figure 4-7 Typical Pump Curves and Power Requirements .............................................................. 96

Figure 4-8 Blade Shape and Quantity Versus Perormance Curve .................................................... 96

Figure 4-9 Multistage or Vertical Lineshat Turbine Pump ............................................................... 97

Figure 4-10 Cross-Section o a Grinder Pump with Cutting Blades at the Inlet ................................ 99

Figure 5-1 Insulating Around a Split Ring Hanger .......................................................................... 104Figure 5-2 Insulating Around a Clevis Hanger ................................................................................. 105

Figure 5-3 Temperature Drop o Flowing Water in a Pipeline ......................................................... 112

Figure 6-1 Types o Hangers and Supports ....................................................................................... 120

Figure 6-2 Types o Hanger and Support Anchors ........................................................................... 124

Figure 6-3 Hanger and Support Anchors or Particular Applications ............................................. 127

Figure 7-1 Transmissibility vs. Frequency Ratio .............................................................................. 139

Figure 7-2 Calculator or Vibration Isolation .................................................................................... 140

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Figure 7-2(M) Calculator or Vibration Isolation ................................................................................ 141

Figure 7-3 Typical Elastomer and Elastomer-Cork Mountings ....................................................... 142

Figure 7-4 Typical Steel Spring Mounting ....................................................................................... 142

Figure 8-1 Rising and Settling Rates in Still Water .......................................................................... 146

Figure 8-2 Cross-Section o a Grease Interceptor Chamber ............................................................. 147

Figure 8-3 Trajectory Diagram ........................................................................................................... 148

Figure 8-4 (A) Hydromechanical Grease Interceptor; (B) Timer-controlled Grease RemovalDevice; (C) FOG Disposal System....................................................................................................... 150

Figure 8-5 (A) Gravity Grease Interceptor; (B) Passive, Tank-Type Grease Interceptor ............... 152

Figure 9-1 Hydrostatics Showing Reduced Absolute Pressure in a Siphon .................................... 160

Figure 9-2 Pipe Network With Four Endpoints ................................................................................ 160

Figure 9-3 Five Typical Plumbing Details Without Cross-Connection Control .............................. 160

Figure 9-4 Siphon Suciently High to Create a Barometric Loop .................................................. 164

Figure 9-5 Five Typical Plumbing Details With Cross-Connection Control.................................... 164

Figure 9-6 Example o Cross-Connection Controls in a Building .................................................... 165

Figure 9-7 Double Check Valve .......................................................................................................... 165

Figure 9-8 Reduced-Pressure Principle Backfow Preventer ........................................................... 166

Figure 9-9 Dual-Check with Atmospheric Vent ................................................................................. 167

Figure 9-10 Atmospheric Vacuum Breaker .......................................................................................... 167

Figure 9-11 Hose Connection Vacuum Breaker .................................................................................. 167

Figure 10-1 Automatic Chlorinators .................................................................................................... 177

Figure 10-2 Manual Control Chlorinator ............................................................................................ 178

Figure 10-3 Settling Basin .................................................................................................................... 179

Figure 10-4 Mechanical Clarier .......................................................................................................... 179

Figure 10-5 Rectangular Gravity Sand Filter ..................................................................................... 179Figure 10-6 Vertical Pressure Sand Filter ........................................................................................... 180

Figure 10-7 Backwashing ..................................................................................................................... 180

Figure 10-8 Filtration and Backsplash Cycles ..................................................................................... 180

Figure 10-9 Mudballs ............................................................................................................................ 181

Figure 10-10 Fissures ............................................................................................................................. 181

Figure 10-11 Gravel Upheaval ............................................................................................................... 181

Figure 10-12 Lea Design, Diatomaceous Earth Filter ......................................................................... 182

Figure 10-13 Ion Exchange Vessel—Internal Arrangement ................................................................. 183

Figure 10-14 Hydrogen-Sodium Ion Exchange Plant ........................................................................... 184

Figure 10-15 Sodium Cycle Sotener Plus Acid Addition ..................................................................... 184

Figure 10-16 Lime Deposited rom Water o 10 Grains Hardness as a Function o Water Use andTemperature ........................................................................................................................................ 185

Figure 10-17 Water Sotener Survey Data ............................................................................................. 189

Figure 10-18 Water Sotener Sizing Procedure ..................................................................................... 190

Figure 10-19 Water Sotener with Salt Recycling System .................................................................... 191

Figure 10-20 Distillation ......................................................................................................................... 191

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Figure 10-21 Typical Air Filter .............................................................................................................. 193

Figure 10-22 Schematic Diagram o a Large-Scale Ozone System ...................................................... 195

Figure 10-23 Simplied Plan View o Ozone System ............................................................................ 196

Figure 10-24 Osmosis.............................................................................................................................. 197

Figure 10-25 Reverse Osmosis ............................................................................................................... 197

Figure 10-26 Approaches to Providing Laboratory-Grade and Reagent-Grade Water ....................... 198

Figure 10-27 Silver Ionization Unit and Control Panel ........................................................................ 199

Figure 11-1 Expansion Loop Detail ..................................................................................................... 207

Figure 11-2 Closed Hot Water System Showing the Eects as Water and Pressure Increase .............. 210

Figure 11-3 Eects o an Expansion Tank in a Closed System as Pressure and TemperatureIncrease ........................................................................................................................................... 210

Figure 11-4 Sizing the Expansion Tank .............................................................................................. 212

Figure 12-1 Early Drinking Faucet ...................................................................................................... 215

Figure 12-2 Bottled Water Cooler ........................................................................................................ 216

Figure 12-3 Wheelchair-Accessible Pressure-Type Water Cooler....................................................... 216

Figure 12-4 Pressure-Type Pedestal Water Cooler.............................................................................. 216

Figure 12-5 Wheelchair-Accessible Unit .............................................................................................. 217

Figure 12-6 Dual-Height Design .......................................................................................................... 217

Figure 12-7 Dual-Height Design with Chilling Unit Mounted Above Dispenser .............................. 217

Figure 12-8 Fully Recessed Water Cooler ............................................................................................ 218

Figure 12-9 Fully Recessed Water Cooler with Accessories................................................................ 218

Figure 12-10 Fully Recessed, Barrier-Free Water Cooler ..................................................................... 218

Figure 12-11 Semi-Recessed or Simulated Recessed Water Cooler ...................................................... 218

Figure 12-12 Bottle Filler ....................................................................................................................... 219

Figure 12-13 Water Cooler Accessories .................................................................................................. 219Figure 12-14 Upeed Central System ..................................................................................................... 220

Figure 12-15 Downeed Central System ................................................................................................ 221

Figure 12-16 Drinking Fountains........................................................................................................... 222

Figure 13-1 Kinetically Operated Aerobic Bioremediation System ................................................... 228

Figure 14-1 Typical Small Rainwater Cistern System Diagram ........................................................ 236

Figure 14-2 Graywater vs. Black Water ............................................................................................... 239

Figure 14-3 Simple Solar Domestic Water Heater Diagram ............................................................... 240

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Tables

Table 1-1 Plumbing Fixture Standards .............................................................................................. 2

Table 1-2 Faucet Flow Rate Restrictions .......................................................................................... 12

Table 1-3 Minimum Number o Required Plumbing Fixtures (IPC Table 403.1) .......................... 20

Table 1-4 Minimum Plumbing Facilities (UPC Table 422.1) ........................................................... 22

Table 2-1 Dimensions o Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels or Extra-Heavy Cast Iron Soil Pipe andFittings ............................................................................................................................... 27

Table 2-1(M) Dimensions o Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels or Extra-Heavy Cast Iron Soil Pipe andFittings ............................................................................................................................... 27

Table 2-2 Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Service Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings ...28

Table 2-2(M) Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Service Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings ........ 28

Table 2-3 Dimensions o Spigots and Barrels or Hubless Pipe and Fittings ................................. 29

Table 2-4 Standard Minimum Pressure Classes o Ductile Iron Single-Thickness Cement-LinedPipe ..................................................................................................................................... 30

Table 2-5 Dimensions and Approximate Weights o Circular Concrete Pipe ................................. 30

Table 2-6 Commercially Available Lengths o Copper Plumbing Tube .......................................... 32

Table 2-7 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type K Copper Tube ................................................. 33

Table 2-7(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type K Copper Tube ................................................. 34

Table 2-8 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type L Copper Tube.................................................. 35

Table 2-8(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type L Copper Tube ................................................. 36

Table 2-9 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type M Copper Tube................................................. 37

Table 2-9(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type M Copper Tube ................................................ 38

Table 2-10 Dimensional Data—Type DWV Copper Tube .................................................................. 38

Table 2-11 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Schedule 40 Steel Pipe .............................................. 44

Table 2-11(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Schedule 40 Steel Pipe .............................................. 45

Table 2-12 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Schedule 80 Steel Pipe .............................................. 46

Table 2-12(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Schedule 80 Steel Pipe .............................................. 47

Table 2-13 Plastic Pipe Data ............................................................................................................... 48

Table 2-13(M) Plastic Pipe Data ............................................................................................................... 48

Table 2-14 Physical Properties o Plastic Piping Materials ............................................................... 50

Table 2-14(M) Physical Properties o Plastic Piping Materials ............................................................... 50

Table 2-15 Dimensions o Class 1 Standard Strength Perorated Clay Pipe .................................... 54

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Table 2-15(M) Dimensions o Class 1 Standard Strength Perorated Clay Pipe .................................... 54

Table 2-16 Dimensions o Class 1 Extra Strength Clay Pipe ............................................................ 55

Table 2-16(M) Dimensions o Class 1 Extra Strength Clay Pipe ............................................................ 55

Table 2-17 Maximum and Minimum Rod Sizes or Copper Piping ................................................... 65

Table 2-18 Pipe Union Dimensions ..................................................................................................... 65

Table 4-1 Centriugal Pump Anity Laws ....................................................................................... 95

Table 5-1 Heat Loss in Btuh/t Length o Fiberglass Insulation ................................................... 106

Table 5-2 Heat Loss rom Piping ..................................................................................................... 107

Table 5-3 Insulation Thickness - Equivalent Thickness (in.) ........................................................ 108

Table 5-4 Dewpoint Temperature ................................................................................................... 109

Table 5-5 Insulation Thickness to Prevent Condensation ................................................................. 109

Table 5-6 Insulation Thickness or Personnel Protection ............................................................. 111

Table 5-7 Time or Dormant Water to Freeze ................................................................................ 111

Table 6-1 Maximum Horizontal Pipe Hanger and Support Spacing ............................................. 116

Table 6-2 Pipe Classication by Temperature ................................................................................ 118

Table 6-3 Hanger and Support Selections ...................................................................................... 119

Table 6-4 Recommended Minimum Rod Diameter or Single Rigid Rod Hangers ...................... 122

Table 6-5 Load Ratings o Carbon Steel Threaded Hanger Rods .................................................. 122

Table 6-6 Minimum Design Load Ratings or Pipe Hanger Assemblies ....................................... 123

Table 7-1 The Relative Eectiveness o Steel Springs, Rubber, and Cork in the Various SpeedRanges .............................................................................................................................. 139

Table 8-1 Droplet Rise Time ............................................................................................................ 149

Table 9-1 Plumbing System Hazards .............................................................................................. 161

Table 9-2 Application o Cross-Connection Control Devices ......................................................... 163

Table 9-3 Types o Back-Pressure Backfow Preventer ................................................................. 164Table 9-4 Types o Vacuum Breakers .............................................................................................. 164

Table 10-1 Chemical Names, Common Names, and Formulas ........................................................ 173

Table 10-2 Water Treatment—Impurities and Constituents, Possible Eects and SuggestedTreatments ....................................................................................................................... 174

Table 10-3 Water Consumption Guide .............................................................................................. 187

Table 10-4 Comparison o Laboratory-Grade Water Quality Produced by Centralized Systems .. 197

Table 10-5 Applications o Puried Water ........................................................................................ 199

Table 11-1 Linear Coecients o Thermal Expansion or Contraction ........................................... 207

Table 11-2 Developed Length o Pipe to Accommodate 1½-inch Movement .................................. 207

Table 11-3 Approximate Sine Wave Conguration With Displacement ......................................... 208

Table 11-4 Thermodynamic Properties o Water at a Saturated Liquid ......................................... 209

Table 11-5 Nominal Volume o Piping .............................................................................................. 211

Table 12-1 Standard Rating Conditions ........................................................................................... 216

Table 12-2 Drinking Water Requirements ........................................................................................ 223

Table 12-3 Rerigeration Load ........................................................................................................... 223

Table 12-4 Circulating System Line Loss ......................................................................................... 224

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xviii ASPE Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook — Volume 4

Table 12-5 Circulating Pump Heat Input ......................................................................................... 224

Table 12-6 Circulating Pump Capacity ............................................................................................. 224

Table 12-7 Friction o Water in Pipes ............................................................................................... 225

Table 12-8 Pressure Drop Calculations or Example 12-1 ............................................................... 225

Table 14-1 Treatment Stages or Water Reuse ................................................................................. 234

Table 14-2 Rainwater Treatment Options ........................................................................................ 237

Table 14-3 Filtration/Disinection Method Comparison .................................................................. 237

Table 14-4 Storage Tank Options ...................................................................................................... 238

Table 14-5 Comparison o Graywater and Black Water ................................................................... 239

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Plumbing Fitures1It has been said that without plumbing xtures,there would be no indoor plumbing. Each xture isdesigned or a specic unction to maintain publichealth and sanitation, such as discharging potablewater or carrying away waste. Some o the numer-ous plumbing xtures used in plumbing systems

are water closets and urinals, showerheads, aucets,drinking ountains, bidets, foor drains, and emer-gency eyewashes.

Fixtures are connected to the plumbing systempiping by dierent types o ttings that also helpregulate fow or perorm some other unction toensure that the xture and the entire system workproperly.

FIxTURE MATERIALSThe surace o a plumbing xture must be smooth,impervious, and easily cleanable to maintain a highlevel o sanitation. Common plumbing xture materi-als include the ollowing.

Vitreous ChinaThis is a unique material that is specially suited toplumbing xtures. Unlike other ceramic materials,vitreous china does not absorb water because it is notporous. Vitreous china plumbing xture suraces areglazed, which provides an appealing nish that is eas-ily cleaned. Vitreous china is also an extremely strong material. Because vitreous china is nonporous, it hasa very high shrinkage rate when red in a kiln, whichaccounts or the slight dierences among otherwiseidentical plumbing xtures.

Nonvitreous ChinaNonvitreous china is a porous ceramic that requiresglazing to prevent water absorption. The advantageo nonvitreous china is its low shrinkage rate, whichallows the xture to be more ornately designed.

Enameled Cast IronThe base o enameled cast iron xtures is a high-gradecast iron. The exposed suraces have an enameledcoating, which is used to the cast iron, resulting in

a hard, glossy, opaque, and acid-resistant surace.Enameled cast iron plumbing xtures are heavy,strong, ductile, and long-lasting.

Porcelain Enameled SteelPorcelain enamel is a substantially vitreous or glossy

inorganic coating that is bonded to sheet steel by u-sion to create this material.

Stainless Steel A variety o stainless steels is used to produce plumb-ing xtures, including 316, 304, 302, 301, 202, 201,and 430. One o the key ingredients in stainless steelis nickel, and a higher nickel content tends to producea superior nish in the stainless steel. Types 302and 304 have 8 percent nickel, and Type 316 has 10percent nickel.

PlasticPlastic is a generic category or a variety o synthetic

materials used in plumbing xtures. The variousplastic materials used to produce plumbing xturesinclude acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), poly-vinyl chloride (PVC), gel-coated berglass-reinorcedplastic, acrylic, cultured marble, cast-lled berglass,polyester, cast-lled acrylic, gel-coated plastic, cul-tured marble acrylic, and acrylic polymer. Plasticsused in plumbing xtures are subject to numeroustests to determine their quality, including ignition(torch) test, cigarette burn test, stain-resistance test,and chemical-resistance test.

Glass

Tempered glass xtures can be ornately designed andare ound in numerous designs and colors.

SoapstoneThis material is used predominantly in the manu-acture o laundry trays and service sinks. Soapstoneis steatite, which is extremely heavy and very du-rable.

TerrazzoThis composite material consists o marble, quartz,granite, glass, or other suitable chips sprinkled or

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poured with a cementitious chemical or combinationbinder. It is cured, ground, and polished to a smoothnish to produce a uniormly textured surace.

ACCESSIBILITy Several ederal and plumbing industry codes andstandards require certain plumbing xtures to beaccessible to people with disabilities. The ederalguidelines are the Americans with Disabilities Act

(ADA) Standards or Accessible Design. Accessibilitystandards also are ound in American National Stan-dards Institute (ANSI)/International Code Council(ICC) A117.1: Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities. More inormation about accessibility re-quirements can be ound in Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 1, Chapter 6.

APPLICABLE STANDARDSPlumbing xtures are regulated by nationally devel-oped consensus standards, which speciy materials,

ixture designs, and testing requirements. Whilestandards or plumbing xtures are considered vol-untary, the requirements become mandatory whenthey are reerenced in plumbing codes. Most xturemanuacturers enlist a third-party testing laboratory to certiy their products as being inconormance with the applicable standard.

Table 1-1 identiies the most commonconsensus standards regulating plumbing xtures. A complete list o standards canbe ound in Plumbing Engineering Design

Handbook, Volume 1, Chapter 2.

LEED AND PLUMBINGFIxTURESThe LEED (Leadership in Energy and Envi-ronmental Design) program is put orth bythe U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC)to provide a benchmark or the design o en-ergy- and water-ecient buildings. Ecientplumbing systems can earn a building pointsin several categories, including irrigation,wastewater treatment, and water use reduc-tion, by including water-ecient xtures.For instance, at least one LEED point can beobtained simply by speciying dual-fush water

closets (not recommended or public spaces),high-eciency toilets (1.28 gallons per fush[gp] or less), high-eciency urinals (0.5 gp or less), and low-fow aucets (0.5 gallon perminute [gpm] or public spaces and 0.38 gpmor non-public spaces). For current inorma-tion on the LEED program, visit the USGBCwebsite at usgbc.org or turn to Chapter 14 o this volume or more inormation on greenbuilding in general.

WATER CLOSETSPassage o the Energy Policy Act o 1992 by the U.S.government changed the way water closets (WCs)were designed. The act imposed a maximum fush-ing rate o 1.6 gp, which was a signicant decreasein the amount o water used to fush a toilet. Prior tothe rst enactment o water conservation in the late

1970s, water closets typically fushed between 5 and7 gallons o water. Now, ultra-low-fow WCs, whichfush as little as 0.4 gp, and dual-fush models areavailable. Dual-fush WCs give the user the option tofush the ull 1.6 gallons or solid waste or one-thirdless or liquid waste.

With the modication in water fush volume, thestyle o each manuacturer’s water closets changed,and the ormer terminology or identiying waterclosets no longer t. Water closets previously werecategorized as blowout, siphon jet, washout, reversetrap, and washdown. O these styles, the only twocommonly in use now are siphon jet and blowout

(see Figure 1-1). In the siphon jet, a jet o water isdirected through the trapway to quickly ll the bowland start the siphonic action immediately upon fush-

Table 1-1 Plumbing Fixture Standards

Plumbing Fixture Applicable Standard Fixture MaterialWater closet ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china

ANSI Z124.4 Plastic

Urinal ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china

ANSI Z124.9 Plastic

Lavatory ANSI/ASME A112.19.1 Enameled cast iron

ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china

ANSI/ASME A112.19.3 Stainless steelANSI/ASME A112.19.4 Porcelain enameled steel

ANSI/ASME A112.19.9 Nonvitreous china

ANSI Z124.3 Plastic

Sink ANSI/ASME A112.19.1 Enameled cast iron


ANSI/ASME A112.19.3 Stainless steel

ANSI/ASME A112.19.4 Porcelain enameled steel


ANSI Z124.6 Plastic

Drinking ountain ANSI/ASME A112.19.1 Enameled cast iron



Water cooler ARI 1010 All materials

Shower IAPMO/ANSI Z124.1.2 Plastic

Bathtub ANSI/ASME A112.19.1 Enameled cast iron

ANSI/ASME A112.19.4 Porcelain enameled steel


IAPMO/ANSI Z124.1.2 Plastic

Bidet ANSI/ASME A112.19.2 Vitreous china


Floor drain ANSI/ASME A112.6.3 All materials

Emergency xtures ANSI Z358.1 All materials

Faucets and xture ttings ANSI/ASME A112.18.1 All materials

Waste ttings ANSI/ASME A112.18.2 All materials

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Chapter 1 — Plumbing Fixtures 3

ing. The blowout operates via a high-velocity direct jet action.

Water closets are urther categorized as the ol-lowing:

• Closecoupled:Atwo-piecexturecomprisedofaseparate tank and bowl (see Figure 1-2A)

• Onepiece:Thetankandthebowlaremoldedasone piece (see Figure 1-2B)

• Flushometer:Abowlwithaspudconnectionthatreceives the connection rom a fushometer valve(see Figure 1-2C).Flushometer water closets alsoare reerred to as “top spud” or “back spud” bowlsdepending on the location o the connection orthe fushometer valve.

Water closets are fushed via one o the ollowing methods:

• Inagravityush,usedwithtank-typewaterclos-ets, the water is not under pressure and fushesby gravity.

• Withaushometertank,thewaterisstoredinapressurized vessel and fushed under a pressureranging between 25 and 35 pounds per squareinch (psi).

• Aushometervalveusesthewatersupply linepressure to fush the water closet. Because o thedemand or a ast, large-volume fush, the watersupply pipe must be larger in diameter than thator gravity or fushometer tank fushes. Flushom-eter water closets require 35–80-psi static pres-sure and 25 gpm to operate properly.

Another distinction used to identiy a water closetis the manner o mounting and connection. The com-

mon methods are as ollows:

• Aoor-mountedwaterclosetsitsontheoorandconnects directly to the piping through the foor.

• Floor-mounted,back-outletwaterclosets sit onthe foor yet connect to the piping through thewall (see Figure 1-3). The advantage o this modelis that foor penetrations are reduced.

• Awall-hungwaterclosetissupportedbyawallhanger and never comes in contact with the foor

(see Figure 1-4). This model is advantageous roma maintenance standpoint because it doesn’t in-terere with foor cleaning.

Water Closet Bowl Shape and Size A water closet bowl is classied as either round orelongated. The ront opening o an elongated bowlextends 2 inches arther than a round bowl. Mostplumbing codes require elongated bowls or public

and employee use. The additional 2 inches providesa larger opening, oten called a “target area.” Withthe larger opening, the ability to maintain a cleanerwater closet or each user is increased.

For loor-mounted water closets, the outlet isidentied based on the rough-in dimension, or thedistance rom the back wall to the center o theoutlet when the water closet is installed. A standardrough-in bowl outlet is 12 inches (see Figure 1-5).

Figure 1-1 Blowout (A) and Siphon-Jet (B) Water Closets

(A) (B)

Figure 1-2 (A) Close-Coupled, (B)One-Piece, and (C) Flushometer Water

Closets

(A)

(B)

(C)

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Most manuacturers also make water closets with a 10-inch or 14-inch rough-in.

The size o the bowl also is based on the height o the bowl’s rim rom the foor, as ollows:

• Therimheightofastandardwaterclosetis14to15 inches. This is the most common water closetinstalled.

• A child’s water closet has a rim height of 10inches. Many plumbing codes require these waterclosets in daycare centers and kindergarten toiletrooms or use by small children.

• Awaterclosetforjuvenileusehasarimheightof13 inches.

• Awaterclosetforthephysicallychallengedhasa rim height o 17 inches. With the addition o the water closet seat, the xture is designed toconorm to the accessibility requirement o 17 to19 inches.

Bariatric Water Closets

Bariatric WCs are made to accommodate overweightand obese people and support weights o 500 to 1,000pounds. They are available in vitreous china as wellas stainless steel. Wall-hung bariatric xtures requirespecial, larger carriers designed or the increasedloads, which also requires a deeper chase. Thus,most bariatric WCs are loor mounted. Bariatric WCs should be mounted at the accessibility-requiredheight.

Water Closet Seat A water closet seat must be designed or the shapeo the bowl to which it connects. Two styles o wa-

ter closet seat are available: solid and open ront.Plumbing codes typically require an open ront seator public and employee use. The open ront seat isdesigned to acilitate easy wiping by emales and toprevent contact between the seat and the penis withmales. This helps maintain a high level o hygiene inpublic acilities.

Many public water closets include a plastic wraparound the seat that can be changed ater each use.The seat is intended to replace the open rim seat inpublic and employee locations.

Water Closet Flushing Perormance

The fushing perormance requirements or a watercloset are ound in ANSI/American Society o Me-chanical Engineers (ASME) A112.19.6: Hydraulic Perormance Requirements or Water Closets and Uri-

nals. The testing requirements also can be ound in ANSI/ASME A112.19.2/CSA B45.1: Ceramic Plumb-

ing Fixtures, which is a consolidation and revision o several ASME and Canadian Standards Association(CSA) standards developed in response to industryrequests or uniorm standards that would be accept-able in both the United States and Canada. These

Figure 1-3 Floor-Mounted, Back-Outlet Water Closet

Figure 1-4 Wall-Hung Water Closet

Figure 1-5 Standard Rough-In Dimension or WaterCloset Outlet to the Back Wall


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standards identiy the ollowing tests that must beperormed to certiy a water closet.

• The ball removal test utilizes 100 polypropyl-ene balls that are ¾ inch in diameter. The watercloset must fush at least an average o 75 ballson the initial fush o three dierent fushes. Thepolypropylene balls are intended to replicate the

density o human eces.• The granule test utilizes approximately 2,500

disc-shaped granules o polyethylene. The initialfush o three dierent fushes must result in nomore than 125 granules on average remaining inthe bowl. The granule test is intended to simulatea fush o watery eces (diarrhea).

• The ink test isperformedon the insidewallofthe water closet bowl. A elt-tip marker is used todraw a line around the inside o the bowl. Aterfushing, no individual segment o line can exceed½ inch. The total length o the remaining ink linemust not exceed 2 inches. This test determines

that the water fushes all interior suraces o thebowl.

• Thedyetestusesacoloreddyeaddedtothewatercloset’s trap seal. The concentration o the dyeis determined both beore and ater fushing thewater closet. A dilution ratio o 100:1 must beobtained or each fush. This test determines theevacuation o urine in the trap seal.

• Thewaterconsumptiontestdeterminesthatthewater closet meets the ederal mandate o 1.6gp.

• Thetrapsealrestorationtestdeterminesthatthe

water closet rells the trap o the bowl ater eachfush. The remaining trap seal must be a mini-mum o 2 inches in depth.

• Thewaterrisetestevaluatestheriseofwaterinthe bowl when the water closet is fushed. Thewater cannot rise above a point 3 inches belowthe top o the bowl.

• Theback-pressuretestisusedtodeterminethatthe water seal remains in place when exposed toa back pressure (rom the outlet side o the bowl)o 2½ inches o water column (wc). This test de-termines i sewer gas will escape through the x-ture when high pressure occurs in the drainagesystem piping.

• Therim topand seatfouling testdeterminesifthe water splashes onto the top o the rim or seato the water closet. This test ensures that theuser does not encounter a wet seat.

• Thedrainline carrytestdeterminestheperfor-mance o the water closet’s fush. The water clos-et is connected to a 4-inch drain 60 eet in lengthpitched ¼ inch per oot. The same 100 polypro-pylene balls used in the fush test are used in the

drainline carry test. The average carry distance o the polypropylene balls must be 40 eet. This testdetermines the ability o the water closet to fushthe contents in such a manner that they properlyfow down the drainage piping.

Water Closet Installation RequirementsThe water closet must be properly connected to the

drainage piping system. For foor-mounted waterclosets, a water closet fange is attached to the piping and permanently secured to the building. For wood-rame buildings, the fange is screwed to the foor. Forconcrete foors, the fange sits on the foor.

Noncorrosive closet bolts connect the water closetto the foor fange. The seal between the foor fangeand the water closet is made with either a wax ring oran elastomeric seal. The connection ormed betweenthe water closet and the foor must be sealed withcaulking or tile grout.

For wall-hung water closets, the xture must con-nect to a wall carrier. The carrier must transer the

loading o the water closet to the foor. A wall-hung water closet must be capable o supporting a loado 500 pounds at the end o the water closet. Whenthe water closet is connected to the carrier, none o this load can be transerred to the piping system. Water closet carriers must conorm to ANSI/ASME A112.6.1M: Supports or O-the-Floor Plumbing

Fixtures or Public Use. For bariatric WCs, the loadslisted by the manuacturers vary rom 650 to 1,000pounds. These carriers must conorm to ANSI/ASME A112.6.1 as well.

The minimum spacing required or a water closetis 15 inches rom the centerline o the bowl to theside wall and 21 inches rom the ront o the watercloset to any obstruction in ront o the water closet(see Figure 1-6). The standard dimension or a watercloset compartment is 30 inches wide by 60 incheslong. The water closet must be installed in the centero the standard compartment. The minimum distancerequired between water closets is 30 inches.

While a 3-inch double sanitary tee or a 3-inchdouble xture tting could be used to connect back-to-back 3.5-gp water closets, current plumbing codesprohibit the installation o a double sanitary tee ordouble xture tting or back-to-back 1.6-gp water

closets due to their superior fushing. The only accept-able tting is the double combination wye and eighthbend. Also, since the minimum spacing required touse a double sanitary tee tting is 30 inches rom thecenterline o the water closet outlet to the entrance o the tting, this rules out a back-to-back water closetconnection.

One o the problems associated with short patternttings is the siphon action created in the initial fusho the water closet. This siphon action can draw thewater out o the trap o the water closet connected

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to the other side o the tting. Another potentialproblem is the interruption o fow when fushing a water closet. The fow rom one water closet canpropel water across the tting, interering with theother water closet.

Proper clearances within chases or wall-hung carriers should be maintained. Figure 1-7 shows the

minimum chase sizes or carriers (as published bythe Plumbing and Drainage Institute [PDI]). Car-rier sizes vary by manuacturer, so always check themanuacturer’s specications beore committing tochase size. Also, wall-hung bariatric carriers requiremore space than indicated by PDI. Bariatric chasesshould be coordinated with the speciied carriermanuacturer.

Water Closet Flushing Sstems

Gravity Flush

The most common means o fushing a water closet isa gravity fush (see Figure 1-8A), used with tank-type

water closets. The tank stores a quantity o nonpres-surized water to establish the initial fush o the bowl. A trip lever raises either a fapper or a ball, allowing the fush to achieve the maximum siphon in the bowl. Ater the fush, the fapper or ball reseals, closing o the tank rom the bowl. To achieve the lowest fowin the dual-fush WC, the trip lever raises the fapperor ball a bit less, which results in a reduced-volumefush.

The ballcock, located inside the tank, controlsthe fow o water into the tank. A foat mechanismopens and closes the ballcock. The ballcock directs themajority o the water into the tank and a smaller por-tion o water into the bowl to rell the trap seal. Theballcock must be an antisiphon ballcock conorming to ANSI/American Society o Sanitary Engineering

(ASSE) 1002: Siphon Fill Valves or Water ClosetTanks. This prevents the contents o the tank rombeing siphoned back into the potable water supply.

Flushometer Tank

A fushometer tank (see Figure 1-8B) has the sameoutside appearance as a gravity tank. However, insidethe tank is a pressure vessel that stores the water orfushing. The water in the pressure vessel must be a minimum o 25 psi to operate properly. Thus, the linepressure on the connection to the fushometer tankmust be a minimum o 25 psi. A pressure regulatorprevents the pressure in the vessel rom rising above

35 psi (typical o most manuacturers).The higher pressure rom the fushometer tankresults in a fush similar to a fushometer valve. Oneo the dierences between the fushometer tank andthe fushometer valve is the sizing o the water dis-tribution system. The water piping to a fushometertank is sized the same as the water piping to a gravityfush tank. Typically, the individual water connectionis ½ inch in diameter. A fushometer valve requiresa high fow rate demand, resulting in a larger piping connection, typically 1 inch in diameter.

Figure 1-6 Water Closet Compartment Spacing Requirements


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The fushometer tank WC tends to be noisier thanthe gravity tank WC. Their advantage over grav-ity tanks is that the increased velocity o the wastestream provides as much as a 50 percent increase indrainline carry. In long horizontal run situations, thismeans ewer drainline and sewer blockages.

Flushometer Valve

A fushometer valve, also reerred to as a fush valve,is available in two designs. A diaphragm valve is de-signed with upper and lower chambers separated bya diaphragm. A piston valve is designed with upperand lower chambers separated by a piston. The waterpressure in the upper chamber keeps the valve inthe closed position. When the trip lever is activated,the water in the upper chamber escapes to the lower

chamber, starting the fush. The fush o 1.6 gallonsor less passes through the fush valve. The valve isclosed by line pressure as water reenters the upperchamber.

For 1.6-gp water closets, fushometer valves areset to fow 25 gpm at peak to fush the water closet.The fushing cycle is very short, lasting 4 to 5 seconds.The water distribution system must be properly de-signed to allow the peak fow during heavy use o theplumbing system.

Flushometer valves have either a manual or an au-tomatic means o fushing. The most popular manualmeans o fushing is a handle mounted on the sideo the fush valve. The wave-activated fushometerprovides manual activation without touching the

Figure 1-7 Minimum Chase Sizes or CarriersCourtesy o Plumbing and Drainage Institute

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valve, promoting maximum sanitation. Automatic,electronic sensor fushometer valves are available ina variety o styles. The sensor-operated valves canbe battery operated, directly connected to the powersupply o the building, or powered by a 30-year hybridenergy system or other ecoriendly power generation

system.

URINALSThe urinal was developed to expedite use o a toiletroom. It is designed or the removal o urine and thequick exchange o users. The Energy Policy Act o 1992restricted urinals to a maximum water use o 1 gp,but most urinals now use 0.5 gp or less. Ultra-low-fow (0.125 gp) and waterless urinals are becoming more common in LEED-certied buildings.

Urinal StlesUrinals are identied as blowout, siphon jet, wash-

out, stall, washdown, and waterless. A stall urinal isa type o washdown urinal. Blowout, siphon-jet, andwashout urinals all have integral traps. Stall andwashdown urinals have an outlet to which an exter-nal trap is connected. Many plumbing codes prohibitthe use o stall and washdown urinals in public andemployee toilet rooms because o concerns about theability to maintain a high level o sanitation atereach fush. Waterless urinals are gaining acceptanceby code enorcement bodies, but are not allowed inall jurisdictions.

The style identies the type o fushing actionin the urinal. Blowout and siphon-jet types rely on

complete evacuation o the trap. Blowout urinalsorce the water and waste rom the trap to the drain.Siphon-jet urinals create a siphon action to evacuatethe trap. Washout urinals rely on a water exchange tofush, with no siphon action or complete evacuationo the trapway. Stall and washdown urinals have anexternal trap. The fushing action is a water exchange;however, it is a less ecient water exchange than thato a washout urinal.

Urinals with an integral trapmust be capable o passing a ¾-inch-diameter ball. The outlet connection istypically 2 inches in diameter. Stall andwashdown urinals can have a 1½-inchoutlet with an external 1½-inch trap.

Waterless urinals are used in many jurisdictions to reduce water consump-tion. Some waterless urinals utilizea cartridge lled with a biodegrad-able liquid sealant. A more sanitaryoption utilizes a trap to contain thebiodegradable liquid sealant, elimi-nating the biohazard o disposing o old cartridges. Urine is heavier than

the sealant, so it fows through the cartridge or trapwhile leaving the sealant. According to manuacturerliterature, a typical cartridge lasts or 7,000 uses. Thecartridge-less system lasts equally long, and the trapmust be fushed when the sealant is reinstalled. Wa-

terless urinals are inexpensive to install. The wasteand vent piping are the same as or conventional uri-nals, but no water piping is required. The inside wallso the urinal must be washed with a special solutionon a periodic basis or proper sanitation.

Urinal Flushing PerormanceThe fushing perormance or a urinal is regulatedby ANSI/ASME A112.19.2/CSA B45.1. The threetests or urinals are the ink test, dye test, and waterconsumption test.

In the ink test, a elt-tip marker is utilized to drawa line on the inside wall o the urinal. The urinal isfushed, and the remaining ink line is measured. Thetotal length o the ink line cannot exceed 1 inch, andno segment can exceed ½ inch in length.

The dye test uses a colored dye to evaluate thewater exchange rate in the trap. Ater one fush, thetrap must have a dilution ratio o 100:1. The dye testis perormed only on urinals with an integral trap.This includes blowout, siphon-jet, and washout uri-nals. It is not possible to dye test stall and washdownurinals since they have external traps. This is one o the concerns that has resulted in the restricted useo these xtures.

The water consumption test determines i the

urinal fushes with 1 gallon o water or less.Urinal Flushing Requirements With the ederal requirements or water consumption,urinals must be fushed with a fushometer valve.The valve can be either manually or automaticallyactivated.

A urinal fushometer valve has a lower fush vol-ume and fow rate than a water closet fushometervalve. The total volume is 1 gp or less, and the peakfow rate is 15 gpm. The water distribution system

Figure 1-8 (A) Gravity Tank and (B) Flushometer Tank

(A) (B)


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must be properly sized or the peak fow rate or theurinal.

Urinal fushometer valves operate the same aswater closet fushometer valves. For additional in-ormation, reer back to the “Water Closet Flushing Systems” section.

Urinal Installation Requirements

The minimum spacing required between urinals is30 inches center to center. The minimum spacing between a urinal and the sidewall is 15 inches. Thisspacing provides access to the urinal without the usercoming in contact with the user o the adjacent xture(see Figure 1-9). The minimum spacing required inront o the urinal is 21 inches.

For urinals with an integral trap, the outlet is lo-cated 21 inches above the foor or a standard-heightinstallation. Stall urinals are mounted on the foor. Wall-hung urinals must be mounted on carriers thattranser the weight o the urinal to the foor. Thecarrier also connects the urinal to the waste piping system. Sucient room should be provided in thechase or the carrier. Figure 1-10 shows the minimumchase sizes recommended by PDI.

Many plumbing codes require urinals or publicand employee use to have a visible trap seal. Thisreers to blowout, siphon-jet, and washout urinals.

LAVATORIES A lavatory is a washbasin used or personal hygiene.In public locations, a lavatory is intended to be used

or washing one’s hands and ace. Residential lavato-ries are intended or hand and ace washing, shaving,applying makeup, cleaning contact lenses, and similarhygienic activities.

Lavatory aucet fow rates are regulated as parto the Energy Policy Act o 1992. The original fowrate established by the government was 2.5 gpm at 80psi or private-use lavatories and 0.5 gpm, or a cycle

discharging 0.25 gallon, or public-use lavatories. Nowthe regulations require 2.2 gpm at 60 psi or private(and residential) lavatories and 0.5 gpm at 60 psi, or a cycle discharging 0.25 gallon, or public lavatories.

Lavatory aucets are available with electronicvalves. These aucets can reduce water usage by sup-plying water only when hands are inside the bowl.

Lavator Size and ShapeManuacturers produce lavatories in every conceivablesize and shape: square, round, oblong, rectangular,

Figure 1-9 Required Urinal Spacing

Figure 1-10 Minimum Chase Sizes or UrinalsCourtesy o Plumbing and Drainage Institute

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shaped or corners, with or without ledges, decorativebowls, and molded into countertops.

The standard outlet or a lavatory is 1¼ inches indiameter. The standard lavatory has three holes onthe ledge or the aucet. With a typical aucet, the twooutside holes are 4 inches apart. The aucets installedin these lavatories are called 4-inch centersets. Whenspread aucets are to be installed, the spacing betweenthe two outer holes is 8 inches.

For many years, xture standards required lava-tories to have an overfow based on the concept thatthe basin was lled prior to cleaning. I the user let

the room while the lavatory was being lled, thewater would not overfow onto the foor. However,studies have shown that lavatories are rarely used inthis capacity. It is more common to not ll the basinwith water during use. As a result, overfows noware typically an optional item or lavatories, yet someplumbing codes still require them. The minimumcross-sectional area o an overfow is 1⅛ inches.

Another style o lavatory is the circular or semi-circular group washup. The plumbing codes considerevery 20 inches o space along a group washup to beequivalent to one lavatory.

Lavator InstallationThe standard height o a lavatory is 31 inches abovethe nished foor. A spacing o 21 inches is requiredin ront o the lavatory to access the xture (seeFigure 1-11).

Lavatories can be counter mounted, under-countermounted, or wall hung. When lavatories are wall hung in public and employee acilities, they must be con-nected to a carrier that transers the weight o thexture to the foor. Proper clearances within chasesor wall-hung lavatories should be maintained. Figure

1-12 shows the minimum chase sizes recommendedby PDI.

KITCHEN SINKS A kitchen sink is used or culinary purposes. Thetwo distinct classications o kitchen sink are resi-dential and commercial. Residential kitchen sinks

Figure 1-11 Recommended InstallationDimensions or a Lavatory

Figure 1-12 Minimum Chase Sizes or LavatoriesCourtesy o Plumbing and Drainage Institute


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can be installed in commercial buildings, typicallyin kitchens used by employees. Commercial kitchensinks are designed or restaurant and ood-handling establishments.

The Energy Policy Act o 1992 required the fowrate o aucets or residential kitchen sinks to be 2.5gpm at 80 psi. Fixture standards have since modiedthe fow rate to 2.2 gpm at 60 psi.

Residential Kitchen SinksCommon residential kitchen sinks are single- ordouble-compartment (or bowl) sinks. No standarddimension or the size o the sink exists; however,most kitchen sinks are 22 inches measured rom theront edge to the rear edge. For single-compartmentsinks, the most common width o the sink is 25 inches.For double-compartment kitchen sinks, the mostcommon width is 33 inches. The common depth o the compartments is 9 to 10 inches. Accessible sinksare 5.5 to 6.5 inches deep.

Most plumbing codes require the outlet o a

residential kitchen sink to be 3½ inches in diameter.This is to accommodate the installation o a oodwaste grinder.

Some specialty residential kitchen sinks havethree compartments. Typically, the third compart-ment is smaller and does not extend the ull deptho the other compartments.

Kitchen sinks have one, three, or our holes or theinstallation o the aucet. Some single-lever aucetsrequire only one hole or installation. The three-holearrangement is or a standard two-handle valve in-stallation. The our-hole arrangement is designed toallow the installation o a side spray or other kitchenappurtenance such as a soap dispenser.

The standard installation height or a residentialkitchen sink is 36 inches above the nished foor (seeFigure 1-13). Most architects tend to ollow the 6-oottriangle rule when locating a kitchen sink. The sinkis placed no more than 6 eet rom the range and 6eet rom the rerigerator.

Residential kitchen sinks mount either above orbelow the counter. Counter-mounted kitchen sinksare available with a sel-rimming ledge or a sink

rame.Commercial Kitchen SinksCommercial kitchen sinks are typically larger insize and have a deeper bowl than residential kitchen

sinks. The depth o the bowl typically ranges rom16 to 20 inches. Commercial kitchen sinks areoten reestanding sinks with legs or support.Because o health authority requirements, mostcommercial kitchen sinks are stainless steel.

In commercial kitchens, three types o sinkstypically are provided: hand sinks, prep sinks, andtriple-basin sinks. Prep sinks usually are a singlebasin used in conjunction with ood preparation.Triple-basin sinks are used or washing pots,pans, and utensils.

Health authorities require either a two- orthree-compartment sink in every commercialkitchen. The requirement or a three-compart-ment sink dates back to the use o the irstcompartment or dishwashing, the second com-partment or rinsing the dishes, and the thirdcompartment or sanitizing the dishes. Withthe increased use o dishwashers in commercialkitchens, some health codes have modied therequirements or a three-compartment sink.

Commercial kitchen sinks used or ood prepa-ration are required to connect to the drainagesystem through an indirect waste. This preventsthe possibility o contaminating ood in the evento a drainline backup resulting rom a stoppagein the line.

Commercial kitchen sinks that could dischargegrease-laden waste must connect to either a grease interceptor or a grease trap (see Figure1-14). Plumbing codes used to permit the greasetrap to serve as the trap or the sink i it was

Figure 1-13 Standard Dimensions or a Residential KitchenSink

Figure 1-14 Commercial Kitchen Sink Discharging to a GreaseInterceptor

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located within 60 inches o the sink. Most plumbing codes have since modied this requirement by man-dating a separate trap or each kitchen sink to providebetter protection against the escape o sewer gas. Analternative to this is to spill the sink into an indirectwaste drain that fows to a grease trap.

SERVICE SINKS A service sink is a general-purpose sink intended to beused in the cleaning or decorating o a building, suchas to ll mop buckets and dispose o their waste oror cleaning paint brushes, rollers, and paper-hanging equipment.

There is no standard size, shape, or style o a service sink. They are available both wall mountedand foor mounted. Mop basins, installed on the foor,qualiy as service sinks in the plumbing codes.

A service sink typically is located in a janitor’sstorage closet or a separate room or use by custodialemployees. The plumbing codes do not speciy the

location or a standard height or installing a servicesink. Furthermore, the fow rate rom the service sinkaucet has no limitations.

Service sinks are selected based on the anticipateduse o the xture and the type o building in whichit is installed. The plumbing codes require either a 1½-inch or 2-inch trap or the service sink. Servicesinks also may be tted with a 2-inch or 3-inch trapstandard.

SINKS A general classication or xtures that are neitherkitchen sinks nor service sinks is simply “sinks.” This

category contains those xtures typically not requiredbut installed or the convenience o the building users.Some installations include doctors’ oces, hospitals,laboratories, photo-processing acilities, quick marts,and oce buildings.

Sinks come in a variety o sizes and shapes. Thereare no height or spacing requirements, and the fowrate rom the aucet is not regulated. Most plumbing codes require a 1½-inch drain connection.

LAUNDRy TRAyS A laundry tray, or laundry sink, is located in thelaundry room and is used in conjunction with washing

clothes. The sink has either one or two compart-ments. The depth o the bowl is typically 14 inches.There are no standard dimensions or the size o laundry trays; however, most single-compartmentlaundry trays measure 22 inches by 24 inches, andmost double-compartment laundry trays measure 22inches by 45 inches.

Plumbing codes permit a domestic clothes washerto discharge into a laundry tray. The minimum size o a trap and outlet or a laundry tray is 1½ inches.

At one time, laundry trays were made predomi-nantly o soapstone. Today, the majority o laundrytrays are plastic. However, stainless steel, enameledcast iron, and porcelain enameled steel laundry traysalso are available.

FAUCETS All sinks and lavatories need a aucet to direct andcontrol the fow o water into the xture. A aucetperorms the simple operations o opening, closing,and mixing hot and cold water. While the process isrelatively simple, xture manuacturers have devel-oped extensive lines o aucets.

Faucet CategoriesFaucets are categorized by application, such as lava-tory aucets, residential kitchen sink aucets, laundryaucets, sink aucets, and commercial aucets. Theclassication “commercial aucets” includes commer-cial kitchen aucets and commercial sink aucets. Itdoes not include lavatory aucets. All lavatories are

classied the same, whether they are installed in resi-dential or commercial buildings. It should be noted,however, that some lavatory aucet styles are usedstrictly in commercial applications. These includesel-metering lavatory aucets that discharge a speci-ed quantity o water and electronic lavatory aucetsthat operate via sensors. The sensor-operated lavatoryaucets can be battery operated, directly connectedto the power supply o the building, or powered bya 30-year hybrid energy system or other ecoriendlypower generation system.

Faucet Flow Rates

The fow rates are regulated or lavatories and non-commercial kitchen sinks. Table 1-2 identies thefow rate limitations o aucets.

Table 1-2 Faucet Flow Rate Restrictions

Type o Faucet Maximum Flow Rate

Kitchen aucet 2.2 gpm @ 60 psi

Lavatory aucet 2.2 gpm @ 60 psi

Lavatory aucet (public use) 0.5 gpm @ 60 psi

Lavatory aucet (public use,metering)

0.25 gal per cycle

Backfow Protection or FaucetsIn addition to controlling the fow o water, a aucetmust protect the potable water supply against back-fow. This is oten a orgotten requirement, sincemost aucets rely on an air gap to provide protectionagainst backfow. When an air gap is provided betweenthe outlet o the aucet and the food-level rim o thexture (by manuacturer design), no additional pro-tection is necessary.


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Backfow protection becomes a concern whenevera aucet has a hose thread outlet, a fexible hose con-nection, or a pull-out spray connection. For thesestyles, additional backfow protection is necessary.The hose or hose connection potentially eliminatesthe air gap by submerging the spout or outlet in a nonpotable water source.

The most common orm o backfow protection oraucets not having an air gap is the use o a vacuumbreaker. Many manuacturers include an atmosphericvacuum breaker in the design o aucets that requireadditional backfow protection. Atmospheric vacuumbreakers must conorm to ANSI/ASSE 1001: Peror-

mance Requirements or Atmospheric-type Vacuum Breakers.

Faucets with pull-out sprays or gooseneck spoutscan be protected by a vacuum breaker or a backfowsystem that conorms to ANSI/ASME A112.18.3: Perormance Requirements or Backow Protection Devices and Systems in Plumbing Fixture Fittings.

This standard species the testing requirements ora aucet to be certied as protecting the water sup-ply against backfow. Many o the new pull-out spraykitchen aucets are listed in ANSI/ASME A112.18.3.These aucets have a spout attached to a fexible hosewhereby the spout can detach rom the aucet bodyand be used similarly to a side spray.

Side-spray kitchen aucets must have a diverterthat ensures that the aucet switches to an air gapwhenever the pressure in the supply line decreases. Air gaps are regulated by ANSI/ASME A112.1.2: Air

Gaps in Plumbing Systems.The most important installation requirement is

the proper location o the backfow preventer (orthe maintenance o the air gap). When atmosphericvacuum breakers are installed, they must be locateda minimum distance above the food-level rim o thexture, as specied by the manuacturer.

DRINKING FOUNTAINS A drinking ountain is designed to provide drinking water to users. The two classications o drinking ountains are water coolers and drinking ountains. A water cooler has a rerigeration component that chillsthe water. A drinking ountain is a nonrerigeratedwater dispenser.

Drinking ountains and water coolers come inmany styles. The height o a drinking ountain is notregulated, except or accessible drinking ountainsconorming to ANSI/ICC A117.1. For grade school in-stallations, drinking ountains typically are installed30 inches above the nished foor to the rim o theountain. In other locations, the drinking ountain istypically 36 to 44 inches above the nished foor (seeFigure 1-15).

Space must be provided in ront o the drinking ountain to allow proper access to the xture. Plumb-ing codes prohibit drinking ountains rom being installed in toilets or bathrooms.

The water supply to a drinking ountain is ⅜ inchor ½ inch in diameter. The drainage connection is1¼ inches.

Many plumbing codes permit bottled water or theservice o water in a restaurant to be substituted orthe installation o a drinking ountain. However, theauthority having jurisdiction must be consulted todetermine i such a substitution is permitted.

SHOWERS A shower is designed to allow ull-body cleansing.The size and conguration o a shower must permitan individual to bend at the waist to clean lower-bodyextremities. Plumbing codes require a minimumsize shower enclosure o 30 inches by 30 inches. Thecodes urther stipulate that a shower must have a

30-inch-diameter circle within the shower to allowree movement by the bather.The water fow rate or showers is regulated by the

Energy Policy Act o 1992. The maximum permittedfow rate rom a shower valve is 2.5 gpm at 80 psi.

Three dierent types o shower are available:preabricated shower enclosure, preabricated showerbase, and built-in-place shower. Preabricated showerenclosures are available rom plumbing ixturemanuacturers in a variety o sizes and shapes. A preabricated shower base is the foor o a showerdesigned so that the walls can be either preabri-cated assemblies or built-in-place ceramic tile walls.

Built-in-place showers are typically ceramic tile instal-lations or both the foor and walls.

Figure 1-15 Typical Drinking Fountain Height

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Preabricated shower enclosures and preabricatedshower bases have a drainage outlet designed or a connection to a 2-inch drain. Certain plumbing codeshave decreased the shower drain size to 1½ inches.The connection to a 1½-inch drain also can be madewith preabricated showers.

A built-in-place shower allows the installation o a shower o any shape and size. The important instal-lation requirement or a built-in-place shower is theshower pan (see Figure 1-16). The pan is placed onthe foor prior to the installation o the ceramic base.The pan must turn up at the sides o the shower a minimum o 2 inches above the nished threshold o the shower (except the threshold entrance). The ma-terials commonly used to make a shower pan includesheet lead, sheet copper, PVC sheet, and chlorinatedpolyethylene sheet. The sheet goods are commonlyreerred to as a waterproo membrane.

At the drainage connection, weep holes are re-quired to be installed at the base o the shower pan.

The weep holes and shower pan are intended to serveas a backup drain in the event that the ceramic foorleaks or cracks.

Shower ValvesShower valves must be thermostatic mixing, pressurebalancing, or a combination o thermostatic mixing and pressure balancing and conorm to ANSI/ASSE1016/ASME A112.1016/CSA B125.16: Perormance

Requirements or Automatic Compensating Valves or Individual Showers and Tub/Shower Combinations. Shower valves control the fow and temperature o the water as well as any variation in the water tem-perature. These valves provide protection againstscalding and sudden changes in water temperature,which can cause slips and alls.

A pressure-balancing valve maintains a constanttemperature o the shower water by constantly adjust-ing the pressure o the hot and cold water supply. I the pressure on the cold water supply changes, the hotwater supply balances to the equivalent pressure set-ting. When tested, a pressure-balancing valve cannothave a fuctuation in temperature that exceeds 3°F.I the cold water shuts o completely, the hot watershuts o as well.

Thermostatic mixing valves adjust the tem-

perature o the water by maintaining a constanttemperature once the water temperature is set. Thisis accomplished by thermally sensing controls thatmodiy the quantity o hot and cold water to keep theset temperature.

The maximum fow rate permitted or each showeris 2.5 gpm at 80 psi. I body sprays are added to theshower, the total water fow rate is still 2.5 gpm at80 psi. A handheld shower spray is considered a showerhead.

The shower valve typically is located 48 to 50inches above the foor. The installation height or a showerhead ranges rom 65 to 84 inches above thefoor o the shower. The standard height is 78 inchesor showers used by adult males.

BATHTUBSThe bathtub was the original xture used to bathe orcleanse one’s body. Eventually, the shower was addedto the bathtub to expedite the bathing process. The

standard installation is a combination tub/shower,but some installations come with a separate whirlpoolbathtub and shower.

Bathtubs tend to be installed within residentialunits only. The standard bathtub size is 5 eet long by 30 inches wide, with a depth o 14 to 16 inches(see Figure 1-17). However, many dierent sizes andshapes o bathtubs and whirlpool bathtubs are avail-able. The drain can be either a let-hand (drain holeon the let side as you ace the bathtub) or right-handoutlet. When whirlpool bathtubs are installed, thecontrols or the whirlpool must be accessible.

All bathtubs must have an overfow drain. This isnecessary since the bathtub oten is lled while thebather is not present. Porcelain enameled steel andenameled cast-iron bathtubs are required to have a slip-resistant base to prevent slips and alls. Plasticbathtubs are not required to have the slip-resistantsurace since the plastic is considered to have an in-herent slip resistance. However, slip resistance canbe specied or plastic bathtub suraces.

Figure 1-16 Built-in-Place Shower


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Bathtub Fill ValvesThe two types o bathtub ll valve are the tub llerand the combination tub and shower valve. Tub andshower valves must be pressure-balancing, thermo-static mixing, or combination pressure-balancing andthermostatic mixing valves conorming to ANSI/ASSE1016/ASME A112.1016/CSA B125.16. The tub ller

is not required to meet these requirements, althoughpressure-balancing and thermostatic mixing tub llervalves are available.

The spout o the tub ller must be properly in-stalled to maintain a 2-inch air gap between the outletand the food-level rim o the bathtub. I this air gapis not maintained, the outlet must be protected rombackfow by some other means. Certain decorativetub llers have an atmospheric vacuum breaker in-stalled to protect the opening that is located belowthe food-level rim.

The standard location o the bathtub ll valve is14 inches above the top rim o the bathtub. The spout

typically is located 4 inches above the top rim o thebathtub to the centerline o the pipe connection.

BIDETThe bidet is a ixture designed or cleaning theperineal area. The bidet oten is mistaken to be a xture designed or use by the emale populationonly. However, the xture is meant or both male andemale cleaning. The bidet has a aucet that comeswith or without a water spray connection. When a water spray is provided, the outlet must be protectedagainst backfow since the opening is located belowthe food-level rim o the bidet. Manuacturers pro-

vide a decorative atmospheric vacuum breaker thatis located on the deck o the bidet.

Bidets are vitreous china xtures that are mountedon the foor. The xture, being similar to a lavatory,has a 1¼-inch drainage connection. Access must beprovided around the bidet to allow a bather to straddlethe xture and sit down on the rim. Most bidets havea fushing rim to cleanse the xture ater each use.

The bidet is used only or external cleansing. It isnot designed or internal body cleansing. This oten ismisunderstood since the body spray may be reerredto as a douche (the French word or shower).

FLOOR DRAINS A foor drain (see Figure 1-18) is a plumbing xturethat is the exception to the denition o a plumb-ing xture because it has no supply o cold and/orhot water. Floor drains typically are provided as anemergency xture in the event o a leak or overfowo water. They also are used to assist in the cleaning o a toilet or bathroom.

Floor drains are available in a variety o shapes

and sizes. The minimum size drainage outlet requiredby the plumbing codes is 2 inches. Most plumbing codes do not require foor drains; it is consideredan optional xture that the plumbing engineer mayconsider installing. Most public toilet rooms have atleast one foor drain. They also are used on the lowerlevels o commercial buildings and in storage areas,commercial kitchens, and areas subject to potentialleaks. Floor drains may serve as indirect waste recep-tors or condensate lines, overfow lines, and similarindirect waste lines.

A trench drain is considered a type o foor drain(see Figure 1-19). Trench drains are continuous

drains that can extend or a number o eet in length.Trench drains are popular in indoor parking struc-tures and actory and industrial areas. Each sectiono a trench drain must have a separate trap.

When foor drains are installed or emergencypurposes, the lack o use can result in the evapora-tion o the trap seal and the escape o sewer gases.Floor drain traps subject to such evaporation arerequired to be protected with trap seal primer valvesor devices. These valves or devices ensure that thetrap seal remains intact and prevents the escape o sewer gases.

EMERGENCy FIxTURESThe two types o emergency xture are the emergencyshower (see Figure 1-20) and the eyewash station.Combination emergency shower and eyewash sta-tions also are available. These xtures are designedto wash a victim with large volumes o water in theevent o a chemical spill or burn or another hazard-ous material spill.

Emergency xtures typically are required by Oc-cupational Saety and Health Administration (OSHA)

Figure 1-17 Standard Bathtub

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regulations. In industrial buildings and chemicallaboratories, emergency xtures are sometimes addedat the owner’s request in addition to the minimumnumber required by OSHA.

An emergency shower is also called a drench show-er because o the large volume o water discharged. An emergency shower should discharge 20 gpm at30 psi to comply with ANSI/ISEA Z358.1: Emergency Eyewash and Shower Equipment. The minimum sizewater connection is 1 inch or showers and 1¼ inchesor combination units. The showerhead typically isinstalled 7 eet above the nished foor.

Eyewash stations are used to fush the eyes andace, and the water fow rate is gentle so the eyes canremain open during the washing process. The fowrates or an eyewash station range rom 0.4 gpm oran eyewash to 3 gpm or an eye/acewash.

Most plumbing codes do not require a drain oremergency showers and eyewash stations to allowgreater fexibility in the location o the xtures andthe spot cleanup o any chemicals that may be washedo the victim.

ANSI/ISEA Z358.1 requires the water supply toemergency xtures to be tepid, which is assumed tobe in the range o 85°F to 95°F. A medical proessionalshould be consulted to determine the optimal watertemperature. When controlling the water tempera-ture, the thermostatic control valve must permit theull fow o cold water in the event o a ailure o thehot water supply. This can be accomplished withthe use o a ail-sae thermostatic mixing valve ora bypass valve or the thermostatic mixing valve.Since showers and eyewash stations are or extremeemergencies, a supply o water to the xtures must

always be available.

MINIMUM FIxTUREREQUIREMENTS FOR BUILDINGSThe minimum number o required plumbing xturesor buildings is specied in the plumbing codes (seeTable 1-3 and Table 1-4). Both the InternationalPlumbing Code and the Uniorm Plumbing Code basethe minimum number o plumbing xtures on the oc-cupant load o the building. It should be recognizedthat the occupant load and occupancy o the building

Figure 1-18 Floor Drain

Figure 1-19 Trench DrainSource: Courtesy o Jay R. Smith Company

Figure 1-20 Emergency ShowerSource: Courtesy o Haws Corporation


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are sometimes signicantly dierent. For example,in an oce building, the occupancy is typically 25percent o the occupant load. The xture tables havetaken this into account in determining the minimumnumber o xtures required. Most model plumbing codes do not provide occupancy criteria. The occupantload rules can be ound in the building codes.

Single-Occupant Toilet RoomsThe International Plumbing Code has added a re-quirement or a single-occupant toilet room or useby both sexes. This toilet room is also called a unisextoilet room. The single-occupant toilet room must bedesigned to meet the accessible xture requirementso ANSI/ICC A117.1. The purpose o the single-occupant toilet room is to allow a husband to help a wie or vice versa. It also allows a ather to oversee a daughter or a mother to oversee a son. These rooms

are especially important or those temporarily inca-pacitated and the severely incapacitated.

The International Plumbing Code requires a single-occupant toilet room in mercantile and assem-bly buildings when the total number o water closetsrequired (both men and women) is six or more. Wheninstalled in airports, the acilities must be located toallow use beore an individual passes through thesecurity checkpoint.

Another eature typically added to single-occupanttoilet rooms is a diaper-changing station. This allowseither the mother or the ather to change a baby’sdiaper in privacy. To allow all possible uses o thesingle-occupant toilet room, it oten is identied as a amily toilet room to clearly indicate that the room isnot reserved or the physically challenged.

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Table 1-3 Minimum Number o Required Plumbing Fixtures (IPC Table 403.1)a

No. Classication Occupancy Description

Water Closets (UrinalsSee Section 419.2) Lavatories Bathtubs/

Showers

DrinkingFountaine, (SeeSection 410.1) OtherMale Female Male Female

1 Assembly

A-1d

Theaters and otherbuildings or theperorming arts andmotion pictures

1 per 125 1 per 65 1 per 200 — 1 per 500 1 service sink

A-2d

Nightclubs, bars, taverns,

dance halls and buildingsor similar purposes


Restaurants, banquet hallsand ood courts


A-3d

Auditoriums withoutpermanent seating, artgalleries, exhibition halls,museums, lecture halls,libraries, arcades andgymnasiums


Passenger terminals andtransportation acilities

1 per 500 1 per 500 1 per 750 — 1 per 1,000 1 service sink

Places o worship andother religious services

1 per 150 1 per 75 1 per 200 — 1 per 1,000 1 service sink

A-4

Coliseums, arenas, skatingrinks, pools and tenniscourts or indoor sportingevents and activities

1 per 75or the rst

1,500 and1 per 120

or theremainderexceeding

1,500

1 per 40or the

rst 1,520and 1 per60 or theremainderexceeding

1,520

1 per 200 1 per 150 — 1 per 1,000 1 service sink

A-5

Stadiums, amusementparks, bleachers andgrandstands or outdoorsporting events andactivities

1 per 75or the rst1,500 and1 per 120

or theremainderexceeding

1,500

1 per 40or the

rst 1,520and 1 per60 or theremainderexceeding

1,520

1 per 200 1 per 150 — 1 per 1,000 1 service sink

2 Business

B

Buildings or thetransaction o business,proessional services,other services involvingmerchandise, ocebuildings, banks, lightindustrial and similar uses

1 per 25 or the rst50 and 1 per 50 or theremainder exceeding 50

1 per 40 or the rst

80 and 1 per 80or the remainder

exceeding 80

— 1 per 100 1 service sinkg

3 Educational E Educational acilities 1 per 50 1 per 50 — 1 per 100 1 service sink

4 Factory andindustrial

F-1 and F-2

Structures in whichoccupants are engagedin work abricating,assembly or processing oproducts or materials

1 per 100 1 per 100(see

Section411)

1 per 400 1 service sink

5 Institutional I-1 Residential care 1 per 10 1 per 10 1 per 8 1 per 100 1 service sink

I-2

Hospitals, ambulatorynursing home carerecipient

1 per roomc

1 per roomc

1 per 15 1 per 1001 service sink per

foor

Employees, other thanresidential care

b 1 per 25 1 per 35 — 1 per 100 —

Visitors, other thanresidential care

1 per 75 1 per 100 — 1 per 500 —

I-3

Prisonsb

1 per cell 1 per cell 1 per 15 1 per 100 1 service sink

Reormitories detentioncenters, and correctionalcenters

b1 per 15 1 per 15 1 per 15 1 per 100 1 service sink

Employeesb

1 per 25 1 per 35 — 1 per 100 —

I-4Adult day care and childcare

1 per 15 1 per 15 1 1 per 100 1 service sink


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Table 1-3 Minimum Number o Required Plumbing Fixtures (IPC Table 403.1)a

No. Classication Occupancy Description

Water Closets (UrinalsSee Section 419.2) Lavatories Bathtubs/

Showers

DrinkingFountain

e,(See

Section 410.1) OtherMale Female Male Female

6 Mercantile

M

Retail stores, servicestations, shops,salesrooms, markets andshopping centers

1 per 500 1 per 750 — 1 per 1,000 1 service sinkg

7 Residential

R-1 Hotels, motels, boardinghouses (transient) 1 per sleeping unit 1 per sleeping unit

1 per

sleepingunit

— 1 service sink

R-2Dormitories, raternities,sororities and boardinghouses (not transient)

1 per 10 1 per 10 1 per 8 1 per 100 1 service sink

R-2 Apartment house 1 per dwelling unit 1 per dwelling unit1 per

dwellingunit

—

1 kitchen sinkper dwelling

unit; 1 automaticclothes washerconnection per

20 dwelling units

R-3One- and two-amilydwellings

1 per dwel ling unit 1 per dwel ling unit1 per

dwellingunit

—

1 kitchen sinkper dwelling

unit; 1 automaticclothes washerconnection per

dwelling unitR-4

Congregate living acilitiewith 16 or ewer persons

1 per 10 1 per 10 1 per 8 1 per 100 1 service sink

8 Storage

S-1S-2

Structures or the storageo goods, warehouses,storehouse and reightdepots. Low and ModerateHazard

1 per 100 1 per 100See

Section411

1 per 1,000 1 sink

a. The xtures shown are based on one xture being the minimum required or the number o persons indicated or any raction o the number o persons indicated. The number ooccupants shall be determined by the International Building Code.

b. Toilet acilities or employees shall be separate rom acilities or inmates or care recipients.

c. A single-occupant toilet room with one water closet and one lavatory serving not more than two adjacent patient sleeping units shall be permitted where such room is provided withdirect access rom each patient sleeping unit and with provisions or privacy.

d. The occupant load or seasonal outdoor seating and entertainment areas shall be included when determining the minimum number o acilities required.

e. The minimum number o required drinking ountains shall comply with Table 403.1 and Chapter 11 o the International Building Code.

. Drinking ountains are not required or an occupant load o 15 or ewer.

g. For business and mercantile occupancies with an occupant load o 15 or ewer, service sinks shall not be required.

Excerpted rom the 2012 International Plumbing Code, Copyright 2011. Washington, D.C.: International Code Council. Reproduced with permission. All rights reserved. www.iccsae.org

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Table 1-4 Minimum Plumbing Facilities (UPC Table 422.1)1

Each building shall be provided with sanitary acilities, including provisions or persons with disabilities as prescribed by the Department Having Jurisdiction. Table 422.1 applies to newbuildings, additions to a building, and changes o occupancy or type in an existing building resulting in increased occupant load.

Type o Occupancy2Water Closets

(Fixtures per Person)3

Urinals(Fixtures per

Person)Lavatories

(Fixtures per Person)

Bathtubs orShowers

(Fixtures perPerson)

Drinking Fountains/ Facilities

(Fixtures perPerson) Other

A-1 Assembly occupancy (xedor permanent seating) – theatres,concert halls, and auditoriums

Male1: 1-1002: 101-2003: 201-400

Female1: 1-252: 26-503: 51-1004: 101-200

5: 201-3006: 301-400

Male1: 1-2002: 201-3003: 301-4004: 401-600

Male1: 1-2002: 201-4003: 401-6004: 601-750

Female1: 1-1002: 101-2004: 201-3005: 301-500

6: 501-750

1: 1-2502: 251-5003: 501-750

1 service sink orlaundry tray

Over 600, add 1xture or eachadditional 300 males.

Over 750, add 1 xture oreach additional 250 malesand 1 xture or eachadditional 200 emales.

Over 750, add 1xture or eachadditional 500persons.


A-2 Assembly occupancy –restaurants, pubs, lounges,nightclubs, and banquet halls

Male1: 1-502: 51-1503: 151-3004: 301-400

Female1: 1-252: 26-503: 51-1004: 101-2006: 201-3008: 301-400

Male1: 1-2002: 201-3003: 301-4004: 401-600

Male1: 1-1502: 151-2003: 201-400

Female1: 1-1502: 151-2004: 201-400

1: 1-2502: 251-5003: 501-750




Over 400, add 1 xture oreach additional 250 malesand 1 xture or each 125emales.


A-3 Assembly occupancy

(typicaly without xed orpermanent seating) – arcades,places o worship, museums,libraries, lecture halls,gymnasiums (without spectatorseating), indoor pools (withoutspectator seating)

Male

1: 1-1002: 101-2003: 201-400

Female

1: 1-252: 26-503: 51-1004: 101-2005: 201-3006: 301-400

Male

1: 1-2002: 201-3003: 301-4004: 401-600

Male

1: 1-2002: 201-4003: 401-6004: 601-750

Female

1: 1-1002: 101-2004: 201-3005: 301-5006: 501-750

1: 1-250

2: 251-5003: 501-750

1 service sink or

laundry tray





A-4 Assembly occupancy (indooractivities or sporting events withspectator seating) – swimmingpools, skating rinks, arenas, andgymnasiums

Male1: 1-1002: 101-2003: 201-400

Female1: 1-252: 26-503: 51-1004: 101-2006: 201-3008: 301-400

Male1: 1-1002: 101-2003: 201-4004: 401-600

Male1: 1-2002: 201-4003: 401-750

Female1: 1-1002: 101-2004: 201-3005: 301-5006: 501-750

1: 1-2502: 251-5003: 501-750

1 service sink olaundry tray





A-5 Assembly occupancy(outdoor activities or sportingevents) – amusement parks,grandstands, and stadiums

Male1: 1-1002: 101-2003: 201-400

Female1: 1-252: 26-503: 51-1004: 101-2006: 201-3008: 301-400

Male1: 1-1002: 101-2003: 201-4004: 401-600

Male1: 1-2002: 201-4003: 401-750

Female1: 1-1002: 101-2004: 201-3005: 301-5006: 501-750

1: 1-2502: 251-5003: 501-750

1 service sink olaundry tray





B Business occupancy (oce,proessional, or service-typetransactions) – banks, vet clinics,hospitals, car wash, beautysalons, ambulatory healthcareacilities, laundries and drycleaning, educational institutions(above high school), or trainingacilities not located withinschools, post oces, and printingshops

Male1: 1-502: 51-1003: 101-2004: 201-400

Female1: 1-152: 16-303: 31-504: 51-1008: 101-20011: 201-400

Male1: 1-1002: 101-2003: 201-4004: 401-600

Male1: 1-752: 76-1503: 151-2004: 201-3005: 301-400

Female1: 1-502: 51-1003: 101-1504: 151-2005: 201-3006: 301-400

1 per 150 1 service sink orlaundry tray


Over 400, add 1 additionalxture or each additional

500 males and 1 xture oreach additional 150 emales.

Over 400, add 1 xture oreach additional 250 males

and 1 xture or eachadditional 200 emales.

E Educational occupancy –private or public schools

Male1 per 50

Female1 per 30

Male1 per 100

Male1 per 40

Female1 per 40


F1, F2 Factory or industrialoccupancy – abricating orassembly work

Male1: 1-502: 51-753: 76-100

Female1: 1-502: 51-753: 76-100

Male1: 1-502: 51-753: 76-100

Female1: 1-502: 51-753: 76-100

1 shower oreach 15 personsexposed toexcessiveheat or to skincontaminationwith poinsonous,inectious, orirritating material

1: 1-2502: 251-5003: 501-750


Over 100, add 1 xture oreach additional 40 persons.



I-1 Institutional occupancy(houses more than 16 personson a 24-hour basis) – substanceabuse centers, assisted living,group homes, or residentialacilities

Male1 per 15

Female1 per 15

Male1 per 15

Female1 per 15

1 per 8 1 per 150 1 service sink orlaundry tub


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Type o Occupancy2Water Closets

(Fixtures per Person)3

Urinals(Fixtures per

Person)Lavatories

(Fixtures per Person)

Bathtubs orShowers

(Fixtures perPerson)

Drinking Fountains/ Facilities

(Fixtures perPerson) Other

I-2 Institutionaloccupancy– medical,psychiatric,surgical, ornursing home

Prisons 1 per cell 1 per cell 1 per 20 1 per cell block/foor

Correctionalacilities orjuvenile center

1 per 8 1 per 10 1 per 8 1 per foor 1 service sink orlaundry tray

Employee use Male1: 1-152: 16-35

3: 36-55

Female1: 1-153: 16-35

4: 36-55

Male1 per 40

Female1 per 40

1 per 150


I-2 Institutional occupancy (anyage that receives care or lessthan 24 hours)

Male1: 1-152: 16-353: 36-55

Female1: 1-153: 16-354: 36-55

Male1 per 40

Female1 per 40



M Mercantile occupancy(the sale o merchandise andaccessible to the public)

Male1: 1-1002: 101-2003: 201-400

Female1: 1-1002: 101-2004: 201-3006: 301-400

Male0: 1-2001: 201-400

Male1: 1-2002: 201-400

Female1: 1-2002: 201-3003: 301-400

1: 1-2502: 251-5003: 501-750






R-1 Residential occupancy(minimal stay) – hotels, motels,

bed and breakast homes

1 per sleeping room 1 per sleeping room 1 per sleeping room 1 service sink orlaundry tray

R-2 Residentialoccupancy(long-term orpermanent)

Dormitories Male1 per 10

Female1 per 8

1 per 25 Male1 per 12

Female1 per 12

1 per 8 1 per 150 1 service sink orlaundry tray

Add 1 xture or eachadditional 25 males and 1xture or each additional 20emales.



Employee use Male1: 1-152: 16-353: 36-55

Female1: 1-152: 16-353: 36-55

Male1 per 40

Female1 per 40


Apartmenthouse/unit

1 per apartment 1 per apartment 1 per apartment 1 kitchen sink perapartment. 1 laundrytray or 1 automaticclothes washerconnection per unitor 1 laundry tray or1 automatic clothes

washer connectionor each 12 units

R-3 Residential occupancy (long-term or permanent in nature) ormore than 5 but does not exceed16 occupants

Male1 per 10

Female1 per 8

Male1 per 12

Female1 per 12


Add 1 xture oe eachadditional 25 males and 1xture or each additional 20emales.

Add 1 xture oe eachadditional 20 males and 1xture or each additional 15emales.

R-3 Residential occupancy (one-and two-amily dwellings)

1 per one-and two-amilydwelling

1 per one-and two-amilydwelling

1 per one-and two-amily dwelling

1 kitchen sink and1 automatic clotheswasher connectionper one- and two-amily dwelling

R-4 Residential occupancy(residential care or assistedliving)

Male1 per 10

Female1 per 8

Male1 per 12

Female1 per 12




S-1, S-2 Storage occupancy –storage o goods, warehouse,aircrat hangar, ood products,appliances

Male1: 1-1002: 101-2003: 201-400

Female1: 1-1002: 101-2003: 201-400

Male1: 1-2002: 201-4003: 401-750

Female1: 1-2002: 201-4003: 401-750

1: 1-2502: 251-5003: 501-750





Notes:1 The gures shown are based upon one xture being the minimum required or the number o persons indicated or any raction thereo.2 A restaurant is dened as a business that sells ood to be consumed on the premises.a. The number o occupants or a drive-in restaurant shall be considered as equal to the number o parking stalls.b. Hand-washing acilities shall be available in the kitchen or employees.3 The total number o required water closets or emales shall be not less than the total number o required water closets and urinals or males.

Source: 2012 Uniorm Plumbing Code Table 422.1 Reprinted with the permission o the International Association o Plumbing and Mechanical Oicials. This copyrightmaterial and all points or statements in using this material have not been reviewed by IAPMO. The opinions expressed herein are not representations o act romIAPMO.

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Piping Sstems2The selection o piping materials depends on thepressure, velocity, temperature, and corrosiveness o the medium conveyed within, initial cost, installationcosts, operating costs, and good engineering practice.This chapter provides general application inormationand guidance regarding common types o pipe mate-

rials. The local plumbing code and other regulationsregarding specic piping requirements should bereerred to prior to beginning any design.

SPECIFICATIONOnly new materials should be specied. A typical pip-ing specication should include the ollowing items:t ype o system and materials, applicable standards,wall thickness, joining and support methods, type o end connection and ller material, bolting, gasketmaterials, testing, and cleaning.

Piping usually is tested at 1.5 times the working pressure o the system. It should not be buried, con-cealed, or insulated until it has been inspected, tested,and approved. All deective piping shall be replacedand retested.

All domestic water piping and ttings must con-orm to NSF/ANSI Standard 61.

INSTALLATIONPipes should be neatly arranged—straight, parallel,or at right angles to walls—and cut accurately to es-tablished measurements. Pipes should be worked intoplace without springing or orcing. Sucient headroomshould be provided to enable the clearing o lighting

xtures, ductwork, sprinklers, aisles, passageways,windows, doors, and other openings. Pipes should notinterere with access to maintain equipment.

Pipes should be clean (ree o cuttings and oreignmatter inside), and exposed ends o piping should becovered during site storage and installation. Split,bent, fattened, or otherwise damaged pipe or tub-ing should not be used. Sucient clearance should beprovided rom walls, ceilings, and foors to permit thewelding, soldering, or connecting o joints and valves. A minimum o 6 to 10 inches (152.4 to 254 millime-

ters) o clearance should be provided. Installation o pipe above electrical equipment, such as switchgear,panel boards, and elevator machine rooms, shouldbe avoided. Piping systems should not interere withsaety or relie valves.

A means o draining the piping system should be

provided. A ½-inch or ¾-inch (12.7-mm or 19.1-mm)hose bibb (provided with a threaded end and vacu-um breaker) should be placed at the lowest point o the piping system or this purpose. Constant gradesshould be maintained or proper drainage, and pip-ing systems should be ree o pockets due to changesin elevation.

CAST IRON SOIL PIPECast iron soil pipe is primarily used or sanitarydrain, waste, vent, and storm systems. Cast iron soilpipe used in the United States is classied into twomajor types: hub and spigot and hubless (also calledno-hub).

The Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute (CISPI) utilizesa quality control program to veriy that its memberoundries are manuacturing cast iron soil pipe andttings, which are marked with the Institute’s collec-tive trademark, to the appropriate standards (CISPI301 or no-hub and ASTM A74 or hub and spigot).Engineers are encouraged to add the ollowing lan-guage to their specication or cast iron soil pipe andttings: “All cast iron soil pipe and ttings shall bearthe collective trademark o the Cast Iron Soil PipeInstitute or receive prior approval by the engineer.”

Hub and Spigot Pipe and FittingsHub and spigot pipe and ttings have hubs into whichthe spigot (plain end) o the pipe or tting is inserted.Both single and double hub versions are available.Hub and spigot pipe and ttings are available in twoclasses, or thicknesses: service (SV) and extra heavy(XH). The extra-heavy class oten is used or under-ground applications. Service and extra-heavy classeshave dierent outside diameters and are not readilyinterchangeable (see Tables 2-1 and 2-2). However,

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these two dierent types o pipe and ttings can beconnected with adapters available rom the manu-acturer.

Hub and spigot pipe and ttings are joined us-ing rubber (neoprene) compression gaskets and mol-ten lead and oakum (see Figure 2-1). Sizes include2-inch to 15-inch (50.8-mm to 381-mm) diameters,and the pipe comes in 5-oot or 10-oot (1.5-meter or3.1-meter) lengths (see Figure 2-2).

Hubless Pipe and FittingsHubless cast iron soil pipe and ttings are simply pipeand ttings manuactured without a hub (see Figure2-3). The method o joining these pipes and ttingsutilizes a hubless shielded coupling or a heavy-duty

shielded coupling, which slips over the plain endso the pipe and ttings and is tightened to seal the joint (see Figure 2-1). Many congurations o ttingsranging in size and shape are available. Hubless castiron soil pipe and ttings are made in only one class,or thickness. They are available in 1½-inch to 15-inch (38.1-mm to 254-mm) diameters, and the pipeis manuactured in 5-oot to 10-oot (1.5-m to 3.1-m)lengths (see Table 2-3).

DUCTILE IRON WATER AND SEWER PIPEDuctile iron pipe is primarily used in water andsewer systems or underground and industrial ap-plications. Ductile iron is a strong material and is not

Figure 2-2 Cast Iron Soil Pipe (Extra-Heavy and Service Classes)

Notes : 1. Laying length, all sizes:single hub 5 t; double hub 5 t less Y, 5-t lengths; single hub 10 t; double hub 10 t less Y, or 10 t lengths. 2. I a bead is

provided on the spigot end, M may be any diameter between J and M. 3. Hub ends and spigot ends can be made with or without drat, and spigot endscan be made with or without spigot bead.

Figure 2-1 Cast Iron Soil Pipe Joints

Figure 2-3 Hubless Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings


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Chapter 2 — Piping Systems 27

Table 2-1(M) Dimensions o Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels or Extra-Heavy Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings

Nominal InsideDiameter (in.)

Inside Diameter oHub (mm)

Outside Diameter ofSpigot a (mm)

Outside Diameter ofBarrel (mm)

TelescopingLength (mm) Thickness of Barrel (mm)

A M J Y T (nominal) T (minimum)

2 77.72 69.85 60.45 63.50 4.83 4.06

3 106.43 98.55 88.90 69.85 6.35 5.59

4 131.83 123.95 114.30 76.20 6.35 5.59

5 157.23 149.35 139.70 76.20 6.35 5.59

6 182.63 174.75 165.10 76.20 6.35

NominalInside

DiameterSize (in.)

Thickness o Hub (mm)Width o HubBead

b(mm)

Width oSpigot Bead

b

(mm)

Distance fromLead Groove toEnd, Pipe andFittings (mm) Depth o Lead Groove (mm)

Hub BodyS (minimum)

Over BeadR (minimum) F N P G (minimum) G (maximum)

2 4.57 9.40 19.05 17.53 5.59 2.54 4.833 6.35 10.92 20.57 19.05 5.59 2.54 4.83

4 6.35 10.92 22.35 20.57 5.59 2.54 4.83

5 6.35 10.92 22.35 20.57 5.59 2.54 4.83

6 6.35 10.92 22.35 20.57 5.59 2.54 4.83

8 8.64 14.99 30.23 28.45 9.65 3.81 5.59

10 10.16 16.51 30.23 28.45 9.65 3.81 5.59

12 10.16 16.51 36.54 35.05 11.94 3.81 5.59

15 11.68 18.03 36.54 35.05 11.94 3.81 5.59

Note: Laying length, all sizes: single hub 1.5 m; double hub 1.5 m less Y, 1.5 m lengths; single hub 3.1 m; double hub 3.1 m less Y, for 3.1 m lengths.aI a bead is provided on the spigot end, M may be any diameter between J and M.

bHub ends and spigot ends can be made with or without drat, and spigot ends can be made with or without spigot bead.

Table 2-1 Dimensions o Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels or Extra-Heavy Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings

NominalInside

Diameter(in.)

InsideDiameter o

Hub (in.)

OutsideDiameter oSpigot

a(in.)

OutsideDiameter oBarrel (in.)

TelescopingLength (in.) Thickness o Barrel (in.)

A M J Y T (nominal) T (minimum)2 3.06 2.75 2.38 2.50 0.19 0.16

3 4.19 3.88 3.50 2.75 0.25 0.22

4 5.19 4.88 4.50 3.00 0.25 0.22

5 6.19 5.88 5.50 3.00 0.25 0.226 7.19 6.88 6.50 3.00 0.25 0.22

8 9.50 9.00 8.62 3.50 0.31 0.25

10 11.62 11.13 10.75 3.50 0.37 0.31

12 13.75 13.13 12.75 4.25 0.37 0.31

15 16.95 16.25 15.88 4.25 0.44 0.38

NominalInside

DiameterSize (in.)

Thickness o Hub (in.)Width o Hub

Beadb(in.)

Width o SpigotBead

b(in.)

Distance fromLead Groove toEnd, Pipe andFittings (in.) Depth o Lead Groove (in.)

Hub BodyS (minimum)


2 0.18 0.37 0.75 0.69 0.22 0.10 0.19

3 0.25 0.43 0.81 0.75 0.22 0.10 0.194 0.25 0.43 0.88 0.81 0.22 0.10 0.19

5 0.25 0.43 0.88 0.81 0.22 0.10 0.19

6 0.25 0.43 0.88 0.81 0.22 0.10 0.19

8 0.34 0.59 1.19 1.12 0.38 0.15 0.22

10 0.40 0.65 1.19 1.12 0.38 0.15 0.22

12 0.40 0.65 1.44 1.38 0.47 0.15 0.29

15 0.46 0.71 1.44 1.38 0.47 0.15 0.22

Note: Laying length, all sizes: single hub 5 t; double hub 5 t less Y, 5-t lengths; single hub 10 t; double hub 10 t less Y, or 10 t lengths.a

I a bead is provided on the spigot end, M may be any diameter between J and M.b

Hub ends and spigot ends can be made with or without drat, and spigot ends can be made with or without spigot bead.

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Table 2-2 Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Service Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings

NominalInside

DiameterSize (in.)

InsideDiameter

o Hub (in.)

OutsideDiametero Spigot

a

(in.)

OutsideDiameter oBarrel (in.)

TelescopingLength (in.) Thickness o Barrel (in.)

A M J Y T (nominal) T (minimum)2 2.94 2.62 2.30 2.50 0.17 0.14

3 3.94 3.62 3.30 2.75 0.17 0.14

4 4.94 4.62 4.30 3.00 0.18 0.155 5.94 5.62 5.30 3.00 0.18 0.15

6 6.94 6.62 6.30 3.00 0.18 0.15

8 9.25 8.75 8.38 3.50 0.23 0.17

10 11.38 10.88 10.50 3.50 0.28 0.22

12 13.50 12.88 12.50 4.25 0.28 0.22

15 16.95 16.00 15.88 4.25 0.36 0.30

NominalInside

DiameterSize (in.)

Thickness o Hub (in.)Width o Hub

Beadb(in.)

Width oSpigot

Beadb(in.)

Distance fromLead Groove toEnd, Pipe andFittings (in.) Depth o Lead Groove (in.)

Hub BodyS (minimum)


2 0.13 0.34 0.75 0.69 0.22 0.10 0.19

3 0.16 0.37 0.81 0.75 0.22 0.10 0.194 0.16 0.37 0.88 0.81 0.22 0.10 0.19

5 0.16 0.37 0.88 0.81 0.22 0.10 0.19

6 0.18 0.37 0.88 0.81 0.22 0.10 0.19

8 0.19 0.44 1.19 1.12 0.38 0.15 0.22

10 0.27 0.53 1.19 1.12 0.38 0.15 0.22

12 0.27 0.53 1.44 1.38 0.47 0.15 0.22

15 0.30 0.58 1.44 1.38 0.47 0.15 0.22

Note: Laying length, all sizes: single hub 5 t; double hub 5 t less Y, 5-t lengths; single hub 10 t; double hub 10 t less Y, or 10 t lengths.aI a bead is provided on the spigot end, M may be any diameter between J and M.


Table 2-2(M) Dimensions of Hubs, Spigots, and Barrels for Service Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings

NominalInside

DiameterSize (in.)

InsideDiameter o

Hub (mm)

OutsideDiameter of

Spigota(mm)

OutsideDiameter ofBarrel (mm)

TelescopingLength (mm) Thickness of Barrel (mm)

A M J Y T (nominal) T (minimum)

2 74.68 66.55 58.42 63.50 4.32 3.56

3 100.08 91.95 83.82 69.85 4.32 3.56

4 125.48 117.35 109.22 76.20 4.57 3.81

5 150.88 142.75 134.62 76.20 4.57 3.81

6 176.28 168.15 160.02 76.20 5.57

DiameterSize (in.)

Inside o Hub (mm)Spigot Bead

b

(mm)Lead Grooveto End (mm) Lead Groove (mm)

Hub BodyS (minimum)

Over BeadR (minimum) F P G (minimum) G (maximum)

2 3.30 8.64 19.05 5.59 2.54 4.83

3 4.06 9.40 20.57 5.59 2.54 4.834 4.06 9.40 22.35 5.59 2.54 4.83

5 4.06 9.40 22.35 5.59 2.54 4.83

6 4.57 9.40 22.35 5.59 2.54 4.83

8 4.83 11.26 30.23 9.65 3.81 5.59

10 6.86 13.46 30.23 9.65 3.81 5.59

12 6.86 13.46 36.58 11.94 3.81 5.59

15 7.62 14.73 36.58 11.94 3.81 5.59

Note: Laying length, all sizes: single hub 1.5 m; double hub 1.5 m less Y, 1.5 m lengths; single hub 3.1 m; double hub 3.1 m less Y, or 3.1 m lengths.aI a bead is provided on the spigot end, M may be any diameter between J and M.



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Table 2-3 Dimensions o Spigots and Barrels or Hubless Pipe and Fittings

Nom.Size

Inside Diam.Barrel

Outside Diam.Barrel

Outside Diam.Spigot

Width SpigotBead Thickness o Barrel

GasketPositioning

LugLaying

Length, La,

b

(in.) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.)

B J M N T-Nom. T-Min. W 5 Ft 10 Ft1½ 1.50 38.1 1.90 48.26 1.96 48.78 0.25 6.35 0.16 3.3 0.13 0.33 1.13 28.7 60 120

2 1.96 49.8 2.35 59.69 2.41 61.21 0.25 6.35 0.16 3.3 0.13 0.33 1.13 28.7 60 1203 2.96 75.2 3.35 85.09 3.41 86.61 0.25 6.35 0.16 3.3 0.13 0.33 1.13 28.7 60 120

4 3.94 100.08 4.38 111.25 4.44 112.78 0.31 7.87 0.19 3.81 0.15 0.38 1.13 28.7 60 120

5 4.94 125.48 5.30 134.62 5.36 136.14 0.31 7.87 0.19 3.81 0.15 0.38 1.50 38.1 60 120

6 5.94 150.88 6.30 160.02 6.36 161.54 0.31 7.87 0.19 3.81 0.15 0.38 1.50 38.1 60 120

8 7.94 201.68 8.38 212.85 8.44 214.38 0.31 7.87 0.23 4.32 0.17 0.43 2.00 50.8 60 120

10 10.00 254 10.56 268.22 10.62 269.75 0.31 7.87 0.28 5.59 0.22 0.56 2.00 50.8 60 120

12 11.94 303.28 12.50 317.5 12.62 320.55 0.31 7.87 0.28 5.59 0.22 2.75 69.85 60 120

15 15.11 383.79 15.83 402.08 16.12 409.55 0.31 7.87 0.36 7.62 0.30 2.75 69.85 60 120aLaying lengths as listed are or pipe only.

bLaying lengths may be either 5 t 0 in. or 10 t 0 in. (1.5 or 3.1 m) long.

as brittle as cast iron. Ductile iron pipe is available inseven classes (50–56) and in 3-inch to 64-inch (76-mmto 1,626-mm) diameters. The pipe is manuacturedwith bell ends and in a length o either 18 eet or 20eet (5.49 m or 6.1 m).

Cement-lined piping typically is required or wa-ter distribution systems. The cement lining provides

a protective barrier between the potable water supplyand the ductile iron pipe to prevent impurities andcontaminants rom leaching into the water supply.Thepressure ratings or cement-lined ductile iron pipecan be ound in Table 2-4.

The methods o joining are push-on rubber (neo-prene) compression gasket, mechanical, and fanged.Special joints also are also available, such as re-strained, ball and socket, and grooved and shouldered.(See Figure 2-4.)

CONCRETE PIPEConcrete pipe is used or sanitary sewers, storm sew-

ers, culverts, detention systems, and low-pressure orcemains. Reinorced concrete pipe is the most durableand economical o all piping products. It is recom-mended or installations where low, moderate, or severecover and/or live load conditions exist and structuralailure might endanger lie or property. Reinorcedpipe, even ater ultimate ailure, retains its shape andwill not collapse. Concrete pipe typically is installed bythe site contractor during site preparation rather thanthe plumbing trade.

This pipe is available in 4-inch to 36-inch (100-mmto 900-mm) diameters. Nonreinorced concrete pipe isnot available in all markets. Reinorced concrete pipe

is made by the addition o steel wire or steel bars. Itis used primarily or sewage and storm drainage andis available in 12-inch to 144-inch (300-mm to 3,600-mm) diameters (see Table 2-5). Concrete pipe is avail-able as a bell and spigot or gasketed bell design.

The methods o joining are rubber (elastomeric)gasket and cement plaster (becoming obsolete).

COPPER PIPECopper pipe is used or drain, waste, and vent (DWV),water supply, boiler eed lines, rerigeration, and simi-lar purposes.

Copper Water TubeCopper water tube is a seamless, almost pure coppermaterial manuactured to the requirements o ASTMB88. It has three basic wall thickness dimensions, des-ignated as Types K, L, and M, with Type K being thethickest, Type L being o intermediate thickness, andType M being the thinnest. All three types o tube arecommonly manuactured rom copper alloy C12200,which has a chemical composition o 99.9 percentminimum copper (Cu) and silver (Ag) combined anda maximum allowable range o phosphorous (P) o 0.015–0.040 percent.

Seamless copper water tube is manuactured insizes o ¼-inch to 12-inch (6.35-mm to 304.8-mm)(nominal) diameters. Types K and L are manuac-tured in drawn temper (hard) o ¼-inch to 12-inch(6.35-mm to 304.8-mm) and annealed temper (sot)coils o ¼-inch to 2-inch (6.35-mm to 50.8-mm) (nomi-nal) diameters, while Type M is manuactured only indrawn (hard) temper o ¼-inch to 12-inch (6.35-mmto 304.8-mm) (nominal) diameters. See Table 2-6 orthe commercially available lengths o copper plumb-ing tube. See Tables 2-7, 2-8, and 2-9 or dimensionaland capacity data or Type K, L, and M copper tuberespectively.

Seamless copper water tube o drawn temper is re-quired to be identied with a colored stripe that con-tains the manuacturer’s name or trademark, type o tube, and nation o origin. This stripe is green or TypeK, blue or Type L, and red or Type M. In addition

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to the colored stripe, thetube is incised with the typeo tube and the manuac-turer’s name or trademarkat intervals not in excesso 1½ eet. Annealed (sot)coils or straight lengths arenot required to be identiedwith a colored stripe.

Various types o ttingso the compression, grooved,and mechanical types maybe used (see Figures 2-5 and2-6). O-rings in ttings areto be ethylene propylenediene monomer (EPDM) orhydrogenated nitrile buta-diene rubber (HNBR).

Joints in copper watertube typically are soldered,

fared, or brazed, althoughroll-grooved and mechani-cal joints also are permit-ted. Soldered joints should be installed in accordancewith the requirements and procedures detailed in ASTM B828 , and the fux used should meet the re-quirements o ASTM B813. The mechanical joining o copper tubing is done with specially manuac-tured ttings. One type known as press-connect is

astened with a crimping tool with interchangeable jaws o ½ inch to 4 inches (12.7 mm to 101.6 mm). Another known as push-connect is pushed on thetube to make a connection and is held in place byan internal or integral stainless steel gripper ring. A third method is accomplished by roll-grooving theend o the tube and using a gasketed tting.

Table 2-4 Standard Minimum Pressure Classes o Ductile Iron Single-ThicknessCement-Lined Pipe

Size(in.)

PressureRating(psi)

Nominal WallThickness (in.)

Pipe O.D.(in.)

Weight in Pounds

Per FootPlain End Flange Fastite Bell

MaximumLength

4 350+ 0.32 4.8 13.8 13 10 262

6 350+ 0.34 6.9 21.4 17 15 450

8 350+ 0.36 9.05 30.1 27 21 635

10 350+ 0.38 11.1 39.2 38 27 83012 350+ 0.4 13.2 49.2 59 32 1050

14 350+ 0.42 15.3 60.1 70 57 1300

16 350+ 0.43 17.4 70.1 90 64 1520

18 350+ 0.44 19.5 80.6 88 73 1735

20 350+ 0.45 21.6 91.5 112 81 1980

24 350+ 0.47 25.8 114.4 155 96 2480

30 250 0.51 32 154.4 245 164 3420

36 250 0.58 38.3 210.3 354 214 4670

42 250 0.65 44.5 274 512 289 6140

48 250 0.72 50.8 346.6 632 354 7745

54 250 0.81 57.56 441.9 716 439 9770

60 250 0.83 61.61 485 1113 819 11390

64 250 0.87 65.67 542 1824 932 13320


Table 2-5 Dimensions and Approximate Weights o Circular Concrete Pipe

Reinorced Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain and Sewer Pipe

InternalDiameter, in.

InternalDiameter, mm

Waterway

Area, squaremeters

WALL B WALL C

Minimum WallThickness, mm

ApproximateWeight, Kg/meter

Minimum WallThickness, mm

ApproximateWeight, Kg/meter

8* 200 0.03 51 90 — —

10* 250 0.05 51 130 — —

12 300 0.07 51 140 — —

15 375 0.11 57 190 — —

18 450 0.16 64 250 — —

21 525 0.22 70 320 — —

24 600 0.29 76 390 95 545

27 675 0.37 83 480 102 625

30 750 0.46 89 570 108 710

33 825 0.55 95 670 114 820

36 900 0.66 102 780 121 975

42 1050 0.89 114 1020 133 1205

48 1200 1.17 127 1290 146 150554 1350 1.48 140 1590 159 1800

60 1500 1.82 152 1925 171 2190

66 1650 2.21 165 2295 184 2580

72 1800 2.62 178 2695 197 3000

78 1950 3.08 190 3125 210 3585

84 2100 3.57 203 3585 222 3960

90 2250 4.1 216 4075 235 4495

96 2400 4.67 229 4600 248 4990

102 2550 5.27 241 5180 260 5595

108 2700 5.91 254 5750 273 6190

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Figure 2-4 Joints and Fittings or Ductile Iron Pipe

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Table 2-6 Commercially Available Lengths o Copper Plumbing Tube

Tube type: Type K; Color code: Green ASTM B88a

Commercially Available Lengthsb

Straight Lengths Coils

Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed¼ to 8 in. 20 t 20 t ¼ to 1 in. 60 t 100 t

10 in. 18 t 18 t 1¼ and 1½ in. 60 t —

12 in. 12 t 12 t 2 in. 40 t 45 tStandard applicationsc: Domestic water service and distribution, re protection, solar, uel/uel oil, HVAC, snow melting

Tube type: Type L; Color code: Blue ASTM B88



Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed¼ to 8 in. 20 t 20 t ¼ to 1 in. 60 t 100 t

12 in. 18 t 18 t 1¼ and 1½ in. 60 t —

— — — 2 in. 40 t 45 t

Standard applicationsc: Domestic water service and distribution, re protection, solar, uel/uel oil, HVAC, snow melting, natural gas,

liqueed petroleum gas

Tube type: Type M; Color code: Red ASTM B88



Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed¼ to 12 in. 20 t — — — —

Standard applicationsc: Domestic water service and distribution, re protection, solar, uel/uel oil, HVAC, snow melting

Tube type: DWV; Color code: Yellow ASTM B306



Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed¼ to 8 in. 20 t — — — —

Standard applicationsc: Drain, waste, and vent, solar, HVAC

Tube type: ACR; Color code: Blue ASTM B280



Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed3 ⁄ 8 to 41 ⁄ 8 in. 20 t d 1 ⁄ 8 and 15 ⁄ 8 in. 50 t —

Standard applicationsc: Air-conditioning, rerigeration, natural gas, liqueed petroleum gas

Tube type: OXY, MED, OXY/MED, OXY/ACR, ACR/MED; Color code: (K) Green, (L) Blue ASTM B819



Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed¼ to 8 in. 20 t N/A — — —

Standard applicationsc: Medical gas

Tube type: Type G; Color code: Yellow ASTM B837



Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed Pipe Diameter Drawn Annealed3 ⁄ 8 to 11 ⁄ 8 in. 12 t 12 t 3 ⁄ 8 to 7 ⁄ 8 in. 60 t 100 t

Standard applicationsc: Natural gas, liqueed petroleum gas

a Tube made to other ASTM standards is also intended or plumbing applications, although ASTM B88 is by ar the most widely used. ASTM B698: Standard Classifcations lists sixplumbing tube standards, including ASTM B88.

b Individual manuacturers may have commercially available lengths in addition to those shown in this table.

c Many other copper and copper alloy tubes and pipes are available or specialized applications. For inormation on these products, contact the Copper Development Association.

d Available as special order only.


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Copper Drainage TubeCopper drainage tube or DWV applications is a seam-less copper tube conorming to the requirements o ASTM B306. Copper drainage tube is urnished indrawn (hard) temper only in sizes o 1¼ inch to 8 inches(31.8 mm to 203.2 mm). It is required to be identiedby a yellow stripe giving the manuacturer’s name or

trademark, nation o origin, and the letters “DWV.” Italso is required to be incised with the manuacturer’sname or trademark and the letters “DWV” at intervalsno greater than 1½ eet. See Table 2-10 or dimensionaldata or Type DWV copper tube.

Fittings or use with copper drainage pipe are usu-ally those conorming to either ANSI/ASME B16.23or ANSI/ASME B16.29. They are required to carrythe incised mark “DWV.”

Joints or drainage applications can be soldered orbrazed (see Figure 2-7).

Medical Gas Tube

Medical gas tube is shipped cleaned and capped andis urnished in Type K or L wall thickness in drawn(hard) temper only. It is identied with an incised markcontaining the manuacturer’s name or trademark at

Table 2-7 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type K Copper Tube

Diameter (in.)

Wallthickness

(in.)

Cross-sectional area (sq. in.) Weight per oot (lb)

Nominal(in.)

Actualinside

Actualoutside Outside Inside Metal

o tubealone

o waterin tube

o tubeand

water¼ 0.305 0.375 0.035 0.110 0.073 0.034 0.145 0.033 0.1673 ⁄ 8 0.402 0.500 0.049 0.196 0.127 0.069 0.269 0.055 0.324

½ 0.527 0.625 0.049 0.307 0.218 0.089 0.344 0.094 0.4385 ⁄ 8 0.652 0.750 0.049 0.442 0.334 0.108 0.418 0.145 0.563

¾ 0.745 0.875 0.065 0.601 0.436 0.165 0.641 0.189 0.830

1 0.995 1.125 0.065 0.993 0.778 0.216 0.839 0.338 1.177

1¼ 1.245 1.375 0.065 1.484 1.217 0.267 1.04 0.53 1.57

1½ 1.481 1.625 0.072 2.072 1.722 0.350 1.36 1.22 2.58

2 1.959 2.125 0.083 3.546 3.013 0.533 2.06 1.31 3.37

2½ 2.435 2.625 0.095 5.409 4.654 0.755 2.93 2.02 4.95

3 2.907 3.125 0.109 7.669 6.634 1.035 4.00 2.88 6.88

3½ 3.385 3.625 0.120 10.321 8.999 1.322 5.12 3.91 9.03

4 3.857 4.125 0.134 13.361 11.682 1.679 6.51 5.07 11.58

5 4.805 5.125 0.160 20.626 18.126 2.500 9.67 7.87 17.54

6 5.741 6.125 0.192 29.453 25.874 3.579 13.9 11.2 25.1

8 7.583 8.125 0.271 51.826 45.138 6.888 25.9 19.6 45.510 9.449 10.125 0.338 80.463 70.085 10.378 40.3 30.4 70.7

12 11.315 12.125 0.405 115.395 100.480 14.915 57.8 43.6 101.4

NominalDiam.(in.)

Circumerence (in.)Ft

2o Surace perLineal Foot

Contents o Tube perLineal Foot Lineal Feet to Contain

Outside Inside Outside Inside Ft3

Gal 1 Ft3

1 Gal1 Lb oWater

¼ 1.178 0.977 0.098 0.081 .00052 .00389 1923 257 30.83 ⁄ 8 1.570 1.262 0.131 0.105 .00088 .00658 1136 152 18.2

½ 1.963 1.655 0.164 0.138 .00151 .01129 662 88.6 10.65 ⁄ 8 2.355 2.047 0.196 0.171 .00232 .01735 431 57.6 6.90

¾ 2.748 2.339 0.229 0.195 .00303 .02664 330 37.5 5.28

1 3.533 3.124 0.294 0.260 .00540 .04039 185 24.8 2.96

1¼ 4.318 3.909 0.360 0.326 .00845 .06321 118 15.8 1.891½ 5.103 4.650 0.425 0.388 .01958 .14646 51.1 6.83 0.817

2 6.673 6.151 0.556 0.513 .02092 .15648 47.8 6.39 0.765

2½ 8.243 7.646 0.688 0.637 .03232 .24175 30.9 4.14 0.495

3 9.813 9.128 0.818 0.761 .04607 .34460 21.7 2.90 0.347

3 ½ 11.388 10.634 0.949 0.886 .06249 .46745 15.8 2.14 0.257

4 12.953 12.111 1.080 1.009 .08113 .60682 12.3 1.65 0.197

5 16.093 15.088 1.341 1.257 .12587 .94151 7.94 1.06 0.127

6 19.233 18.027 1.603 1.502 .17968 1.3440 5.56 0.744 0.089

8 25.513 23.811 2.126 1.984 .31345 2.3446 3.19 0.426 0.051

10 31.793 29.670 2.649 2.473 .48670 3.4405 2.05 0.291 0.033

12 38.073 35.529 3.173 2.961 .69778 5.2194 1.43 0.192 0.023

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intervals not in excess o 1½ eet. It is color-codedgreen or Type K and blue or Type L.

Fittings or medical gas tube may be those con-orming to ANSI/ASME B16.22, ANSI/ ASME B16.18(where wrought copper ttings are not available), or ANSI/ASME B16.50. They also may be ttings meet-ing the requirements o MSS SP-73.

Joints in medical gas systems are o the socket/ lap type and are typically brazed with copper-phos-phorous or copper-phosphorous-silver (BCuP) alloyswhile being purged with oil-ree nitrogen.

Natural and Liqueed PetroleumNatural and liqueed petroleum pipe is urnished inType G wall thickness. It is color-coded yellow per ASTM B837.

The methods o joining are brazing, compressionttings, and specialized mechanical compressioncouplings.

GLASS PIPEGlass is unique or several reasons. First, it is clear,allowing the contents to be visible. Second, it is the

Table 2-7(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type K Copper Tube

Diameter

Wallthickness

(mm)

Cross-sectional area (103mm

2) Weight per oot (kg)

Nominal(in.)

Actualinside(mm)

Actualoutside(mm) Outside Inside Metal

o tubealone

o waterin tube

o tubeand

water¼ 7.90 9.53 0.89 0.071 0.049 0.022 0.216 0.049 0.2493 ⁄ 8 10.21 12.70 1.25 0.127 0.082 0.045 0.401 0.082 0.483

½ 13.39 15.88 1.25 0.198 0.141 0.057 0.512 0.140 0.6525 ⁄ 8 16.56 19.05 1.25 0.285 0.216 0.070 0.623 0.216 0.839

¾ 18.92 22.23 1.65 0.388 0.281 0.107 0.955 0.282 1.236

1 25.27 28.58 1.65 0.641 0.501 0.139 1.250 0.504 1.753

1¼ 31.62 34.93 1.65 0.957 0.785 0.172 1.549 0.789 2.339

1½ 37.62 41.28 1.83 1.337 1.111 0.226 2.026 1.817 3.843

2 49.76 53.98 2.11 2.288 1.944 0.344 3.068 1.951 5.020

2½ 61.85 66.68 2.41 3.490 3.003 0.487 4.364 3.009 7.373

3 73.84 79.38 2.77 4.948 4.280 0.668 5.958 4.290 10.248

3½ 85.98 92.08 3.05 6.659 5.806 0.853 7.626 5.824 13.450

4 97.97 104.78 3.40 8.620 7.537 1.083 9.697 7.552 17.248

5 122.05 130.18 4.06 13.307 11.694 1.613 14.404 11.722 26.126

6 145.82 155.58 4.88 19.002 16.693 2.309 20.704 16.682 37.387

8 192.61 206.38 6.88 33.436 29.121 4.444 38.578 29.194 67.77210 240.01 257.18 8.59 51.912 45.216 6.696 60.027 45.281 105.308

12 287.40 307.98 10.29 74.448 64.826 9.623 86.093 64.942 151.035

NominalDiam.(in.)

Circumerence (mm)M

2o surace per

MeterContents o Tube per

Lineal Foot Lineal Feet to Contain

Outside Inside Outside Inside (L) (L) 1 L 1 L1 kg oWater

¼ 29.92 24.82 0.030 0.025 0.048 0.048 20.699 20.696 20.6783 ⁄ 8 39.88 32.06 0.040 0.032 0.077 0.082 12.228 12.240 12.219

½ 49.86 42.04 0.050 0.042 0.140 0.140 7.126 7.135 7.1175 ⁄ 8 59.82 51.99 0.060 0.052 0.216 0.216 4.639 4.638 4.632

¾ 69.80 59.41 0.070 0.059 0.282 0.331 3.552 3.020 3.545

1 89.74 79.35 0.090 0.079 0.502 0.502 1.991 1.997 1.987

1¼ 109.68 99.29 0.110 0.099 0.785 0.785 1.270 1.272 1.269

1½ 129.62 118.11 0.130 0.118 1.819 1.819 0.550 0.550 0.549

2 169.49 156.24 0.170 0.156 1.944 1.943 0.515 0.515 0.514

2½ 209.37 194.21 0.210 0.194 3.003 3.002 0.333 0.333 0.332

3 249.25 231.85 0.249 0.232 4.280 4.279 0.234 0.234 0.233

3½ 289.26 270.10 0.289 0.270 5.806 5.805 0.170 0.172 0.173

4 329.01 307.62 0.329 0.308 7.537 7.536 0.133 0.133 0.132

5 408.76 383.24 0.409 0.383 11.694 11.692 0.086 0.085 0.085

6 488.52 457.89 0.489 0.458 16.693 16.690 0.060 0.060 0.060

8 648.03 604.80 0.648 0.605 29.121 29.115 0.034 0.034 0.034

10 807.54 753.62 0.807 0.754 45.216 42.724 0.022 0.023 0.022

12 967.05 902.44 0.967 0.903 64.826 64.814 0.015 0.016 0.015


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piping system that is least susceptible to re. Glass doesnot burn, but with enough heat, it can melt. In build-ings with a return air plenum or heating, ventilation,and air-conditioning (HVAC), glass pipe can be used tomeet building re code requirements.

Glass pipe (see Figure 2-8) is made o low-expan-sion borosilicate glass with a low alkali content. Itmost commonly is used or chemical waste drainlines,vent piping, and puried water piping. Glass also isused or chemical waste DWV systems in high schools,colleges, laboratories, industrial plants, and hospitalswhere hot fuids are disposed down the system con-stantly. (Hot fuids are those at 200°F with no dilu-

tion.) The coecient o glass expansion is 0.2 inch/100eet/100°F (5 mm/30.4 m/37.8°C), and glass is verystable and can operate up to 300°F (148.9°C).

Glass pipe comes in two options: as pressure ½-inchto 8-inch (13-mm to 203-mm) pipe and as drainage1½-inch to 6-inch (38-mm to 153-mm) pipe. It is avail-able in standard 5-oot and 10-oot (1.5-m and 3.1-m)lengths. Nonstandard lengths are available, or thepipe can be eld cut or abricated to special lengths.Glass can be installed aboveground (padded or withcoated hangers) or buried (with Styrooam blocking around the pipe). Glass is ragile, so care must be tak-en to prevent scratches or impact by sharp objects.

Table 2-8 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type L Copper Tube

Diameter (in.)

Wallthickness

(in.)


Nominal(in.)

Actualinside


o tubealone

o waterin tube

o tubeand

water¼ 0.315 0.375 0.030 0.110 0.078 0.032 0.126 0.034 0.1603 ⁄ 8 0.430 0.500 0.035 0.196 0.145 0.051 0.198 0.063 0.261

½ 0.545 0.625 0.040 0.307 0.233 0.074 0.285 0.101 0.3865 ⁄ 8 0.666 0.750 0.042 0.442 0.348 0.094 0.362 0.151 0.513

¾ 0.785 0.875 0.045 0.601 0.484 0.117 0.445 0.210 0.665

1 1.025 1.125 0.050 0.993 0.825 0.168 0.655 0.358 1.013

1¼ 1.265 1.375 0.055 1.484 1.256 0.228 0.884 0.545 1.429

1½ 1.505 1.625 0.060 2.072 1.778 0.294 1.14 0.77 1.91

2 1.985 2.125 0.070 3.546 3.093 0.453 1.75 1.34 3.09

2½ 2.465 2.625 0.080 5.409 4.770 0.639 2.48 2.07 4.55

3 2.945 3.125 0.090 7.669 6.808 0.861 3.33 2.96 6.29

3½ 3.425 3.625 0.100 10.321 9.214 1.107 4.29 4.00 8.29

4 3.905 4.125 0.110 13.361 11.971 1.390 5.38 5.20 10.58

5 4.875 5.125 0.125 20.626 18.659 1.967 7.61 8.10 15.71

6 5.845 6.125 0.140 29.453 26.817 2.636 10.2 11.6 21.8

8 7.725 8.125 0.200 51.826 46.849 4.977 19.3 20.3 39.610 9.625 10.125 0.250 80.463 72.722 7.741 30.1 31.6 61.7

12 11.565 12.125 0.280 115.395 104.994 10.401 40.4 45.6 86.0

NominalDiam.(in.)





Gal 1 Ft3

1 Gal1 Lb oWater

¼ 1.178 0.989 0.098 0.082 .00054 .0040 1852 250 29.63 ⁄ 8 1.570 1.350 0.131 0.113 .00100 .0075 1000 133 16.0

½ 1.963 1.711 0.164 0.143 .00162 .0121 617.3 82.6 9.875 ⁄ 8 2.355 2.091 0.196 0.174 .00242 .0181 413.2 55.2 6.61

¾ 2.748 2.465 0.229 0.205 .00336 .0251 297.6 40.5 4.76

1 3.533 3.219 0.294 0.268 .00573 .0429 174.5 23.3 2.79

1¼ 4.318 3.972 0.360 0.331 .00872 .0652 114.7 15.3 1.83

1½ 5.103 4.726 0.425 0.394 .01237 .0925 80.84 10.8 1.29

2 6.673 6.233 0.556 0.519 .02147 .1606 46.58 6.23 0.745

2½ 8.243 7.740 0.688 0.645 .03312 .2478 30.19 4.04 0.483

3 9.813 9.247 0.818 0.771 .04728 .3537 21.15 2.83 0.338

3½ 11.388 10.760 0.949 0.897 .06398 .4786 15.63 2.09 0.251

4 12.953 12.262 1.080 1.022 .08313 .6218 12.03 1.61 0.192

5 16.093 15.308 1.341 1.276 .12958 .9693 7.220 1.03 0.123

6 19.233 18.353 1.603 1.529 .18622 1.393 5.371 0.718 0.0592

8 25.513 24.465 2.126 2.039 .32534 2.434 3.074 0.411 0.0492

10 31.793 30.223 2.649 2.519 .50501 3.777 1.980 0.265 0.0317

12 38.073 36.314 3.173 3.026 .72912 5.454 1.372 0.183 0.0219

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Glass pipe is joined with either o two types o cou-pling, depending on whether it is a “bead to bead” or“bead to cut glass end” application (see Figures 2-9and 2-10). Joints are made by using compression-typecouplings consisting o 300 series stainless steel outerbands, electrometric compression liners, and seal-ing members o chemically inert tetrafuoroethylene(TFE).

Fittings are made o borosilicate glass and includea ull range o sanitary and plumbing ttings (see Fig-ure 2-11).

STEEL PIPESteel pipe speciied or heating, air-conditioning,plumbing, gas, and air lines conorms to ASTM A53. Steel pipe conorming to ASTM A53 is intended orcoiling, bending, orming, and other special purposes.Steel pipe that meets the requirements o ASTM A106is used or high-temperature service and is suitable or

coiling, bending, and orming.Steel pipe is also available manuactured to stan-

dards o the American Petroleum Institute (API). Forexample, API 5L steel pipe is in all respects the sameas ASTM A53, but manuactured under API standards

Table 2-8(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type L Copper Tube

Diameter

Wallthickness

(mm)



Nominal(in.)

Actualinside(mm)


o tubealone

o waterin tube

o tubeand

water¼ 8.00 9.53 0.76 0.071 0.050 0.021 0.188 0.051 0.2393 ⁄ 8 10.92 12.70 0.89 0.127 0.094 0.033 0.295 0.094 0.389

½ 13.84 15.88 1.02 0.198 0.150 0.048 0.425 0.150 0.5755 ⁄ 8 16.92 19.05 1.07 0.285 0.225 0.061 0.539 0.225 0.764

¾ 19.94 22.23 1.14 0.388 0.312 0.076 0.678 0.313 0.991

1 26.04 28.58 1.27 0.641 0.532 0.108 0.976 0.533 1.509

1¼ 32.13 34.93 1.40 0.957 0.810 0.147 1.317 0.812 2.129

1½ 38.23 41.28 1.52 1.337 1.147 0.190 1.698 1.147 2.845

2 50.42 53.98 1.78 2.288 1.996 0.292 2.607 1.996 4.603

2½ 62.61 66.68 2.03 3.490 3.077 0.412 3.694 3.083 6.777

3 74.80 79.38 2.29 4.948 4.392 0.556 4.960 4.409 9.369

3½ 87.00 92.08 2.54 6.659 5.945 0.714 6.390 5.958 12.348

4 99.19 104.78 2.79 8.620 7.723 0.897 8.014 7.745 15.759

5 123.83 130.18 3.18 13.307 12.038 1.269 11.335 12.065 23.400

6 148.46 155.58 3.56 19.002 17.301 1.701 15.193 17.278 32.471

8 196.22 206.38 5.08 33.436 30.225 3.211 28.747 30.237 58.984

10 244.48 257.18 6.35 51.912 46.917 4.994 44.834 47.068 91.902

12 293.75 307.98 7.11 74.448 67.738 6.710 60.176 67.921 128.097

NominalDiam.(in.)

Circumerence (mm)M

2o surace per




¼ 29.92 25.12 0.030 0.025 0.050 0.050 19.935 20.132 19.8723 ⁄ 8 39.88 34.29 0.040 0.034 0.093 0.093 10.764 10.710 10.742

½ 49.86 43.46 0.050 0.044 0.151 0.150 6.645 6.652 6.6265 ⁄ 8 59.82 53.11 0.060 0.053 0.225 0.225 4.448 4.445 4.438

¾ 69.80 62.61 0.070 0.063 0.312 0.312 3.203 3.261 3.196

1 89.74 81.76 0.090 0.082 0.532 0.533 1.878 1.876 1.873

1¼ 109.68 100.89 0.110 0.101 0.810 0.810 1.235 1.232 1.229

1½ 129.62 120.04 0.130 0.120 1.149 1.149 0.870 0.870 0.866

2 169.49 158.32 0.170 0.158 1.995 1.994 0.501 0.502 0.500

2½ 209.37 196.60 0.210 0.197 3.077 3.077 0.325 0.325 0.324

3 249.25 234.87 0.249 0.235 4.393 4.392 0.228 0.228 0.227

3½ 289.26 273.30 0.289 0.273 5.944 5.943 0.168 0.168 0.169

4 329.01 311.46 0.329 0.312 7.723 7.722 0.130 0.130 0.129

5 408.76 388.82 0.409 0.389 12.038 12.037 0.078 0.083 0.083

6 488.52 466.17 0.489 0.466 17.301 17.298 0.058 0.058 0.040

8 648.03 621.41 0.648 0.621 30.225 30.225 0.033 0.033 0.033

10 807.54 767.66 0.807 0.768 46.917 46.903 0.021 0.021 0.021

12 967.05 922.38 0.967 0.922 67.738 67.728 0.015 0.015 0.015


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or use in petroleum reneries and petrochemical acil-ities. It is rarely specied or use in building services.

Steel pipe may be either seamless (extruded) orwelded. The welding o steel piping is accomplishedby two methods: continuous or electric-resistancewelding (ERW). Continuous welded pipe is heatedand ormed. Electric-resistance welding is cold rolledand then welded. Steel pipe also may be black ironor galvanized (zinc coated). Galvanized steel pipe isdipped and zinc coated to produce a galvanized pro-tective coating both inside and out.

Steel pipe is produced in three basic weight clas-sications: standard, extra strong, and double extra strong. Steel pipe in standard weight and variousweights, or schedules—ranging rom Schedule 10,also known as light wall pipe, to Schedule 160—istypically supplied in random lengths o 6 eet to 22

eet (1.8 m to 6.7 m) and is available in ⅛-inch to24-inch (3.2-mm to 660-mm) diameters. Exceptionsto this are butt-welded standard weight and extra strong, which are not available in diameters largerthan 4 inches, and butt-welded double extra-strong steel pipe, which is not made in diameters larger than2½ inches. See Tables 2-11 and 2-12 or dimensionaland capacity data or Schedule 40 and Schedule 80steel pipe respectively.

Steel pipe conorming to ASTM A135 is made insizes through 12 inches by the electric-resistancewelding method only. Grade A is suitable or fanging or binding. Pipe meeting ASTM A135 is used exten-sively or light-wall pipe in re sprinkler systems.

The methods o joining steel pipe are welding,threading, and grooved.

Table 2-9 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type M Copper Tube

Diameter (in.)

Wallthickness

(in.)


Nominal(in.)

Actualinside


o tubealone

o waterin tube

o tubeand

water3 ⁄ 8 0.450 0.500 0.025 0.196 0.159 0.037 0.145 0.069 0.214

½ 0.569 0.625 0.028 0.307 0.254 0.053 0.204 0.110 0.314

¾ 0.811 0.875 0.032 0.601 0.516 0.085 0.328 0.224 0.552

1 1.055 1.125 0.035 0.993 0.874 0.119 0.465 0.379 0.844

1¼ 1.291 1.375 0.042 1.48 1.31 0.17 0.682 0.569 1.251

1½ 1.527 1.625 0.049 2.07 1.83 0.24 0.94 0.83 1.77

2 2.009 2.125 0.058 3.55 3.17 0.38 1.46 1.35 2.81

2½ 2.495 2.625 0.065 5.41 4.89 0.52 2.03 2.12 4.15

3 2.981 3.125 0.072 7.67 6.98 0.69 2.68 3.03 5.71

3½ 3.459 3.625 0.083 10.32 9.40 0.924 3.58 4.08 7.66

4 3.935 4.125 0.095 13.36 12.15 1.21 4.66 5.23 9.89

5 4.907 5.125 0.109 20.63 18.90 1.73 6.66 8.20 14.86

6 5.881 6.125 0.122 29.45 25.15 2.30 8.92 11.78 20.70

8 7.785 8.125 0.170 51.83 47.58 4.25 16.5 20.7 37.2

10 9.701 10.125 0.212 80.46 73.88 6.58 25.6 32.1 57.7

12 11.617 12.125 0.254 115.47 105.99 9.48 36.7 46.0 82.7

NominalDiam.(in.)





Gal 1 Ft3

1 Gal1 Lb oWater

3 ⁄ 8 1.570 1.413 0.131 0.118 0.00110 0.00823 909 122 14.5

½ 1.963 1.787 0.164 0.149 0.00176 0.01316 568 76.0 9.09

¾ 2.748 2.547 0.229 0.212 0.00358 0.02678 379 37.3 4.47

1 3.533 3.313 0.294 0.276 0.00607 0.04540 164.7 22.0 2.64

1¼ 4.318 4.054 0.360 0.338 0.00910 0.06807 109.9 14.7 1.76

1½ 5.103 4.795 0.425 0.400 0.01333 0.09971 75.02 10.0 1.20

2 6.673 6.308 0.556 0.526 0.02201 0.16463 45.43 6.08 0.727

2½ 8.243 7.834 0.688 0.653 0.03396 0.25402 29.45 3.94 0.471

3 9.813 9.360 0.818 0.780 0.04847 0.36256 20.63 2.76 0.330

3½ 11.388 10.867 0.949 0.906 0.06525 0.48813 15.33 2.05 0.246

4 12.953 12.356 1.080 1.030 0.08368 0.62593 11.95 1.60 0.191

5 16.093 15.408 1.341 1.284 0.13125 0.98175 7.62 1.02 0.122

6 19.233 18.466 1.603 1.539 0.18854 1.410 5.30 0.709 0.849

8 25.513 24.445 2.126 2.037 0.33044 2.472 3.03 0.405 0.484

10 31.793 30.461 2.649 2.538 0.51306 3.838 1.91 0.261 0.312

12 38.073 36.477 3.173 3.039 0.73569 5.503 1.36 0.182 0.217

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Table 2-9(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Type M Copper Tube

Diameter

Wallthickness

(mm)



Nominal(in.)

Actualinside(mm)


o tubealone

o waterin tube

o tubeand

water3 ⁄ 8 11.43 12.70 0.64 0.127 0.103 0.024 0.216 0.103 0.319

½ 14.45 15.88 0.71 0.198 0.164 0.034 0.304 0.164 0.468¾ 20.60 22.23 0.81 0.388 0.333 0.055 0.489 0.334 0.823

1 26.80 28.58 0.89 0.641 0.564 0.077 0.693 0.565 1.258

1¼ 32.79 34.93 1.07 0.955 0.845 0.110 1.016 0.848 1.864

1½ 38.79 41.28 1.25 1.336 1.181 0.155 1.400 1.236 2.636

2 51.03 53.98 1.47 2.290 2.045 0.245 2.175 2.011 4.186

2½ 63.38 66.68 1.65 3.490 3.155 0.336 3.024 3.158 6.182

3 75.2 79.38 1.83 4.948 4.503 0.445 3.992 4.513 8.505

3½ 87.86 92.08 2.11 6.658 6.065 0.596 5.332 6.077 11.409

4 99.95 104.78 2.41 8.619 7.839 0.781 6.941 7.790 14.731

5 124.64 130.18 2.77 13.310 12.194 1.116 9.920 12.214 22.134

6 149.38 155.58 3.10 19.000 16.226 1.484 13.286 17.546 30.832

8 197.74 206.38 4.32 33.439 30.697 2.742 24.577 30.833 55.410

10 246.41 257.18 5.39 51.910 47.664 4.245 38.131 47.813 85.944

12 295.07 307.98 6.45 74.497 68.381 6.116 54.665 68.517 123.182

NominalDiam.(in.)

Circumerence (mm)M

2o surace per




3 ⁄ 8 39.88 35.89 0.040 0.036 0.102 0.102 9.784 9.825 9.735

½ 49.86 45.39 0.050 0.045 0.164 0.163 6.114 6.120 6.103

¾ 69.80 64.69 0.070 0.065 0.033 0.333 4.080 3.004 3.001

1 89.74 84.15 0.090 0.084 0.564 0.564 1.773 1.772 1.772

1¼ 109.68 102.97 0.110 0.103 0.845 0.845 1.183 1.184 1.182

1½ 129.62 121.79 0.130 0.122 1.238 1.238 0.808 0.805 0.806

2 169.49 160.22 0.170 0.160 2.045 2.044 0.489 0.490 0.488

2½ 209.37 198.98 0.210 0.199 3.155 3.154 0.317 0.317 0.3163 249.25 237.74 0.249 0.238 4.503 4.502 0.222 0.222 0.222

3½ 289.26 276.02 0.289 0.276 6.62 6.062 0.165 0.165 0.165

4 329.01 313.84 0.329 0.314 7.774 7.773 0.129 0.129 0.128

5 408.76 391.36 0.409 0.391 12.194 12.191 0.082 0.082 0.082

6 488.52 469.04 0.489 0.469 17.516 17.509 0.057 0.057 0.570

8 648.03 620.90 0.648 0.621 30.699 30.697 0.033 0.033 0.325

10 807.54 773.71 0.807 0.774 47.665 47.660 0.021 0.021 0.210

12 967.05 926.52 0.967 0.926 68.348 68.336 0.015 0.015 0.146

Table 2-10 Dimensional Data—Type DWV Copper Tube

NominalSize

Nominal Dimensions Calculated Values, Based on Nominal Dimensions

OutsideDiameter Inside Diameter

WallThickness

Cross SectionalArea o Bore External Surace Internal Surace Weight kg

(in.) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.) (mm) (in.2) (cm

2) (ft

2 /lin ft) (m

2 /m) (ft

2 /lin ft) (m

2 /m) (/lf) (/m)

1¼ 1.375 34.93 1.295 32.89 .040 1.02 1.32 8.52 0.360 0.03 0.339 0.03 0.65 0.29

1½ 1.625 41.28 1.541 39.14 .042 1.07 1.87 12.06 0.425 0.04 0.403 0.04 0.81 0.37

2 2.125 53.98 2.041 51.84 .042 1.07 3.27 21.10 0.556 0.05 0.534 0.05 1.07 0.49

3 3.125 79.38 3.030 76.96 .045 1.14 7.21 46.52 0.818 0.08 0.793 0.07 1.69 0.77

4 4.125 104.78 4.009 101.83 .058 1.47 12.6 81.29 1.08 0.10 1.05 0.10 2.87 1.30

5 5.125 130.18 4.981 126.52 .072 1.83 19.5 125.81 1.34 0.12 1.30 0.12 4.43 2.01

6 6.125 155.58 5.959 151.36 .083 2.11 27.9 180.00 1.60 0.15 1.56 0.15 6.10 2.77

8 8.125 206.38 7.907 200.84 .109 2.77 49.1 316.77 2.13 0.20 2.07 0.19 10.6 4.81


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Figure 2-5 Copper Tube Flared Fittings

Figure 2-6 Copper and Bronze Joints and Fittings

PLASTIC PIPEPlastic pipe is available in compositions designed ornumerous applications, including DWV, water supply,gas service and transmission lines, and laboratoryand other chemical drainage and piping systems. Fueldouble-containment systems, high-purity pharmaceuti-cal and electronic grade water, and R-13, R-13A, andR-13D re protection sprinkler systems are additionalapplications.

The two basic types o plastic pipe are thermosetand thermoplastic. A thermoset plastic is permanent-

ly rigid. Epoxy and phenolics are examples o ther-

mosets. A thermoplastic is a material that sotenswhen heated and hardens when cooled. Acrylonitrilebutadiene styrene (ABS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC),polybutylene (PB), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene(PP), polyvinylidene fuoride (PVDF), cross-linkedpolyethylene (PEX), and chlorinated polyvinyl chlo-ride (CPVC) are thermoplastics. With thermoplastics,consideration must be given to the temperature/pres-sure relationship when selecting the support spacing and method o installation.

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Figure 2-7 Copper Drainage Fittings


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With all plastics, certain considerations mustbe reviewed beore installation. These include codecompliance, chemical compatibility, correct maxi-mum temperature, and allowance or proper expan-sion and contraction movement. Certain plastics are

installed with solvent cements; others require heat-ing to join piping networks along with mechanical joints. The designer should consult the manuactur-er’s recommendations or the proper connection o all piping systems.

See Figure 2-12 and Tables 2-13 and 2-14 or gen-eral inormation on plastic pipe and ttings.

PolbutlenePolybutylene is a fexible thermoplastic that wasmanuactured to pipe and tubing specications. PBtubing is no longer manuactured, but a plumbing engineer may encounter the material during a retrot

o an existing system.Polybutylene is an inert polyolen material,

meaning that it is chemically resistant, so it cannotbe solvent cemented like other plastic piping sys-tems. PB pipe was one o the most fexible piping materials acceptable or potable water. It is typicallyblue or gray in color.

Its applications included hydronic slab heating systems, re sprinklers systems, hot and cold waterdistribution, and plumbing and water supply.

Figure 2-8 Standard Glass Pipe

Figure 2-9 Standard Glass Pipe Couplings

Figure 2-10 Typical Glass Pipe Joint Reerence Chart

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Joints were made by mechanical, fared, and heatusion methods.

PolethlenePolyethylene also is an inert polyolen (chemicallyresistant) material, so it cannot be solvent cemented.This type o piping typically is supplied in blue orblack or water and cooling water applications. Black

PE pipe incorporates carbon black or colorization andUV radiation (sunlight) protection. Orange-coloredpolyethylene piping is typically used or gas pipeinstallations.

Joints are made with inserts and clamps andby heat usion. PE cannot be threaded or solventwelded.

PE pipe is classied into the ollowing types: lowdensity, high density, and medium density. The termsreer to ASTM designations based on material densi-ties. Sizes range rom ½ inch to 63 inches (12.7 mmto 1,600.2 mm) in diameter in both iron pipe size(IPS) and copper tube size (CTS). Pressures range

rom 50 psi to 250 psi depending on wall thickness(SDR 7 to SDR 32.5).

High-Density Polyethylene

HDPE comprises 90 percent o the polyethylene pip-ing industry. It has a wide variety o belowgroundand aboveground applications, including domesticwater supply, well water systems, lawn sprinklersystems, irrigation systems, skating rinks, buriedchilled water pipe, underground FM Global-approved

re mains, chemical lines, snow-making lines at skislopes, pressurized chilled water piping undergroundbetween buildings and a central heating or cooling plant, methane gas collection piping, leachate collec-tion lines at landlls, relining water and sewer mains,water transmission mains over highway bridges (itabsorbs vibration), brine at skating rinks, and resi-dential swimming pools.

Typically, HDPE is installed with mechanicalbarbed joints or compression ttings through 2inches (50.8 mm), and the pipe comes in coils, whichcan be 100 eet to 5,000 eet (30.5 m to 1,542 m) onspecial reels. It is also available heat socket used

rom ½ inch to 40 inches (12.7 mm to 1,016 mm),butt used rom 2 inches to 63 inches (50.8 mm to1,600.2 mm) in 40-oot (12.2-m) pipe lengths, and

Figure 2-11 Standard Glass Fittings


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Figure 2-11 (continued)

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NominalDiam.(in.)





Gal 1 Ft3

1 Gal1 Lb oWater

1 ⁄ 8 1.27 0.84 0.106 0.070 0.0004 0.003 2533.775 338.74 35.714

¼ 1.69 1.14 0.141 0.095 0.0007 0.005 1383.789 185.00 22.2223 ⁄ 8 2.12 1.55 0.177 0.129 0.0013 0.010 754.360 100.85 12.048

½ 2.65 1.95 0.221 0.167 0.0021 0.016 473.906 63.36 7.576

¾ 3.29 2.58 0.275 0.215 0.0037 0.028 270.034 36.10 4.310

1 4.13 3.29 0.344 0.274 0.0062 0.045 166.618 22.38 2.667

1¼ 5.21 4.33 0.435 0.361 0.0104 0.077 96.275 12.87 1.541

1½ 5.96 5.06 0.497 0.422 0.0141 0.106 70.733 9.46 1.134

2 7.46 6.49 0.622 0.540 0.0233 0.174 42.913 5.74 0.688

2½ 9.03 7.75 0.753 0.654 0.0332 0.248 30.077 4.02 0.482

3 10.96 9.63 0.916 0.803 0.0514 0.383 19.479 2.60 0.312

3½ 12.56 11.14 1.047 0.928 0.0682 0. 513 14.565 1.95 0.233

4 14.13 12.64 1.178 1.052 0.0884 0.660 11.312 1.51 0.181

5 17.47 15.84 1.456 1.319 0.1390 1.040 7.198 0.96 0.115

6 20.81 19.05 1.734 1.585 0.2010 1.500 4.984 0.67 0.0808 27.90 25.07 2.258 2.090 0.3480 2.600 2.878 0.38 0.046

10 33.77 31.47 2.814 2.622 0.5470 4.100 1.826 0.24 0.029

12 40.05 37.70 3.370 3.140 0.7850 5.870 1.273 0.17 0.021

14 47.12 44.76 3.930 3.722 1.0690 7.030 1.067 0.14 0.017

16 53.41 51.52 4.440 4.310 1.3920 9.180 0.814 0.11 0.013

18 56.55 53.00 4.712 4.420 1.5530 11.120 0.644 0.09 0.010

20 62.83 59.09 5.236 4.920 1.9250 14.400 0.517 0.07 0.008

Table 2-11 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

Diameter (in.)

Wallthickness

(in.)


Nominal(in.)

Actualinside


o tubealone

o waterin tube

o tubeand

water1 ⁄ 8 0.269 0.405 0.068 0.129 0.057 0.072 0.25 0.028 0.278¼ 0.364 0.540 0.088 0.229 0.104 0.125 0.43 0.045 0.4753 ⁄ 8 0.493 0.675 0.091 0.358 0.191 0.167 0.57 0.083 0.653

½ 0.622 0.840 0.109 0.554 0.304 0.250 0.86 0.132 0.992

¾ 0.824 1.050 0.113 0.866 0.533 0.333 1.14 0.232 1.372

1 1.049 1.315 0.133 1.358 0.864 0.494 1.68 0.375 2.055

1¼ 1.380 1.660 0.140 2.164 1.495 0.669 2.28 0.649 2.929

1½ 1.610 1.900 0.145 2.835 2.036 0.799 2.72 0.882 3.602

2 2.067 2.375 0.154 4.431 3.356 1.075 3.66 1.454 5.114

2½ 2.469 2.875 0.203 6.492 4.788 1.704 5.80 2.073 7.873

3 3.068 3.500 0.216 9.621 7.393 2.228 7.58 3.201 10.781

3½ 3.548 4.000 0.226 12.568 9.888 2.680 9.11 4.287 13.397

4 4.026 4.500 0.237 15.903 12.730 3.173 10.80 5.516 16.316

5 5.047 5.563 0.258 24.308 20.004 4.304 14.70 8.674 23.3746 6.065 6.625 0.280 34.474 28.890 5.584 19.00 12.52 31.52

8 7.981 8.625 0.322 58.426 50.030 8.396 28.60 21.68 50.28

10 10.020 10.750 0.365 90.79 78.85 11.90 40.50 34.16 74.66

12 11.938 12.750 0.406 127.67 113.09 15.77 53.60 48.50 102.10

14 13.126 14.000 0.437 153.94 135.33 18.61 63.30 58.64 121.94

16 15.000 16.000 0.500 201.06 176.71 24.35 82.80 76.58 159.38

18 16.876 18.000 0.562 254.47 223.68 30.79 105.00 96.93 201.93

20 18.814 20.000 0.593 314.16 278.01 36.15 123.00 120.46 243.46


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Table 2-11(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Schedule 40 Steel Pipe

Diameter

Wallthickness

(mm)


2) Weight per meter (kg)

Nominal(in.)

Actualinside(mm)


o tubealone

o waterin tube

o tubeand

water1 ⁄ 8 6.8 10.3 1.7 0.083 0.037 0.047 0.37 0.04 0.41

¼ 9.3 13.7 2.2 0.148 0.067 0.081 0.64 0.07 0.713 ⁄ 8 12.5 17.2 2.3 0.231 0.123 0.108 0.85 0.12 0.97

½ 15.8 21.3 2.8 0.357 0.196 0.161 1.28 0.20 1.48

¾ 20.9 26.7 2.9 0.559 0.344 0.215 1.7 0.35 2.05

1 26.7 33.4 3.4 0.876 0.557 0.319 2.5 0.56 3.06

1¼ 35.1 42.2 3.6 1.396 0.965 0.432 3.4 0.97 4.37

1½ 40.9 48.3 3.7 1.829 1.314 0.516 4.05 1. 31 5.36

2 52.5 60.3 3.9 2.859 2.165 0.694 5.45 2.17 7.62

2½ 62.7 73.0 5.2 4.188 3.089 1.099 8.64 3.09 11.73

3 77.9 88.9 5.5 6.207 4.77 1.437 11.29 4.77 16.06

3½ 90.1 101.6 5.7 8.108 6.379 1.729 13.57 6.39 19.96

4 102.3 114.3 6.0 10.26 8.213 2.047 16.09 8.22 24.31

5 128.2 141.3 6.6 15.68 12.91 2.777 21.9 12.92 34.826 154.1 168.3 7.1 22.24 18.64 3.603 28.3 18.65 46.95

8 202.7 219.1 8.2 37.69 32.28 5.417 42.6 32.29 74.89

10 254.5 273.1 9.3 58.57 50.87 7.677 60.33 50.88 111.21

12 303.2 323.9 10.3 82.37 72.96 10.17 79.84 72.24 152.08

14 333.4 355.6 11.1 99.32 87.31 12.01 94.29 87.34 181.63

16 381.0 406.4 12.7 129.72 114.01 15.71 123.33 114.07 237.4

18 428.7 457.2 14.3 164.17 144.31 19.87 156.4 144.38 300.78

20 477.9 508.0 15.1 202.68 179.36 23.32 183.21 179.43 362.64

NominalDiam.(in.)

Circumerence (mm)M

2o surace per


Lineal Meter Lineal Meters to Contain


1 ⁄ 8 32.26 21.34 0.032 0.021 0.037 0.037 27.27 27.28 23.98

¼ 42.93 28.96 0.043 0.029 0.065 0.062 14.9 14.9 14.923 ⁄ 8 53.85 39.37 0.054 0.039 0.121 0.124 8.12 8.12 8.09

½ 67.31 49.53 0.067 0.051 0.195 1.199 5.1 5.1 5.09

¾ 83.57 65.53 0.084 0.066 0.344 0.348 2.91 2.91 2.89

1 104.9 83.57 0.105 0.084 0.576 0.559 1.79 1.79 1.79

1¼ 132.33 109.98 0.133 0.11 0.966 0.956 1.04 1.04 1.03

1½ 151.38 128.52 0.152 0.129 1.31 1.316 0.76 0.76 0.76

2 189.48 164.85 0.19 0.165 2.165 2.161 0.46 0.46 0.46

2½ 229.36 196.85 0.23 0.199 3.084 3.08 0.32 0.32 0.32

3 278.38 244.6 0.279 0.245 4.775 4.756 0.21 0.21 0.21

3½ 319.02 282.96 0.319 0.283 6.336 6.37 0.16 0.16 0.16

4 358.9 321.06 0.359 0.321 8.213 8.196 0.12 0.12 0.12

5 443.74 402.34 0.444 0.402 12.91 12.92 0.08 0.08 0.08

6 528.57 483.87 0.529 0.483 18.67 18.63 0.05 0.05 0.058 688.09 636.78 0.688 0.637 32.33 32.29 0.03 0.03 0.03

10 857.76 799.34 0.858 0.799 50.82 50.91 0.02 0.02 0.02

12 1017.27 957.58 1.027 0.957 72.93 72.89 0.013 0.014 0.014

14 1196. 85 1136.9 1.198 1.135 99.31 87.3 0.011 0.011 0.011

16 1356.61 1308.61 1.353 1.314 129.32 114.0 0.009 0.009 0.009

18 1436.37 1346.2 1.436 1.347 144.28 138.09 0.007 0.007 0.007

20 1595.88 1500.89 1.596 1.5 178.84 178.82 0.006 0.006 0.006

7/30/2019 PEDH_Vol4


Table 2-12 Dimensional and Capacity Data—Schedule 80 Steel Pipe

Diameter (in.)

Wallthickness

(in.)


Nominal(in.)

Actualinside


o tubealone

o waterin tube

o tubeand

water1 ⁄ 8 0.215 0.405 0.091 0.129 0.036 0.093 0.314 0.016 0.330

¼ 0.302 0.540 0.119 0.229 0.072 0.157 0.535 0.031 0.5663 ⁄ 8 0.423 0.675 0.126 0.358 0.141 0.217 0.738 0.061 0.799

½ 0.546 0.840 0.147 0.554 0.234 0.320 1.087 0.102 1.189

¾ 0.742 1.050 0.154 0.866 0.433 0.433 1.473 0.213 1.686

1 0.957 1.315 0.179 1.358 0.719 0.639 2.171 0.312 2.483

1¼ 1.278 1.660 0.191 2.164 1.283 0.881 2.996 0.555 3.551

1½ 1.500 1.900 0.200 2.835 1.767 1.068 3.631 0.765 4.396

2 1.939 2.375 0.218 4.431 2.954 1.477 5.022 1.280 6.302

2½ 2.323 2.875 0.276 6.492 4.238 2.254 7.661 1.830 9.491

3 2.900 3.500 0.300 9.621 6.605 3.016 10.252 2.870 13.122

3½ 3.364 4.000 0.318 12.568 8.890 3.678 12.505 3.720 16.225

4 3.826 4.500 0.337 15.903 11.496 4.407 14.983 4.970 19.953

5 4.813 5.563 0.375 24.308 18.196 6.112 20.778 7.940 28.7186 5.761 6.625 0.432 34.474 26.069 8.405 28.573 11.300 39.873

8 7.625 8.625 0.500 58.426 45.666 12.750 43.388 19.800 63.188

10 9.564 10.750 0.593 90.79 71.87 18.92 64.400 31.130 95.530

12 11.376 12.750 0.687 127.67 101.64 26.03 88.600 44.040 132.640

14 12.500 14.000 0.750 153.94 122.72 31.22 107.000 53.180 160.180

16 14.314 16.000 0.843 201.06 160.92 40.14 137.000 69.730 206.730

18 16.126 18.000 0.937 254.47 204.24 50.23 171.000 88.500 259.500

20 17.938 20.000 1.031 314.16 252.72 61.44 209.000 109.510 318.510

NominalDiam.(in.)





Gal 1 Ft3

1 Gal1 Lb oWater

1 ⁄ 8 1.27 0.675 0.106 0.056 0.00033 0.0019 3070 527 101.01

¼ 1.69 0.943 0.141 0.079 0.00052 0.0037 1920 271 32.263 ⁄ 8 2.12 1.328 0.177 0.111 0.00098 0.0073 1370 137 16.39

½ 2.65 1.715 0.221 0.143 0.00162 0.0122 616 82 9.80

¾ 3.29 2.330 0.275 0.194 0.00300 0.0255 334 39.2 4.69

1 4.13 3.010 0.344 0.251 0.00500 0.0374 200 26.8 3.21

I¼ 5.21 4.010 0.435 0.334 0.00880 0.0666 114 15.0 1.80

1½ 5.96 4.720 0.497 0.393 0.01230 0.0918 81.50 10.90 1.31

2 7.46 6.090 0.622 0.507 0.02060 0.1535 49.80 6.52 0.78

2½ 9.03 7.320 0.753 0.610 0.02940 0.220 34.00 4.55 0.55

3 10.96 9.120 0.916 0.760 0.0460 0.344 21.70 2.91 0.35

3½ 12.56 10.580 1.047 0.882 0.0617 0.458 16.25 2.18 0.27

4 14.13 12.020 1.178 1.002 0.0800 0.597 12.50 1.675 0.20

5 17.47 15.150 1.456 1.262 0.1260 0.947 7.95 1.055 0.13

6 20.81 18.100 1.734 1.510 0.1820 1.355 5.50 0.738 0.098 27.09 24.000 2.258 2.000 0.3180 2.380 3.14 0.420 0.05

10 33.77 30.050 2.814 2.503 0.5560 4.165 1.80 0.241 0.03

12 40.05 35.720 3.370 2.975 0.7060 5.280 1.42 0.189 0.02

14 47.12 39.270 3.930 3.271 0.8520 6.380 1.18 0.157 0.019

16 53.41 44.970 4.440 3.746 1.1170 8.360 0.895 0.119 0.014

18 56.55 50.660 4.712 4.220 1.4180 10.610 0.705 0.094 0.011

20 62.83 56.350 5.236 4.694 1.7550 13.130 0.570 0.076 0.009


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Table 2-12(M) Dimensional and Capacity Data—Schedule 80 Steel Pipe

Diameter

Wallthickness

(mm)



Nominal(in.)

Actualinside(mm)


o tubealone

o waterin tube

o tubeand

water1 ⁄ 8 5.46 10.29 2.41 0.083 0.023 0.06 0.468 0.024 0.492

¼ 7.67 13.72 3.02 0.148 0.047 0.101 0.797 0.046 0.8433 ⁄ 8 10.74 17.15 3.2 0.231 0.091 0.14 1.099 0.091 1.19

½ 13.87 21.34 3.73 0.357 0.151 0.207 1.619 0.152 1.771

¾ 18.85 26.67 3.91 0.559 0.279 0.279 2.194 0.317 2.511

1 24.31 33.4 4.55 0.876 0.464 0.412 3.234 0.465 3.698

1¼ 32.46 42.16 4.85 1.396 0.828 0.569 4.463 0.827 5.289

1½ 38.1 48.26 5.08 1.829 1.14 0.689 5.408 1.14 6.548

2 49.25 60.33 5.54 2.859 1.906 0.953 7.48 1.907 9.386

2½ 59 73.03 7.01 4.188 2.734 1.454 11.411 2.726 14.137

3 73.66 88.9 7.62 6.207 4.261 1.946 15.27 4.275 19.545

3½ 85.45 101.6 8.08 8.108 5.736 2.373 18.626 5.541 24.167

4 97.18 114.3 8.56 10.26 7.417 2.843 22.317 7.403 29.72

5 122.25 141.3 9.53 15.683 11.739 3.943 30.949 11.827 42.7766 146.33 168.28 10.97 22.241 16.819 5.423 42.56 16.831 59.391

8 193.68 219.08 12.7 37.694 29.462 8.232 64.627 29.492 94.119

10 242.93 273.05 15.06 58.574 46.368 12.206 95.924 46.368 142.292

12 288.95 323.85 17.45 82.368 65.574 16.794 131.97 65.598 197.568

14 317.5 355.6 19.05 99.316 79.174 20.142 159.377 79.212 238.588

16 363.58 406.4 21.41 129.716 103.819 25.897 204.062 103.863 307.925

18 409.6 457.2 23.8 164.174 131.768 32.406 254.705 131.821 386.526

20 455.63 508 26.19 202.684 163.045 39.639 311.306 163.115 474.421

NominalDiam.(in.)

Circumerence (mm)M

2o surace per


Lineal Meter Lineal Feet to Contain


1 ⁄ 8 32.26 17.15 0.032 0.017 0.031 0.024 33.05 42.44 67.82

¼ 42.93 23.95 0.043 0.024 0.048 0.046 20.67 21.82 21.663 ⁄ 8 53.85 33.73 0.054 0.034 0.091 0.091 14.75 11.03 11

½ 67.31 43.56 0.067 0.044 0.151 0.152 6.63 6.6 6.58

¾ 83.57 59.18 0.084 0.059 0.279 0.317 3.6 3.16 3.15

1 104.9 76.45 0.105 0.077 0.465 0.464 2.15 2.16 2.16

1¼ 132.33 101.85 0.133 0.102 0.818 0.827 1.23 1.21 1.21

1½ 151.38 119.89 0.152 0.12 1.143 1.14 0.88 0.88 0.88

2 189.48 154.69 0.19 0.155 1.914 1.906 0.54 0.53 0.52

2½ 229.36 185.93 0.23 0.186 2.731 2.732 0.37 0.37 0.37

3 278.38 231.65 0.279 0.232 4.274 4.272 0.23 0.23 0.24

3½ 319.02 268.73 0.319 0.269 5.732 5.687 0.18 0.18 0.18

4 358.9 305.31 0.359 0.305 7.432 7.414 0.14 0.14 0.13

5 443.74 384.81 0.444 0.385 11.706 11.76 0.09 0.09 0.09

6 528.57 459.74 0.529 0.46 16.909 16.826 0.06 0.06 0.068 688.09 609.6 0.688 0.61 29.543 29.555 0.03 0.03 0.03

10 857.76 763.27 0.858 0.763 51.654 51.721 0.02 0.02 0.02

12 1017.27 907.29 1.027 0.907 65.59 65.567 0.015 0.015 0.014

14 1196.85 997.46 1.198 0.997 79.154 79.227 0.013 0.013 0.013

16 1356.61 1142.24 1.353 1.142 103.773 103.814 0.01 0.01 0.009

18 1436.37 1286.76 1.436 1.286 131.737 131.755 0.008 0.008 0.007

20 1595.88 1431.29 1.596 1.431 163.046 163.048 0.006 0.006 0.006

7/30/2019 PEDH_Vol4


electroused rom 1½ inches to 30 inches (38.1 mmto 762 mm) in diameter.

HDPE is not a xed, rigid, or perectly straightpipe—it bends. When designing systems with HDPE,expansion must be preplanned, and best eorts shouldbe made to determine what direction it will take (e.g.,bury the pipe in an S or snake pattern to let it expandor contract.)

Both pipe and tubing (IPS and CTS) are manuac-tured using a SDR series. The operating tempera-ture limit is 160°F, but as always, the manuacturero the product should be consulted on temperatureversus pressure.

The color is typically black or HDPE, which ac-cording to ASTM means that 2 percent carbon blackhas been blended with the resin to provide the mini-mum 50-year lie span at ull pressure in direct sun-light. Two unique properties o HDPE pipe are thatit swells and does not break i it reezes and it foatsin water since its specic gravity is 0.95. This is why

HDPE pipe can be preassembled, and thousands o eet can be foated to a certain position and thensunk with concrete collars.

Cross-Linked PolethleneCross-linked polyethylene tubing has been used ex-tensively in Europe or many years or hot and coldpotable water distribution systems.

A specially controlled chemical reaction takesplace during the manuacturing o the polyethylenepipe to orm PEX. Cross-linked molecular structur-

Figure 2-12 Plastic Pipe Fittings

Table 2-13 Plastic Pipe Data

MaterialScheduleNumbers Pipe Sizes (in.) Fitting Sizes (in.)

Temperature Limit(°F) Joining Methods

PVC I 40, 80, 120SDR

¼–20 ¼–8 150 Solvent weld, thread, fange, thermal weld

PVC IIa

40, 80, 120SDR

¼–20 ¼–8 130 Solvent weld, thread, fange, thermal weld

Polypropylene 40–80 ½–8 ½–8 150 Thermal usion, fange, thread, compression

CPVC 40–80 ½–8 ½–8 210 Solvent weld, thread, fange

Poyethylene 40, 80 SDR ½–6 ½–6 120–140 Thermal usion, compression

ABS 40, 80 SDR 1 ⁄ 8–12 ½–6 160 Solvent weld, thread, fange

Polybutylene SDR ¼–6 ¼–6 210 Thermal usion, fare, compression, inserta

The usage o PVC II is limited to electrical conduit.

Table 2-13(M) Plastic Pipe Data

Material ScheduleNumbers Pipe Sizes (in.) Fitting Sizes (mm) Temperature Limit(°C) Joining MethodsPVC I 40, 80, 120

SDR¼–20 6.4 to 203.2 65.6 Solvent weld, thread, fange,

PVC II a 40, 80, 120SDR

¼–20 6.4 to 203.2 54.4 Solvent weld, thread, fange,

Polypropylene 40–80 ½–8 12.7 to 203.2 65.6 Thermal usion, fange, thread,

CPVC 40–80 ½–8 12.7 to 203.2 98.9 Solvent weld, thread, fange

Poyethylene 40, 80 SDR ½–6 12.7 to 152.4 48.9 to 60 Thermal usion, compression

ABS 40, 80 SDR 1 ⁄ 8–12 3.2 to 152.4 71.1 Solvent weld, thread, fange

Polybutylene SDR ¼–6 6.4 to 152.4 98.9 Thermal usion, fare,a

The usage o PVC II is limited to electrical conduit.


7/30/2019 PEDH_Vol4



ing gives the pipe greater resistance to rupture overa wider range o temperatures and pressures thanother polyolen piping (PB, PE, and PP).

Because o the unique molecular structure andheat resistance o PEX pipe, heat usion is not per-mitted as a joining method. Being a member o thepolyolen plastic amily, PEX is resistant to solventsand cannot be joined by solvent cementing. Mechan-ical connectors and ttings or PEX piping systemsare proprietary in nature and must be used onlywith the pipe or which they have been designed. A number o mechanical astening techniques havebeen developed to join PEX pipe. The pipe manuac-turer’s installation instructions should be consultedto properly identiy the authorized ttings or theintended system use.

PEX pipe is fexible, allowing it to be bent. It isbent by two methods: hot and cold bending. See themanuacturer’s instructions or the exact require-ments or bending. The tubing can be bent to a

minimum radius o six times the outside diameteror cold bending and a minimum o 2½ times theoutside diameter or hot bending.

PEX is available in nominal pipe size (NPS) ¼inch through 2 inches (6.4 mm through 51 mm).

Cross-Linked Polethlene, Aluminum,Cross-Linked PolethlenePEX-AL-PEX is a composite pipe made o an alumi-num tube laminated with interior and exterior layerso cross-linked polyethylene. The layers are bondedwith an adhesive.

The cross-linked molecular structuring describedabove and the addition o the aluminum core makethe pipe resistant to rupture. Thereore, along withother system usages, the pipe is suitable or hot andcold water distribution. The pipe is rated or 125pounds per square inch (psi) at 180°F (862 kPa at82°C). It is available in nominal pipe size ¼ inchthrough 1 inch (6.4 mm through 25 mm).

Mechanical joints are the only methods currentlyavailable to join PEX-AL-PEX pipe. A number o mechanical compression-type connectors have beendeveloped or joining this type o pipe material topermit transition to other types o pipe and ttings.The installation o any tting shall be in accordance

with the manuacturer’s installation instructions. Although it is partially plastic, PEX-AL-PEX pipe

resembles metal tubing in that it can be bent by handor with a suitable bending device while maintaining its shape without ttings or supports. The minimumradius is ve times the outside diameter.

Polethlene/Aluminum/PolethlenePE-AL-PE is identical to the PEX-AL-PEX compositepipe except or the physical properties o the poly-ethylene.

Polyethylene does not display the same resistanceto temperature and pressure as the cross-linkedpolyethylene. Thereore, this type o pipe is limitedto cold water applications or applications with othersuitable fuids up to 110°F at 150 psi (43°C at 1,034kPa).

It is available in nominal pipe size ¼ inch through1 inch (6.4 mm through 25 mm). The method o join-ing is mechanical (barbed joints and compression t-tings).

Polvinl ChloridePolyvinyl chloride is rigid, pressure- or drainage-typepipe that resists chemicals and corrosion. PVC is usedor water distribution, irrigation, storm drainage,sewage, laboratory and hospital wastes, chemicallines, chilled water lines, heat pumps, undergroundFM Global-approved re mains, animal rearing a-cilities, hatcheries, graywater piping, and ultra-purewater. PVC water service piping is a dierent materialthan PVC drainage pipe, although both pipe materials

are white in color. Two types are available: Schedule40 and Schedule 80.

For pressure, SDR 21 (200 psi) or SDR 26 (160psi) is used. The working pressure varies with thetemperature: as the temperature increases, tensilestrength decreases. The maximum working pressureis continuously marked on the pipe along with themanuacturer’s name, ASTM or CSA standard, andthe grade o PVC material. Temperature should belimited to 140° (60°C). The joints are solvent weldedor threaded. Schedule 40 PVC cannot be threaded,and it can be used only with socket ttings. Schedule80 can be threaded through the 4-inch (101.6-mm)size and used with either socket or threaded ttings.However, it also can be installed with mechanicalgrooved couplings or bell and gasket (undergroundonly and thrust blocked).

The pipe classications and dimensional inorma-tion are:

•DWV: 1¼ inches to 24 inches (31.75 mm to 609.6 mm)

• Schedule 40: ⅛ inch to 30 inches (3.2 mm to 762mm)

• Schedule 80:⅛ inch 30 inches (3.2 mm to 762 mm)

• SDR 21: ¾ inch to 24 inches (22 mm to 609.6 mm),

except ½-inch SDR (13.5 mm)

• SDR 26: 1¼ inches to 24 inches (32 mm to 609.6mm)

The maximum temperature rating or PVC is140°F (60°C). The coecient o linear expansion is2.9 × 10

-5inch/inch/°F. The specic gravity o PVC is

1.40 ± 0.02.

7/30/2019 PEDH_Vol4


T a b l e 2 - 1 4

P h

y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s o P l a s t i c P i p i n g M a t e r i a l s

M a t e r i a l

S p e c i f c

G r a v i t y

T e n s i l e

S t r e n g t h

( p s i a t

7 3 ° F )

M o d u l u s o E l a s t i c -

i t y i n T e n s i o n ( p s i

a t 7 3 ° F × 1 0 5 )

C o m p r e s s i v e

S t r e n g t h ( p s i )

S t r e n g t h

F l e x u r a l

( p s i )

R e s i s t a n c e

t o H e a t

( c o n t i n u o u s )

( ° F )

C o e f c i e n t o

E x p a n s i o n ( i n . /

i n . / ° F × 1 0 - 6 )

T h

e r m a l C o n -

d u c t i v i t y ( B t u h

t 2 / ° F / i n . )

B u r n i n g R a t e

H e a t

D i s t o r t i o n

T e m p ( ° F a t

2 6 4 p s i )

W

a t e r

A b s o r p t i o n

a t

( % / 2 4

h r 7 3 ° F )

I z o d I m p a c t

( 7 3 ° F t l b /

i n . n o t c h )

P V C T y p e I

1 . 3 8

7 , 9 4 0

4 . 1 5

9 , 6 0 0

1 4 , 5 0 0

1 4 0

3 . 0

1 . 2

S e l E x t i n g u i s h i n g

1 6 0

. 0 5

. 6 5

T y p e I I a

1 . 3 5

6 , 0 0 0

3 . 5

8 , 8 0 0

1 1 , 5 0 0

1 4 0

5 . 5 5

1 . 3 5


1 5 5

. 0 7

2 - 1 5

C P V C T y p e I V

1 . 5 5

8 , 4 0 0

4 . 2

1 5 , 6 0 0

2 1 0

3 . 8

. 9 5


2 2 1

. 0 5

—

P o l y e t h y l e n e

T y p e I

. 9 2

1 , 7 5 0

1 . 9 – . 3 5

1 , 7 0 0

1 2 0

1 0 . 0

2 . 3

S l o w

N A

. 0 1

1 6

T y p e I l l

. 9 5

2 , 8 0 0

1 . 5

2 , 0 0 0

1 2 0

7 . 3

3 . 5

S l o w

N A

0 . 0

3 . 0

P o l y p r o p y l e n e

. 9 1

4 , 9 0 0

1 . 5

8 , 5 0 0

1 6 0 – 2 1 2

3 . 8

1 . 3

S l o w

1 5 0

0 . 0 3

2 . 1

A B S T y p e I

1 . 0 3

5 , 3 0 0

3 . 0

7 , 0 0 0

8 , 0 0 0

1 6 0

6 . 0

1 . 9

S l o w

1 9 7

. 2 0

5 - 9

T y p e I I

1 . 0 8

8 , 0 0 0

1 0 , 0 0 0

1 2 , 0 0 0

1 7 0

3 . 8

2 . 5

S l o w

2 2 5

. 2 0

4

P o l y v i n y l i d e n e

F l o r i d e ( P D V F )

1 . 7 6

7 , 0 0 0

1 . 2

1 0 , 0 0 0

2 0 0 – 2 5 0

8 . 5

1 . 0 5


1 9 5

. 0 4

3 . 0

P o l y b u t y l e n e

. 9 3

4 , 8 0 0

. 3 8

—

—

—

7 . 1

1 . 5

S l o w

N A

<

. 0 1

n o b r e a k

N o t e s : 1 . A b o v e d a t a c o m p i l e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w

i t h A S T M t e s t r e q u i r e m e n t s .

2 . N A = N o t A p p l i c a b l e .

a T h e u s a g e o P V C I I i s l i m i t e d t o e l e c t r i c a l c o n d u i t .

T a b l e 2 - 1 4 ( M )

P h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s o P l a s t i c P i p i n g M

a t e r i a l s

M a t e r i a l

S p e c i f c

G r a v i t y

T e n s i l e

S t r e n g t h

( M P a a t

2 2 . 8 ° C )

M o d u l u s o

E l a s t i c i t y

i n T e n s i o n

( 1 0 5 k P a a t

2 2 . 8 ° C × 1 0 5 )

C o m p r e s s i v e

S t r e n g t h

( M P a )

S

t r e n g t h

F

l e x u r a l

( M P a )

R e s i s t a n c e

t o H e a t

( c o n t i n u o u s )

( ° C )

C o e f c i e n t o

E x p a n s i o n ( 1 0 -

5 m m / m m / ° C )

T h e r m a l

C o n d u c t i v i t y

( W / m

2 ° K )

B u r n i n g R a t e

H e a t

D i s t o r t i o n

T e m p ( ° C a t

1 . 8 2 M P a )

W a t e r

A b s o r p t i o n

a t ( % / 2

4 h a t

2 2 . 8

° C )

I z o d I m p a c t ( J /

m m n o t c h a t

2 2 . 8 ° C )

P V C T y p e I

1 . 3 8

4 8 . 2 6

2 8 . 6 1

6 6 . 1 9

9 9 . 9 8

6 5 . 6

1 2 7 . 0

5 . 9 6


7 3 . 9

0 . 0 7

0 . 0 4

T y p e I I a

1 . 2 5

4 1 . 3 7

2 4 . 1 3

6 0 . 6 7

7 9 . 2 9

6 0 . 0

2 5 1 . 7 3

7 . 5 6


6 8 . 3

0 . 0 7

0 . 5 3 – 0 . 8 0

C P V C N A

N A

N A

N A

N A

N A

N A

N A

N A

N A

N A

N A

N A

P o l y e t h y l e n e T y p e I

0 . 9 2

1 2 . 0 7

1 3 1 . 0 – 2 . 4 1

—

1 1 . 7 2

4 8 . 9

4 5 3 . 5 7

1 3 . 0 6

S l o w

—

– 0 . 0 1

0 . 8 5

T y p e I l l

0 . 9 5

1 3 . 7 9

1 0 . 3 4

—

1 3 . 7 9

4 8 . 9

3 3 1 . 1 1

1 9 . 8 7

S l o w

—

0

0 . 1 6

P o l y p r o p y l e n e

0 . 9 1

3 3 . 7 9

1 0 . 3 4

5 8 . 6 1

—

7 1 . 1 – 1 0 0

1 7 2 . 3 6

7 . 3 8

S l o w

6 5 . 6

0 . 0 3

0 . 1 1

A B S T y p e I

1 . 0 3

3 6 . 5 4

2 0 . 6 8

4 8 . 2 6

5 5 . 1 6

7 1 . 1

2 7 2 . 1 4

1 0 . 7 9

S l o w

9 1 . 7

0 . 2 0

0 . 2 7 – 0 . 4 8

T y p e I I

1 . 0 8

5 5 . 1 6

—

6 8 . 9 5

8 2 . 7 4

7 6 . 7

1 7 2 . 3 6

1 4 . 2 0

S l o w

1 0 7 . 2

0 . 2 0

0 . 2 1

P o l y v i n y l i d e n e

F l o r i d e ( P D V F )

1 . 7 6

4 8 . 2 6

8 . 2 7

6 8 . 9 5

—

9 3 . 3 – 1 2 1 . 1

3 8 5 . 5 4

5 . 9 6


9 0 . 6

0 . 0 4

0 . 1 6

P o l y b u t y l e n e

0 . 9 3

3 3 . 1 0

2 . 6 2

—

—

—

1 8 0 . 3 4

8 . 5 1

S l o w

N A

< . 0 1

n o b r e a k

N o t e s : 1 . A b o v e d a t a c o m p i l e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w

i t h A S T M t e s t r e q u i r e m e n t s .

2 . N A = N o t a p p l i c a b l e .

a T h e u s a g e o P V C I I i s l i m i t e d t o e l e c t r i c a l c o n

d u i t .


7/30/2019 PEDH_Vol4



Chlorinated Polvinl ChlorideThe higher-temperature version o PVC is CPVC,which is commonly used as an alternative to copperand PEX. CPVC is available in a variety o pressureapplications in CTS or IPS, Schedule 40 or Schedule80. Copper tube size CPVC is rated at 180°F, and theworking pressure varies with the temperature: as the

temperature increases, tensile strength decreases. Be-cause o its size ranges—CTS: ½ inch to 2 inches (12.7mm to 50.8 mm), Schedule 80: ¼ inch to 24 inches (6.3mm to 609.6 mm)—it can be used in a wide variety o hot or cold water systems. CPVC also has been usedextensively in wet re protection systems in hotels,motels, residences, oce buildings, and dormitories(all applications that all under NFPA 13, 13D, and13R). Pipe sizes or re protection systems are ¾ inchto 3 inches (19 mm to 76.2 mm) and are ideally suitedor the retrot market.

CPVC is joined using solvent welding, threads,fanges, compression ttings, O-rings, transition t-

tings, bell rings, and rubber gaskets.In recent years, CPVC corrosive waste drainage

systems have gained acceptance as a viable alterna-tive to the traditional polypropylene systems. Someo these systems are now certied to meet the CSA plenum rating and are working to pass ASTM E84 aswell. Standard pipe sizes available or CPVC chemi-cal waste systems are 1½ inches to 24 inches (48.3mm to 609.6 mm).

Note: PVC and CPVC piping systems are not rec-ommended or compressed air or compressed gaslines. Compensation or both thermal expansion andcontraction must be taken into account.

Acrlonitrile-Butadiene-Strene ABS is manuactured in Schedules 40 and 80 and inspecial dimensions or main sewers and utility conduitsand in SDR or compressed air. It is commonly usedor DWV plumbing (in the color black), main sanitaryand storm sewers, underground electrical conduits,and applications in the chemical and petroleum in-dustries. Schedule 40 is available in 1½, 2, 3, 4, and 6inches (38.1, 50, 63, 90, 110, and 160 mm), with theappropriate ttings, and Schedule 80 is available in1½, 2, 3, 4, and 6 inches (38.1, 50, 63, 90, 110, and160 mm), with the appropriate ttings. The joints are

solvent welded or Schedule 40 and welded or threadedor Schedule 80.

For industrial applications, ABS piping is gray orlow temperatures (-40°F to 176°F [-72°C to 80°C])and pressure up to 230 psi in sizes ½ inch to 8 inches(12.7 mm to 203.2 mm). It is joined only by solventcementing. The coecient o linear expansion is5.6 × 2

–5inch/inch/°F. Fittings are available or pres-

sure only. The outside diameter o the pipe is nomi-nal IPS, and a second product in the industrial area is air line, which is designed to be used in delivering

compressed air or machine tools rom 0.63 inch to 4inches (16 mm to 101 mm).

PolproplenePP is manuactured or a wide variety o systems.The DWV systems are or chemicals, special waste,or acid waste in both buried and aboveground appli-cations. Pipe is available in Schedule 40 or Schedule

80 black (underground) or fame retardant (FR) oraboveground installation. Polypropylene systems oracid waste installed aboveground must utilize FRpipe and ttings. PP also is used or a wide range o industrial liquids, salt water disposal, and corrosivewaste systems.

Double containment o polypropylene systemshas gained popularity in the DWV acid waste mar-ket. Double-containment polypropylene systems aretypically nonfame pipe (NFPP) or underground andfame-retardant pipe (FRPP) or aboveground appli-cations. Double-containment polypropylene can beinstalled with or without leak-detection systems.

Polypropylene acid waste (AW) pipe systems comewith either mechanical joints (1½, 2, 3, 4, and 6 inches[50, 63, 90, 110, and 160 mm]) or with an internalwire heat used (1½, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and18 inches [50, 63, 90, 110, 160, 200, 250, 300, 315, and350 mm]), molded (1½ inches to 6 inches [50 mm to160 mm, and abricated (8 inches to 18 inches [200mm to 450 mm]). Pipe is available in 10-oot and 20-oot (3.05-m and 6.1-m) lengths.

Glue cannot be used to join any polypropylene pip-ing system. Joints are made mechanically or by heatusion (electric coil socket usion, butt usion, IR weld-ing, bead, and crevice-ree welding, see Figure 2-13).Fittings are made in both pressure-type and DWV congurations. Small-diameter (½ inch to 2 inches[12.7 mm to 50.8 mm]) polypropylene may be joinedby threading with a greatly reduced pressure rating,

Figure 2-13 Fusion Lock Process in Operation

7/30/2019 PEDH_Vol4


or certain manuacturers have molded ttings withstainless steel rings to restrain or help strengthen thethreads or ull pressure ratings.

Polvinlidene FluoridePVDF is manuactured in Schedules 40 and 80, as wellas SDR or the deionized/ultra-pure water market.Polyvinylidene fuoride is a strong, tough, abrasion-

resistant fuoropolymer material. It is used widelyin high-purity electronic or medical-grade water orchemical piping systems that need to remain pure butunction at high temperatures. Other uses include a wide range o industrial liquids, saltwater disposal,and corrosive waste systems, again where high-tem-perature perormance is required. It also is oten usedor corrosive waste applications in return air plenumspaces. Certain PVDF resins oer excellent fame- andsmoke-resistant characteristics. Other benets are itsability to withstand high temperatures or elevated-temperature cleaning, its noncontaminating qualities,and its smooth surace nish.

The coecient o thermal expansion is 7.9 × 2–5

inch/inch/°F. PVDF is available in metric and IPS sizesranging rom 0.37 inch to 12 inches (9.5 mm to 304.8mm). Pipe is available in 10-oot (3.04-m) lengths.

The color is normally natural, and the resin is notaected by ultraviolet (UV) light. However, i the me-dia being transported within the PVDF piping systemis subject to degradation by UV light, a red pigmenta-tion is added to the resin, resulting in a red-coloredpiping system that protects the fow stream.

Fittings are made in both pressure and DWV congurations. It must be noted that a special fameand smoke package is added to the PVDF resin whenused to manuacture DWV pipe and ttings or re-turn and supply plenum acid waste applications.Only these special PVDF pipe and ttings meet therequirements or plenum installations o UL 723/ ASTM E84. The joints cannot be solvent welded. Joints are made mechanically or by heat usion(electric coil or socket usion).

Polproplene-RandomPP-R is the high temperature and pressure version o PP and is manuactured or a wide variety o pressure-type systems, including potable water (hot and coldwater distribution and water service), reclaimed water,

rainwater, chilled water, condenser water, hydronic/ heating water, geothermal systems, swimming poolpiping, RO/DI water, and chemical or special wastesystems, in both buried and aboveground applications.PP-R is one o the most environmentally riendly pip-ing materials rom cradle to cradle in terms o energyconsumption and air, soil, and water pollution, and ithas a low carbon ootprint. PP-R is compatible withthe POE oils used with modern rerigerants, making it suitable or use in HVAC systems.

Pipe is available in SDR 11, SDR 7.3, or SDR 6wall thicknesses. The methods o joining are heatusion using socket usion ttings, butt usion joints,electrousion ttings, and mechanical ttings ortransition to other materials and union joints. PP-Rcannot be solvent welded. PP-R pipe systems withsocket usion joints come in diameters o ½, ¾, 1, 1¼,1½, 2, 2½, 3, 3½, and 4 inches (20, 25, 32, 40, 50, 63,75, 90, 110, and 125 mm) and with butt usion con-nections in diameters o 6, 8, 10, and 12 inches (160,200, 250, and 315 mm). Pipe is available in 13-oot(4-m) lengths. Fittings are made in both pressure-typeand DWV congurations.

PP-R pipe is manuactured to metric outside di-ameters but usually is reerenced to by the nomi-nal diameter. Transition ttings are available inboth metric and NPT thread sizes, groove steel, and ASME and metric fange connections.

Where thermal expansion is a concern, PP-R canbe extruded with an internal berglass layer that re-

duces thermal expansion by 75 percent. When NSF-listed or potable water and ood grade applications,it typically comes in green and may have a darkgreen stripe to indicate the ber layer. For reclaimedand rainwater applications, the pipe is oered in a purple color. The nonpotable water pipe usually hasblue and green stripes.

Tefon (PTFE)Telon, or polytetraluoroethylene (PTFE), hasoutstanding resistance to chemical attack by mostchemicals and solvents. It has a temperature range o -200°F to 500°F (-128.9°C to 260°C). Tefon typically isconsidered tubing; however, it can be joined by thread-ing in pipe sizes 0.13 inch to 4 inches (3.2 mm to 101.6mm). Tefon piping is well suited or low-pressure—not to exceed 15 psi—laboratory or process industryapplications. I higher pressures or hotter tempera-tures are needed, Tefon-lined steel pipe generally isused. Lined steel pipe is 1 inch to 12 inches (25.4 mmto 304.8 mm) and can handle corrosive chemicals aswell as high-pressure applications.

Low-Etractable PVCLow-extractable PVC provides a very economicalsolution compared to stainless steel, PVDF, or PPor the engineering o ultra-pure water loops or

use in healthcare, laboratory, micro-electronics,pharmaceutical, and various other industrial applica-tions. Tests perormed validate that resistivity can bemaintained at levels greater than 18 megaohms, andonline total oxidizable carbon can average less than 5parts per billion on properly designed and maintainedsystems. Pipe and ttings with valves are joined by a special low-extractable one-step solvent cement. Flu-ids being conveyed cannot exceed 140°F (60°C). Thepipe comes in Schedule 80 wall thickness and ½-inch


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to 6-inch (20-mm to 160-mm) diameters. The reer-ence standards are ASTM D1785 and ASTM D2467.

Fiberglass and ReinorcedThermosetting ResinFiberglass piping systems are manuactured and joinedusing epoxy, vinylester, or polyester resins. These threeresins oer a very distinct price/perormance choice

varying rom strongest/most expensive to weakest/leastexpensive. They typically are used in a pressure patternmode and have good chemical resistance as well as ex-cellent stability in the upper temperature limit o 275°F(135°C). It is especially helpul in resisting attacks romthe various oils used in the petroleum industry. How-ever, it should be noted that the chemical resistance o such systems is provided exclusively by the resin-richliner on the inside diameter o the pipe. I the liner isworn down, cracked, or compromised in any way, put-ting the process in direct contact with the glass bers,leaks will result. Depending on the manuacturer, thesesystems also can be joined mechanically with bell and

spigot, plain, or butt and wrap methods. The pipe ismanuactured in sizes o 1 inch to 48 inches (25.4 mmto 1,219 mm) and can be custom made in much largerdiameters. The coecient o linear thermal expansionis 1.57 × 2

–5inch/inch/°F.

Dierent products require dierent approvals.Some must meet American Petroleum Institute(API), Underwriters Laboratories (UL), or military(MIL) specications. For potable water, they mustmeet NSF/ANSI Standard 14 per ASTM D2996 orNSF/ANSI Standard 61 or drinking water.

VITRIFIED CLAy PIPE Vitried clay pipe is used in a building sewer starting outside o the building and connecting to the mainsewer. It also is used or industrial waste because o its outstanding corrosion and abrasion resistance.

Vitried clay pipe is extruded rom a suitablegrade o shale or clay and red in kilns at approxi-mately 2,000°F (1,100°C). Vitrication takes placeat this temperature, producing an extremely hardand dense, corrosion-resistant material. Clay pipeis suitable or most gravity-fow systems and is notintended or pressure service. Available sizes include3-inch to 48-inch (75-mm to 1,220-mm) diameters

and lengths up to 10 eet (3.05 m) in standard orextra-strength grades as well as perorated (see Ta-bles 2-15 and 2-16). Pipe and ttings are joined withpreabricated compression seals.

HIGH SILICON IRON PIPEHigh silicon iron pipe is manuactured o a 14.5percent silicon iron makeup that possesses almostuniversal corrosion resistance. For nearly a century,high silicon iron pipe and ttings have provided a durable and reliable means o transporting corrosive

waste saely. Over the last ew decades, however,thermoplastics (such as PVC, PP, and PVDF) havereplaced this product in most laboratory, school, andhospital applications because o their even greaterinertness to many chemicals, light weight, and easeo installation.

The material is available with hub-and-spigot pipeand ttings (see Figure 2-14) in sizes rom 2 inchesto 15 inches, which are installed using traditionalplumbing techniques. Mechanical joint pipe and t-tings are available rom 1½ inches to 4 inches and o-er ease o installation through the use o couplings.

The bell-and-spigot joint is made using conven-tional plumbing tools, virgin lead, and a special acid-resistant caulking yarn. The caulking yarn is packedinto the bell o the joint, and a small amount o leadis poured over the yarn to ll the hub. The caulk-ing yarn, not the lead, seals the joint. Care must betaken to not overheat the lead used in making the joint. The iron material is very brittle, and ttings

are subject to stress cracking and breakage during abrication i the lead is poured while too hot, espe-cially in cold-weather installations.

The mechanical joints are designed or ast andeasy assembly through the use o the two-bolt me-chanical coupling. A calibrated ratchet is necessaryto complete the joint. The nuts are tightened to 10eet per pound 24 hours prior to testing.

Piping systems manuactured o high siliconiron pipe are similar to cast iron hub-and-spigotpipe and ttings. The pipe has a hub into whichthe spigot (plain end) o a pipe or tting is inserted.Hub-and-spigot pipe and tting sizes include 2-inch

to 15-inch diameters and 5-oot or 10-oot (1.5-m or3.1-m) lengths.

Figure 2-14 (A) Duriron Pipe and (B) Duriron JointSource: Courtesy o Duriron

(A)

(B)

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SPECIAL-PURPOSE PIPINGMATERIALSStainless steel and aluminum are the most commonspecial-purpose piping materials used or a wide rangeo applications where perormance requirementsoutweigh costs. Stainless steel and aluminum requirespecialized skills in design and abrication. Many al-

loys are available or specic applications. Aluminum Aluminum is extruded or drawn in a variety o alloys.Its uses include cryogenic systems with tempera-tures as low as -423°F (-252.8°C), process systems,

heat transer, and pressure lines. The joints can bebrazed or welded, but it should be noted that specialtechniques oten are required, depending on the typeo alloy. Aluminum is available in 8-inch to 48-inchdiameters, depending on the type.

Stainless SteelThe designation “stainless steel” applies to a number

o alloys with dierent properties. Common to allstainless steels is the act that they contain at least12 percent chromium. Stainless steel is manuacturedin three basic types: martensitic (hardenable, straightchromium alloy), erritic (straight chromium, or

Table 2-15(M) Dimensions o Class 1 Standard Strength Perorated Clay Pipe

Size(in.)

Laying Length Maximum Dierence

in Length o 2Opposite Sides (mm)

Outside Diameter oBarrel (mm)

Inside Diametero Socket at

12.7 mm AboveBase (mm)

Minimum(m)

Limit o MinusVariation (mm/m) Minimum Maximum

4 0.61 20.8 7.94 123.83 130.18 146.05

6 0.61 20.8 9.53 179.39 188.91 207.96

8 0.61 20.8 11.11 234.95 247.65 266.70

10 0.61 20.8 11.11 292.10 304.80 323.85

12 0.61 20.8 11.11 349.25 363.54 348.18

15 0.94 20.8 12.70 436.56 452.44 473.08

18 0.94 20.8 12.70 523.88 544.51 565.15

21 0.94 20.8 14.29 612.78 635.00 657.23

24 0.94 31.3 14.29 698.50 723.90 746.13

Table 2-15 Dimensions o Class 1 Standard Strength Perorated Clay Pipe

Size(in.)

Laying length Maximumdierence inlength o twoopposite sides

(in.)

Outside diametero barrel (in.)

Insidediametero socketat ½ in.above

base, (in.)Min.

Rows operora-

tions

Perorations per rowDepth o socket

(in.)Thickness o bar-

rel (in.)

Thickness o sock-et at ½ in. romouter end (in.)

Min.

Limit o minusvariation

(in. per t. olength Min. Max. 2 t. 3 t. 4 t. 5 t. Nominal Min. Nominal Min. Nominal Min.

4 2 ¼ 5 ⁄ 16 47 ⁄ 8 51 ⁄ 8 5¾ 4 7 9 11 13 1¾ 1½ ½ 7 ⁄ 16 7 ⁄ 16 3 ⁄ 86 2 ¼ 3 ⁄ 8 71 ⁄ 16 77 ⁄ 16 83 ⁄ 16 4 7 9 11 13 2¼ 2 5 ⁄ 8 9 ⁄ 16 ½ 7 ⁄ 16

8 2 ¼ 7 ⁄ 16 9¼ 9¾ 10½ 4 7 9 11 13 2½ 2¼ ¾ 11 ⁄ 169 ⁄ 16 ½

10 2 ¼ 7 ⁄ 16 11½ 12 12¾ 6 7 9 11 13 25 ⁄ 8 23 ⁄ 8 7 ⁄ 8 13 ⁄ 165 ⁄ 8 9 ⁄ 16

12 2 ¼ 7 ⁄ 16 13¾ 145 ⁄ 16 151 ⁄ 8 6 — — — — 2¾ 2½ 1 15 ⁄ 16 ¾ 11 ⁄ 16

15 3 ¼ ½ 173 ⁄ 16 1713 ⁄ 16 185 ⁄ 8 6 — 10 14 17 27 ⁄ 8 25 ⁄ 8 1¼ 11 ⁄ 8 15 ⁄ 167 ⁄ 8

18 3 ¼ ½ 205 ⁄ 8 217 ⁄ 16 22¼ 8 — 10 14 17 3 2¾ 1½ 13 ⁄ 8 11 ⁄ 8 11 ⁄ 16

21 3 ¼ 9 ⁄ 16 241 ⁄ 8 25 257 ⁄ 8 8 — 10 14 17 3¼ 3 1¾ 15 ⁄ 8 15 ⁄ 16 13 ⁄ 16

24 3 3 ⁄ 8 9 ⁄ 16 27½ 28½ 293 ⁄ 8 8 — 10 14 17 33 ⁄ 8 31 ⁄ 8 2 17 ⁄ 8 1½ 13 ⁄ 8

Source: Table rom ASTM Specication C700.

Size(in.)

Rows o

Perora-tions

Perorations per RowDepth o Socket

(mm)Thickness o Barrel

(mm)

Thickness o Socketat 12.7 mm romOuter End (mm)

0.61 m 0.91 m 1.22 m 1.52 m Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum4 4 7 9 11 13 44.45 38.10 12.70 11.11 11.11 9.53

6 4 7 9 11 13 57.15 50.80 15.88 14.29 12.70 11.11

8 4 7 9 11 13 63.50 57.15 19.05 17.46 14.29 12.70

10 6 7 9 11 13 66.68 60.33 22.23 20.64 15.88 14.29

12 6 — — — — 69.85 63.50 25.40 23.81 19.05 17.46

15 6 — 10 14 17 73.03 66.68 31.75 28.58 23.81 22.23

18 8 — 10 14 17 76.20 69.85 38.10 34.93 28.58 26.99

21 8 — 10 14 17 82.55 76.20 44.45 41.28 33.34 30.16

24 8 — 10 14 17 85.73 79.38 50.80 48.63 38.10 34.93

Source: Table rom ASTM Specication C700


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Table 2-16 Dimensions o Class 1 Extra Strength Clay Pipe

Size

(in.)

Laying length Maximumdierence inlength o twoopposite sides

(in.)

Outside diametero barrel (in.)

Insidediametero socketat ½ in.above

base, (in.)

Min.

Depth o socket(in.)

Thickness o bar-rel (in.)

Thickness osocket at ½ in.

romouter end (in.)

Min.

Limit o minusvariation

(in. per t. o

length Min. Max. Nominal Min. Nominal Min. Nominal Min.4 2 ¼ 5 ⁄ 16 47 ⁄ 8 51 ⁄ 8 5¾ 1¾ 1½ 5 ⁄ 8 9 ⁄ 16

7 ⁄ 163 ⁄ 8

6 2 ¼ 3 ⁄ 8 71 ⁄ 16 77 ⁄ 16 83 ⁄ 16 2¼ 2 11 ⁄ 169 ⁄ 16 ½ 7 ⁄ 16

8 2 ¼ 7 ⁄ 16 9¼ 9¾ 10½ 2½ 2¼ 7 ⁄ 8 ¾ 9 ⁄ 16 ½

10 2 ¼ 7 ⁄ 16 11½ 12 12¾ 25 ⁄ 8 23 ⁄ 8 1 7 ⁄ 8 5 ⁄ 8 9 ⁄ 16

12 2 ¼ 7 ⁄ 16 13¾ 145 ⁄ 16 151 ⁄ 8 2¾ 2½ 13 ⁄ 16 11 ⁄ 16 ¾ 11 ⁄ 16

15 3 ¼ ½ 173 ⁄ 16 1713 ⁄ 16 185 ⁄ 8 27 ⁄ 8 25 ⁄ 8 1½ 13 ⁄ 8 15 ⁄ 167 ⁄ 8

18 3 ¼ ½ 205 ⁄ 8 217 ⁄ 16 22¼ 3 2¾ 17 ⁄ 8 1¾ 11 ⁄ 8 11 ⁄ 16

21 3 ¼ 9 ⁄ 16 241 ⁄ 8 25 257 ⁄ 8 3¼ 3 2¼ 2 15 ⁄ 16 13 ⁄ 16

24 3 3 ⁄ 8 9 ⁄ 16 27½ 28½ 293 ⁄ 8 33 ⁄ 8 31 ⁄ 8 2½ 2¼ 1½ 13 ⁄ 8

27 3 3 ⁄ 8 5 ⁄ 8 31 32½ 33 3½ 3¼ 2¾ 2½ 111 ⁄ 16 19 ⁄ 16

30 3 3 ⁄ 8 5 ⁄ 8 343 ⁄ 8 355 ⁄ 8 36½ 35 ⁄ 8 33 ⁄ 8 3 2¾ 17 ⁄ 8 1¾

33 3 3 ⁄ 8 5 ⁄ 8 375 ⁄ 8 3815 ⁄ 16 397 ⁄ 8 3¾ 3¼ 3¼ 3 2 1¾

36 3 3 ⁄ 8 11 ⁄ 16 40¾ 42¼ 43¼ 4 3¾ 3½ 3¼ 21 ⁄ 16 17 ⁄ 8

Source: Table rom ASTM Specication C700.

Table 2-16(M) Dimensions o Class 1 Extra Strength Clay Pipe

Size(in.)

Laying Length Maximum Dierencein Length o 2

Opposite Sides (mm)

Outside Diameter oBarrel (mm)

Inside Diametero Socket at

12.7 mm AboveBase (mm)

Minimum(m)

Limit o MinusVariation (mm/m) Minimum Maximum

4 0.61 20.8 7.94 123.83 130.18 146.05

6 0.61 20.8 9.53 179.39 188.91 207.96

8 0.61 20.8 11.11 234.95 247.65 266.70

10 0.61 20.8 11.11 292.10 304.80 323.85

12 0.61 20.8 11.11 349.25 363.54 384.18

15 0.91 20.8 12.70 436.56 452.44 473.08

18 0.91 20.8 12.70 523.88 544.51 565.15

21 0.91 20.8 14.29 612.78 635.00 657.2324 0.91 31.3 14.29 698.50 723.90 746.13

27 0.91 31.3 15.88 787.40 815.98 838.20

30 0.91 31.3 15.88 873.13 904.88 927.10

33 0.91 31.3 15.88 955.68 989.01 1012.83

36 0.91 31.3 17.46 1035.05 1073.15 1098.55

Size(in.)

Depth o Socket (mm) Thickness o Barrel (mm)Thickness o Socket at 12.7

mm rom Outer End (mm)

Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum4 44.45 38.10 15.88 14.29 11.11 9.53

6 57.15 50.80 17.46 14.29 12.70 11.11

8 63.50 57.15 22.23 19.05 14.29 12.70

10 66.68 60.33 25.40 22.23 15.88 14.29

12 69.85 63.50 30.16 26.99 19.05 17.4615 73.03 66.68 38.10 34.93 23.81 22.23

18 76.20 69.85 47.63 44.45 28.58 26.99

21 82.55 76.20 57.15 50.80 33.34 30.16

24 85.73 79.38 63.50 57.15 38.10 34.93

27 88.90 82.55 69.85 63.50 42.86 39.69

30 92.08 85.73 76.20 69.85 47.63 44.45

33 95.25 88.90 82.55 76.20 50.80 44.45

36 101.60 95.25 88.90 82.55 52.39 47.63

Source: Table rom ASTM Specication C700

Note: There is no limit or plus variation.

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corrosive service where nickel steel is undesirable),and austenitic (18 percent chromium and 8 percentnickel, or general corrosive service). The joints canbe butt welded, socket welded, screwed, or fanged.Pipe and ttings are available in⅛-inch through 48-inch diameters.

Stainless steel is a clean, durable, corrosion-resis-tant, and long-lasting material. Products are chemi-cally descaled (acid pickled) to enhance the naturalcorrosion resistance and to provide a uniorm, aes-thetically pleasing matte-silver nish.

Stainless steel is used where sanitation and prod-uct contamination resistance are critical (dairies,ood processing, etc.). In processing systems, stain-less steel is used to resist corrosion. All stainlesssteels have inherent corrosion resistance, but theaustenitic group o stainless steels has the great-est resistance to many dierent chemical productsand most detergents. Austenitic steels also have anexcellent ability to resist impacts and shocks at all

temperatures. Hard blows to the material may causedents in certain cases, but it is very dicult to actu-ally damage the steel.

Other uses include applications in the ood indus-try, shipbuilding, pharmaceutical industry, brewer-ies and dairies, industrial kitchens, and institutions. When increased acid resistance is required and spotand crevice corrosion may occur, molybdenum-al-loyed chromium-nickel steels may be used. Theseacid-resistant steels resist a number o organic andinorganic acids. However, acid-proo steels are onlypartially resistant to solutions containing chlorides.

Stainless steel cannot burn and consequently is

classied as nonfammable. This means that pipesand drains made o stainless steel may penetratefoor partitions without the need or special re in-sulation. Likewise, no harmul umes or substancesare released rom the steel in the event o re.

Due to their very low heat expansion coecient,drain products in stainless steel are not in any wayinfuenced by temperatures occurring in drain in-stallations. Furthermore, drain products need notbe stored or installed at specic temperatures. Nei-ther heat nor cold aects stainless steel.

Stainless steel piping is manuactured in two di-erent grades: 304, which is suitable or most envi-

ronments, and 316, which is suitable or corrosiveenvironments. Piping is available in single hub andin eight lengths: 0.5, 0.8, 1.6, 3.3, 4.9, 6.6, 9.8, and16.4 eet (150, 250, 500, 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, 3,000,and 5,000 mm) and 2 inches to 6 inches (50.8 mm to152.4 mm).

It is necessary to determine the lengths requiredbetween tting location points and to select the pipelengths that best minimize waste and eliminate eldcuts when possible. A stainless steel piping system

is lightweight and easy to install. A pipe joint can bemade in a ew seconds.

Corrugated Stainless Steel Tubing Corrugated stainless steel tubing (CSST) is a fexiblegas piping system made rom 300 series stainless steel.The tubing is suitable or natural gas and propane. Itcan be used or both aboveground and underground

installations. (See specic manuacturer’s recommen-dations or underground use and installation.) Thetubing is protected with a re-retardant polyethylene jacket. It is manuactured in ⅜-inch to 2-inch (9.52-mm to 50.8-mm) sizes and in coils o up to 1,000 eet(304.8 m) based on pipe sizes.

Mechanical joints are the only methods currentlyavailable to join CSST tubing. A number o mechan-ical compression-type connectors have been devel-oped or joining CSST to permit transition to othertypes o pipe and ttings. The installation o any t-ting shall be in accordance with the manuacturer’sinstallation instructions.

Manuacturers have specic protective devicesand termination ttings or their products. The de-signer should consult with the manuacturer or allrequired accessories.

DOUBLE CONTAINMENTDouble containment (DC) is the practice o putting a second walled enclosure around a single-wall pipe toprotect people and the environment rom harm i thepipe ails. It is used both underground and aboveg-round or a multitude o purposes, such as to preventcorrosive chemicals rom getting into soils or spilling rom a single-wall overhead pipe onto people below. Itis available in both drainage and pressure systems.

Double containment is most commonly avail-able in PVC DWV × PVC DWV, PVC Schedule40/80 × PVC DWV, PVC 40/80 × PVC 40/80, CPVC80 × PVC 80, DWV PP × DWV PP, FRP × FRP, PEx PE, PP x PVDF, and PVDF x PVDF as well as allmetals and a limitless combination o dissimilar ma-terials (both plastics and metals mixed together). Itcan be ordered with or without leak detection, whichcan be a continuous cable (single use or reusable),point o collections, or non-wetted sensors.

DC currently is not governed by plumbing stan-

dards; however, the standards or the single-wallpiping components that make up the DC system doapply.

When planning or DC, the designer should leaveplenty o space. Labor costs are ve to seven timesthose or installing single-wall pipe. Thereore, thedesigner should ask the system manuacturer to pro-vide, i possible, maniolded sections that can saveinstallation time. The designer should also considerthe dierential in rates o expansion that can occurwithin a carrier pipe as opposed to the container


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pipe and make the necessary allowances in layoutfexibility. Again, working with a system manuac-turer is highly recommended in such cases.

When testing DC, the designer should ollow themanuacturer’s requirements or the proper proce-dures or the inner and outer pipe. Testing should beperormed on the inner and outer piping segmentsindependently.

A simple DC size variation is 6 inches inner di-ameter and 10 inches outer diameter, so a great di-erence in size exists. A typical 6-inch trap may takeup 15 inches to 18 inches, and a 6-inch by 10-inchtrap may need 48 inches o space. Thus, maintaining pitch requires a very dierent site plan and pitchelevation plan. The designer should ensure that allburied piping drawings clearly show the nishedfoor elevation, slab thickness, and inverts at severalintervals along the piping run. Also note whetherthe inverts are shown or the inner or outer piping.

PIPE JOINING PRACTICESMechanical JointsMechanical joints include transition (fanged), com-pression, and threaded joints. Mechanical joints shallincorporate a positive mechanical system or axialrestraint in addition to any restraint provided byriction. All internal grab rings shall be manuacturedrom corrosion-resistant steel. Polyethylene sealing rings shall be Type 1 (LDPE) compound. Mechanical joints or chemical, special, or acid waste should neverbe installed where not accessible or routine mainte-nance (e.g., behind walls, buried, or above ceilings).

Compression JointsCompression-type gaskets have been used in pres-sure pipe joints or years. The compression joint useshub-and-spigot pipe and ttings (as does the lead andoakum joint). The major dierence is the one-pieceneoprene rubber gasket. When the spigot end o thepipe or tting is pulled or drawn into the gasketedhub, the joint is sealed by displacement and compres-sion o the neoprene gasket. The resulting joint is leakree, and it absorbs vibration and can be defected upto 5 degrees without leaking or ailing.

Gaskets are precision molded o durable neo-prene. Service gaskets must be used with service

weight pipe and ttings. Extra-heavy gaskets mustbe used with extra-heavy pipe and ttings. The stan-dard specication or rubber gaskets or joining castiron soil pipe and ttings is ASTM C564.

Neoprene does not support combustion, and gas-ket materials can be used saely up to 212°F. Maxi-mum defection should not exceed ½ inch per oot o pipe. This allows 5 inches o defection or a 10-ootpiece o pipe and 2½ inches or 5 eet o pipe. Formore than 5 degrees o defection, use ttings.

Lead and Oakum Joints (Caulked Joints)Hub-and-spigot cast iron soil pipe and tting jointscan be made with oakum ber and molten lead, whichprovides a leak-ree, strong, fexible, and root-proo joint. The waterproong characteristics o oakum -ber have long been recognized by the plumbing trades,and when molten lead is poured over the oakum in a

cast iron soil pipe joint, it completely seals and locksthe joint. This is because the hot lead lls a groovein the bell end o the pipe or tting, rmly anchoring the lead in place ater cooling.

To make a caulked joint, the spigot end o a pipeor tting is placed inside the hub o another pipe ortting. Oakum is placed around the spigot in the hubusing a yarning tool, and then the oakum is packedto the proper depth using a packing tool. Moltenlead is then poured into the joint, ensuring that thelead is brought up near the top o the hub. Aterthe lead has cooled suciently, it is caulked with a caulking tool to orm a solid lead insert. The result

is a lock-tight soil pipe joint with excellent fexuralcharacteristics. I horizontal joints are being made, a joint runner must be used to retain the molten lead.Customary saety precautions should be taken whenhandling molten lead.

Shielded Hubless Coupling The shielded hubless coupling system typically usesa one-piece neoprene gasket, or a shield o stain-less steel retaining clamps. The hubless coupling is manuactured in accordance with CISPI 310 and ASTM C1277.

The advantage o the system is that it permits

joints to be made in limited-access areas. 300 seriesstainless steel is always used with hubless couplingsbecause it oers resistance to corrosion, oxidation,warping, and deormation, rigidity under tensionwith substantial tension strength, and sucientfexibility. The shield is corrugated to grip the gasketsleeve and to give maximum compression distributionto the joint.

The stainless steel worm gear clamps com-press the neoprene gasket to seal the joint. The neo-prene gasket absorbs shock and vibration and com-pletely eliminates galvanic action between the castiron and the stainless steel shield. Neoprene does

not support combustion and can be used saely up to212°F. The neoprene sleeve is completely protectedby a nonfammable stainless steel shield, and as a result, a re rating is not required.

Joint defection using a shielded hubless coupling has a maximum limit o up to 5 degrees. Maximumdefection should not exceed ½ inch per oot o pipe.This allows 5 inches o defection or a 10-oot pieceo pipe. For more than 5 degrees o defection, t-tings should be used.

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Mechanicall Formed Tee Fittings orCopper TubeMechanically ormed tee ttings (see Figure 2-15)shall be ormed in a continuous operation consist-ing o drilling a pilot hole and drawing out thetube surace to orm a tee having a height o notless than three times the thickness o the branch

tube wall to comply with the American Welding Society’s lap joint weld. The device shall be ullyadjustable to ensure proper tolerance and com-plete uniormity o the joint.

The branch tube shall be notched to conormto the inner curve o the run tube and have twodimple/depth stops pressed into the branch tube,one ¼ inch (6.4 mm) atop the other to serve asa visual point o inspection. The bottom dimpleensures that the penetration o the branch tubeinto the tee is o sucient depth or brazing andthat the branch tube does not obstruct the fowin the main line tube. Dimple/depth stops shall

be in line with the run o the tube.Mechanically ormed tee ttings shall be

brazed in accordance with the Copper Develop-ment Association’s Copper Tube Handbook us-ing BCuP series ller metal.

Note that soldered joints are not permitted.Mechanically ormed tee ttings shall conormto ASTM F2014 and ANSI/ASME B31.9.

Mechanical Joining o Copper Tube

Press Connect and Push Connect

Press-connect and push-connect copper joining systems provide ast and clean installations or

both aboveground and belowground applica-tions. The systems do not require heat, whichoers aster and saer installation. Joints madeusing these systems are capable o withstanding pressure and temperature ranges common toresidential and commercial plumbing systems.

Roll Groove

Roll groove is another orm o mechanical joining that does not require heat. Many manuacturersprovide pipe and ttings already roll grooved oraster installation.

Brazing

Brazing is a process in which the ller metals (alloys)melt at a temperature greater than 840°F, and thebase metals (tube and ttings) are not melted. Themost commonly used brazing ller metals melt attemperatures rom 1,150°F to 1,550°F.

Soldering

Soldering is a process wherein the ller metal (solder)melts at a temperature o less than 840°F, and the basemetals (tube and ttings) are not melted. The mostcommonly used leak-ree solders melt at tempera-

Figure 2-15 Copper Pipe Mechanical T-jointSource: Courtesy o T-Drill

Figure 2-16 Typical Welding Fittings

Figure 2-17 Types o Welded Joints


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tures rom 350°F to 600°F. Lead-ree solders mustcontain less than 0.2 percent lead.

Soldered joints should be installed in accordancewith the requirements, steps, and procedures out-lined in ASTM B828 and the Copper Tube Handbook.Fluxes used or the soldering o copper and copperalloys shall meet the requirements o ASTM B813.

Joining Plastic Pipe PEX

PEX connections are made using PEX press stainlesssteel sleeves or PEX crimp rings. The connection mustmeet or exceed the requirement o ASTM F877 or theappropriate tting standard.

Vinyls and ABS

Schedule 80 plastic piping systems can be solventwelded or threaded. Schedule 40 can only be solventwelded.

The use o cleaners is not always a must. Howeveri dirt, grease, oil, or surace impurities are presenton the areas to be jointed, a cleaner must be used.

Cleaners must be allowed to evaporate completelybeore proceeding.Primers are used to prepare (soten) the surac-

es o the pipe and tting so the usion process canoccur. Unlike with the cleaner, the primer must bewet when the cement is applied. Specially ormu-lated one-step cements (no primer required) are alsoavailable. Most primers are pigmented with either a

Figure 2-18 Anchors and Inserts

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purple or an orange color because most model codesrequire visual evidence o their use. Clear primerscontaining an ultraviolet-sensitive ingredient alsoare available; under UV light they reveal their pur-ple color, which allows the visual evidence to be veri-ed while maintaining a clean look to the abricatedresults. The specier should conrm that the clearprimer is approved or use in the jurisdiction. Use o this primer should in no way relieve the contractor’sresponsibility or cleanliness. Spills should be avoid-ed and cleaned just as i the primer were colored.

Cements must be material specic and must beselected based on the application (pressure, non-pressure, chemicals, sizes, temperatures, etc.).

Assembling Flanged JointsThe ace o the lange should be cleaned with a solvent-soaked rag to remove any rust-preventivegrease. Any dirt should be cleaned rom the gas-ket. The pipe and the fanges should be aligned toeliminate any strain on the coupling. The gasket

should be coated with graphite and oil or some otherrecommended lubricant, inserted, and then bolted.Thread lubricant should be applied to the bolts, andthe bolts should be evenly tightened with a wrench.The nuts should be hand tightened. When tighten-ing the bolts, care should be exercised that they arediametrically opposed; adjacent bolts never shouldbe tightened. Special care is needed when assembling plastic fanges because no solvents or lubricants canbe used on the gaskets or bolts. The bolts should bediametrically tightened in 5 oot-pound incrementsand should not exceed the recommended torque rat-ing o the fange.

Making Up Threaded PipeMale and emale threads should be cleaned with a wire brush. Pipe dope should be applied only to themale thread. (I dope is applied to the emale thread,it will enter the system.) The pipe and coupling shouldbe aligned and hand tightened and then nishedby turning with a wrench. A ew imperect threadsshould be let exposed. Sections o the assembled pip-ing should be blown out with compressed air beorebeing placed in the system. Special care is neededwhen assembling plastic-threaded ttings; a properthread make-up can be achieved by rst assembling

the ttings nger-tight, ollowed by one to two turnso an appropriate strap wrench.

The use o an appropriate paste or tape threadsealant is recommended, but they must not be usedtogether. I tape is used, a TFE sealant with a mini-mum thickness o 2.5 mm is advised. Always cover theend o the tting at the start to prevent the threadrom seizing prior to proper joint makeup. Wrap thetape in the direction o the threads (e.g., clockwiseor a right-hand thread). For head adapters, use onlyFigure 2-18 Anchors and Inserts (continued)


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two to three wraps o tape and tighten to the speciedtorque. For emale adapter transitions to metal pipe,use only ve wraps o tape.

Thread Cutting The pipe should be cut with a pipe cutter and clampedin a vise, where the pipe stock and die are engagedwith short jerks. The pipe should be protected when

clamped. When the cutter catches, it should be pulledslowly with a steady movement using both hands.Enough cutting oil should be used during the cutting process to keep the die cool and the edges clean. Thedie should be backed o requently to ree the cutters,and the ollower should be watched when reversing the dies to prevent jumping threads, cross-threading,or stripping threads.

Only PVC and CPVC Schedule 80, or heavier wallpipe, are suitable or threading. Either standard handpipe tools or a pipe-threading machine shall be used.Dies must be sharp and clean and should not be used tocut materials other than plastic pipe. A 5- to 10-degree

negative ront rake angle is preerable when cutting threads by hand. Care should be taken to center the dieon the pipe and align the thread to prevent reducing the wall excessively on one side. A tapered plug shouldbe tapped rmly into the end o the pipe to preventdistortion. This also provides additional support. Useonly lubricants compatible with the plastic material tobe threaded. Leaky threaded joints are usually causedby aulty or improper lubricants.

Welding Basic welding processes include electric arc, oxyacety-lene, and gas shielded. Commercial welding ttings

are available with ends designed or butt welding oror socket-joint welding. The type o joint used de-pends on the type o liquid, pressure in the system,pipe size and material, and applicable codes. The butt joint requently is used with a liner (backing ring).(See Figures 2-16 and 2-17.)

Electric Arc Welding

Electric arc welding is used or standard, extra-heavy,and double extra-heavy commercial steel pipe. ASTM A53 grades o low-carbon steel butt-welded pipe arethe most weldable.

Oxyacetylene Welding

In this welding process, the fame develops a tem-perature to 6,300°F (3,482.2°C), completely melting commercial metals to orm a bond. The use o a rodincreases strength and adds extra metal to the seam.This process is used with many metals (iron, steel,stainless steel, cast iron, copper, brass, aluminum,bronze, and other alloys) and can be used to join dis-similar metals. When cut on site, the pipe ends mustbe beveled or welding. This can be accomplished withan oxyacetylene torch.

Gas-Shielded Arcs

This process is good or nonerrous metals since fux isnot required, producing an extremely clean joint. Thetwo types o gas-shielded arc are tungsten inert gas(TIG) and metallic inert gas (MIG). Gas-shielded arcsare used or aluminum, magnesium, low-alloy steel,carbon steel, stainless steel, copper nickel, titanium,

and others.Joining Glass PipeGlass pipe joints are either bead to bead or beadto plain end. The bead-to-bead coupling is used or joining actory-beaded or eld-beaded-end pipe andttings. The bead-to-plain-end coupling is used to join a pipe section or tting that has a beaded end toa pipe section that has been eld cut to length andis not beaded.

Bending Pipe and Tubing Bending pipe or tubing is easier and more economicalthan installing ttings. Bends reduce the number o

joints (which could leak) and also minimize rictionloss through the pipe.

Pipe bending (cold or hot method) typically is donewith a hydraulic pipe bender. The radius o the bendshould be large enough to ree the surace o cracksor buckles (see ANSI/ASME B31.1). Some bends aredesigned specically to be creased or corrugated. Cor-rugated bends are more fexible than conventionaltypes and may have smaller radii. Straight sections o pipe sometimes are corrugated to provide fexibility.

Copper tube typically is bent with a spring tubebender, grooved wheel and bar, bending press, ormachine. Sharp bends are made by lling the pipe

with sand or other material to prevent fattening orcollapsing.

Electrousion Joining Electrousion is a heat-usion joining process whereina heat source is an integral part o the tting. Wherean electric current is applied, heat is produced, whichmelts and joins the components. Fusion occurs whenthe joint cools below the melting temperature o thematerial. When the cycle is completed there is nodelineation between the pipe and the tting. The ap-plicable standard is ASTM F1290.

Socket Fusion Joining Socket usion requires the use o a heater plate ttedwith properly sized heater bushings and spigots. Thepipe end and tting are inserted into the bushingsor a set time as dened by the manuacturer. Bothhandheld and bench machines are available or usein this joining method. Socket usion typically is usedin pure water and DWV systems.

Inrared Butt Fusion Joining This joining method utilizes inrared radiant heatto use the system components. The materials being

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joined never make contact with the heating surace,thus ensuring a clean, uncontaminated joint, typicallyused or pure water systems.

Beadless Butt Fusion Joining This usion process does not produce any seams orbeads on the inner wall o the pipes and/or ttingsbeing joined. It is used in ultra-pure water applica-

tions where any beads or crevices on the interiorpipe wall could lead to the buildup o contaminantswithin the fow stream. It also is used where the enduser requires the ability to completely drain the pip-ing system.

ACCESSORIES AND JOINTS

Anchors Anchors are installed to secure piping systems againstexpansion or contraction and to eliminate pipe varia-tion. During the installation o anchors, damage tobuilding walls or steel must be prevented. Common

anchor materials are strap steel, cast iron, angles, steelplate, channels, and steel clamps (see Figure 2-18).

Dielectric Unions and FlangesDielectric unions and fanges (see Figure 2-19) areinstalled between errous and nonerrous piping toprevent corrosion and to prevent electric currentsrom fowing rom one part o the pipe to another.The spacer should be suitable or the system pressureand temperature.

Epansion Joints and GuidesExpansion joints and guides (see Figure 2-20) are de-signed to permit ree expansion and contraction andto prevent excessive bending at joints, hangers, andconnections to the equipment caused by heat expan-sion or vibration. Expansion guides should be usedwhere the direction o the expansion is critical.

Figure 2-19 Dielectric Fittings Figure 2-20 Expansion Joints and Guides


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Ball JointsBall joints are used in hydronic systems, wherepipe fexibility is desired, or positioning pipe, andwhere rotary or reciprocal movement is required.Ball joints are available with threaded, fanged, orwelded ends o stainless steel, carbon steel, bronze,or malleable iron.

Fleible Couplings (Compression or Slip)Flexible couplings (see Figure 2-21) do not requirethe same degree o piping alignment as fanges andthreaded couplings. They provide ¼ inch to ⅜ inch(6 mm to 9.5 mm) o axial movement because o theelasticity in the gaskets. These couplings should notbe used as slip-type expansion joints or as replace-ments or fexible expansion joints.

Gaskets (Flanged Pipe)Gaskets must withstand pressure, temperature, andattack rom the fuid in the pipe. Gaskets typicallyshould be as thin as possible. ANSI/ASME B16.21

designates the dimensions or nonmetallic gaskets.Mechanical CouplingsMechanical couplings (see Figure 2-22) are sel-cen-tering, lock-in-place grooves or shouldered pipe andpipe tting ends. The ttings provide some angularpipe defection, contraction, and expansion. Mechani-cal couplings oten are used instead o unions, weldedfanges, screwed pipe connections, and soldered tub-ing connections. Mechanical couplings are availableor a variety o piping materials, including steel andgalvanized steel, cast iron, copper tubing, and plastics.Bolting methods are standard and vandal resistant.

The gasketing material varies based on the fuid inthe piping system.

Pipe SupportsPipe can be supported using hangers, clamps, orsaddles (see Figure 2-23). Pipe should be securely

Figure 2-21 Compression Fittings

Figure 2-22 Mechanical Joint

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Figure 2-23 Hangers, Clamps, and Supports


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supported with an ample saety actor, and the sup-ports should be spaced according to the ollowing guidelines:

• Lessthan¾-inchpipe:On5-foot(1.5-m)centers

• 1-inchand1¼-inchpipe:On6-foot(1.8-m)cen-ters

• 1½-inchto2½-inchpipe:On10-foot(3.1-m)cen-ters

• 3-inch and4-inchpipe:On12-foot (3.7-m) cen-ters

• 6-inch and largerpipe:On 15-foot (4.6-m)centers

Horizontal suspended pipe should be hung using adjustable pipe hangers with bolted, hinged loops orturnbuckles. Chains, perorated strap irons, and fatsteel strap hangers are not acceptable. Pipes 2 inchesin diameter and smaller (supported rom the sidewall) should have an expansion hook plate. Pipes 2½

inches in diameter and larger (supported rom the sidewall) should have brackets and clevis hangers. Roll-ers should be provided wherever necessary. Trapezehangers, holding several pipes, may be preerred overindividual pipeline hangers. For individual hangers o pipes 2 inches in diameter and smaller, clevis hangersshould be used.

Where hangers are attached to concrete slabs, theslabs should have more concrete-reinorcing rods atthe point o support. The risers can be supported verti-cally using approved methods such as resting on thefoor slab with an elbow support, resting on the foorsleeve with a clamp, or anchoring to the wall.

Pipes installed in nished trenches or tunnelsshould rest on a suitable sidewall or foor supports.

Consideration must be given to seismic condi-tions when designing pipe supports. The designershould consult with local, state, and all other gov-erning agencies or specic requirements.

Hangers and Supports or Copper Piping

In addition to the ollowing instructions, the designershould consult the local plumbing, mechanical, orbuilding code or unique hanger spacing require-ments.First, install hangers or horizontal piping with the maximum spacing and minimum rod sizes as

Table 2-18 Pipe Union Dimensions

Pipe Size(in.)

Standard NormalEngagementA B C L

(250 lb)(in.)

(113.5 kg)(mm)

(250 lb)(in.)

(113.5 kg)(mm)

(250 lb)(in.)

(113.5 kg)(mm)

(250 lb)(in.)

(113.5 kg)(mm) (in.) (mm)

1 ⁄ 8 0.505 12.8 0.935 23.8 1.080 27.4 1.484 37.7 ¼ 6.4

¼ 0.638 16.2 1.113 28.3 1.285 32.6 1.641 41.7 3 ⁄ 8 9.53 ⁄ 8 0.787 20.0 1.264 32.1 1.460 37.1 1.766 44.9 3 ⁄ 8 9.5

½ 0.950 24.1 1.456 37.0 1.681 42.7 2.000 50.8 ½ 12.7

¾ 1.173 29.8 1.718 43.6 1.985 50.4 2.141 54.4 9 ⁄ 16 14.3

1 1.440 36.6 2.078 52.8 2.400 61.0 2.500 63.5 11 ⁄ 16 17.5

1¼ 1.811 46.0 2.578 65.5 2.978 75.6 2.703 68.7 11 ⁄ 16 17.5

1½ 2.049 52.1 2.890 73.4 3.338 84.8 2.875 73.0 11 ⁄ 16 17.5

2 2.563 65.1 3.484 88.5 4.025 102.2 3.234 82.1 ¾ 19.1

2½ 3.109 79.0 4.156 105.6 4.810 122.2 3.578 90.9 15 ⁄ 16 23.8

3 3.781 96.0 4.969 126.2 5.740 145.8 3.938 100.0 1 25.4

Table 2-17 Maximum and Minimum RodSizes or Copper Piping

Nominal TubeSize, in.

Copper TubeMaximumSpan, t

Minimum RodDiameter, in.

Up to ¾ 5 3 ⁄ 8

1 6 3 ⁄ 8

1¼ 7 3 ⁄ 8

1½ 8 3 ⁄ 8

2 8 3 ⁄ 8

2½ 9 ½

3 10 ½

3½ 11 ½

4 12 ½

5 13 ½

6 14 5 ⁄ 8

8 16 ¾

10 18 ¾

12 19 ¾

Figure 2-24 Pipe Union

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shown in Table 2-17. Then, support vertical coppertube, copper pipe, or brass pipe at each foor. Finally,in areas where excessive moisture is anticipated, eitherthe piping or the support shall be wrapped with an ap-proved tape or otherwise isolated to prevent contactbetween dissimilar metals and to inhibit galvanic cor-rosion o the supporting member.

Pipe Unions (Flanged Connections)Pipe unions (see Figure 2-24) are installed at severallocations to acilitate dismantling. They typically areinstalled near control valves, regulators, water heaters,meters, check valves, pumps, compressors, and boilersso equipment can be readily disconnected or repair orreplacement. See Table 2-18 or dimensions.

Figure 2-25 Sleeves


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Pipe SleevesFor pipes passing through walls, sleeves (see Figure2-25) should extend completely through the construc-tion, fush with each surace. The sleeves should becaulked with graphite packing and a suitable plasticwaterproo caulking compound. Pipe sleeves in ratedwalls are to be installed to suit the specic manuactur-

er’s hourly re rating. Packing and sealing compoundsshall be the required thickness to meet the specichourly ratings assembly.

Sleeves in bearing walls should be o steel, castiron, or terra-cotta pipe. Sleeves in other masonrystructures may be o sheet metal, ber, or other suit-able material. Sleeves or 4-inch pipe and smallershould be at least two pipe sizes larger than the pipepassing through. For larger pipes, sleeves should beat least one pipe size larger than the enclosed pipe.The inside diameter o pipe sleeves should be at least½ inch (12.7 mm) larger than the outside diameter o the pipe or covering.

Service Connections (Water Piping)Hand-drilled, sel-tapping saddle, or cut-in sleevesshould be used or water service connections. Two typeso cut-in sleeves are available: or pressures to 50 psi

(344.7 kPa) and or pressures to 250 psi (1,727.7 kPa).Tapping valves are or working pressures o 175 psi(1,206.6 kPa) or 2-inch to 12-inch (50.8-mm to 304.8-mm) pipe and 150 psi (1,034.2 kPa) or 16-inch pipe.

ExPANSION AND CONTRACTIONPiping subjected to changes in temperature expands(increases in length) and contracts (decreases inlength), and each material has its own expansion andcontraction characteristics. Piping expands as thetemperature increases and contracts as the tempera-ture decreases. The coecient o expansion (CE) o a material is the material’s characteristic unit increasein length per 1°F (0.56°C) temperature increase.CE values or various materials are given in Marks’Standard Handbook or Mechanical Engineers andmanuacturer literature.

I the piping is restrained, it will be subject to com-pressive (as the temperature increases) and tensile (asthe temperature decreases) stresses. The piping usu-

ally withstands the stresses; however, ailures mayoccur at the joints and ttings. Common methods toabsorb piping expansion and contraction are the useo expansion joints, expansion loops, and osets.

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APPENDIx 2-A

PIPE AND FITTINGS REFERENCESTANDARDS

The ollowing list includes the most common standardsencountered regarding plumbing pipe and ttings

materials. As standards are always being developed,revised, and withdrawn, consult the authority having jurisdiction or the applicable standards in the localarea.

Cast Iron Soil Pipe

ASTM A74: Standard Specifcation or Cast Iron Soil

Pipe and Fittings

ASTM A888: Standard Specifcation or Hubless Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings or Sanitary and Storm Drain, Waste, and Vent Piping Applications

ASTM C564: Standard Specifcation or Rubber Gas-

kets or Joining Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings ASTM C1540: Standard Specifcation or Heavy-Duty

Shielded Couplings Joining Hubless Cast Iron Soil

Pipe and Fittings

CISPI 301: Standard Specifcation or Hubless Cast

Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings or Sanitary and Storm Drain, Waste, and Vent Piping Applications

CISPI 310: Specifcation or Coupling or Use in Con-nection with Hubless Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fit-

tings or Sanitary and Storm Drain, Waste, andVent Piping Applications

Ductile Iron Water and Sewer Pipe ANSI/AWWA C104: Cement-Mortar Lining or Duc-

tile Iron Pipe and Fittings

ANSI/AWWA C105: Polyethylene Encasement or Duc-tile Iron Pipe Systems

ANSI/AWWA C110: Ductile Iron and Gray Iron Fit-tings

ANSI/AWWA C111: Rubber Gasket Joints or Ductile Iron Pressure Pipe and Fittings

ANSI/AWWA C115: Flanged Ductile Iron Pipe with Ductile Iron or Gray Iron Threaded Flanges

ANSI/AWWA C116: Protective Fusion-Bonded EpoxyCoatings or the Interior and Exterior Suraces o

Ductile Iron and Gray Iron Fittings or Water Sup- ply Service

ANSI/AWWA C150: Thickness Design o Ductile Iron Pipe

ANSI/AWWA C151: Ductile Iron Pipe, CentriugallyCast, or Water

ANSI/AWWA C153: Ductile Iron Compact Fittings

ANSI/AWWA C600: Installation o Ductile Iron Water Mains and Their Appurtenances

AWWA C651: Disinecting Water Mains

ASTM A716: Standard Specifcation or Ductile Iron

Culvert Pipe

ASTM A746: Standard Specifcation or Ductile Iron

Gravity Sewer PipeConcrete

ASTM C14: Standard Specifcation or Nonreinorced

Concrete Sewer, Storm Drain, and Culvert Pipe

ASTM C76: Standard Specifcation or Reinorced

Concrete Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer Pipe

ASTM C443: Standard Specifcation or Joints or

Concrete Pipe and Manholes, Using Rubber Gas- kets

ASTM C655: Standard Specifcation or ReinorcedConcrete D-Load Culvert, Storm Drain, and Sewer

Pipe

Copper

ASME B16.18: Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pres-

sure Fittings

ASME B16.22: Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Sol-

der Joint Pressure Fittings

ASME B16.23: Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drain-

age Fittings: DWV

ANSI/ASME B16.29: Wrought Copper and Wrought

Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drainage Fittings: DWV

ASTM B75: Standard Specifcation or Seamless Cop- per Tube

ASTM B88: Standard Specifcation or Seamless Cop-

per Water Tube

ASTM B280: Standard Specifcation or Seamless

Copper Tube or Air-Conditioning and Rerigera-tion Field Service

ASTM B306: Standard Specifcation or Copper Drainage Tube (DWV)

ASTM B584: Standard Specifcation or Copper AlloySand Castings or General Applications

ASTM B819: Standard Specifcation or SeamlessCopper Tube or Medical Gas Systems

ASTM B837: Standard Specifcation or SeamlessCopper Tube or Natural Gas and Liquifed Petro-

leum (LP) Gas Fuel Distribution Systems

NFPA 99: Health Care Facilities Code

Glass

ASTM C601: Standard Test Method or Pressure Test on Glass Pipe


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ASTM C1053: Standard Specifcation or BorosilicateGlass Pipe and Fittings or Drain, Waste, and Vent

(DWV) Applications

ASTM C1509: Standard Specifcation or Beaded Pro-

cess Glass Pipe and Fittings

Steel

ASTM A53: Standard Specifcation or Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-Dipped, Zinc-Coated, Welded andSeamless

ASTM A106: Standard Specifcation or SeamlessCarbon Steel Pipe or High-Temperature Service

ASTM A135: Standard Specifcation or Electric-Re- sistance-Welded Steel Pipe

ASTM A795: Standard Specifcation or Black and Hot-Dipped Zinc-Coated (Galvanized) Welded and

Seamless Steel

ASME B16.11: Forged Fittings, Socket-Welding and

Threaded Pipe or Fire Protection Use ANSI/ASME B16.9: Factory-Made Wrought Steel But-

twelding Fittings

ANSI/ASME B16.28: Wrought Steel Buttwelding

Short Radius Elbows and Returns

Polbutlene

ASTM D2581:Standard Specifcation or Polybutylene(PB) Plastics Molding and Extrusion Materials

ASTM D2657: Standard Practice or Heat Fusion

Joining o Polyolefn Pipe and Fittings

ASTM F1668: Standard Guide or Construction Pro-

cedures or Buried Plastic Pipe

CSA B137.8: Polybutylene (PB) Piping or Pressure

Applications

Polethlene

ASTM D2239: Standard Specifcation or Polyethylene(PE) Plastic Pipe (SIDR-PR) Based on Controlled

Inside Diameter

ASTM D2609: Standard Specifcation or Plastic In-

sert Fittings or Polyethylene (PE) Plastic Pipe

ASTM D2737: Standard Specifcation or Polyethyl- ene (PE) Plastic Tubing

ASTM D3035: Standard Specifcation or Polyethyl- ene (PE) Plastic Pipe (DR-PR) Based on ControlledOutside Diameter

ASTM D3350: Standard Specifcation or Polyethyl- ene Pipe and Fittings Materials

ASTM F771: Standard Specifcation or Polyethylene(PE) Thermoplastic High-Pressure Irrigation Pipe-

line Systems

ASTM F810: Standard Specifcation or Smoothwall Polyethylene (PE) Pipe or Use in Drainage and

Waste Disposal Absorption Fields

ASTM F894: Standard Specifcation or Polyethylene

(PE) Large Diameter Profle Wall Sewer and Drain Pipe

CAN/CSA B137 Series: Thermoplastic Pressure Pip-ing

PEx

ASTM F876: Standard Specifcation or Crosslinked Polyethylene (PEX) Tubing

ASTM F877: Standard Specifcation or Crosslinked Polyethylene (PEX) Hot- and Cold-Water Distribu-tion Systems

CAN/CSA B137 Series: Thermoplastic Pressure Pip-

ing

PEx-AL-PEx

ASTM F1281: Standard Specifcation or Crosslinked Polyethylene/Aluminum/Crosslinked Polyethylene

(PEX-AL-PEX) Pressure Pipe

PE-AL-PE

ASTM F1282: Standard Specifcation or Polyethyl-

ene/Aluminum/Polyethylene (PE-AL-PE) Composite Pressure Pipe


PVC

ASTM D1785: Standard Specifcation or Poly(VinylChloride) (PVC) Plastic Pipe, Schedules 40, 80, and

120

ASTM D2241: Standard Specifcation or Poly(Vinyl

Chloride) (PVC) Pressure-Rated Pipe (SDR Series)

ASTM D2464: Standard Specifcation or Threaded

Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Plastic Pipe Fittings,Schedule 80

ASTM D2466: Standard Specifcation or Poly(VinylChloride) (PVC) Plastic Pipe Fittings, Schedule 40

ASTM D2467: Standard Specifcation or Poly(VinylChloride) (PVC) Plastic Pipe Fittings, Schedule 80

ASTM D2564: Standard Specifcation or Solvent Ce-ments or Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Plastic Piping

Systems


Chloride) (PVC) Plastic Drain, Waste, and Vent Pipeand Fittings

ASTM D2672: Standard Specifcation or Joints or IPS PVC Pipe Using Solvent Cement

ASTM D2680: Standard Specifcation or Acrylo-

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nitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) and Poly(Vinyl

Chloride) (PVC) Composite Sewer Piping


Chloride) (PVC) Sewer Pipe and Fittings

ASTM F477: Standard Specifcation or Elastomeric

Seals (Gaskets) or Joining Plastic Pipe

ASTM F1760: Standard Specifcation or Coextruded Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Non-Pressure Plastic Pipe Having Reprocessed-Recycled Content


CPVC

ASTM D2846/D2846M: Standard Specifcation orChlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) Plastic

Hot- and Cold-Water Distribution Systems

ASTM F437: Standard Specifcation or Threaded

Chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) Plastic

Pipe Fittings, Schedule 80 ASTM F438: Standard Specifcation or Socket-Type

Chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) Plastic

Pipe Fittings, Schedule 40

ASTM F439: Standard Specifcation or Chlorinated

Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) Plastic Pipe Fittings,Schedule 80

ASTM F441/F441M: Standard Specifcation or Chlo-rinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) Plastic Pipe,

Schedules 40 and 80

ASTM F442/F442M: Standard Specifcation or Chlo-

rinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) Plastic Pipe(SDR-PR)

ASTM F2618: Standard Specifcation or Chlorinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) Pipe and Fittings orChemical Waste Drainage Systems


ABS

ASTM D1527: Standard Specifcation or Acry-lonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Plastic Pipe,

Schedules 40 and 80

ASTM D2235: Standard Specifcation or SolventCement or Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Plastic Pipe and Fittings

ASTM D2661: Standard Specifcation or Acrylo-nitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Schedule 40 Plas-

tic Drain, Waste, and Vent Pipe and Fittings


nitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) and Poly(VinylChloride) (PVC) Composite Sewer Piping


nitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Sewer Pipe and

Fittings

ASTM F628: Standard Specifcation or Acrylonitrile-

Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Schedule 40 Plastic Drain,Waste, and Vent Pipe With a Cellular Core


Polproplene

ASTM D2122: Standard Test Method or Determining Dimensions o Thermoplastic Pipe and Fittings

ASTM D4101: Standard Specifcation or Polypropyl- ene Injection and Extrusion Materials

ASTM F1055: Standard Specifcation or Electrou- sion Type Polyethylene Fittings or Outside Diam-

eter Controlled Polyethylene and Crosslinked Poly- ethylene (PEX) Pipe and Tubing

ASTM F1056: Standard Specifcation or Socket Fu-

sion Tools or Use in Socket Fusion Joining Polyeth- ylene Pipe or Tubing and Fittings

ASTM F1290: Standard Practice or Electrousion

Joining Polyolefn Pipe and Fittings

ASTM F1412: Standard Specifcation or Polyolefn

Pipe and Fittings or Corrosive Waste DrainageSystems

ASTM F2389: Standard Specifcation or Pressure- Rated Polypropylene (PP) Piping Systems

PVDF

ASTM D635: Standard Test Method or Rate o Burn-

ing and/or Extent and Time o Burning o Plasticsin a Horizontal Position

ASTM D3222: Specifcation or Unmodifed Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride) (PVDF) Molding Extru-

sion and Coating Materials

ASTM F1673: Standard Specifcation or Polyvi-

nylidene Fluoride (PVDF) Corrosive Waste Drain-age Systems

FDA CFR 21.177.1520: Olefn Polymer

USP 25 Class VI (or pure water applications)

PP-R

ASTM D2657: Standard Practice or Heat Fusion Joining o Polyolefn Pipe and Fittngs

ASTM D4101: Standard Specifcation or Polypropyl- ene Injection and Extrusion Materials

ASTM F1056: Standard Specifcation or Socket Fu- sion Tools or Use in Socket Fusion Joining Polyeth-

ylene Pipe or Tubing and Fittings

ASTM F1290: Standard Practice or Electrousion Joining Polyolefn Pipe and Fittings


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ASTM F2389: Standard Specifcation or Pressure-

Rated Polypropylene (PP) Piping Systems

Vitried Cla Pipe

ASTM C12: Standard Practice or Installing Vitri- fed Clay Pipe Lines

ASTM C301: Standard Test Methods or Vitrifed

Clay Pipe ASTM C425: Standard Specifcation or Compres-

sion Joints or Vitrifed Clay Pipe and Fittings

ASTM C700: Standard Specifcation or Vitrifed

Clay Pipe, Extra Strength, Standard Strength,and Perorated

ASTM C828: Standard Test Method or Low-Pres- sure Air Test o Vitrifed Clay Pipe Lines

ASTM C896: Standard Terminology Relating to

Clay Products

ASTM C1091: Standard Test Method or Hydrostatic

Infltration Testing o Vitrifed Clay Pipe Lines

ASTM C1208: Standard Specifcation or Vitrifed

Clay Pipe and Joints or Use in Microtunneling,Sliplining, Pipe Bursting, and Tunnels

High-Silicon Iron

ASTM A518/A518M: Standard Specifcation or Cor-rosion-Resistant High-Silicon Iron Castings

ASTM A861: Standard Specifcation or High-Sili- con Iron Pipe and Fittings

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Valves3 Valves serve the purpose o controlling the fuids inbuilding service piping. They come in many shapes,sizes, design types, and materials to accommodatedierent fuids, piping, pressure ranges, and typeso service. Proper selection is important to ensurethe most ecient, cost-eective, and long-lasting

systems. No single valve is best or all services. (Note:This chapter is limited to manually operated valvesthat start, stop, regulate, and prevent the reversalo fow.)

The ollowing organizations publish standards andguidelines governing the use o valves:

• ManufacturersStandardizationSociety(MSS)ofthe Valve and Fittings Industry

• UnderwritersLaboratories(UL)

• FMGlobal

• AmericanPetroleumInstitute(API)

TyPES OF VALVES When selecting a valve, the ollowing service conditions should be taken intoconsideration:

• Pressure

• Temperature

• Type of uid: liquid, gas (steam orair), dirty or abrasive (erosive), cor-rosive

• Flow:on-off,throttling,needtopre-vent fow reversal, concern or pres-

sure drop, velocity

• Operating conditions: orientation,requency o operation, accessibility,overall space available, manual orautomated control, need or bubble-tight shuto, concerns about body joint leaks, re-sae design, speed o closure

Multi-turn valves include gate, globe,angle, and end connection. Quarter-turn

types include ball, butterfy, plug, and end connection.Check type valves include swing, list, silent or non-slam, and end connection.

Gate Valve With starting and stopping fow as its prime unction,

the gate valve is intended to operate either ully openor ully closed. The components o a gate valve areshown in Figure 3-1.

The gate valve uses a gate-like disc actuated by a stem screw and hand wheel that moves up and downat right angles to the path o fow and seats againsttwo aces to shut o fow. Since the disc o the gatevalve presents a fat surace to the oncoming fow,this valve should never be used to regulate or throt-tle fow. Flow through a partially open gate valve cre-

Figure 3-1 Gate Valve

HANDWHEEL NUT

HANDWHEEL

STEM

PACKING NUT

PACKING GLAND

PACKING

BONNET

UNION NUT

BODY

WEDGE

TYPICAL GATE VALVE

SOLID WEDGE DESIGN

DOUBLE WEDGE DESIGN

SPLIT WEDGE DESIGN

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ates vibration and chattering and subjectsthe disc and seat to inordinate wear.

Bypass valves should be provided wherethe dierential pressure exceeds 200 poundsper square inch (psi) (1,378 kilopascals[kPa]) on valves sized 4 to 6 inches (101.6 to152.4 mm) and 100 psi (689 kPa) on valves 8inches (203.2 mm) and larger. Bypass valvesshould be ½ inch (12.7 mm) or 4-inch(101.6-mm) valves and ¾ inch (19.1 mm) or5-inch (127-mm) and larger valves.

Disc and Seat Designs

Many dierent seats and discs suit the con-ditions under which the valve operates. Forrelatively low pressures and temperaturesand or ordinary luids, bronze and ironvalves are preerred. Bronze and iron valvesusually have bronze or bronze-aced seating suraces; iron valves may be all iron. Stain-less steel is used or high-pressure steam and

erosive media. Nonmetallic composition discsare available or tight seatings or hard-to-hold fuids, such as air and gasoline.

Gate discs can be classied as solid-wedge discs,double discs, or split-wedge discs. In the solid-wedgedesign, a single tapered disc, thin at the bottom andthicker at the top, is orced into a similarly shapedseat. In the double and split-wedge disc designs, twodiscs are employed back to back, with a spreading device between them. As the valve wheel turns, thegate drops into its seat (as with any other gate valve),but on the nal turns o the wheel, the spreaderorces the discs outward against the seats, eecting tight closure.

Metal-to-metal seating is not the best choice orrequent operation. Bubble-tight seating should notbe expected with the metal-to-metal design.

Another type, resilient wedge, is a rubber-encapsu-lated metal wedge that seals against an epoxy-coatedbody. The resilient wedge design is limited to coldwater applications.

Globe ValveThe globe valve (see Figure 3-2), which is named or theshape o its body, is much more resistant to fow thanthe gate valve, as can be seen by examining the path

o fow through it. Its main advantages over the gatevalve are its use as a throttling valve to regulate fow,positive bubble-tight shuto when equipped with a resilient seating, and its ease o repair. It also is good orrequent operation. On the negative side, the fow pathcauses a signicant pressure drop, and globe valves aretypically more expensive than other valves.

Because all contact between the seat and the discends when fow begins, the eects o wire drawing (seat erosion) are minimized. The valve can operate

just barely open or ully open with little change inwear. Also, because the disc o the globe valve travelsa relatively short distance between ully open andully closed, with ewer turns o the wheel required,an operator can gauge the rate o fow by the num-ber o turns o the wheel.

Disc and Seat Designs

As with the gate valve, many disc and seat ar-rangements are available. These are classied asconventional disc, plug type, and composition disc.

The conventional disc is relatively fat, with bevelededges. On closure, it is pushed down into a beveled,circular seat. Plug-type discs dier only in that theyare ar more tapered, thereby increasing the contactsurace between the disc and the seat. This charac-teristic has the eect o increasing their resistanceto the cutting eects o dirt, scale, and other oreignmatter. The sliding action o the semi-plug disc as-sembly permits the valve to serve as a shuto valve,throttling valve, or check valve.

The composition disc diers rom the others in thatit does not t into the seat opening, but over it—muchas a bottlecap ts over the bottle opening. This seat

adapts the valve to many services, including use withhard-to-hold substances such as compressed air, andmakes it easy to repair.

Resilient (sot) seat discs are preerred over metalto metal, except where temperature, very close throt-tling, or abrasive fow makes all-metal seating a betterchoice. Stainless steel trim is available or medium-to high-pressure steam and abrasive applications.Tetrafuoroethylene (TFE) is the most resilient discmaterial or most services, although rubber’s sotness

Figure 3-2 Globe Valve

HANDWHEEL NUT

HANDWHEEL

STEM

PACKING NUT

PACKING

BONNET

BODY

SEAT DISC

TYPICAL GLOBE VALVE

CONVENTIONAL DISC DESIGN

PLUG VALVE DESIGN

COMPOSITION DISC DESIGN


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Chapter 3 — Valves 75

provides good perormance in cold water. TFE is goodup to 400°F (204.4°C). Nitrile rubber (Buna-N) is goodup to 200°F (93.3°).

Angle Valve Akin to the globe valve, the angle valve (see Figure3-3) can decrease piping installation time, labor, andmaterials by serving as both a valve and a 90-degreeelbow. It is less resistant to fow than the globe valve,as fow must change direction twice instead o threetimes. It is also available with conventional, plug type,and composition discs.

Ball ValveThe ball valve derives its name rom the drilled ballthat swivels on its vertical axis and is operated by a handle. Its advantages are its straight-through fow,minimum turbulence, low torque, bubble-tight clo-sure, and compactness. Also, a quarter turn o thehandle makes it a quick-closing or quick-opening valve. Reliability, ease o maintenance, and durabil-ity have made the ball valve popular in industrial,chemical, and gas transmission applications. On thedownside, the cavity around the ball traps media

and does not drain entrapped media. Ball valves aresusceptible to reezing, expansion, and increasedpressure due to increased temperature.

Body StylesBall valves are available in one-, two-, and three-piecebody types, as shown in Figure 3-4. The one-piecebody is machined rom a solid bar o stock material

or is a one-piece casing. The ball is inserted in the endor assembly, and the body insert that acts as the seatring is threaded in against the ball. One-piece valveshave no potential body leak path, but they do have a double-reduced port; thus, signicant pressure dropoccurs. Not repairable, they are used primarily bychemical and rening plants.

The two-piece body is the same as the one-piecevalve, except that the body insert is larger and acts asan end bushing.Two-piece end entries are used mostcommonly in building services. They are the bestvalue valves and are available in ull- or standard-portballs. They are recommended or on/o or throttling

service and are not recommended to be repaired.The three-piece body consists o a center body sec-

tion containing the ball that ts between two body endpieces. Two or more bolts hold the assembly together.Three-piece valves are costly but are easy to disas-semble and oer the possibility o inline repair. Theyare available in ull- or standard-port balls.

Port SizeFull-port ball valves provide a pressure drop equalto the equivalent length o the pipe, slightly betterthan gate valves.

Standard-port (conventional) balls are up to one

pipe size smaller than the nominal pipe size but stillhave signicantly better fow characteristics thanglobe valves.

Reduced-port ball valves have greater than onepipe size fow restriction and are not recommended inbuilding service piping, but rather are used or processpiping or hazardous material transer.

Handle ExtensionsInsulated handle extensions or extended handlesshould be used to keep insulated piping systemsintact.

Figure 3-3 Angle Valve

HANDWHEEL NUT

HANDWHEEL

STEM

PACKING NUT

PACKING

BONNET

BODY

SEAT DISC

OUTLET

INLET

TYPICAL ANGLE VALVE

Figure 3-4 Ball Valves

TYPICAL ONE-PIECE TYPE YPICAL TWO-PIECE TYPE

TYPICAL THREE-PIECE TYPE

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Butterf ValveThe butterfy valve (see Figure 3-5) is the valve mostcommonly used in place o a gate valve in cases whereabsolute, bubble-ree shuto is required. It oersquick, 90-degree open and close and is easier to au-tomate than multi-turn valves.

In addition to its tight closing, one o the valve’sadvantages is that it can be placed in a very smallspace between pipe fanges. It is available with sev-eral types o motorized and manual operators anda variety o component material combinations. A broad selection o trim materials is available tomatch dierent fuid conditions. Butterfy valvesare very cost-eective compared to alternative valvechoices, and they oer a long cycle lie.

Butterfy valves cannot be used with steam, andgear operators are needed or 8-inch and larger valvesto aid in operation and to protect against operating too quickly and causing destructive line shock.

Body StylesThe two most common body types are the waerbody and lug body. The waer body is placed betweenpipe fanges, and the fange bolts surround the valvebody. They are easy to install but cannot be used asisolation valves.

Lug-style valves have waer bodies with tappedlugs matching the bolt circles o class 125/150-poundfanges. They are easily installed with cap screwsrom either side. Screwed-lug valves can be providedso that equipment may be removed without draining down the system.

Groove butterfy valves directly connect to pipeusing iron pipe size, grooved couplings. While morecostly than waer valves, grooved valves are easierto install.

Check ValveSwing checks and lit checks (see Figure 3-6) are themost common types o check valve. Both are designedto prevent reversal o fow in a pipe. The swing checkpermits straight-through fow when open and is,thereore, less resistant to fow than the lit check.

When installed in vertical installations and toensure immediate closure upon reversal o fow, thecheck valve should be o the spring-loaded (non-slam-ming) type. I reverse fow is not stopped immediately,

the backfow velocity could increase to a point thatwhen closure occurs, the resulting shock could causeserious damage to the valve and system.

The lit check is primarily used with gases orcompressed air or in fuid systems where pressuredrop is not critical.

Design Details

Swing-type check valves oer the least pressure dropand simple automatic closure. When fuid fow stops,gravity and fow reversal close the valve. Many bronzevalves oer a Y-pattern body with an angle seat orimproved perormance. Resilient Tefon seating is

preerred or tight shuto.Lit checks come in an inline or globe-style body

pattern. Both cause greater pressure drop than theswing type, with the horizontal pattern similar inrestriction to globe valves.

Some styles are spring actuated and center guidedor immediate closure when fow stops. The inline,

Figure 3-6 Check Valves

OUT IN

OUT

OUT

IN

IN

SWING TYPE LIFT TYPESPRING-LOADEDNON-SLAMMING TYPE

Figure 3-5 Butterfy Valves

WAFER STYLE LUG STYLE


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spring-actuated lit check is also reerred to as thesilent check because the spring closes the valve beoregravity and fuid reversal can slam the valve closed.Resilient seating is recommended.

Double-disc check valves have twin discs on a spring-loaded center shat. These valves have betterfow characteristics than lit checks and most oten

use a waer body or low cost and easy installation.Resilient seating is recommended.

Plug ValveThe plug valve has a quarter-turn design similar to a ball valve, with the ball replaced by a plug. The plug can be round, diamond, or rectangular (standard).The plug valve typically requires a higher operating torque or closure, meaning specialized wrenchesor expensive automation packages are required.However, it has a mechanism or power operation orremote control o any size and type to operate withair, oil, or water.

Plug valves oer bubble-tight shuto rom a stemseal o reinorced Tefon as well as quick, 90-degreeopen and close. Flow through the valve can bestraight through, unobstructed, bidirectional, threeway, or our way. Plug valves oer a long cycle lieand an adjustable stop or balancing or throttling service.

Plug valves are available in lubricated, non-lubricated, and eccentric types. The lubricated,sealed check valve and combination lubricant screwand button head tting prevent oreign matter rombeing orced into the lubrication system. However,the temperature and pressure ranges are limited

by the type o lubricant sealant and ANSI standardrating. The non-lubricating type eliminates periodiclubrication and ensures that the valve’s lubricationdoes not contaminate the process media or aect anydownstream instrumentation. The eccentric type isbasically a valve with the plug cut in hal. The ec-centric design allows a high achieved seating orcewith minimal riction encountered rom the open toclosed positions.

VALVE MATERIALS A valve may be constructed o several materials. Forexample, it may have a bronze body, monel seat, and

an aluminum wheel. Metallic materials include brass,bronze, cast iron, malleable iron, ductile iron, steel,and stainless steel. Nonmetallic materials are typi-cally thermoplastics. Material specications dependon the operating conditions.

Brass and BronzeBrass usually consists o 85 percent copper, 5 percentlead, 5 percent tin, and 5 percent zinc. Bronze hasa higher copper content, ranging rom 86 percent to90 percent, with the remaining percentage divided

among lead, tin, and zinc. Due to lead-ree legislationin many states and the ederal government, manu-acturers are decreasing or eliminating the amounto lead in their products that are used in systemsconveying water meant or human consumption.

Under certain circumstances, a phenomenonknown as dezincication occurs in valves or pipes

containing zinc. The action is a result o electrolysis;in eect, the zinc is actually drawn out and removedrom the brass or bronze, leaving a porous, brittle,and weakened material. A higher zinc content leadsto greater susceptibility to dezincication. To slowor prevent the process, tin, phosphorus antimony,and other inhibitors are added.

Brass valves should not be used or operating temperatures above 450°F (232.2°C). The maxi-mum operating temperature or bronze is 550°F(287.8°C).

IronIron used in valves usually conorms to ASTM A126-04: Standard Specifcation or Gray Iron Castings or

Valves, Flanges, and Pipe Fittings. Although iron-bodied valves are manuactured in sizes as small as¼-inch (6.4-mm) nominal diameter, they are mostcommonly stocked in sizes o 2 inches (50.8 mm) andabove. In these larger sizes, they are considerably lessexpensive than bronze.

The higher weight o iron valves, as comparedto bronze valves, should be considered when deter-mining hanger spacing and loads. A typical 2-inch(50.8-mm) bronze screwed globe valve rated at125 psi (861.3 kPa) weighs about 13 pounds (5.9

kg). The same valve in iron weighs 15 pounds (6.8kg) and, i specied with a yoke bonnet, about 22pounds (10 kg).

Malleable IronMalleable iron valves are stronger, stier, and tougherthan iron-bodied valves and hold tighter pressures.Its toughness is most valuable or piping subjectedto stresses and shocks.

Stainless SteelFor highly corrosive fuids, stainless steel valvesprovide the maximum corrosion resistance, highstrength, and good wearing properties. Seating sur-

aces, stems, and discs o stainless steel are suitablewhere oreign materials in the fuids handled couldhave adverse eects.

ThermoplasticMany dierent types o thermoplastic materialsare used or valve construction. Plastic valvesgenerally are limited to a maximum temperatureo 250°F (121.1°C) and a maximum pressure o 150psi (1,035 kPa).

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VALVE RATINGSMost valve manuacturers rate their products interms o saturated steam pressure, pressure o non-

shock cold water, oil, or gas (WOG), or both. Theseratings usually appear on the body o the valve. Forinstance, a valve with the markings “125” with “200 WOG” will operate saely at 125 psi (861.3 kPa) o saturated steam or 200 psi (1,378 kPa) o cold water,oil, or gas.

The engineer should be amiliar with the mark-ings on the valves specied and should keep themin mind during construction inspection. A rupturedvalve can do much damage.

VALVE COMPONENTS

StemsStem designs all into our basic categories: rising

stem with outside screw, rising stem with inside screw,nonrising stem with inside screw, and sliding stem(see Figure 3-7).

Rising Stem with Outside Screw

This design is ideal where the valve is used inre-quently and the possibility o sticking constitutes a hazard, such as in a re protection system. In thisarrangement, the screws are not subject to corrosionor elements in the line fuid that might cause damage

Figure 3-7 Valve Stems

RISING STEM WITHOUTSIDE SCREW

RISING STEM WITHINSIDE SCREW

NON-RISING STEMWITH

INSIDE SCREW

RISING STEM WITHOUTSIDE SCREW

AND YOKE

SLIDING STEM


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because they are outside the valve body. Also, being outside, they can be lubricated easily.

As with any other rising stem valve, sucientclearance must be allowed to enable a ull opening.

Rising Stem with Inside Screw

This design is the simplest and most common stemdesign or gate, globe, and angle valves. The position

o the hand wheel indicates the position o the disc,opened or closed.

Nonrising Stem

These are ideal where headroom is limited, but theygenerally are limited to use with gate valves. In thistype, the screw does not raise the stem, but ratherraises and lowers the disc. As the stem only rotatesand does not rise, wear on packings is lessenedslightly.

Sliding Stem

These are applied where quick opening and closing are required. A lever replaces the hand wheel, and

stem threads are eliminated.BonnetsIn choosing valves, the service characteristics o thebonnet joint should not be overlooked. Bonnets andbonnet joints must provide a leak-proo closure. Manymodications are available, but the three most com-mon types are screwed-in bonnet, screwed union-ring bonnet, and bolted bonnet.

Screwed-in Bonnet

This is the simplest and least expensive construction,requently used on bronze gate, globe, and anglevalves and recommended where requent dismantling

is not needed. When properly designed with running threads and careully assembled, the screwed-inbonnet makes a durable, pressure-tight seal that issuitable or many services.

Screwed Union-Ring Bonnet

This construction is convenient where valves needrequent inspection or cleaning and also or quickrenewal or changeover o the disc in composition discvalves. A separate union ring applies a direct load onthe bonnet to hold the pressure-tight joint with thebody. The turning motion used to tighten the ring issplit between the shoulders o the ring and bonnet.

Hence, the point-o-seal contact between the bonnetand the body is less subject to wear rom requentopening o the joint.

Contact aces are less likely to be damaged in han-dling. The union ring gives the body added strengthand rigidity against internal pressure and distortion.

While ideal on small valves, the screwed union-ring bonnet is impractical on large sizes.

Bolted Bonnet Joint

A practical and commonly used joint or large valvesor or high-pressure applications, the bolted bonnet joint has multiple boltings with small-diameter boltsthat permit equalized sealing pressure without theexcessive torque needed to make large threaded joints.Only small wrenches are needed.

End Connections Valves are available with screwed, welded, brazed,soldered, fared, fanged, hub, and press-tted ends.

Screwed End

The most widely used type o end connection is thescrewed end. It is ound in brass, iron, steel, and alloypiping materials. It is suited or all pressures but usu-ally is conned to small pipe sizes. It is more dicultto make the screwed joint with larger pipe sizes.

Welded End

Welded ends are available only in steel valves andttings and is mainly or high-pressure and high-

temperature services. It is recommended or lines notrequiring requent dismantling. The two welded-endtypes are butt and socket welding. Butt-welding valvesand ttings come in all sizes; socket-welding ends arelimited to small sizes.

Brazed End

Brazed ends are available in brass materials becausethe ends o such materials are specially designed orthe use o brazing alloys to make the joint. When theequipment and brazing material are heated with a welding torch to the temperature required by thealloy, a tight seal is ormed between the pipe and the

valve or tting. While made in a manner similar toa solder joint, a brazed joint can withstand highertemperatures due to the brazing materials used.

Soldered Joint

Soldered joints are used with copper tubing or plumb-ing and heating lines and or many low-pressureindustrial services. The joint is soldered by applying heat. Because o the close clearance between the tub-ing and the socket o the tting or valve, the solderfows into the joint by capillary action. The use o soldered joints under high temperatures is limitedbecause o the low melting point o the solder. Silversolder or sil-os (silver-copper-phosphorus) is used orhigh pressures and temperatures.

Flared End

The fared end is commonly used on valves and ttingsor metal and plastic tubing up to 2 inches (50.8 mm)in diameter. The end o the tubing is skirted or fared,and a ring nut is used to make a union-type joint.

Flanged End

Flanged ends generally are used when screwed orsoldered ends become impractical because o cost, size,

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or the strength o the joint. They typically are used orlarge-diameter lines due to their ease o assembly anddismantling. Flanged acings are available in variousdesigns depending on the service requirements. Oneimportant rule is to match acings. When bolting ironvalves to orged steel fanges, the acing should be o the fat ace design on both suraces.

Hub EndThe hub end generally is limited to valves or water-supply and sewage piping. The joint is assembled onthe socket principle, with the pipe inserted in the hubend o the valve or tting.

Press-Fitted End

The press-tting method involves crimping the endswith a crimping tool around an ethylene propylenediene monomer (EPDM) seal to orm a water-tightconnection.

WATER PRESSURE REGULATORS A pressure regulator is an automatic valve controlledby an inner valve connected to a diaphragm or pistonor both. The diaphragm, held in the extreme travel(open) position by a preloaded spring, is positionedin the downstream portion o the valve and closes thevalve when the desired pressure has been reached.

The eectiveness o the diaphragm and theamount o preloading must be related to allow thediaphragm to move the inner valve to the extremeopposite travel (closed) position immediately aterthe pressure on the diaphragm passes the desiredoperating pressure. To change the operating pres-sure, tension on the diaphragm is increased or de-

creased by turning the adjusting screw. A regulator typically does not go rom closed to

ully open or rom open to ully closed immediately,but moves between these extreme positions in re-sponse to system requirements. The regulator adjusts to a ully open position instantaneously only i maximum system demand is imposed quickly, whichis not a common occurrence unless the regulator isundersized. The degree o valve opening, thereore,depends entirely on the regulator’s ability to senseand respond to pressure changes.

A reducing pressure change that causes a valveto open is known as a reduced pressure all-o, or

droop, and is an inherent characteristic o all sel-operated or pilot-operated regulators. Technically,all-o is expressed as the deviation in pressure romthe set value that occurs when a regulator strokesrom the minimum fow position to a desired fowposition. The amount o all-o necessary to open a valve to its rated capacity varies with dierent typeso valves.

It is important to realize that the installation o a regulator sets up a closed system; thereore, it is

necessary to install a relie valve and expansion tankto eliminate any excessive pressure caused by ther-mal expansion o the water in the water heater orhot water storage tank.

Every manuacturer makes regulators with anintegral bypass to eliminate relie valve dripping caused by thermal expansion. During normal opera-tion, the bypass is held closed by high initial pres-sure. However, when thermal expansion pressureequals initial pressure, the bypass opens, passing theexpanded water back into the supply line. The eec-tiveness o this eature is limited to systems whereinitial pressure is less than the pressure setting o the relie valve. The integral bypass is not a replace-ment or the relie valve. It is used only to eliminateexcessive drip rom the relie valve.

Regulator Selection and Sizing Selection o the correct type o regulator dependsentirely on the accuracy o regulation required.The valve plug in oversized valves tends to remain

close to the seat, causing rapid wire drawing andexcessive wear. Unortunately, no set standard orrating a pressure-regulating valve or or sizing it to the system capacity exists. The many meth-ods proposed or selecting the proper valve areoten a cause o conusion to the engineer.

The capacity rating o a pressure-regulating valve usually is expressed in terms o some singlevalue. This value, to be useul, must speciy all o theconditions under which the rating was established.Otherwise, it is impossible to adapt it to dierentsystem conditions.

Manuacturers attempt to recognize the inherentcharacteristics o their own design and to stipulatethose actors that, in their opinion, must be consid-ered in sizing the valve to the system. Some stressthe importance o the dierence between initial andreduced pressure—the dierential pressure. Setpressure and allowable reduced pressure all-o arevery important actors in sizing a valve. A all-o o 15 to 17 psi (103.4 to 117.1 kPa) is considered rea-sonable or the average residential installation and,in well-designed valves, produces a good rating.

Another procedure or establishing valve peror-mance is based on fow rate, with a reduced pressure

all-o o 15 to 17 psi (103.4 to 117.1 kPa) below thereduced lockup or no-fow pressure. For general use,this approach provides an adequate means o valveselection. However, it is not specic enough to en-able the selection o the valve best suited to the par-ticular conditions.

Other manuacturers rate their valves based ona stipulated fow rate at a specic pressure dieren-tial, with the valve open to the atmosphere, withoutregard to changes in pressure drop when the systemdemand is zero. This method does not provide ample


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inormation or proper judgment o valve behaviorand capability, which could result in the selection o a valve that, under no-demand conditions, permitsa reduction in pressure great enough to damageequipment in the system. The maximum pressurepermitted under no-fow conditions is a very impor-tant actor, or both physical and economic reasons,and should be stipulated in the specication.

The rule o thumb requently employed is a size-to-size selection—that is, using a valve withthe same connection size as the pipeline in whichit will be installed. This is a gamble inasmuch asthe actual capacities o many valves are inadequateto satisy the service load specied or a pipeline o corresponding size. Consequently, the system maybe starved, and the equipment may operate in aninconsistent manner.

The only sound valve selection procedure to ol-low is to capacity size a valve on the basis o knownperormance data related to system requirements.

Common Regulating Valves Direct Acting, Diaphragm Actuated

This valve is simple in construction and operation,requiring minimum attention ater installation. Thedirect-acting, diaphragm-actuated pressure regulatordoes not regulate the delivery pressure with extremeaccuracy.

Pilot Operated

The pilot-controlled valve operates eciently becausethe pilot magnies the control valve travel or a givenchange in control pressure.

The pilot-type regulator consists o a small, di-

rect-acting, spring-loaded valve and a main valve.The pilot valve opens just enough to supply the nec-essary pressure to operate the main valve. Extremeaccuracy is aected as a constant load exists on theadjusting spring, and variations in initial pressurehave little eect.

Direct Acting, Balanced Piston

This valve is a combination piston and diaphragmand requires little attention ater installation. Withthe dependability o the diaphragm and the simplicityo direct action, this valve is only slightly aected byvariations in initial pressure.

Booster Pump ControlThis is a pilot-operated valve designed to eliminatepipeline surges caused by the starting and stopping o a booster pump. The pump starts against a closedvalve, and ater the pump starts a solenoid valve isenergized, slowly opening the valve and allowing theline pressure to gradually increase to ull pumping head. When the pump shuts o, the solenoid is de-energized, and the valve slowly closes as the pump

continues to run. When the valve is ully closed, thepump stops.

Level Control

This non-modulating valve is used to accurately con-trol the liquid level in a tank. The valve opens ullywhen a preset liquid low point is reached and closesdrip tight when the preset high point is reached.

This is a hydraulically operated diaphragm valvewith the pilot control and foat mechanism mountedon the cover.

Common Tpes o Regulator Installations

Single Regulator in Supply Line

This type o installation is most common in domesticservice and is sel-explanatory.

Two Regulators in Series in Supply Line

This type o installation provides extra protectionwhen the main pressure is so excessive that it mustbe reduced to two stages to prevent high-velocitynoise in the system.

Multiple Regulators Used as a Battery inSupply Line

In many instances, a battery installation is preerableto the use o a single valve, as it provides more preciseregulation over a wide demand variation.

This type o installation consists o a group o parallel regulators, all receiving water rom a com-mon maniold. Ater fowing through the battery o valves, water enters a common maniold o sucientsize to service the system at the reduced pressure.The battery installation is advantageous because itallows maintenance work to be perormed without

the necessity o turning o the entire system. It alsoprovides better perormance where demands varyrom one extreme to the other.

For example, at a school with a 3-inch (76.2-mm)service, demand on drinking ountains during class-es may be approximately 6 to 7 gallons per minute(gpm) (22.7 to 26.5 lpm). However, between classes,when all services are in use, the demand may be ata maximum. With a single 3-inch (76.2-mm) regu-lator in the system, when the aucet is turned on,the regulator must open to allow a small draw. Eachtime this is done, it cuts down on the service lie o the large regulator.

In comparison, with a battery installation o twoor three regulators set at a graduated pressure, withthe smallest valve set 2- to 3-psi (13.8- to 20.7-kPa)higher than the larger ones, the system is more e-cient. For a small demand, only the smallest valveopens. As the demand increases, the larger valvesalso open, providing the system with the capacity o all valves in the battery.


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VALVE SIZING AND PRESSURELOSSES Valve size and valve pressure losses can be determinedutilizing a fow coecient (C V ), which is the numbero gallons per minute (lpm) that will pass througha valve with a pressure drop o 1 psi (6.9 kPa). C V is determined by physically counting the number o

gallons (liters) that pass through a valve with 1-psi(6.9-kPa) applied pressure to the valve inlet and zeropressure at the outlet. The C V coecient or specicvalves can be obtained rom the valve manuacturer.Since the C V actor varies in relation to valve size,the C V can be used to determine the proper size valveor the amount o fow at a given pressure drop or,conversely, the pressure drop at a given fow. Theormulas or this are:

Equation 3-1a

Q = C V √P/G

Equation 3-1b

C V =Q

√∆P/G

Equation 3-1c

∆P = [Q/C V ]2

G

whereG = Specic gravity o the fuid

∆P = Pressure drop across the valveQ = Flow through the valve

C V = Valve fow coecient

HOT AND COLD DOMESTIC WATERSERVICE VALVE SPECIFICATIONS

Gate Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be class 125, rated125-psi SWP and 200-psi nonshock CWP, and have a rising stem. The body, union bonnet, and solid wedgeshall be o ASTM B62 cast bronze with soldered ends.Stems shall be o dezincication-resistant siliconbronze (ASTM B371 ) or low-zinc alloy (ASTM B99 ). Packing glands shall be bronze (ASTM B62), witharamid ber nonasbestos packing and malleable hand

wheel. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-80.

Gate Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 125, rated100-psi SWP and 150-psi nonshock CWP, and have aniron body and bronze-mounted outside screw and yoke(OS&Y). The body and bolted bonnet shall conormto ASTM A126 class B cast iron, with fanged ends,aramid ber nonasbestos packing, and two-piecepacking gland assembly. Valves shall comply withMSS SP-70.

All domestic water valves 4 inches and largerthat are buried in the ground shall be o iron bodyand bronze tted, with an O-ring stem seal. Theyshall have epoxy coating (AWWA C550) inside andoutside and a resilient-seated gate valve with non-rising stem and mechanical joint or fanged ends asrequired. All valves urnished shall open let. Allinternal parts shall be accessible without removing the valve body rom the line. Valves shall conormto ANSI/AWWA C509.

Ball Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be rated 150-psiSWP and 600-psi nonshock CWP and have two-piece,cast brass bodies, replaceable reinorced Tefon seats,¼-inch to 1-inch ull port or 1¼-inch to 2-inch conven-tional port, blowout-proo stems, chrome-plated brassball, and threaded, soldered, or press-t ends. Valvesshall comply with MSS SP-110. Provide extendedstems or valves in insulated piping.

Globe Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be class 125 andrated 125-psi SWP and 200-psi nonshock CWP. Thebody and bonnet shall be o ASTM B62 cast bronzecomposition with threaded or soldered ends. Stemsshall be o dezincication-resistant silicon bronze(ASTM B371) or low-zinc alloy (ASTM B99). Pack-ing glands shall be bronze (ASTM B62), with aramidber nonasbestos packing and malleable hand wheel. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-80.

Globe Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 125 andrated 125-psi SWP and 200-psi nonshock CWP. Theyshall have an iron body, bronze mounted, and OS&Y,with the body and bolted bonnet conorming to ASTM A126 class B cast iron, with fanged ends, aramid bernonasbestos packing, and two-piece packing glandassembly. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-85.

Butterf Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be rated 200-psinonshock CWP and have a lug or IPS grooved-typebody with a 2-inch extended neck or insulating. Theyshall be cast or ductile iron (ASTM A536 or ASTM A126) with an aluminum bronze disc, 416 stainlesssteel stem, EPDM O-ring stem seals, and resilient,

EPDM cartridge-lined seat.Sizes 2½ inches to 6 inches shall be lever operated

with a 10-position throttling plate.Sizes 8 inches to 12 inches shall have gear opera-

tors. Sizes 14 inches and larger shall have worm gearoperators only. They are suitable or use as bidirec-tional isolation valves and, as recommended by themanuacturer, on dead-end service at ull pressurewithout the need or downstream fanges.

Valves shall comply with MSS SP-67.

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Note: Butterfy valves in dead-end service requireboth upstream and downstream fanges or propershuto and retention or must be certied by themanuacturer or dead-end service without down-stream fanges.

Check Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be class 125 and

rated 125-psi SWP and 200-psi nonshock CWP. Theyshall have threaded or soldered ends, with the bodyand cap conorming to ASTM B62 cast bronze com-position and a Y-pattern swing-type disc. Valves shallcomply with MSS SP-80

Note: Class 150 valves meeting the above speci-cations may be used where system pressure re-quires. For class 125 seat discs, speciy Buna-N or WOG service and TFE or steam service. For class150 seat discs, speciy TFE or steam service.

Check Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 125 and

rated 125-psi SWP and 200-psi nonshock CWP. Theyshall have an iron body, bronze mounted, with thebody and bolted bonnet conorming to ASTM A126class B cast iron, with fanged ends, swing-type disc,and nonasbestos gasket. Valves shall comply withMSS SP-71.

Alternative check valves (2½ inches and larger)shall be class 125/250 iron body, bronze mounted, wa-er check valves, with ends designed or fanged-typeconnection, aluminum bronze disc, EPDM seats, 316stainless steel torsion spring, and hinge pin.

A spring-actuated check valve is to be used onpump discharge. A swing check with outside lever

and spring (not center guided) is to be used on sew-age ejectors or storm water sump pumps.

COMPRESSED AIR SERVICE VALVESPECIFICATIONS

Ball Valves 2 Inches and SmallerMain line valves 2 inches and smaller shall be rated150-psi SWP and 600-psi nonshock CWP. They shallhave two-piece, cast bronze bodies, with reinorcedTefon seats, a ull port, blowout-proo stems, chrome-plated brass ball, and threaded or soldered ends. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-110.

Branch line valves 2 inches and smaller shall berated 150-psi SWP and 600-psi nonshock CWP andhave two-piece, cast bronze (ASTM B584) bodies withreinorced Tefon seats. Full-port ¼-inch to 1-inchvalves and conventional-port 1¼-inch to 2-inchvalves require blowout-proo stems, a chrome-platedbrass ball with a saety vent hole on the downstreamside, threaded or soldered ends, and lockout/tagouthandles, which must meet the requirements o Occu-pational Saety and Health Administration (OSHA)

29 CFR Section 1910.147. Valves shall comply withMSS SP-110.

Butterf Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be rated 200-psinonshock CWP. Valves shall be lug or IPS, grooved-type body and shall be cast or ductile iron (ASTM A536) with a Buna-N seat, ductile iron, aluminum

bronze disc, ASTM A582 Type 416 stainless steelstem, and Buna-N O-ring stem seals.

Sizes 2½ inches to 6 inches shall be lever operatedwith a 10-position throttling plate.

Sizes 8 inches to 12 inches shall have gear opera-tors. Lever-operated valves shall be designed to belocked in the open or closed position. Butterfy valveson dead-end service or valves needing additional bodystrength shall be lug type conorming to ASTM A536ductile iron, drilled and tapped, with other materialsand eatures as specied above.

Valves shall comply with MSS SP-67.Note: Dead-end service requires lug-pattern or

grooved-type bodies. For dead-end service, fangesare required upstream and downstream or propershuto and retention, or valves must be certiedby the manuacturer or dead-end service withoutdownstream fanges. Ductile iron bodies are pre-erred; however, cast iron may be acceptable.

Check Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be o class 125 andrated 125-psi SWP and 200-psi nonshock CWP. Theyshall have threaded ends, with the body and capconorming to ASTM B62 cast bronze composition, Y-pattern, swing-type with TFE seat disc, or spring-

loaded lit type with resilient seating. Valves shallcomply with MSS SP-80.

Check Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 125, rated200-psi nonshock CWP, and have a maximum temper-ature o 200°F. They shall have an ASTM A126 class Bcast iron body, waer-check valve with ends designedor fanged-type connections, Buna-N resilient seatsmolded to the body, bronze disc, 316 stainless steeltorsion spring, and a hinge pin. Valves shall conormto ANSI B16.10.

Note: I the compressor is the reciprocating

type, check valves shall be downstream o the re-ceiver tank.

VACUUM SERVICE VALVESPECIFICATIONS

Ball Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be rated 150-psi SWPand 600-psi nonshock CWP. They shall have two-piece,cast brass bodies, reinorced Tefon seats, a ull port,blowout-proo stems, a chrome-plated brass ball, and


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threaded or soldered ends. Valves shall comply withMSS SP-110.

Butterf Valves 2½ Inches and Larger

Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be rated 200-psinonshock CWP. Valves shall be lug or IPS grooved-type body with a 2-inch extended neck or insulating and shall be cast or ductile iron (ASTM A536) with

a Buna-N seat, ductile iron, aluminum bronze disc(ASTM A582), type 416 stainless steel stem, andBuna-N O-ring stem seals.

Sizes 2½ inches to 6 inches shall be lever operatedwith a 10-position throttling plate.

Sizes 8 inches to 12 inches shall have gear opera-tors. Lever-operated valves shall be designed to belocked in the open or closed position.

For butterfy valves on dead-end service or re-quiring additional body strength, valves shall be lug type, conorming to ASTM A536 ductile iron, drilledand tapped, with other materials and eatures asspecied above.

Valves shall comply with MSS SP-67.Note: Dead-end service requires lug-pattern or

grooved-type bodies. For dead-end service, fangesare required upstream and downstream or propershuto and retention, or valves must be certiedby the manuacturer or dead-end service withoutdownstream fanges. Ductile iron bodies are pre-erred; however, cast iron may be acceptable.

MEDICAL GAS SERVICE VALVESPECIFICATIONS

Ball Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be rated 600-psinonshock CWP and 200 psi or medical gas. Theyshall have three-piece, cast bronze (ASTM B584)bodies, replaceable reinorced TFE seats, a ull port,blowout-proo stems, a chrome-plated brass/bronzeball, and brazed ends. Valves shall be provided by themanuacturer cleaned and bagged or oxygen service. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-110.

Ball Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be rated 600-psinonshock CWP and 200 psi or medical gas. Theyshall have three-piece, cast bronze (ASTM B584)bodies, replaceable reinorced TFE seats, a ull port,

blowout-proo stems, a chrome-plated brass/bronzeball, and brazed ends. Valves shall be provided by themanuacturer cleaned and bagged or oxygen service. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-110.

Note: Where piping is insulated, ball valves shallbe equipped with 2-inch extended handles o a non-thermal, conductive material. Also, a protectivesleeve that allows operation o the valve withoutbreaking the vapor seal or disturbing the insulationshould be provided.

LOW-PRESSURE STEAM ANDGENERAL SERVICE VALVESPECIFICATIONSThis includes service up to 125 psi (861.8 kPa) satu-rated steam to 353°F (178°C).

Butterf ValvesButterfy valves are not allowed in steam service un-less stated as acceptable or the application by themanuacturer.

Gate Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be class 125, rated125-psi SWP and 200-psi nonshock CWP, and have a rising stem. The body, union bonnet, and solid wedgeshall be o ASTM B62 cast bronze with threaded ends.Stems shall be o dezincication-resistant siliconbronze (ASTM B371) or low-zinc alloy (ASTM B99).Packing glands shall be bronze (ASTM B62), witharamid iber nonasbestos packing and malleablehand wheel.

Class 150 valves meeting the above specicationsmay be used where pressures approach 100 psi.


Gate Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 125 andrated 100-psi SWP and 150-psi nonshock CWP. Theyshall have an iron body, bronze-mounted, and OS&Y,with the body and bolted bonnet conorming to ASTM A126 class B cast iron, with fanged ends, aramidber nonasbestos packing, and two-piece packing gland assembly.

Class 250 valves meeting the above specications

may be used where pressures approach 100 psi. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-70.

Ball Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be 150-psi SWP and600-psi nonshock CWP, WOG. They shall have two-piece, cast bronze bodies, reinorced Tefon seats, a ull port, blowout-proo stems, an adjustable packing gland, a stainless steel ball and stem, and threadedends. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-110.

Note: A standard port may be used where pres-sure drop is not a concern. For on/o service, useball valves with stainless steel balls. For throttling,

use globe valves.Globe Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be class 125,rated 125-psi SWP and 200-psi nonshock CWP, andhave a body and bonnet o ASTM B62 cast bronzecomposition, with threaded ends. Stems shall be o dezincication-resistant silicon bronze (ASTM B371)or low-zinc alloy (ASTM B99). Packing glands shall beo bronze (ASTM B62), with aramid ber nonasbes-

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tos packing and malleable hand wheel. Valves shallcomply with MSS SP-80.

Globe Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 125 andrated 125-psi SWP and 200-psi nonshock CWP. Theyshall have an iron body, bronze-mounted, and OS&Y,with the body and bolted bonnet conorming to ASTM

A126 class B cast iron, with fanged ends, aramidber nonasbestos packing, and two-piece packing gland assembly.

Class 250 valves meeting the above specicationsmay be used where pressures approach 100 psi.


Check Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be class 125 andrated 125-psi SWP and 200-psi nonshock CWP. Theyshall have threaded ends with the body and capconorming to ASTM B62 cast bronze composition, Y-pattern swing type with TFE seat disc, or spring-

loaded lit type with resilient seating. Valves shallcomply with MSS SP-80.Note: Class 150 valves meeting the above speci-

cations may be used where system pressure requiresthem. For class 150 seat discs, TFE or steam serviceshould be specied.

Check Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 125 andrated 125-psi SWP and 200-psi nonshock CWP. Theyshall have an iron body, bronze mounted, with thebody and bolted bonnet conorming to ASTM A126class B cast iron, with fanged ends, a swing-typedisc, and nonasbestos gasket. Valves shall complywith MSS SP-71.

MEDIUM-PRESSURE STEAMSERVICE VALVE SPECIFICATIONSThis includes up to 200-psi (1,379 kPa) saturatedsteam to 391°F (201°C).

Butterf ValvesButterfy valves are not allowed in steam service un-less stated as acceptable or the application by themanuacturer.

Gate Valves 2 Inches and Smaller

Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be class 200 andrated 200-psi SWP and 400-psi nonshock CWP. Theyshall have a rising stem, and the body and union bon-net shall be o ASTM B61 cast bronze, with threadedends, ASTM B584 solid wedge, silicon bronze ASTMB371 stem, bronze ASTM B62 or ASTM B584 pack-ing gland, aramid ber nonasbestos packing, andmalleable hand wheel. Valves shall comply with MSSSP-80.

Gate Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 250 andrated 250-psi SWP and 500-psi nonshock CWP. Theyshall have an iron body and bronze-mounted OS&Y,with the body and bolted bonnet conorming to ASTM A126 class B cast iron, with fanged ends, aramid bernonasbestos packing, and two-piece packing gland

assembly. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-70.Globe Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be class 200, rated200-psi SWP and 400-psi nonshock CWP. They shallhave a rising stem, body and union bonnet o ASTMB61 cast bronze, threaded ends, ASTM A276 type 420stainless steel plug-type disc and seat ring, siliconbronze ASTM B371 alloy stem, bronze ASTM B62 or ASTM B584 packing gland, aramid ber nonasbestospacking, and malleable iron hand wheel. Valves shallcomply with MSS SP-80.

Globe Valves 2½ Inches and Larger

Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 250, rated250-psi SWP and 500-psi nonshock CWP. They shallhave an iron body and bronze-mounted OS&Y, withthe body and bolted bonnet conorming to ASTM A126 class B cast iron, with fanged ends, aramidber nonasbestos packing, and two-piece packing gland assembly.

Where steam pressure approaches 150 psi or 366°F,gray iron or ductile iron shall be used.


Check Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be class 200, rated

200-psi SWP and 400-psi nonshock CWP. They shallhave threaded ends with the body and cap conorm-ing to ASTM B61 cast bronze composition and a Y-pattern swing-type disc. Valves shall comply withMSS SP-80.

Check Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 250, rated250-psi SWP and 500-psi nonshock CWP. They shallhave an iron body, bronze mounted, with the bodyand bolted bonnet conorming to ASTM A126 classB cast iron, with fanged ends and a swing-type discassembly.

Where steam pressure approaches 150 psi or 366°F,gray iron or ductile iron shall be used.


HIGH-PRESSURE STEAM SERVICEVALVE SPECIFICATIONSThis includes up to 300-psi (2,068.4-kPa) saturatedsteam to 421°F (216°C).

Gate Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be class 300 andrated 300-psi SWP. They shall have a rising stem,


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and the body and union bonnet shall be o ASTMB61 cast bronze composition, with threaded ends,bronze ASTM B61 disc, bronze ASTM B371 stem,stainless steel ASTM A276 type 410 seat rings, bronzepacking gland, aramid ber nonasbestos packing,and malleable hand wheel. Valves shall comply withMSS SP-80.

Gate Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 300, rated300-psi SWP, and have a cast carbon steel (ASTM A216) wrought-carbon grade B (WCB) body and boltedbonnet. The disc and stem shall be ASTM A217 gradeCA 15, cast 12–14 percent chromium stainless steel,with stellite-aced seat rings, fanged ends, and two-piece packing gland assembly. Valves shall complywith MSS SP-70.

Globe Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be class 300, rated300-psi SWP. They shall have a body and union bon-

net o ASTM B61 cast bronze composition, threadedends, stainless steel ASTM A276 hardened plug-typedisc and seat ring, silicon bronze ASTM B371 stem,bronze ASTM B62 or ASTM B584 packing gland, ar-amid ber nonasbestos packing, and malleable handwheel. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-80.

Globe Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 300, rated300-psi SWP. They shall have a cast carbon steel ASTM A216 grade WCB body and bolted bonnet. The disc,stem, and seat rings shall be ASTM A217 grade CA 15, cast 12–14 percent chromium stainless steel, withfanged or welded ends and two-piece packing glandassembly. Valves shall comply with MSS SP-85.

Check Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be class 300, rated300-psi SWP. They shall have threaded ends with thebody and cap conorming to ASTM B61 cast bronzecomposition and a Y-pattern swing-type disc. Valvesshall comply with MSS SP-80.

Check Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be class 300, rated300-psi SWP. They shall have a cast carbon steel, ASTM A216 grade WCB body and bolted bonnet.

The disc and seat ring shall be ASTM A217 gradeCA 15, cast 12–14 percent chromium stainless steel,with fanged or welded ends. Valves shall comply withMSS SP-71.

HIGH-TEMPERATURE HOT WATERSERVICE VALVE SPECIFICATIONSThis includes service to 450°F (232.2°C).

Nonlubricated Plug Valves Valves shall be ANSI class 300, 70 percent port, withnonlubricated wedge plug and bolted bonnet. Thebody, bonnet, and packing gland fange shall be castcarbon steel (ASTM A216) grade WCB.

The plug shall be cast rom high-tensile, heat-treated alloy iron with two Tefon O-rings inserted

into dovetail-shaped grooves machined into the plug ace. The O-rings shall provide double seating andensure vapor-tight shuto on both the upstreamand downstream seats. Valves are to be seated inboth the open and closed positions to protect thebody seats.

The stem shall be high-strength alloy steel con-orming to American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)4150 and sulphurized, with ace-to-ace dimensionsto meet ANSI B16.10.

Each valve shall be provided with a position indi-cator or visual indication o the 90-degree rotationo the plug. Valves are to be equipped with a provi-

sion or bypass connections.For valves 3 inches and smaller, the operator shall

be a hand wheel or wrench. Valves 4 inches and larg-er shall have an enclosed gear with a hand wheel.

Each valve shall be certied to have passed theollowing minimum test requirements: 1,100-psihydrostatic shell test and 750-psi hydrostatic (bothsides to be tested) and 100-psi air underwater (bothsides to be tested) seat test.

GASOLINE AND LPG SERVICE VALVESPECIFICATIONS

Plug Valves

Valves shall be ANSI class 150, 70 percent port, withnonlubricated tapered plug and bolted bonnet. Valvebody shall be ASTM A216 grade WCB steel with a drainplug suitable or double block and bleed service.

The plug seals shall be two Tefon O-rings insert-ed into dovetail-shaped grooves machined into theplug ace. The plug shall lit clear o the seats beorerotating 90 degrees.

End connections shall be ANSI class 150 raisedace and fanged. Face-to-ace dimensions are tomeet ANSI B16.10.

FIRE PROTECTION SySTEM VALVE

SPECIFICATIONSGate Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be o class 175-psiwater working pressure (WWP) or greater, and thebody and bonnet shall conorm to ASTM B62 castbronze composition, with threaded ends, OS&Y, andsolid disc. They shall be listed by UL, be FM approved,and be in compliance with MSS SP-80.

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Gate Valves 2½ Inches and Larger Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be rated 175-psi WWP or greater. They shall have an iron body, bronzemounted or with resilient rubber-encapsulated wedge,and the body and bonnet shall conorm to ASTM A126class B cast iron, with OS&Y and class 125 fangedor grooved ends. I o the resilient-wedge design, the

interior o the valve is to be epoxy coated. Valves shallmeet or exceed AWWA C509. Valves are to be UL listed,FM approved, and in compliance with MSS SP-70.

Valves 4 Inches and Larger orUnderground Bur These shall be rated 200-psi WWP or greater, andthe body and bonnet shall conorm to ASTM A126class B cast iron, bronze mounted, resilient-seatedgate valve with nonrising stem, with O-ring stemseal, epoxy coating (AWWA C550) inside and outside,and fanged or mechanical joint ends as required. Allvalves urnished shall open let. All internal partsshall be accessible without removing the valve bodyrom the line. Valves shall conorm to AWWA C509. Valves shall come with a mounting plate or an in-dicator post and be UL listed, FM approved, and incompliance with MSS SP-70.

When required, a vertical indicator post may beused on underground valves. Posts must provide a means o knowing i the valve is open or closed. Indi-cator posts must be UL listed and FM approved.

HIGH-RISE SERVICE VALVESPECIFICATIONS

Gate Valves 2½ Inches to 12 Inches

Gate valves 2½ inches to 10 inches shall be rated 300-psi WWP or greater. 12 inches shall be rated 250-psi WWP. They shall have an iron body, bronze mounted,with the body and bonnet conorming to ASTM A126class B cast iron, OS&Y, and fanged ends or use withclass 250/300 fanges. They shall be UL listed, FMapproved, and in compliance with MSS SP-70.

Check Valves 2½ Inches to 12 InchesCheck valves 2½ inches to 10 inches shall be rated300-psi WWP or greater. 12 inches shall be rated250-psi WWP. They shall have an iron body, bronzemounted, with a horizontal swing check design, and

the body and bonnet shall conorm to ASTM A126class B cast iron, with fanged ends or use with class250/300 fanges. They shall be UL listed, FM ap-proved, and in compliance with MSS SP-71.

Note: In New York City, valves are to be approvedby the New York City Materials and Equipment Ac-ceptance Division (MEA) in addition to the abovespecications.

Ball Valves 2 Inches and Smaller Valves 2 inches and smaller shall be constructed o commercial bronze (ASTM B584) and rated 175-psi WWP or higher, with reinorced TFE seats. Valvesshall have a gear operator with a raised position in-dicator and two internal supervisory switches. Valvesshall have threaded or IPS grooved ends and shall

have blowout-proo stems and chrome-plated balls.They shall be UL listed, FM approved, and in compli-ance with MSS SP-110 or re protection service.

Butterf Valves 4 Inches to 12 InchesButterfy valves may be substituted or gate valveswhere appropriate. Valves shall be rated or 250-psi WWP and 175-psig working pressure, UL listed, FMapproved, and in compliance with MSS SP-67.

Valves urnished shall have a ductile iron (ASTM A536) body and may have ductile iron (ASTM A395)(nickel-plated) discs or aluminum bronze discs, de-pending on local water conditions. In addition, thewaer style or installation between class 125/150fanges or the lug style or grooved body may be speci-ed depending on the system’s needs.

Valves shall be equipped with weatherproo gear,operator rated or indoor and outdoor use with handwheel, and have a raised position indicator with twointernal supervisory switches.

Check Valves Valves 2½ inches and larger shall be 500-psi WWPand have a bolted bonnet, and the body and bonnetshall conorm to ASTM A126 class B cast iron, withfanged end composition Y-pattern, horizontal swing-type disc. They shall be UL listed, FM approved, and

in compliance with MSS SP-71 type 1 or re protec-tion service.

GLOSSARy

Ball valve A valve consisting o a single drilledball that is operated by a handle attached to thevertical axis o the ball, which permits fuid fowin a straight-through direction. The ball withinthe valve body may be rotated ully opened or ullyclosed by a one-quarter turn o the handle.

Body The part o a valve that attaches to the pipe-line or equipment—with screwed ends, fanged

ends, or soldered/welded joint ends—and enclosesthe working parts o the valve.

Bolted bonnet A type o bonnet constructed sothat it attaches to the valve body by means o a fanged, bolted connection. The whole bonnet as-sembly, including the hand wheel, stem, and disc,may be quickly removed by unscrewing the nutsrom the bonnet stud bolts.

Bonnet The part o the valve housing throughwhich the stem extends. It provides support and


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protection to the stem and houses the stem pack-ing. It may be screwed or bolted to the body.

Buttery valve A type o valve consisting o a single disc that is operated by a handle attachedto the disc, which permits fuid fow in a straight-through direction. The valve is bidirectional. Thedisc within the valve body may be rotated ully

open or ully closed by a one-quarter turn o thehandle.

Cap The top part o the housing o a check valve(equivalent to the bonnet o a gate or globe valve),which may be either screwed or bolted onto themain body.

Check valve An automatic, sel-closing valve thatpermits fow in only one direction. It automaticallycloses by gravity when liquid ceases to fow in thatdirection.

Clapper A common term that is used to describethe disc o a swing-type check valve.

Disc The disc-shaped device that is attached to thebottom o a valve stem and is brought into contactwith or lited o the seating suraces to close oropen a globe valve or butterfy valve.

Full port A term meaning that the area throughthe valve is equal to or greater than the area o standard pipe.

Gate valve A valve that is used to open or close o the fow o fuid through a pipe. It is so named be-cause o the wedge (gate) that is either raised outo or lowered into a double-seated sluice to permit

ull fow or completely shut o fow. The passage-way through a gate valve is straight through, un-interrupted, and the ull size o the pipeline intowhich the valve is installed.

Gland bushing A metal bushing installed be-tween the packing nut and the packing to trans-mit the orce exerted by the packing nut againstthe packing.

Globe valve A valve that is used or throttling orregulating fow through a pipe. It is so named be-cause o the globular shape o the body. The discis raised o a horizontal seating surace to permit

fow or lowered against the horizontal seating sur-ace to shut o fow. The disc may be lited com-pletely to permit ull fow or lited only slightly tothrottle or regulate fow. The fow through a globevalve has to make two 90-degree turns.

Hand wheel The wheel-shaped turning device bywhich a valve stem is rotated, thus liting or lower-ing the disc or wedge.

Hinge pin The valve part that the disc or clappero a check valve swings.

Lit check valve A check valve using a disc thatlits o the seat to allow fow. When fow decreases,the disc starts closing and seals beore reverse fowoccurs.

Outside screw and yoke (OS&Y) A type o bon-net so constructed that the operating threads o the stem are outside the valve housing, where they

may be lubricated easily and do not come into con-tact with the fuid fowing through the valve.

Packing A general term describing any yielding material used to aect a tight joint. Valve packing is generally jam packing, or pushed into a stung box and adjusted rom time to time by tightening a packing gland or packing nut.

Packing gland A device that holds and compress-es the packing and provides additional compres-sion by manual adjustment o the gland as wearo the packing occurs. A packing gland may bescrewed or bolted in place.

Packing nut A nut that is screwed into place andpresses down on a gland bushing, which transmitsthe orce exerted by the packing nut to the pack-ing. It serves the same purpose as the packing gland.

Rising stem A threaded component that is un-screwed or screwed through the valve bonnet toopen or close a valve. The hand wheel may risewith the stem, or the stem may rise through thehand wheel.

Screwed bonnet A type o bonnet so constructedthat it attaches to the valve body by means o a

screwed joint. A bonnet may be attached to thebody by screwing over the body or inside the bodyor by means o a union-type screwed connection.

Solid wedge A wedge consisting o one solid pieceinto which the valve stem is attached, so it sealsagainst the valve seating suraces to ensure a tightseal when the valve is closed.

Split wedge A wedge consisting o two pieces intowhich the valve stem is screwed, so it expands thetwo pieces against the valve seating suraces to en-sure a tight seal when the valve is closed.

Standard port A term meaning that the area through the valve is less than the area o standardpipe.

Stem The usually threaded shat to which thehand wheel is attached at the top and the discor wedge at the lower end. The stem also may becalled the spindle.

Stop plug An adjusting screw that extends throughthe body o a check valve. It adjusts and controlsthe extent o movement o the disc or clapper.

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Swing check valve A check valve that uses a hinged disc or clapper to limit the direction o fow.The pressure exerted by the fuid fowing throughthe valve orces the disc away rom the seating surace. When the fow ceases, the clapper alls toits original position, preventing fow in the oppo-site direction.

Union A coupling tting consisting o three parts(shoulder piece, thread piece, and ring) that isused or coupling the ends o pipe sections. Adjoin-ing aces o shoulder and thread pieces are lappedtogether to orm a tight joint. Unions permit easydisconnection or repair and replacement o piping and ttings.

Union bonnet A type o bonnet so constructedthat the whole bonnet assembly, including thehand wheel, stem, and disc assembly, may be re-moved quickly by unscrewing the bonnet unionring rom the valve body.

Union ring A large nut-like component that se-cures the union thread and the union shoulder to-gether. It slips over and against the shoulder pieceand screws onto the union thread piece.

Union shoulder piece The part o the union as-tened to the pipe that retains the union ring.

Union threaded piece The part o the union that

is astened to the pipe and has external threadsover which the union ring is screwed to eect a coupling.

Wedge The wedge-shaped device that ts into theseating suraces o a gate valve and is drawn outo contact with the seating suraces to permit fowor is pushed down into contact with the seating suraces to close o fow with the valve. (See alsodisc.)


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Pumps4The most common type o pump used in plumbing systems is the centriugal pump, although someapplications require other types. For plumbing, thecentriugal pump stands out because o its simpledesign and suitable head (pressure). Further, itsrotational speed matches that o commonly avail-

able electric motors; drive belts or gears are rarelyemployed. With small sizes, the motor shat is typi-cally coupled directly to the pump impeller, resulting in a compact design and a simple installation, evenor re pumps.

This chapter ocuses on centriugal pumps, butpumps in general are explored, including dierencesin pump types, perormance characteristics, applica-tions, installation, and environmental issues.

APPLICATIONSPump applications in plumbing include specialtypumps or liquid supplies, pressure boosters ordomestic water supply, similar supply pumps orre suppression, water circulation or temperaturemaintenance, and elevation increases or drainagesystems. Except or the circulation application, pumpsystems theoretically are open systems, meaning thatthe liquid is transerred rom one reservoir to anothero a higher elevation. The applications vary in thenature o the liquid, the duty—whether or daily useor or rare reghting use—and the magnitude o elevation changes.

PUMP BASICS

Machines that move water, or any liquid, are calledturbomachines. Commonly reerred to as pumps,these machines add energy to the liquid, resulting ina higher pressure downstream. This added energy iscalled head, which reers back to the days o dams andwater wheels. The descent o water was expressed asa level o energy per pound o water. The water de-scended adjacent to the dam through the water wheel,and the vertical distance between the water levels oneither side o the dam was measured. In contrast to

water wheels, all pumps add energy, but the amountis expressed in the same terminology.

In theory, i a suciently tall, open-top verticalpipe is mounted on a pipe both downstream and up-stream o a pump, the liquid level in both can be ob-served. The level downstream will be higher than the

level upstream. This dierence in elevation betweenthe two levels is called the total head or the pump. Another element o pump head is the dierence inelevation between the upstream pipe and the pump;a distinction is made i the upstream elevation isabove or below the elevation o the pump inlet.

Pump Tpes and ComponentsFor all pumps, the basic parts consist o a passage anda moving surace. The passage is simply reerred to asthe pump casing. A prime mover, such as an electricmotor but sometimes an engine, adds torque to themoving surace. Other parts include shat bearings

and various seals, such as the shat seal.Pumps may be categorized as positive displacement,

centriugal, axial, or mixed fow. Positive-displacementpumps deliver energy in successive isolated quantitieswhether by a moving plunger, piston, diaphragm, orrotary element. Clearances are minimized betweenthe moving and unmoving parts, resulting in onlyinsignicant leaks past the moving parts. Commonrotary elements include vanes, lobes, and gears.

When a pump with a rotating surace has signi-cant clearance between itsel and the stationary pas-sage, the pump does not have positive displacement.I the direction o discharge rom the rotating sur-

ace, called the impeller, radiates in a plane perpen-dicular to the shat, the pump is a centriugal pump.I the direction is inline with the shat, the pump isaxial. I the direction is partly radial and partly axi-al, the pump is mixed fow. Examples o a centriugalpump, an axial pump, and a positive-displacementpump, respectively, include an automobile waterpump, a boat propeller, and the human heart.

Compared to positive-displacement pumps, cen-triugal and axial pumps are simple and compact

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and do not have fow pulsations. Centriugal pumpsprovide greater total head than similarly sized axialpumps, but they provide lower fow. The operation o a centriugal pump includes the outward, radial projection o the liquid rom the impeller as it rotates.In addition, i a gradual expanding passage is provid-ed ater the impeller, the high velocity is convertedto a high static pressure. This idea ollows the law o conservation o energy and is quantied in Bernoul-li’s equation. I the expanding passage wraps aroundthe impeller, it is called a volute.

The quantity and angle o the blades on the im-peller and the shape o the blades vary. They may betwo straight blades positioned radially, many curvedblades angled orward, or more commonly, manyblades angled backward to the direction o rotation. While orward blades theoretically impart greatervelocity, the conversion to pressure is unstable ex-cept within a narrow speed range.

Pipes generally connect to pumps with standardfanges, but they may also connect by pipe threads orsolder joints. The centerline o the inlet pipe may bealigned with the pump shat. Figure 4-1 shows thistype; it is reerred to as an end-suction design. Theoutlet generally alls within the plane o the impel-ler. I the inlet and outlet connections align as i in a continuation o the pipe run, as shown in Figure 4-2,the pump is reerred to as inline.

Casing materials are generally cast iron and, ordomestic water supply, cast bronze. Other materialsinclude stainless steel and various polymers. Impel-

ler materials also include cast iron, bronze, and vari-ous polymers. Pump bearings and motor bearingsvary between traditional sleeves and roller elementssuch as steel ball bearings. Bearings on each side o the impeller minimize shat stresses compared to a pair o bearings on one side. At the other extreme,the pump itsel has no bearings, and all hydraulicorces are applied to the motor bearings. The combi-nation o these materials, design eatures, and arrayo pump sizes results in pumps being the most var-ied o the world’s manuactured products.

The greatest pressure in any pumped system iswithin the pump casing, which includes the shat

seal. Another concern with this seal occurs when thepump is not operating, when a stored supply o pres-sure applies continuous static head against the seal.This seal traditionally has been designed with a fex-ible composite material stued around a clearancebetween the shat and the hub portion o the pumpcasing, reerred to as a stung box. A mechanicalarrangement applies pressure to the fexible mate-rial through routine adjustments. Some leakage isdeliberately required, so provisions or the tricklefow must be included, such as with the installationo a foor drain.

Another seal design consists o a simple O-ring.

More advanced seals include the mechanical sealand the wet rotor design. In a mechanical seal, theinterace o two polished suraces lies perpendicularto the shat. One is keyed and sealed to the shat,and the other is keyed and sealed to the pump cas-ing. Both are held together by a spring and a fexibleboot. Some pumps include two sets o these seals,and the space between them is monitored or leak-age. Oten, a special fow diversion continuouslyfushes the seal area.

Figure 4-1 Portion o a Close-Coupled Centriugal PumpWith an End-Suction Design

Figure 4-2 Inline Centriugal Pump with a Vertical ShatPhoto courtesy o Peerless Pump Co.


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Chapter 4 — Pumps 93

In the wet rotor design, the rotor winding o themotor and the motor bearings are immersed in thewater fow and are separated rom the dry statorby a thin, stationary, stainless steel shield called a canister. The shield imparts a compromise in themagnetic fux rom the stator to the rotor, so thesepumps are limited to small sizes.

DETERMINING PUMP EFFICIENCy High eiciency is not the only characteristic toexamine in selecting a pump. It is explored here,nonetheless, to demonstrate the impact o alterna-tives when various compromises are considered.

An ideal pump transers all o the energy rom a shat to the liquid; thereore, the product o torqueand rotational speed equals the product o mass fowand total head. However, hydraulic and mechanicallosses result in perormance degradation. Hydrauliclosses result rom riction within the liquid throughthe pump, impeller exit losses, eddies rom sudden

changes in diameter, leaks, turns in direction, orshort-circuit paths rom high-pressure sections tolow-pressure sections. Mechanical losses include ric-tion in bearings and seals. The amount o hydraulicand mechanical losses is rom 15 percent to 80 percentin centriugal pumps and lesser amounts or positive-displacement pumps.

Design eatures in centriugal pumps that mini-mize hydraulic losses include a generous passagediameter to reduce riction, an optimal impellerdesign, a gradual diameter change and directionchange, placement o barriers against short-circuits,and optimal matches o impeller diameters to pump

casings. The design o a barrier against short-circuitsincludes multiple impeller vanes, seals at the impel-ler inlet, and minimal space between the impellerand the pump casing. The seals at the impeller inletare commonly in the orm o wear rings. Enclosedimpellers, as shown in Figure 4-3, achieve higherheads because o the isolation o the inlet pressurerom the liquid passing through the impeller; thus,the original eciencies are maintained over thepump’s useul lie.

Equation 4-1 illustrates the relationship betweenfow, total head, eciency, and input power orpumps with cold water. For other liquids, the equa-

tion is appropriately adjusted.

Equation 4-1

P = Q × h [Q × h × 9.81]3,960 × e ewhere

P = Power through the pump shat, horsepower(W)

Q = Flow, gallons per minute (gpm) (L/s)h = Total head, eet (meters)e = Eciency, dimensionless

Impellers with diameters signicantly smallerthan an ideal design generally compromise ecien-cy. The eciency o centriugal pumps varies greatlywith head and fow. Hence, a pump with 85 percenteciency at one fow may be only 50 percent at one-third o that fow.

Axial fow directed into the impeller o a centriu-gal pump may come rom one side only (single-suc-tion pump, reer back to Figure 4-1) or both sides(double-suction pump, see Figure 4-4). The single-suction design creates axial orces on the pump shat.The double-suction design balances those orces. Inaddition, double-suction pumps have a slower inletvelocity, which helps prevent cavitation.

Since most pumps are driven by electric motors,a complete review o pump eciency should include

Figure 4-3 Enclosed Impeller

Figure 4-4 Centriugal Pump with aDouble-Suction Inlet Design

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consideration o motor eciency, which varies withtorque, type o motor, speed, type o bearings, andquality o electricity. Many ractional-horsepower,single-phase motors experience a dramatic loss o e-ciency at light loads. A three-phase motor achievespeak eciency at slightly less than ull load. High-speed motors and large motors oer greater e-ciencies than slower or smaller motors. Polyphase,permanent split-capacitor, and capacitor-start/ capacitor-run motors are more ecient than split-phase, capacitor-start/induction-run, and shadedpole motors.

A centriugal pump’s rst cost can be minimizedby designing or the best eciency points (BEP) o the operating fow and head. A lower total head alsoresults in less bearing and shat stresses, leading toa longer expected pump lie.

An appreciation o the benets o investing ineciency in a plumbing system can be realized byidentiying the magnitude o power in various parts

o a building. For example, a domestic water heater’senergy input may be 1,000,000 British thermal unitsper hour (Btuh) (293 kW), while its circulation pumpmay be 700 Btuh (205 W). Hence, in this situationan inecient pump is o little consequence. Exces-sive circulation increases standby losses, but a moreecient heat exchanger in the water heater will pro-vide the most tangible benet. While the importanceo a re pump or re suppression is paramount, e-ciency invested there is less important than a reli-able pump design.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

CHARACTERISTICSThe characteristics o centriugal pumps can be re-duced to two coecients and one value reerred to asthe specic speed. The coecients and a set o rela-tionships, called anity laws, allow similarly shapedcentriugal pumps to be compared. In general, thecoecients also apply to axial and mixed-fow pumps,as well as turbines and ans.

Deriving the coecients starts with the law o conservation o momentum. That is, the summationo orces on the surace o any xed volume equalsthe aggregate o angular-momentum vectors multi-plied by the fows at each o those vectors. Since the

applied energy into the liquid on the xed volumearound the impeller is only the tangential movemento the impeller, only the tangential velocity vectorsare considered. For constant density and or radialand tangential velocities at the inlet and outlet o animpeller, the momentum equation becomes:

Equation 4-2

T = d2 × r2 × vt2 × Q2 – d1 × r1 × vt1 × Q1

whereT = Torque, oot-pounds (N-m)d2 = Density at the outlet, pounds per cubic oot

(kg/m3)

r2 = Radius at the outlet, inches (mm)vt2 = Tangential velocity at the outlet, eet per

second (ps) (m/s)Q2 = Flow at the outlet, gpm (L/s)

d1 =

Density

at the inlet, pounds per cubic oot(kg/m

3)

r1 = Radius at the inlet, inches (mm)vt1 = Tangential velocity at the inlet, ps (m/s)Q1 = Flow at the inlet, gpm (L/s)

From Bernoulli’s equation o an ideal fow throughany type o pump, total head is a measure o powerper fow and per specic weight. Since power is theproduct o torque and rotational speed, the aboveequation can be related to the Bernoulli equation.For steady-state conditions, the inlet fow equals theoutlet fow. The relation becomes:

Equation 4-3

h = P = (r2 × vt2 – r1 × vt1) × nd × g × Q g

whereh = Total head created by the pump, eet (m)P = Power, horsepower (W)n = Rotational speed, revolutions per minute

(rpm) (radians per second)g = Gravity constant

With the velocity o the tip o a rotating surace atits outside radius designated as U, the equation is:

Equation 4-4

h =

U2 × vt2 – U1 × vt1

g For centriugal pumps, fow is proportional to the

outlet radial velocity. In addition, vt1 = 0 since inletfow generally is moving in an axial direction and notin a tangential direction. Thus:

Equation 4-5

h =

U2 × vt2

g Figure 4-5 shows the velocity vectors o the fow

leaving the impeller. Vector vr2 represents the velocityo the water in a radial direction, Vector X representsthe velocity o the water relative to the impeller blade,

and Vector Y represents the sum o X and U. Thus,it is possible to resolve these vectors into tangentialcomponents and derive the ollowing:

Equation 4-6a

vt2 = U2 – vr2 cot B = U2 [1 – (vr2 /U2) cot B]

Equation 4-6b

h =

U2 × U2 [1 – (vr2 /U2) cot B]g


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Figure 4-5 Net Fluid Movement From an ImpellerRepresented by Vector Y

Equation 4-6c

h =

U22[1 – (CQ) cot B]

g For a given fow, the vr2 /U2 ratio is constant and

is dened as a capacity coecient, CQ. For a givenimpeller design, CQ and Angle B are constant. Hence,[1 – (vr2 /U2) cot B] is constant and is dened as a headcoecient, CH. Equation 4-7 shows the relationship

between this coecient, the head, and the impeller’stip velocity.

Equation 4-7

CH =

h × g U2

2

With the various constants identied in Equa-tion 4-6c, the total head is directly proportional tothe square o the impeller’s tip velocity, U2. Recallthat the tip velocity is a product o the impeller’srotational speed and the impeller’s radius. Thus, thetotal head is proportional to the square o the impel-

ler’s radius or o its diameter, and it is proportionalto the square o the impeller’s rotational speed, inrpm (radians per second). This is the second pumpanity law.

Additionally, since fow is directly proportional toarea and velocity at any section through a pump, ata particular section the fow is proportional to thevelocity o the impeller’s tip. Hence, fow is propor-tional to the rotational speed o the impeller and tothe diameter o the impeller. This is the rst pumpanity law.

Since power is the product o fow and head, pow-er is directly proportional to the cube o the velocity.This is the third pump anity law.

Table 4-1 summaries the three pump anitylaws. Each unction is directly proportional to thecorresponding value in the other columns.

In addition, it is customary to combine fow andhead with the rotational speed and set exponentials,so this speed appears to the rst power. The result,nQ

0.5 /h

0.75, is called the specic speed o the pump.

When the fow rate, head, and a given pump speedare known, the specic speed can be derived, andthe design o an economical pump can be identied,whether centriugal, axial, or mixed fow. Specicspeed also allows a quick classication o a pump’secient operating range with a mere observation o the shape o the impeller.

The anity laws allow easy identication o pumpperormance when the speed changes or the impellerdiameter changes. For example, doubling the speed

or impeller diameter doubles the fow, increases thehead by our, and increases the required motor powerby eight.

PERFORMANCE CURVESSince centriugal pumps do not supply a nearly con-stant fow rate like positive-displacement pumps,characteristic pump curves are provided by manuac-turers to aid in selecting a pump. Under controlledconditions, such as with water at a certain tempera-ture, these curves are created rom measurements o impeller speed, impeller diameter, electric power, fow,and total head. The standard conditions are created

by such groups as the Hydraulic Institute. As can beobserved, the shape o the curve in Figure 4-6 agreeswith Equation 4-6c. This pump curve represents a particular impeller diameter measured at a constantspeed, with its total head varied and its resulting fow recorded. Eciency is plotted on many o these

Table 4-1 Centriugal Pump Anity Laws

FunctionTip

VelocityRotational Speed,rpm (radians/sec)

Impeller Radius (orDiameter), in. (mm)

Flow U n R

Head U2

n2

R2

Power U3

n3

R3

Figure 4-6 Typical Pump Curve Crossing a System Curve

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curves, and the BEP is sometimes marked. Additionalcurves usually include shat input power, measuredin horsepower (W), eciency, and net positive suctionhead (NPSH).

While a curve is plotted or a given pump andwith a given diameter impeller, a pump in operationunder a constant head and speed has one particularfow. The point on the pump curve o this fow andhead is reerred to as the duty point or system bal-ance point. The pump will provide that fow i thathead applies.

In plumbing, a particular fow may be requiredor a sump pump or hot water circulation pump. Indomestic water and re suppression supply systems,the head varies with the quantity o open aucets,

outlets, hose streams, or sprinkler heads. Further,the quantity o such open outlets varies with time.Thus, the duty point rides let and right along thecurve with time.

Another curve that represents the building’s dis-tribution piping at peak demand can be plotted on a pump curve. This second curve, called the system headcurve or building system curve, is shown in Figure 4-6.Equation 4-8 represents this amiliar curve, wherep1 represents a pressure gauge reading at the pumpinlet and p2 and h2 represent pressure and elevationhead respectively at a particular system location suchas at a remote xture. The last term represents theentire riction head in the piping between the twopoints including control valves, i any, at the pump.

The curve’s shape is parabolic. Thiscurve is applicable to any liquid thathas a constant absolute viscosityover a wide fow range (a Newtonianfuid).

Equation 4-8hp = (p2 – p1)/d + h2 + (L/D)(v

2 /2g)

At no fow, the riction term be-comes zero since velocity is zero,and the point where this curvecrosses the vertical axis is the sumo the remaining terms.

To select a pump, determine thepeak fow and use Equation 4-8 tocalculate the required pump head.The fow and head identiy the dutypoint. Most catalogues rom pump

manuacturers oer a amily o centriugal pumps in one diagram.Separate graphs, one or each pumphousing and shat speed, show thepump perormance or each o sev-eral impellers. Figure 4-7 illustratessuch a graph or a pump measuredat 1,750 rpm (183 radians per sec-ond). Pick a pump impeller that atleast includes the duty point. Anoptimal pump is one whose pumpcurve crosses this point. However,with most pump selections, the

pump curve crosses slightly abovethe point.

For example, i the duty pointis 100 gpm at 30 eet o head (6.31L/s at 9.14 m o head), the impel-ler number 694 in Figure 4-7 is a suitable choice because its pumpcurve (the solid line matched to694) crosses above the duty point.Power requirements are marked

Figure 4-7 Typical Pump Curves and Power Requirements

Figure 4-8 Blade Shape and Quantity Versus Perormance Curve

Source: Figures 4-7 and 4-8 courtesy o Weil Pump Company Inc.


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in dashed lines in Figure 4-7. The pump’s motorsize, in horsepower or kilowatts, is identied by thedashed line above and to the right o the duty point. A more precise motor required can be estimated at1.6 hp (1.2 kW), but engineers typically pick the 2-hp(1.5-kW) motor size. Select the motor with a nomi-nal 1,800-rpm (188 radians per second) rotationalspeed. The pump’s eciency can be estimated i e-ciency curves are included on the chart. Comparing the eciencies o several pumps can lead to an idealchoice. Alternatively, the fow and head o the dutypoint can determine the ideal power requirement. A pump’s eciency is ound by dividing the idealpower, rom Equation 4-1, by the graphically shownpower. With this example, the eciency is 0.758/1.6= 47 percent.

The shape o a pump curve varies with the impel-ler design. A rapidly dropping headdue to increasing fow is character-ized by a steep curve. Flat curves

represent a slight variation romno fow to BEP, oten dened as 20percent. The latter is preerred inmost plumbing applications thatemploy one pump because o thenearly uniorm head. Figure 4-8shows steep and fat curves and thecorresponding blade designs.

A pump with a steep curve isadvantageous when a high head isrequired in an economical pumpdesign and the fow is o less con-sequence. For example, a sump

pump, which has a sump to collectpeak fows into its basin, may havea high static head. With a generousvolume in the sump, the total timeto evacuate the sump is secondary;thereore, the pump’s fow is o lessconcern than its head. Further, asthe inlet fow increases and the wa-ter level rises, the head reduces andthe pump fow increases.

A pump design with some slopein its curve is desired or parallelpump congurations. The sum o

the fows at each head results ina more fat curve. For control, thedrop in head as the demand in-creases may serve as an indicator tostage the next pump.

A pump with nearly verticalsteepness is desired or drainagepumps that are part o a system o pumps that discharge into a orcemain. This perormance character-

istic allows a nearly uniorm fow or a wide varia-tion o heads. Some centriugal and all positive-dis-placement pumps exhibit this characteristic.

STAGINGTo obtain greater total head, two pumps can be con-nected in series; that is, the discharge o one pumpbecomes the inlet o the other. As a convenience,pump manuacturers have created multistage pumpsin which two or more centriugal pumps are joinedin a series by combining all o the impellers on a common shat and arranging the casing to direct thefow o a volute into the eye o the next impeller (seeFigure 4-9).

Another way to obtain greater head is by using a regenerative turbine pump. Unlike other centriugalpumps, the outer edge o the impeller and its voluteare intentionally employed with higher velocities

by using recirculation o a portion o the fow rom the volute to pass just

inside the tip o the impeller. The closedimensions o these pumps limit theiruse to clean liquids.

Applications o high-head pumpsinclude water supplies in high-risebuildings, deep water wells, and repumps or certain automatic stand-pipe systems.

SPECIALTy PUMPSTo select a specialty pump, the ol-lowing must be considered: pressureincrease, range o fow, nature o the

energy source (electricity, air, manual,etc.), whether the liquid containsparticulates, whether pulses aretolerable, accuracy in dispensing, sel-priming requirement, whether thepump is submerged, and i the pumprequires an adaptation to its supplycontainer.

Domestic Booster Pumps A domestic booster pump system typi-cally uses multiple parallel centriugalpumps to increase municipal water

pressure or the building’s domesticwater distribution. Particular designissues such as sizing, pump redun-dancy, pressure-reducing valves, otherpump controls, adjustable-requencydrives, high-rise buildings, and breaktanks are described in Plumbing Engi-neering Design Handbook, Volume 2,Chapter 5: “Cold Water Systems.” Thesame issues apply or private watersystems that require a well pump.

Figure 4-9 Multistage or VerticalLineshat Turbine Pump

Photo courtesy o Peerless Pump Co.

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Fire PumpsThe water supply or re suppression requires a pumpthat is simple and robust. In addition, the slope o theperormance curve is limited by re pump standards.NFPA 20: Standard or the Installation o Station-

ary Fire Pumps or Fire Protection limits the curveto not less than 65 percent o the rated total head

or 150 percent o the rated fow. A variety o listing agencies monitor pump manuacturing to certiycompliance with one or more standards. The designo a single-stage or multistage centriugal pump gen-erally qualies. A double-suction centriugal pumpwith enclosed impeller, horizontal shat, wear rings,stung-box shat seals, and bearings at both endshistorically has been used. The pump inlet connectiongenerally is in line with the outlet connection.

A recent variation, or small re pumps, includesa vertical shat and a single-suction design with theimpeller astened directly to the motor shat. Pumpbearings, shat couplings, and motor mounts are

eliminated in this compact design.In applications or tank-mounted re pumps, the

impeller is suspended near the bottom o the tank,and the motor or other prime mover is located abovethe cover. Between the two is a vertical shat placedwithin a discharge pipe. NFPA calls these pumpsvertical lineshat turbine pumps. Flexibility in theirdesign includes multistaging, a wide range o tankdepths, and several types o prime movers.

Water Circulation PumpsMaintaining adequate water temperature in plumb-ing is achieved through circulation pumps. Applicable

generally or hot water, but equally eective or chilledwater to drinking ountains served by a remote chiller,the circulation pump maintains a limited temperaturechange. Heat transer rom hot water distributionpiping to the surrounding space is quantied oreach part o the distribution network. For a selectedtemperature drop rom the hot water source to theremote ends o the distribution, an adequate fowin the circulation can be determined rom Equation4-9. Since the nature o circulation is as i it were a closed system, pump head is simply the riction lossesassociated with the circulation fow.

Equation 4-9

Q =

q [q

]500 × T 4,187 × T

whereQ = Flow, gpm (L/s)q = Heat transer rate, Btuh (W)T = Temperature dierence, °F (°C)

For example, i it is determined that 1,000 Btuhtransers rom a length o hot water piping and nomore than 8°F is acceptable or a loss in the hot wa-

ter temperature, the fow is determined to be 1,000/ (500 × 8) = 0.250 gpm. In SI, i it is determined that293 W transers rom a length o hot water piping and no more than 4.4°C is acceptable or a loss in thehot water temperature, the fow is determined to be293/(4,187 × 4.4) = 0.0159 L/s.

Drainage Pumps

Where the elevation o the municipal sewer is insu-cient or i another elevation shortall occurs, pumpsare added to a drainage system. The issue may applyonly to one xture, one foor, or the entire building.Elevation issues usually apply to subsoil drainage, sothis water is also pumped. Lastly, i backfow is in-tolerable rom foor drains in a high-value occupancy,pumps are provided or the foor drains.

The terminology varies to describe these pumps,but typical names include sewage pump, sump pump,sewage ejector, lit station pump, efuent pump,bilge pump, non-clog pump, drain water pump, sol-ids-handling sewage pump, grinder pump, dewater-

ing pump, and wastewater pump.Drainage pumps generally have vertical shats,

cylindrical basins, and indoor or outdoor locations.Some pumps are designed to be submerged in theinlet basin, others in a dry pit adjacent to the basin,and in others the motor is mounted above with onlythe pump casing and impeller submerged. In anydesign, provision is required or air to enter or leavethe basin as the water level varies.

The nature o solids and other contaminants inthe water through these pumps necessitates severaltypes o pump designs. For minimal contaminants,the design may be with an enclosed impeller, wearrings, and clearance dimensions that allow ¾-inch(19-mm) diameter spheres to pass through. Such a pump may be suitable or subsoil drainage or orgraywater pumping.

For drainage fows rom water closets and simi-lar xtures, manuacturers provide pumps o twodesigns. One design uses an open recessed impel-ler, no wear rings, and clearance dimensions thatallow 2-inch (50-mm) diameter spheres to passthrough. The other, reerred to as a grinder pump(see Figure 4-10), places a set o rotating cutting blades upstream o the impeller inlet, which slice

solid contaminants as they pass through a ring thathas acute edges. Eciency is compromised in bothtypes or the sake o eective waste transport, inthe latter more so than in the ormer, but with thebenet o a reduced pipe diameter in the dischargepiping. Grinder pumps are available in centriugaland positive-displacement types.

The installation o a pump in a sanitary drainsystem includes a sealed basin and some vent pip-ing to the exterior or to a vent stack. In some cases,the pump can be above the water level, but only i a


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Figure 4-10 Cross-Section o a Grinder Pump withCutting Blades at the Inlet

Photo courtesy o Ebara.

reliable provision is included in the design to primethe pump prior to each pumping event.

PUMP MAINTENANCEThe selection o a pump includes actors such as theneed to monitor, repair, or replace the pump. Pumpsin accessible locations can readily be monitored. Sen-sors on remote pumps, such as seal leak probes andbearing vibration sensors, assist in pump monitoring to prevent a catastrophic pump ailure.

Pump maintenance can be acilitated when dis-assembly requires minimal disturbance o piping or wiring. Disassembly may be with the casing splithorizontally along a horizontal shat or with the cas-ing split perpendicularly to the shat. The latter al-lows impeller replacement without disturbing thepipe connection to the pump body.

Complete pump replacement can be acilitatedwith adequate access, shuto valves, nearby mo-tor disconnects, minimal mounting asteners, di-

rect mounting o the motor on the pump housing (close-coupled pump), and pipe joints with boltedasteners. A simpler arrangement, commonly usedor submersible drainage pumps, allows removal o the pump rom the basin by merely liting a chain to

extract it. The lit or return is acilitated by specialguide rails, a discharge connection joint held tight bythe weight o the pump, and a fexible power cable.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNSIn addition to any concerns about how a pump mayaect the environment, the environment may aectthe design requirement or a pump. An example o the ormer is a provision in an oil-lled submersiblepump to detect an oil leak, such as a probe in the spacebetween the shat seals that signals a breach o thelower seal. Another example is vibration isolation ora pump located near sensitive equipment.

The external environment can aect a pump inmany ways. For instance, a sewage ejector may besubjected to methane gas, causing a potential explo-sion hazard. Loss o power is a common concern, asare abrasive or corrosive conditions. The ormer canbe prevented with the inclusion o a parallel pumppowered by a separate battery, and correct material

selection can help prevent the latter. Other examplesinclude the temperature o the water through thepump, the temperature o the air around the pump,and the nature o any contaminants in the water.Sand and metal shavings are a concern with grinderpumps as they can erode the blades.

PUMP CONTROLSPump controls vary with the application. A smallsimplex sump pump may have a sel-contained motoroverload control, one external foat switch, an electricplug, and no control panel. A larger pump may havea control panel with a motor controller, run indicator

light, hand-o auto switch, run timer, audio/visualalarm or system aults, and building automationsystem interace.

A control panel should be certied as complying with one or more saety standards, and the panelhousing should be classied to match its installationenvironment. Motor control generally includes anelectric power disconnect and the related controlwiring, such as power-interrupting controls againstmotor overload, under-voltage, or over-current.

The largest pumps oten include reduced-voltagestarters. Duplex and triplex pump arrangementsinclude these control eatures or each pump as well

as an alternator device that alternates which pumprst operates on rising demand. A microprocessor maybe economically chosen or applications involving atleast a dozen sensor inputs.

A booster pump has additional controls such as lowfow, low suction pressure, high discharge pressure, a time clock or an occupancy schedule and possibly a speed control such as a variable-requency drive.

A circulation pump may include a temperaturesensor that shuts down the pump i it senses high

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temperature in the return fow, which presumablyindicates adequate hot water in each distributionbranch. A time clock or an occupancy scheduleshuts down the pump during o hours.

The controls or a re pump may include an au-tomatic transer between two power sources, enginecontrol i applicable, and pressure maintenancethrough a secondary pump, which is called a jockeypump. The control o a drainage pump includes one ormore foat switches and possibly a high water alarm.

INSTALLATIONPumping eectiveness and eciency require uniormvelocity distribution across the pipe diameter or basindimensions at the pump inlet. An elbow, increaserwith a sudden diameter change, check valve, and anyother fow disturbance at the pump inlet create anirregular velocity prole that reduces the fow andpossibly the discharge head. To avoid air entrapment,eccentric reducers with the straight side up are used

on inlet piping rather than concentric reducers.In addition to shuto valves, pump installationsmay include drain ports, pressure gauges, automaticor manual air release vents, and vibration isolationcouplings. Pressure gauges upstream and down-stream o the pump allow easy indication o therated pump perormance. Check valves are providedor each pump o duplex and similar multiple-pumparrangements, re pumps, and circulation pumps.

A re pump includes provisions or periodic fowtesting. Fire pumps also may include a pressure re-lie valve i low fows create high heads that exceedpipe material ratings.

A pump requires a minimum pressure at its inletto avoid cavitation. Destructive eects occur whena low absolute pressure at the entry to the impel-ler causes the water to vaporize and then collapseurther into the impeller. The resulting shock waveerodes the impeller, housing, and seals and overloadsthe bearings and the shat. The pockets o water va-por also block water fow, which reduces the pump’scapacity. Cavitation can be avoided by veriying Equation 4-10.

Equation 4-10

hr ≤ ha – hv + hs – h

wherehr = Net positive suction head required (obtained

rom the pump manuacturer), eet (m)ha = Local ambient atmospheric pressure

converted to eet (m) o waterhv = Vapor pressure o water at applicable

temperature, eet (m)hs = Suction head (negative value or suction

lit), eet (m)h = Friction head o piping between pump and

where hs is measured, eet (m)

Increasing hs resolves most issues regarding cavi-tation, generally by mounting the pump impeller aslow as possible. Note that hr varies with fow andimpeller diameter: ha = 33.96 eet (10.3 m) or anambient o 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi) (101kPa) and hv = 0.592 eet (0.180 m) or water at 60°F(15.5°C). Suction head, hs, may be the inlet pressureconverted to head, but it also may be the verticaldistance rom the impeller centerline to the suraceo the water at the inlet. The ambient head, ha , alsomay need adjusting or sewage pumps, with the ba-sin connected to an excessively long vent pipe. Re-ciprocating positive-displacement pumps have anadditional acceleration head associated with keeping the liquid lled behind the receding piston.

Submergence is a consideration or pumps joinednear or in a reservoir or basin. A shallow distancerom the pump inlet to the surace o the water maycreate a vortex ormation that introduces air into thepump unless the reservoir exit is protected by a wide

plate directly above. In addition to lost fow capacity,a vortex may cause fow imbalance and other harmto the pump. To prevent these problems, the basincan be made deeper to mount the pump lower, andthe elevation o the water surace can be unchangedto keep the same total head.

Redundancy can be considered or any pump ap-plication. The aggregate capacity o a set o pumpsmay exceed the peak demand by any amount; how-ever, the summation or centriugal pumps involvesadding the fow at each head to create a compositeperormance curve. Discretion is urther made tothe amount o redundancy, whether or each duplex

pump at 100 percent o demand or each triplex pumpat 40 percent, 50 percent, or 67 percent. For ecien-cy’s sake, a mix may be considered or a triplex, suchas 40 percent or two pumps and 20 percent or thethird pump.

GLOSSARy

Available net positive suction head The inher-ent energy in a liquid at the suction connection o a pump.

Axial ow When most o the pressure is developedby the propelling or liting action o the vanes on

the liquid. The fow enters axially and dischargesnearly axially.

Bernoulli’s theorem When the sum o three typeso energy (heads) at any point in a system is thesame in any other point in the system, assum-ing no riction losses or the perormance o extra work.

Brake horsepower (BHP)The total power requiredby a pump to do a specied amount o work.


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Capacity coefcient The ratio o the radial veloc-ity o a liquid at the impeller to the velocity o theimpeller’s tip.

Churn The maximum static head o a pump—typi-cally the head when all fow is blocked.

Design working head The head that must be avail-able in the system at a specied location to satisy

design requirements.

Diuser A point just beore the tongue o a pumpcasing where all the liquid has been dischargedrom the impeller. It is the nal outlet o thepump.

Flat head curve When the head rises slightly asthe fow is reduced. As with steepness, the magni-tude o fatness is a relative term.

Friction head The rubbing o water particlesagainst each other and against the walls o a pipe,which causes a pressure loss in the fow line.

Head The energy o a fuid at any particular pointo a fow stream per weight o the fuid, generallymeasured in eet (meters).

Head coefcient Pump head divided by the squareo the velocity o the impeller tip.

Horsepower The power delivered while doing workat the rate o 500 oot-pounds per second or 33,000oot-pounds per minute.

Independent head Head that does not change withfow, such as static head and minimum pressure atthe end o a system.

Mechanical efciency The ratio o power outputto power input.

Mixed ow When pressure is developed partly bycentriugal orce and partly by the lit o the vaneson the liquid. The fow enters axially and discharg-es in an axial and radial direction.

Multistage pumps When two or more impellersand casings are assembled on one shat as a singleunit. The discharge rom the rst stage enters thesuction o the second and so on. The capacity isthe rating o one stage, and the pressure rating isthe sum o the pressure ratings o the individual

stages, minus a small head loss. Net positive suction head (NPSH) Static head,

velocity head, and equivalent atmospheric head ata pump inlet minus the absolute vapor pressure o the liquid being pumped.

Packing A sot semi-plastic material cut in ringsand snugly t around the shat or shat sleeve.

Potential head An energy position measured by thework possible in a decreasing vertical distance.

Pumps in parallel An arrangement in which thehead or each pump equals the system head andthe sum o the individual pump capacities equalsthe system fow rate at the system head.

Pumps in series An arrangement in which the totalhead/capacity characteristic curve or two pumpsin series can be obtained by adding the total heads

o the individual pumps or various capacities. Pump perormance curve A graphical illustration

o head horsepower, eciency, and net positivesuction head required or proper pump operation.

Radial ow When pressure is developed principallyby centriugal orce action. Liquid normally entersthe impeller at the hub and fows radially to theperiphery.

Required NPSH The energy in a liquid that a pumpmust have to operate satisactorily.

Shuto BHP One-hal o the ull load brake horse-

power.Slip A loss in delivery due to the escape o liquid

inside a pump rom discharge to suction.

Specifc speed An index relating pump speed, fow,and head used to select an optimal pump impeller.

Standpipe A theoretical vertical pipe placed at anypoint in a piping system so that the static head canbe identied by observing the elevation o the reesurace o the liquid in the vertical pipe. The con-nection o the standpipe to the piping system or a static head reading is perpendicular to the generalfow stream.

Static head The elevation o water in a standpiperelative to the centerline o a piping system. Anypressure gauge reading can be converted to statichead i the density o the liquid is known.

Static pressure head The energy per pound dueto pressure. The height a liquid can be raised by a given pressure.

Static suction head The vertical distance rom theree surace o a liquid to the pump datum whenthe supply source is above the pump.

Static suction lit The vertical distance rom the

ree surace o a liquid to the pump datum whenthe supply source is below the pump.

Steep head curve When the head rises steeply andcontinuously as the fow is reduced.

Suction head The static head near the inlet o a pump above the pump centerline.

Suction lit In contrast to suction head, this verti-cal dimension is between the pump centerline anda liquid’s surace that is below the pump.

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System head curve A plot o system head versussystem fow. System head varies with fow sinceriction and velocity head are both a unction o fow.

Total discharge head The sum o static head andvelocity head at a pump discharge.

Utility horsepower (UHP) Brake horsepower di-

vided by drive eciency.

Total head The total head at the pump dischargeminus suction head or plus suction lit.

Variable-speed pressure booster pumps A pumpused to reduce power consumption to maintain a constant building supply pressure by varying pumpspeeds through coupling or mechanical devices.

Velocity head The velocity portion o head with itsunits converted to an equivalent static head.

Water horsepower The power required by a pump

motor or pumping only.

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Piping Insulation5Insulation and its ancillary components are majorconsiderations in the design and installation o theplumbing and piping systems o modern buildings.Insulation is used or the ollowing purposes:

• Retardheatorcoolingtemperaturelossthrough

pipe• Eliminatecondensationonpiping

• Protectpersonnelby keeping the surfacetemperature o pipes low enough to touch

• Improvetheappearanceofpipewhereaestheticsare important

• Protect pipe fromabrasionor damage fromexternal orces

• Reducenoisefromapipingsystem

TERMINOLOGy To ensure an understanding o the mechanism o heat,

the ollowing denitions are provided.

British thermal unit (Btu) The heat required toraise the temperature o 1 pound o water 1°F.

Conductance Also known as conductivity, themeasurement o the fow o heat through an arbi-trary thickness o material, rather than the 1-inchthickness used in thermal conductivity. (See alsothermal conductivity.)

Convection The large-scale movement o heatthrough a fuid (liquid or gas). It cannot occurthrough a solid. The dierence in density between

hot and cold fuids produces a natural movemento heat.

Degree Celsius The measurement used in inter-national standard (SI) units ound by dividing theice point and steam point o water into 100 divi-sions.

Degree Fahrenheit The measurement used ininch-pound (IP) units ound by dividing the icepoint and steam point o water into 180 divisions.

Heat A type o energy that is produced by themovement o molecules. More movement producesmore heat. All heat (and movement) stops at abso-lute zero. It fows rom a warmer body to a coolerbody. It is calculated in such units as Btu, calories,or watt-hours.

Kilocalorie (kcal) The heat required to raise 1kilogram o water 1°C.

Thermal conductivity The ability o a specicsolid to conduct heat. This is measured in Britishthermal units per hour (Btuh) and is reerred toas the k-actor. The standard used in the measure-ment is the heat that will fow in one hour througha 1-inch-thick material, with a temperature di-erence o 1°F over an area o 1 square oot. Themetric equivalent is watts per square meter perdegree Kelvin (W/m

2 /°K). As the k-actor increases,

so does the fow o heat.

Thermal resistance Abbreviated R, the recipro-cal o the conductance value. (See conductance.)

Thermal transmittance Known as the U-actor,the rate o fow, measured in thermal resistance,through several dierent layers o materials takentogether as a whole. It is measured in Btuh persquare oot per degree Fahrenheit (Btuh/t

2 /°F).

THE PHySICS OF WATER VAPORTRANSMISSION Water vapor is present in the air at all times. A watervapor retarder does not stop the fow o water vapor.Rather, it serves as a means o controlling and reduc-ing the rate o fow and is the only practical solution tothe passage o water vapor. Its eectiveness dependson its location within the insulation system, which isusually as close to the outer surace o the insulationas practical. Water vapor has a vapor pressure that isa unction o both temperature and relative humidity.The eectiveness o an insulation system is best whenit is completely dry.

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The water vapor transmission rate is a measureo water vapor diusion into or through the totalinsulation system and is measured in perms. A permis the weight o water, in grains, that is transmittedthrough 1 square oot o 1-inch-thick insulation inone hour. A generally accepted value o 0.10 perms isconsidered the maximum rate or an eective vaporretarder. A ormula or the transmission o watervapor diusing through insulation systems is givenin Equation 5-1.

Equation 5-1

W = µAT∆PL

whereW = Total weight o vapor

transmitted, grains(7,000 grains = 1pound o water)

µ = Permeability o insulation, grains/ t2 /h/in. Hg ∆P/in.

A = Area o cross-sectiono the fow path,square eet

T = Time during whichthe transmissionoccurred, hours

∆P = Dierence o vaporpressure betweenends o the fow path,inches o mercury (in.Hg)

L = Length o fow path,

inches

TyPES OFINSULATIONInsulation manuacturers givetheir products dierent tradenames. The discussions thatollow use the generic namesor the most oten used ma-terials in the plumbing anddrainage industry. The insula-tion properties are based on theollowing conditions:

• Allmaterials have beentested to ASTM, NFPA, andUL standards.

• The temperatureatwhichthe thermal conductivity andresistance were calculated is75°F (24°C).

Insulation used or thechemical, pharmaceutical, and

ood-processing industries (or example) must be ableto withstand repeated cleaning by various methods.This is provided by the application o the proper jacketing material (discussed later), which shall beresistant to organism growth, smooth and white, re-sistant to repeated cleaning by the method o choiceby the owner, and nontoxic.

As with other building materials, insulation maycontribute to a re by either generating smoke (i theproduct is incombustible) or supporting combustion.Code limits or these actors have been established.These ratings are or complete insulation systemstested as a whole and not or individual components.

Figure 5-1 Insulating Around a Split Ring Hanger1. Pipe

2. Insulation—shown with actory-applied, non-metal jacket3. Overlap at logitudinal joints— cut to allow or hanger rod

4. Tape applied at butt joints— pipe covering section at hanger should extend a ewinches beyond the hanger to acilitate proper butt joint sealing

5. Insulation altered to compensate or projections on split ring hangers—i insulationthickness is serverely altered and let insucient or high-temperature applications

or condensation control, insulate with a sleeve o oversized pipe insulation6. Insulation applied in like manner around rod on cold installations

Source: MICA


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Chapter 5 — Piping Insulation 105

The code requirements or insulation are a famespread index o not more than 25 and a smoke-developed index o not more than 50. The standardsgoverning the testing o materials or fame spreadand smoke developed are ASTM E84 , NFPA 255 , andUL 723.

Fiberglass

Fiberglass insulation shall conorm to ASTM C547. It is manuactured rom glass ber bonded with a phenolic resin. The chemical composition o this resindetermines the highest temperature rating o this in-sulation. (Consult the manuacturer or exact gures.)

This insulation is tested to all below the index o 25or fame spread and 50 or smoke developed. It haslow water absorption and very limited to no combus-tibility. It has poor abrasion resistance.

Fiberglass is the most commonly used insulationor the retardation o heat loss rom plumbing linesand equipment. The recommended temperature rangeis rom 35°F to 800°F (1.8°C to 422°C), with ratingsdepending on the binder. It is available as pre-moldedpipe insulation, boards, and blankets. Typical k-actors range rom 0.22 to 0.26, and R values rangerom 3.8 to 4.5. Its density is about 3–5 pounds percubic oot (48–80 kilograms per cubic meter).

Fiberglass by itsel is not strong enough to stay on a pipe or piece o equipment, prevent the passage o watervapor, or present a nished appearance.Because o this, a covering or jacketmust be used.

Elastomeric

Elastomeric insulation, commonlycalled rubber, shall conorm to ASTMC534. This is a fexible, expanded oammade o closed-cell material manuac-tured rom nitrile rubber and polyvinylchloride resin. This insulation dependson its thickness to all below a specicsmoke-developed rating. All thicknesseshave a fame spread index o 25. It canabsorb 5 percent o its weight in waterand has a perm rating o 0.10. Its densityranges between 3 pounds per cubic ootand 6 pounds per cubic oot.

The recommended temperaturerange is rom –297°F to 220°F (–183°Cto 103°C). A typical k-actor is 0.27,and a typical R value is 3.6. It is recom-mended as preormed insulation or pipesizes up to 6 inches (DN 150) in ½-inch,¾-inch, and 1-inch thicknesses. It isalso available in 48-inch (1,200-mm)wide rolls and in sheet sizes o 36 × 48inches (900 × 1,200 mm). An adhesivemust be used to seal the seams and joints and adhere the insulation to the

equipment.Rubber insulation can be painted

without treatment. It is widely used inmechanical equipment rooms and pipe,and the ease o application makes it lesscostly. The recommended temperaturerange is rom –297°F to 220°F (–183°Cto 103°C)

Figure 5-2 Insulating Around a Clevis Hanger1. Pipe

2. Insulation—type specied or the line3. High-density insulation insert—extend beyond the shield to acilitate

proper butt joint sealing4. Factory-applied vapor-retarder jacket securing two insulation sections

together—cold application5. Jacketing—eld-applied metal shown

6. Metal shield7. Wood block or wood dowel insert

Source: MICA

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Cellular GlassCellular glass shall conorm to ASTM C552. Thisinsulation is pure glass oam manuactured withhydrogen sulde and has closed-cell air spaces. Thesmoke-developed rating is zero, and the fame spreadis 5. The recommended application temperature isbetween –450°F and 450°F (–265°C and 230°C), with

the adhesive used to secure the insulation to the pipeor equipment being the limiting actor. It has no waterretention and poor surace abrasion resistance.

Cellular glass is rigid and strong and commonlyused or high-temperature installations. It generallyis manuactured in blocks and must be abricatedby the contractor to make insulation or pipes orequipment. A saw is used or cutting. It has a typicalk-actor o 0.37 and an R value o 2.6. Its density is 8pounds per cubic oot.

It is resistant to common acids and corrosiveenvironments. It shall be provided with a jacket o some type.

Foamed PlasticFoamed plastic insulation is a rigid, closed-cell prod-uct, which shall conorm to the ollowing standardsdepending on the material. Polyurethane shall con-orm to ASTM C591 ; polystyrene shall conorm to ASTM C578 ; and polyethylene shall conorm to ASTMC1427. It is made by the expansion o plastic beadsor granules in a closed mold or using an extrusionprocess. The re spread index varies among manuac-turers, but its combustibility is high. Additives can beused to improve re retardancy. It is available moldedinto boards or pre-molded into pipe insulation.

Foamed plastic is most commonly used in 3-inchor 4-inch thickness to insulate cryogenic piping. Therecommended temperature range or installation isrom cryogenic to 220°F (103°C). The density variesrom 0.7 pound per cubic oot to 3 pounds per cubicoot. The k-actor varies between 0.32 and 0.20 de-pending on the density and age o the material. Theaverage water absorption is 2 percent.

Calcium SilicateCalcium silicate shall conorm to ASTM C533. It is a rigid granular insulation composed o calcium silicate,asbestos-ree reinorcing bers, and lime. This mate-rial has a k-actor o 0.38 and an R value o 2.

A mineral ber commonly reerred to as calsil,it is used or high-temperature work and does notnd much use in the plumbing industry except as a rigid insert or installation at a hanger to protect theregular insulation rom being crushed by the weighto the pipe.

Insulating CementInsulating cement is manuactured rom brous and/ or granular material and cement mixed with waterto orm a plastic substance. Sometimes reerred to asmastic, it has typical k-actors ranging between 0.65and 0.95 depending on the composition. It is wellsuited or irregular suraces.

JACKET TyPES A jacket is any material, except cement or paint, thatis used to protect or cover insulation installed on a pipe or over equipment. It allows the insulation tounction or a long period by protecting the underly-

Table 5-1 Heat Loss in Btuh/t Length o Fiberglass Insulation, ASJ Cover 150°F Temperature o Pipe

Horizontal

NPS ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8THK HL

BARE 36 44 54 67 75 92 110 131 165 200 235 299

½" 10 92 10 90 13 93 20 98 18 94 20 93 23 94 30 95 36 95 43 95 53 97 68 97

1" 7 86 8 87 9 86 11 88 11 87 13 87 15 88 18 88 22 88 27 89 32 89 38 89

1½" 5 84 6 84 7 84 8 84 9 85 10 85 10 84 14 85 17 86 20 86 23 86 28 8

2" 5 82 5 83 6 83 7 83 7 83 9 83 9 83 11 84 14 84 16 84 18 84 23 85

Vertical

THK

½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8

HLBARE 32 40 49 61 69 84 100 120 152 185 217 277

½" 9 92 10 90 13 93 19 99 18 95 20 94 23 94 30 96 35 96 43 96 52 97 67 98

1" 7 86 8 87 9 86 11 88 11 87 13 88 15 88 18 89 22 89 26 89 31 90 38 89

1½" 5 84 6 84 7 84 8 84 9 85 10 85 10 84 14 86 16 86 20 86 23 87 28 8

2" 5 83 5 83 6 83 7 83 7 83 9 83 9 83 11 84 14 84 16 85 18 85 23 85

Source: Courtesy o Owens/Corning.

Notes: 80°ambient temperature,

0 wind velocity,

0.85 bare surace emittance,

0.90 surace emittance

HL = heat loss (BTU/h/t length)

ST = surace temperature (°F)

Bare = bare pipe, iron pipe size

THK = thickness


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ing material and extending its service lie. The jacketis used or the ollowing purposes:

• Asavaporretardertolimittheentryofwaterintothe insulation system

• Asaweatherbarrier toprotect theunderlyinginsulation rom exterior conditions

• Topreventmechanicalabuseduetoaccidents

• Corrosionandadditionalreresistance

• Appearance

• Cleanlinessanddisinfection

Table 5-2 Heat Loss rom Piping

Insulation Type Insulation Factor

Heat Loss per Inch Thickness, Basedon K Factor @ 50°F Mean Temp.

(Btu/h • °F • ft2)

Glass ber (ASTM C547) 1.00 0.25

Calcium silicate (ASTM C533) 1.50 0.375

Cellular glass (ASTM C552) 1.60 0.40

Rigid cellular urethane (ASTM C591) 0.66 0.165

Foamed elastomer (ASTM C534) 1.16 0.29

Mineral ber blanket (ASTM C553) 1.20 0.30

Expanded perlite (ASTM C610) 1.50 0.375

InsulationThickness

(in.)∆T,°F

IPS

½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 6 8 10 12

Tubing Size (in.)¾ 1 1¼ 1½

0.5 10 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.8 2.6 3.3 4.1 4.8

50 2.5 2.9 3.5 4.1 4.8 5.5 6.5 7.7 9.6 13.5 17.2 21.1 24.8

100 5.2 6.1 7.2 8.6 9.9 11.5 13.5 15.9 19.9 28.1 35.8 43.8 51.6

150 8.1 9.5 11.2 13.4 15.5 17.9 21.0 24.8 31.9 43.8 55.7 68.2 80.2

200 11.2 13.1 15.5 18.5 21.4 24.7 29.0 34.3 42.7 60.4 76.9 94.1 110.7

250 14.6 17.1 20.2 24.1 27.9 32.2 37.8 44.7 55.7 78.8 100.3 122.6 144.2

1.0 10 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6

50 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.9 3.2 3.7 4.4 5.4 7.4 9.4 11.4 13.4

100 3.4 3.9 4.5 5.2 5.9 6.8 7.8 9.1 11.2 15.5 19.5 23.8 27.8

150 5.3 6.1 7.0 8.2 9.3 10.5 12.2 14.2 17.4 24.1 30.4 37.0 43.3

200 7.4 8.4 9.7 11.3 12.8 14.6 16.8 19.6 24.0 33.4 42.0 51.2 59.9

250 9.6 11.0 12.6 14.8 16.7 19.0 22.0 25.6 31.4 43.6 54.9 66.9 78.21.5 10 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.8

50 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.9 5.3 6.6 8.0 9.3

100 2.7 3.1 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.7 8.1 11.1 13.8 16.7 19.5

150 4.3 4.8 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9 9.1 10.4 12.6 17.2 21.5 26.0 30.3

200 5.9 6.7 7.6 8.7 9.8 11.0 12.5 14.5 17.5 23.8 29.7 36.0 41.9

250 7.8 8.7 9.9 11.4 12.8 14.4 16.4 18.9 22.8 31.1 38.9 47.1 54.8

2.0 10 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

50 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.6 3.1 4.2 5.2 6.3 7.3

100 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.4 3.8 4.2 4.8 5.5 6.5 8.8 10.9 13.1 15.2

150 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.3 5.9 6.6 7.5 8.5 10.2 13.7 17.0 20.4 23.6

200 5.2 5.8 6.5 7.4 8.2 9.1 10.3 11.8 14.1 19.0 23.5 28.2 32.7

250 6.8 7.5 8.5 9.6 10.7 11.9 13.5 15.4 18.5 24.8 30.7 36.9 42.7

2.5 10 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2

50 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.3 2.7 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.0100 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.7 4.1 4.7 5.6 4.7 9.1 10.9 12.6

150 3.4 3.7 4.2 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.5 7.3 8.7 11.5 14.2 17.0 19.6

200 4.7 5.2 5.8 6.5 7.2 8.0 9.0 10.2 12.1 16.0 19.6 23.5 27.1

250 6.1 6.8 7.5 8.5 9.4 10.4 11.7 13.3 15.8 20.9 25.7 30.7 35.4

3.0 10 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0

50 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.1 3.8 4.5 5.2

100 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 3.0 33 3.7 4.2 4.9 6.5 7.9 9.4 10.8

150 3.1 3.4 3.8 4.3 4.7 5.2 5.8 5.6 7.7 10.1 12.3 14.7 16.8

200 4.3 4.8 5.3 5.9 6.5 7.2 8.0 9.0 10.7 14.0 17.0 20.3 23.3

250 5.7 6.2 6.9 7.7 8.5 9.4 10.5 11.8 13.9 18.3 22.3 26.5 30.5

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All-Service JacketKnown as ASJ, the all-service jacket is a laminationo brown (krat) paper, berglass cloth (skrim), and a metallic lm. A vapor retarder also is included. This jacket also is called an FSK jacket because o the -berglass cloth, skrim, and krat paper. It most oten isused to cover berglass insulation.

The berglass cloth is used to reinorce the kratpaper. The paper is generally a bleached, 30-pound(13.5-kg) material, which actually weighs 30 poundsper 30,000 square eet (2,790 m

2). The metallic oil is

aluminum. This complete jacket gives the re rating or the insulation system.

The jacket is adhered to the pipe with either sel-sealing adhesive or staples. The butt joint ends aresealed with adhesive, placed together, and then coveredwith lap strips during installation. Staples are usedwhen the surrounding conditions are too dirty or cor-rosive to use sel-sealing material. The staple holesshall be sealed with adhesive.

Aluminum Jacket Aluminum jackets shall conorm to ASTM B209. Theyare manuactured as corrugated or smooth and areavailable in various thicknesses ranging rom 0.010inch to 0.024 inch, with 0.016 inch being the mostcommon. The corrugated version is used where expan-sion and contraction o the piping may be a problem. Aluminum jackets also are made invarious tempers and alloys. A vaporretarder material can be applied toprotect the aluminum rom any cor-rosive ingredient in the insulation.

Fittings are abricated in the shop. Aluminum jackets may be secured

by one o three methods: by strapson 9-inch (180-mm) centers, by a proprietary S or Z shape, or by sheetmetal screws.

Stainless Steel JacketStainless steel jackets shall conormto ASTM A240. They are manuac-tured as corrugated or smooth andare available in various thicknessesranging rom 0.010 inch to 0.019inch, with 0.016 inch being the mostcommon. They are also available invarious alloy types conorming to ASTM A304 and can be obtained indierent nishes. A vapor retardermaterial can be applied, although itis not required or corrosive envi-ronments except where chlorine orfuorides are present.

Stainless steel jackets are used or hygienic purposesand are adhered in a manner similar to that used oraluminum.

Plastic and LaminatesPlastic jackets are manuactured rom polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyvinylidene fuoride (PVDF), acry-lonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyvinyl acetate

(PVA), and acrylics. Thicknesses range rom 3 mils to35 mils. The local code authority shall be consultedprior to their use.

Laminates are manuactured as a composite thatis alternating layers o oil and polymer. Thicknessesrange rom 3 to 25 mils. The local code authority shallbe consulted prior to their use.

Both are adhered by the use o an appropriateadhesive.

Wire Mesh Wire mesh is available in various wire diameters andwidths. Materials or manuacture are Monel, stainless

steel, and Inconel. Wire mesh is used where a strong,fexible covering that can be removed easily is needed.It is secured with lacing hooks or stainless steel wirethat must be additionally wrapped with tie wire ormetal straps.

Table 5-3 Insulation Thickness - Equivalent Thickness (in.)

DN NPS

½ 1 1½ 2 2½ 3

L1 A L1 A L1 A L1 A L1 A L1 A15 ½ 0.76 0.49 1.77 0.75 3.12 1.05 4.46 1.31

20 ¾ 0.75 0.56 1.45 0.75 2.68 1.05 3.90 1.31

25 1 0.71 0.62 1.72 0.92 2.78 1.18 4.02 1.46 — — — —32 1¼ 0.63 0.70 1.31 0.92 2.76 1.31 3.36 1.46

40 1½ 0.60 0.75 1.49 1.05 2.42 1.31 4.13 1.73

50 2 0.67 0.92 1.43 1.18 2.36 1.46 3.39 1.73 4.43 1.99 — —

65 2½ 0.66 1.05 1.38 1.31 2.75 1.73 3.71 1.99 4.73 2.26

80 3 0.57 1.18 1.29 1.46 2.11 1.73 2.96 1.99 3.88 2.26 4.86 2.52

90 3½ 0.92 1.46 1.67 1.73 2.46 1.99 3.31 2.26 4.22 2.52 5.31 2.81

100 4 0.59 1.46 1.28 1.73 2.01 1.99 2.80 2.26 3.65 2.52 4.68 2.81

115 4½ 0.94 1.74 1.61 1.99 2.35 2.26 3.15 2.52 4.11 2.81 5.02 3.08

125 5 0.58 1.74 1.20 1.99 1.89 2.26 2.64 2.52 3.54 2.81 4.40 3.08

150 6 0.54 2.00 1.13 2.26 1.79 2.52 2.60 2.81 3.36 3.08 4.17 3.34

7 — — 1.11 2.52 1.84 2.81 2.54 3.08 3.27 3.34 4.25 3.67

200 8 — — 1.18 2.81 1.81 3.08 2.49 3.34 3.39 3.67 4.15 3.93

9 — — 1.17 3.08 1.79 3.34 2.62 3.67 3.32 3.93 4.06 4.19

250 10 — — 1.09 3.34 1.85 3.67 2.50 3.93 3.18 4.19 3.90 4.45300 12 — — 1.22 3.93 1.82 4.19 2.45 4.45 3.10 4.71 3.79 4.97

350 14 — — 1.07 4.19 1.65 4.45 2.26 4.71 2.90 4.97 3.57 5.24

400 16 — — 1.06 4.71 1.63 4.97 2.23 5.24 2.86 5.50 3.50 5.76

450 18 — — 1.05 5.24 1.62 5.50 2.21 5.76 2.82 6.02 3.45 6.28

500 20 — — 1.05 5.76 1.61 6.02 2.19 6.28 2.79 6.54 3.41 6.81

600 24 — — 1.04 6.81 1.59 7.07 2.16 7.33 2.74 7.59 3.35 7.85

Source: Owens/Corning. where

DN = nominal diameter r1 = inner radius o insulation (in.)

NPS = nominal pipe size r2 = outer radius o insulation (in.)

L1 = equivalent thickness (in.) In = log to the base e (natural log)

L1 = r2 In (r2 /r1) A = square eet o pipe insulation surace per lineal oot o pipe


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Lagging Lagging is the covering o a previously insulated pipe orpiece o equipment with a cloth or berglass jacket. Itis used where appearance is the primary consideration,since this type o jacket oers little or no additionalinsulation protection. This material also is used as a

combination system that serves as a protective coatand adhesive.

This jacket typically is secured to the insulationwith the use o lagging adhesive and/or sizing. It isavailable in a variety o colors and may eliminate theneed or painting.

Table 5-4 Dewpoint Temperature

Dry BulbTemp. (°F)

Percent Relative Humidity

10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

5 -35 -30 -25 -21 -17 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -5 -4 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

10 -31 -25 -20 -16 -13 -10 -7 -5 -3 -2 0 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10

15 -28 -21 -16 -12 -8 -5 -3 -1 1 3 5 6 8 9 10 12 13 14 15

20 -24 -16 -11 -8 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10 11 13 14 15 16 18 19 20

25 -20 -15 -8 -4 0 3 6 8 10 12 15 16 18 19 20 21 23 24 25

30 -15 -9 -3 2 5 8 11 13 15 17 20 22 23 24 25 27 28 29 30

35 -12 -5 1 5 9 12 15 18 20 22 24 26 27 28 30 32 33 34 35

40 -7 0 5 9 14 16 19 22 24 26 28 29 31 33 35 36 38 39 40

45 -4 3 9 13 17 20 23 25 28 30 32 34 36 38 39 41 43 44 45

50 -1 7 13 17 21 24 27 30 32 34 37 39 41 42 44 45 47 49 50

55 3 11 16 21 25 28 32 34 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 50 52 53 55

60 6 14 20 25 29 32 35 39 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 55 57 59 60

65 10 18 24 28 33 38 40 43 46 49 51 53 55 57 59 60 62 63 65

70 13 21 28 33 37 41 45 48 50 53 55 57 60 62 64 65 67 68 70

75 17 25 32 37 42 46 49 52 55 57 60 62 64 66 69 70 72 74 75

80 20 29 35 41 46 50 54 57 60 62 65 67 69 72 74 75 77 78 80

85 23 32 40 45 50 54 58 61 64 67 69 72 74 76 78 80 82 83 85

90 27 36 44 49 54 58 62 66 69 72 74 77 79 81 83 85 87 89 90

95 30 40 48 54 59 63 67 70 73 76 79 82 84 86 88 90 91 93 95100 34 44 52 58 63 68 71 75 78 81 84 86 88 91 92 94 96 98 100

110 41 52 60 66 71 77 80 84 87 90 92 95 98 100 102 104 106 108 110

120 48 60 68 74 79 85 88 92 96 99 102 105 109 109 112 114 116 118 120

125 52 63 72 78 84 89 93 97 100 104 107 109 111 114 117 119 121 123 125

Table 5-5 Insulation Thickness to Prevent Condensation, 50°F Service Temperature and 70°F Ambient TemperatureRelative Humidity (%)

20 50 70 80 90

DN

Nom.Pipe Size

(in.) THK HG ST THK HG ST THK HG ST THK HG ST THK HG ST15 0.50

Condensationcontrol not

required or thiscondition

0.5 2 66 0.5 2 66 0.5 2 66 1.0 2 68

20 0.75 0.5 2 67 0.5 2 67 0.5 2 67 0.5 2 67

25 1.00 0.5 3 66 0.5 3 66 0.5 3 66 1.0 2 6832 1.25 0.5 3 66 0.5 3 66 0.5 3 66 1.0 3 67

40 1.50 0.5 4 65 0.5 4 65 0.5 4 65 1.0 3 67

50 2.00 0.5 5 66 0.5 5 66 0.5 5 66 1.0 3 67

65 2.50 0.5 5 65 0.5 5 65 0.5 5 65 1.0 4 67

75 3.00 0.5 7 65 0.5 7 65 0.5 7 65 1.0 4 67

90 3.50 0.5 8 65 0.5 8 65 0.5 8 65 1.0 4 68

100 4.00 0.5 8 65 0.5 8 65 0.5 8 65 1.0 5 67

125 5.00 0.5 10 65 0.5 10 65 0.5 10 65 1.0 6 67

150 6.00 0.5 12 65 0.5 12 65 0.5 12 65 1.0 7 67

200 8.00 1.0 9 67 1.0 9 67 1.0 9 67 1.0 9 67

250 10.00 1.0 11 67 1.0 11 67 1.0 11 67 1.0 11 67

300 12.00 1.0 12 67 1.0 12 67 1.0 12 67 1.0 12 67

Source: Courtesy Certainteed.Notes: 25 mm = 1 in.

THK = Insulation thickness (in.).

HG = Heat gain/lineal oot (pipe) 28 t (fat) (Btu). ST = Surace temperature (°F).

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INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES

Insulation or Valves and FittingsThe ttings and valves on a piping system requirespecially ormed or made-up sections o insulation tocomplete the installation.

One type o insulation is the pre-ormed type thatis manuactured by specic size and shape to t over

any particular tting or valve. Such insulation isavailable in two sections that are secured with staples,adhesive, or pressure-sensitive tape depending on theuse o a vapor retarder. This is the quickest methodo installation, but the most costly.

Another system uses a pre-ormed plastic jacketthe exact size and shape o the tting or valve. A berglass blanket or sheet is cut to size and wrappedaround the bare pipe, and then the jacket is placedover the insulation. The exposed edges are tucked in,and the jacket is secured with special tacks with a barbthat prevents them rom pulling apart. The ends aresealed with pressure-sensitive tape.

For large piping, it is common to use straightlengths o berglass by mitering the ends and secur-ing them with a berglass jacket (lagging).

Insulation or Tanks Where berglass is specied, tanks are insulated us-ing 2×4-oot boards in the thickness required. Theboards are placed on the tank in an manner similarto brick laying. They are secured with metal bands. Wire is placed over the bands as a oundation orinsulating cement applied over the tank to give a nished appearance.

Where rubber is specied, the tank is coated with

adhesive, and the rubber sheets are placed on thetank. The edges are coated with adhesive to seal it.Painting is not required.

Insulation Around Pipe Supports As the installation on a project progresses, a contrac-tor must contend with dierent situations regarding the vapor retarder. Since the insulation systemselected shall be protected against the migration o water vapor into the insulation, the integrity o thevapor retarder must be maintained. Where a hangeris installed directly on the pipe, the insulation mustbe placed over both the pipe and the hanger. Figure

5-1 illustrates a split-ring hanger attached directlyon the pipe.

Since low-density insulation is the type most otenused, a situation arises wherein the primary consid-erations are keeping the vapor retarder intact andpreventing the weight o the pipe rom crushing theinsulation. Figure 5-2 illustrates several high-densityinsert solutions or a clevis hanger supporting aninsulated pipe.

The jacketing method shown in both gures canbe used interchangeably with any type o insulationor which it is suited.

SELECTING INSULATIONTHICKNESSSelecting the proper insulation thickness is aectedby the reason or using insulation:

1. Controlling heat loss rom piping or equipment

2. Condensation control

3. Personnel protection

4. Economics

Controlling Heat LossIncreased concern about conservation and energyuse has resulted in the insulation o piping to controlheat loss becoming one o the primary considerationsin design. Heat loss is basically an economic consid-eration, since the lessening o heat loss produces a

more cost-ecient piping system. The proper use o insulation can have dramatic results.

The insulation installed on domestic hot water, hotwater return, and chilled drinking water systems isintended to minimize heat loss rom the water. Sinceberglass insulation is the type most oten used, Table5-1 is provided to give the heat loss through verticaland horizontal piping as well as the heat loss throughbare pipe. Table 5-2 is given or piping intended to beinstalled outdoors.

When calculating the heat loss rom round sur-aces such as a pipe, the plumbing engineer shouldremember that the inside surace o the insulation

has a dierent diameter than the outside. Thereore,a means must be ound to determine the equivalentthickness that shall be used. This is done by the useo Table 5-3. To read this table, enter with the actualpipe size and insulation thickness, and then nd theequivalent thickness o the insulation.

Sotware endorsed by the U.S. Department o Energy and distributed by the North American In-sulation Manuacturers Association (NAIMA) thatwill calculate heat loss, condensation control, andenvironmental emissions is available at pipeinsula-tion.org.

Condensation Control As mentioned, water vapor in the air condenses on a cold surace i the temperature o the cold surace isat or below the dewpoint. I the temperature is abovethe dewpoint, condensation does not orm. The pur-pose o a vapor retarder is to minimize or eliminatesuch condensation. For this to be accomplished, the joints and overlaps must be sealed tightly. This is donethrough one o three methods:


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Table 5-6 Insulation Thickness or Personnel Protection,120°F Maximum Surace Temperature, 80°F Ambient Temperature

Service Temperature

Nom. PipeSize (in.)

250 350 450 550

TH

HL

ST TH

HL

ST TH

HL

ST TH

HL

STLF SF LF SF LF SF LF SF0.50 0.5 25 51 109 1.0 30 40 104 1.0 48 64 118 1.5 55 52 113

0.75 0.5 25 41 104 0.5 42 68 120 1.5 45 43 107 1.5 64 61 1181.00 0.5 34 55 112 1.0 37 40 105 1.0 60 66 120 1.5 69 58 117

1.25 0.5 37 49 109 1.0 47 51 112 1.5 55 42 107 1.5 77 59 118

1.50 0.5 46 61 117 1.0 48 46 109 1.5 62 47 110 2.0 70 40 106

2.00 0.5 50 55 114 1.0 56 47 110 1.5 70 48 111 2.0 84 48 112

2.50 0.5 59 56 115 1.5 45 26 97 1.5 72 41 107 1.5 102 59 119

3.00 0.5 75 64 120 1.0 76 52 114 1.5 93 53 115 2.0 110 55 117

3.50 1.0 43 25 96 1.0 71 41 107 1.5 93 46 111 2.0 112 49 113

4.00 0.5 89 61 119 1.0 90 52 114 1.5 112 56 117 2.0 131 58 119

5.00 1.0 67 33 102 1.0 110 55 117 1.5 134 59 120 2.5 131 46 112

6.00 1.0 79 35 103 1.0 130 57 119 2.0 124 44 110 2.5 150 48 114

8.00 1.0 95 33 103 1.0 157 55 118 2.0 153 45 112 2.5 177 48 114

10.00 1.0 121 36 105 1.5 136 37 106 2.0 179 45 112 2.5 215 51 117

12.00 1.0 129 32 103 1.0 212 54 118 2.0 207 46 113 2.5 248 52 118

Source: Certainteed.Notes: TH = Thickness o insulation (in.)HL = heat loss (Btu/h)LF = Heat loss per lineal oot o pipe (Btu/h)SF = Heat loss per square oot o outside insulation surace (Btu/h)ST = Surace temperature o insulation (°F)

Table 5-7 Time or Dormant Water to Freeze

Fiberglass Insulation

Pipe or Tubing Size(in.)

Air Temp.,°F (°C)

Water Temp.,°F (°C)

Insulation Thickness,in. (mm)

Time to 32°F(0°C)

DORMANTwater (h)

Time to 32°F(0°C) Solid

Ice (h)a

Flowb

5

⁄ 8

OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.66 (N¾) (19.1) 0.30 3.10 0.3311 ⁄ 8 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.74 (N¾) (19.1) 0.75 8.25 0.44

15 ⁄ 8 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.79 (N¾) (19.1) 1.40 14.75 0.57

31 ⁄ 8 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.88 (N¾) (19.1) 3.5 37.70 0.83

1 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.76 (N¾) (19.1) 0.75 8.25 0.48

2 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.85 (N¾) (19.1) 2.10 22.70 0.67

3 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.89 (N¾) (19.1) 3.60 38.40 0.90

5 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 0.95 (N¾) (19.1) 6.95 73.60 1.25

Foamed Plastic Insulation

Pipe or Tubing Size(in.)

Air Temp.,°F (°C)

Water Temp.,°F (°C)

Insulation Thickness,in. (mm)

Time to 32°F(0°C)

DORMANTwater (h)

Time to 32°F(0°C) Solid

Ice (h)a

Flowb

5 ⁄ 8 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 0.60 6.20 0.16

11 ⁄ 8 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 1.30 13.70 0.26

15 ⁄ 8 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 2.35 24.75 0.32

31 ⁄ 8 OD CT -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 5.55 58.65 0.52

1 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 1.50 15.75 0.25

2 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 3.80 40.15 0.39

3 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 6.05 64.20 0.53

5 IPS -10 (-23.3) 50 (10) 1 (25.4) 11.15 118.25 0.78aNo way to calculate slush. 32°F (0°C) ice value higher due to heat o usion.

bFlow is expressed as gal/h/t o pipe (12.4 Uhr-m).

Example: For 100 t. (30.5m) pipe run, multiply value shown by 100. This is the minimum continuous fow to keep water rom reezing.OD CT = outside diameter, copper tubeIPS = iron pipe size

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1. Rigid jackets such as metallic or plastic

2. Membranes such as laminated oils

3. Mastics applied over the pipe, either emulsion orsolvent type

Table 5-4 shows the dry-bulb dewpoint temperatureat which condensation orms. Table 5-5 is provided to

indicate the thickness o berglass insulation neededto prevent condensation with water at 50°F (10°C).

Personnel Protection When hot water fows through an uninsulated piping system, it is usually at a temperature that may scaldany person touching the pipe. Insulation is used tolower the surace temperatures o hot water pipes toprevent such harm. A surace temperature o 120°F(49°C) has been shown to not burn a person whotouches the pipe. Table 5-6 provides the thickness o berglass insulation and the surace temperature o the insulation. The thicknesses shown in this table

should be compared with those shown in Table 5-1 or5-2 to see which thickness is greater. The larger thick-ness should be used.

EconomicsThe two economic actors involved are the cost o theinsulation and the cost o energy. To calculate theenergy savings in nancial terms, the ollowing are

needed: service temperature o the surace, pipe sizeor surace dimensions, Btu dierence between the airand the surace (linear eet or square eet), eciencyo heating equipment, annual operating hours, andthe cost o uel.

I the plumbing designer wishes to make an eco-nomic comparison among various insulation systems,many ormulas and computer programs are availableor the purpose. Discussion o these methods is beyondthe scope o this chapter.

Figure 5-3 Temperature Drop o Flowing Water in a Pipeline


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FREEZE PROTECTIONNo amount o insulation can prevent the reezing o water (or sewage) in a pipeline that remains dormantover a long period. Table 5-7 is provided as a directreading table or estimating the time it takes or dor-mant water to reeze. For some installations, it is notpossible or the water to remain dormant. I the water

is fowing, as it does in a drainage line, use Figure 5-3,a nomogram that gives the temperature drop o fow-ing water. I the contents cannot be prevented romreezing, the plumbing engineer can add hot water toraise the temperature, heat trace the line, or providesucient velocity to keep the contents rom reezing.

To calculate the fow o water in a line to preventreezing, use Equation 5-2.

Equation 5-2

gpm = A 1 × A 2 × (0.5TW – TA + 16)

40.1 D2

(TW – 32)

wheregpm = Flow rate, gallons per minuteA 1 = Pipe fow area, square eetA 2 = Exposed pipe surace area, square eet

TW = Water temperature, °FTA = Lowest air temperature, °F

D = Inside diameter o pipe, eet

INSULATION DESIGNCONSIDERATIONSFollowing are some general items to consider whendesigning the insulation or a plumbing system.

1. Insulation attenuates sound rom the fow o pipecontents. Where sound is a problem, such as intheaters, adding a mass-lled vinyl layer over theinsulation can lessen the sound.

2. Protecting health and saety when storing andhandling insulation and/or jacketing materials canbe alleviated by proper adherence to established

sae storage and handling procedures.3. The rate o expansion aects the eiciency o

the insulation over a long period. The dierencebetween the expansion o insulation and theexpansion o the pipe eventually leads to gaps aternumerous fexings.

4. Protect the insulation against physical damage byadding a strong jacket or delaying installation ona piping system. It has been ound that workmenwalking on the pipe pose the greatest danger.

5. I the insulation is to be installed in a corrosiveatmosphere, the proper jacket shall be installed to

withstand the most severe conditions.6. Union regulations should be reviewed to ensure that

the insulation contractor installs a jacket. Somemetal jackets above a certain thickness are installedby the general contractor.

7. Space conditions may dictate the use o oneinsulation system over another to t in a connedspace.

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Hangers andSupports6

Piping system supports and hangers perorm manyunctions—including supporting or anchoring piping systems, preventing pipe runs rom sagging, allow-ing or motion to alleviate breakage, and providing an adequate slope to accommodate drainage orfow—and they are an integral part o the plumbing

system. Choosing the correct supports and hangersis an important aspect o the design o a plumbing system, as improper specication can lead to ailure o the entire system. The designer must consider a mul-titude o environmental and physical characteristicsthat may interact with and aect the overall system,such as the quantity and composition o the fuidexpected to fow through the system, structural com-ponents, chemical interactions, metal atigue analysis,acoustics, and even electric current transerence. Thespecication must go beyond the support types andhanger distances prescribed in the plumbing codes.

In act, the designer may need to consult with otherengineering disciplines and with the pipe and pipesupport manuacturers or the correct materials tospeciy or particular applications.

HANGER AND SUPPORTCONSIDERATIONSThe most common hanger and support detail speciedon plans is a simple statement: “the piping shall besupported in a good and substantial manner in accor-dance with all local codes and ordinances.” However,the codes typically provide little help to the plumbing engineer. Their requirements are simple:

• Allwaterpipingshallbeadequatelysupportedtothe satisaction o the administrative authority.

• Pipingshallbesupportedfortheweightandthedesign o the material used.

• Supports, hangers,and anchors are devices forproperly supporting and securing pipe, xtures,and equipment.

• Suspendedpipingshallbesupportedatintervalsnot to exceed those shown in Table 6-1.

• Allpipingshallbesupportedinsuchamannerasto maintain its alignment and prevent sagging.

• Hangers and anchors shall be of sufcientstrength to support the weight o the pipe and itscontents.

• Pipingshallbeisolatedfromincompatiblemate-rials.

A technical specication or perormance character-istic regarding piping support is an oten-overlookedpart o the plumbing system design. In addition toollowing the basic code requirements, the plumbing engineer must study, evaluate, and analyze the piping layout in relation to the structure and equipment, aswell as consider the totality o the piping systems thatwill be utilized and the surrounding environmentaland physical characteristics that will come to bearon the overall perormance o the completed system.

Given the wide variety o environmental and physicalcharacteristics around which projects are designed,it is not possible to provide an exhaustive listing o potential areas that need evaluation. However, somebasic considerations include the ollowing.

Loads What will the total load o the piping system be?First and oremost, basic engineering requires a perormance and load calculation to be conductedto determine the physical amount and weight o allspecic piping system elements. In this initial deter-mination, the engineer considers not only the weighto the piping itsel, but also that o all associated ele-

ments including valves, ttings, the bulk weight andfow characteristics o the substance to fow throughor be carried within the pipe, and thermal or acousti-cal insulation or other pipe-covering material.

Depending on the piping system’s location, oth-er natural and manmade orces that may create anadditional load on the piping system, such as rain,ice, and snow or piping systems exposed to naturalweather conditions, also must be considered. When a portion o the piping system will be exposed and rel-

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atively easy to reach, the engineer should give someconsideration to the potential or unintended uses,such as people hanging rom pipes or using them assupports or various items (e.g., plants, lights).

The chosen hanger, support, and anchor systemmust, at a minimum, accommodate the piping sys-tem load. Moreover, the plumbing engineer needs towork closely with the structural engineer to ensurethat the building’s structure will be able to supportthe load created by the attachment o the piping system. This load calculation also may incorporateother elements as indicated below.

Thermal Stresses What stresses and accompanying limitations willbe imposed on the piping system? Many external,internal, and thermal stresses and the accompanying movements that can occur need to be accommodatedby the hangers, supports, and anchors o a piping system. Hangers and supports must provide or

fexibility and axial (twisting), latitudinal, and lon-gitudinal motions.

Thermal events subject the piping system toboth internal and external infuences resulting incontractions and expansions, which can be gradualor sudden in their movements. Here again, naturaland manmade environments must be taken intoaccount. Whenever the piping system and its sur-rounding environment are subject to any heating orcooling events, the hangers and supports must beable to accommodate the contraction and expansioneects. In addition, the hangers must be able to ac-commodate the eects o heating and cooling eventsthat aect the substances being carried within thepiping system (e.g., certain liquids fow at dierentvelocities under dierent temperatures).

Even in a piping system with thermal consider-ations accounted or by design elements such as ex-pansion loops, the accompanying lateral movement


Table 6-1 Maximum Horizontal Pipe Hanger and Support Spacing

NominalPipe or

Tube Size

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Std Wt Steel Pipe Copper Tube

WaterService

VaporService

WaterService

VaporService

FireProtection

Ductile IronPipe

Cast IronSoil Glass Plastic

FiberglassReinorced

in (mm) t (m) t (m) t (m) t (m)¼ (6) — — — — 5(1.5) 5(1.5) F

o l l o w

r e q u i r e m

e n

t s o f

t h e

N a t i o n

a l F i r e P r o

t e c t i o n A

s s o c i a

t i o n .

2 0 f t

( 6 .1 m

) m

a x

s p a c i n

g ;

mi n o f

o n

e ( 1 ) h

a n

g e r

p e r

p i p

e s e c t i o n

c l o

s e t o t h e j o i n

t b

e h i n d

t h e b e l l

a n

d a t c h

a n

g e o f

d

i r e c t i o n

a n

d b r a n

c h

c o n n

e c t i o n

s .F

o r

p i p

e s i z e

s s i x

( 6 ) i n .

( 1 5

0

mm

) a n

d u n

d e r ,i n

s t a l l e

d o

n A S ME B

3 1

p r o

j e c t s , t h a t a r e

s u b j e c t t o l o

a d i n

g o t h e r

t h a n

w e i g h

t o f

p i p

e a n

d c o n

t e n

t s , t h e s p a n

s h

o u l d

b e l i mi t e

d t o t h e m

a x i m

u m s

p a c i n

g f o r

w a t e r

s e r v i c

e s t e e l

p i p

e .

1 0 f t

( 3 . 0 m

) m

a x

s p a c i n

g ;

mi n o f

o n

e ( 1 ) h

a n

g e r

p e r

p i p

e s e c t i o n

c l o

s e t o j o i n

t o n

t h

e

b a r r e l ,

a l s

o a t c h

a n

g e o f

d i

r e c t i o n

a n

d b r a n

c h

c o n n

e c t i o n

s .

8 f t

( 2 .4 m

) m

a x

s p a c i n

g ,f

o l l o w

p i p

e m

a n

u f a

c t u r e r ’ s r e

c o mm

e n

d a t i o n

s .

F o l l o w

p i p

e m

a n

u f a


c o mm

e n

d a t i o n

s f o r m

a t e r i a l

a n

d s e r v i c

e c o n

d i t i o n .

F o l l o w

p i p

e m

a n

u f a


c o mm

e n

d a t i o n

s f o r m

a t e r i a l

a n

d s e r v i c

e c o n

d i t i o n .

3 ⁄ 8(10) 7(2.1) 8(2.4) 5(1.5) 6(1.8)

½ (15) 7(2.1) 8(2.4) 5(1.5) 6(1.8)

¾ (20) 7(2.1) 9(2.7) 5(1.5) 7(2.1)

1 (25) 7(2.1) 9(2.7) 6(1.8) 8(2.4)

1¼ (32) 7(2.1) 9(2.7) 7(2.1) 9(2.7)

1½ (40) 9(2.7) 12(3.7) 8(2.4) 10(3.0)

2 (50) 10(3.0) 13(4.0) 8(2.4) 11(3.4)2½ (65) 11(3.4) 14(4.3) 9(2.7) 13(4.0)

3 (80) 12(3.7) 15(4.6) 10(3.0) 14(4.3)

3½ (90) 13(4.0) 16(4.9) 11(3.4) 15(4.6)

4 (100) 14(4.3) 17(5.2) 12(3.7) 16(4.9)

5 (125) 16(4.9) 19(5.8) 13(4.0) 18(5.5)

6 (150) 17(5.2) 21(6.4) 14(4.3) 20(6.1)

8 (200) 19(5.8) 24(7.3) 16(4.9) 23(7.0)

10 (250) 22(6.7) 26(7.9) 18(5.5) 25(7.6)

12 (300) 23(7.0) 30(9.1) 19(5.8) 28(8.5)

14 (350) 25(7.6) 32(9.8)

16 (400) 27(8.2) 35(10.7)

18 (450) 28(8.5) 37(11.3)

20 (500) 30(9.1) 39(11.9)24 (600) 32(9.8) 42(12.8)

30 (750) 33(10.1) 44(13.4)

Notes:

a. For spacing supports incorporating type 40 shields, see ANSI/MSS SP–58-2009, Table A3.

b. This table does not apply where span calculations are made or where there are concentrated loads between supports, such as fanges, valves, and specialties, etc. or changesin direction requiring additional supports.

c. Unbalanced orces o hydrostatic or hydrodynamic origin (thrust orces) unless restrained externally can result in pipe movement and separation o joints i the joints o thesystem are not o a restrained joint design. See ANSI/MSS SP-58-2009 Section 7.5.3

Extracted rom ANSI/MSS SP-58-2009 with permission o the publisher, Manuacturers Standardization Society o the Valve and Fittings Industry Inc. Note: The SP-58-2009“comprehensive” edition integrates the content o a revised MSS SP-58 with ANSI/MSS SP-69-2003, MSS SP-77-1995 (R 2000), MSS SP-89-2003, and MSS SP-90-2000 intoa single source document, enabling the user to speciy a minimum level o acceptance or pipe hanger design and perormance, in addition to dening the types o hangers andsupports. The aorementioned SP-69 will not be revised, and SP-77, 89, and 90 were withdrawn in 2010. The SP-58-2009 edition can ocially be utilized and reerenced in placeo the aorementioned Standard Practices.

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Chapter 6 — Hangers and Supports 117

should be accommodated by buttressing with theproper hangers and supports.

Pressure Fluctuations Just as with thermal stresses, pressure fuctuationsthat occur because o the substance being trans-ported within the piping system are accompaniedby contraction and expansion eects that need to be

accommodated by the proper hangers and supports.These pressure fuctuations are oten complex, as theyinvolve the conduct o fuids, gases, and semisolidsbeing transported in an enclosed environment.

Changes in pressure can create unrealized stress-es on the hangers and supports or the piping system.For instance, water hammer can cause movementand vibration within pipes that may cause the piping system to ail i it is too rmly or rigidly anchored. Water hammer can occur within any piping systemcarrying liquids when a signicant fuctuation o fow volume or pressure occurs or when a contami-nant substance, such as air, enters the piping.

The plumbing engineer must design a piping hanger and support system to handle extreme pres-sure fuctuations and also to ensure that the build-ing’s structure can handle the applied loads createdby the movement o the piping system.

Structural StressesPerhaps the most obvious o all external infuenceson a piping system is the structure to which thepiping system must be attached and pass through.Every natural and manmade material is subject tocontraction and expansion due to internal and exter-nal eects. Many o these structural stresses must

be accommodated by the plumbing engineer withinthe design o the hangers and supports or the piping system. Every building must be engineered to handlethe stresses o the basic structural components.

Anchors and supports o piping systems that ini-tially are attached to vertical metal structural com-ponents and transition to horizontal attachments toconcrete structural components must contend withthe contraction and expansion o the piping systemmaterials as well as the expansion and contraction o the structural elements. For example, the diametero the metal dome o the U.S. Capitol in Washing-ton, D.C. is known to expand by up to 6 inches when

heated by the sun during the summer.

Natural Environmental ConditionsThe susceptibility o a piping system to naturalconditions must be accounted or within the piping system and the accompanying hangers, supports, andanchors. The major eect o these natural environ-mental conditions is on the basic building structure.However, within structures designed to handle ex-treme natural phenomena, the piping system itsel must be hardened or conditioned.

Typical natural phenomena consist o seismicorces and sustained periods o high winds, includ-ing hurricanes and typhoons, which create majorstresses and loads on a building’s structure. For in-stance, an extreme high-rise building, such as theEmpire State Building in New York City, is knownto move 4 to 12 inches laterally in high winds. Inzones o known natural phenomena, such as areassusceptible to earth movement, the plumbing engi-neer must design the piping and support systems tosustain the shocks, stresses, and loads inherent withand applied by these extreme orces. The engineermust reer to applicable building codes to determinethe seismic design category or any mandated piping system support requirements.

While a plumbing system may not be expected tosurvive the complete destruction o a building’s struc-ture, it is expected to survive intact and working inthe event that the building structure itsel survives.

Reactivit and Conductivit

The hangers and supports vital to providing piping system integrity oten must also provide protectionrom unexpected natural and manmade activities,events, and phenomena totally unrelated to structure,stresses, loads, and similar engineering events. Just asthe engineer must consider the makeup o the interiorsuraces o the piping material, he also must considerthe exterior components o the piping system that willbe subject to environmental and manmade conditions.The hangers and supports must be actored into thisreactive equation.

Reactive conditions can consist o chemical reac-tions between unlike materials or the introductiono a reactive substance or electrical conductivity thatcan occur between dierent materials due to electri-cal “leakage” onto a piping system. These reactiveand conductivity concerns can be unobtrusive andunexpected. Regardless, they can be the cause o un-expected ailure in the hangers or supports o thepiping system.

This type o ailure can be especially acute in unex-pected areas. Chemical umes, salt water, and clean-ing liquids can cause a chemical reaction betweena hanger or support and a pipe o diering metals.Initial indicators o potential ailure can be seen in

corrosion or in the compounds produced by chemicalreaction that attach to the hangers and supports ininhospitable environments such as boiler rooms orspecialty gas and liquid systems.

It is vital that such reactive conditions be consid-ered and that the engineer speciy compatible pipeand support materials or provide or protective coat-ings or materials. It is especially important to en-sure that the interior portions o hangers, supports,and clamps that come in contact with piping also aresubject to the protective coatings; otherwise, they

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will be prone to ailure as the material is destroyedrom the inside out.

Similarly, electrical current seepage or leakage cancause unexpected but known eects between two dis-similar materials. The plumbing engineer may needto evaluate the potential or this electrical leakage,especially in common raceways where piping andconduit are placed side by side, and provide suitableprotection via the hangers and supports. A commonexample o this is the galvanic corrosion that occursin copper pipe when steel hangers are used.

AcousticsFor certain structures, the engineer may need toconsider various acoustical aspects related to piping systems. In general, two signicant types o acousti-cal annoyances must be considered. The rst is noisesuch as the sound o liquid rushing through a pipe ora harmonic resonance that makes a pipe “ring.” Inthese instances, the engineer must ensure that thepiping system and the accompanying supports receive

proper insulation.The second type o acoustic eect that must be

considered is that created by vibration and movementwithin the piping system. This acoustic anomaly re-quires a hanger and support system that oers a com-bination o three-dimensional fexibility to accountor lateral, longitudinal, and axial movements o thepiping system and a sound- and vibration-insulating material or anchor integrated into the hanger.

Manmade Environmental ConditionsThe plumbing engineer also should be cognizant o any manmade environmental conditions that can a-

ect the piping system. These created conditions cancause uncalculated stresses and loads on the systemand lead to premature ailure. Created environmentalconditions that can result in resonance or vibrationaecting interior structural systems include majorhighway arteries with signicant automotive and trucktrac; airport takeo and landing patterns; nearbyconstruction; underground digging; and undergroundtrac such as subways and railroad tunnels.

HANGER AND SUPPORTSELECTION AND INSTALLATIONThe old adage “the whole is only as strong as its

individual parts” applies directly to piping hangersand supports. Countless environmental and physi-cal conditions as discussed above can be consideredwhen choosing the correct hanger, support, or anchor.Nothing, however, substitutes or experience andknowledge. The engineer should work directly withthe pipe manuacturer regarding the proper spacing criteria and hanging methods or the pipe that isto be specied. While the number o variables thatcan be examined in choosing hangers and supports

or a plumbing system has no limits, practicalityand resource limitations also must be taken intoconsideration.

Hanger TpesHangers, supports, and clamps come in a wide varietyo materials, shapes, and sizes (see Figure 6-1). Whilethe major purpose o the hangers shown is to support

the loads and stresses imposed on a piping system,specication o the correct hanger is a vital componentor the overall structural integrity o the building itsel. The structure must be able to handle the loadsand stresses o the piping system, and the hanger andsupport system must be engineered to provide fex-ibility, durability, and structural strength.

Selection CriteriaTo ensure proper hanger and support selection, theplumbing engineer must determine or be cognizant o the degrees o reedom that will be necessary withinthe piping system due to its operating characteris-

tics. These degrees o reedom need to be consideredin a three-dimensional space to account or lateral,horizontal, vertical, and axial movements and fuc-tuations.

The most typical selection criterion used is theone most closely associated with the type o pipe ma-terial and the temperature fuctuations within thesystem. This simple selection process requires thecorrect hanger choice to be made rom Table 6-2.Then, based on that hanger choice and the tempera-ture o the overall piping system, Table 6-3 can beused to select the appropriate hanger.

However, this selection process relies on averages

and standards. It does not take into account all o the three-dimensional fuctuations and movementsthat, depending on the structure and the associatedor potential stresses and loads, will aect the overallplumbing system.

Tables 6-2 and 6-3 should be used as guidelinesor selecting the most suitable type o hanger orthe support requirement at each incremental stepo the design process. These tables oer the basicso hanger selection—a variety o hanger choices andthe material composition most suited or the tem-perature characteristics that will aect the piping


Table 6-2 Pipe Classication by Temperature

System Class Temperature Rating, °F (°C)Hot A-1 120 to 450 (49 to 232)

Hot A-2 451 to 750 (233 to 399)

Hot A-3 Over 750 (over 400)

Ambient B 60 to 119 (16 to 48)

Cold C-1 33 to 59 (1 to 15)

Cold C-2 –20 to 32 (–29 to O)

Cold C-3 –39 to –20 (–39 to –29)

Cold C-4 –40 and below (–40 and below)

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Figure 6-1 Types o Hangers and SupportsExtracted rom ANSI/MSS SP-58-2009 with permission o the publisher, Manuacturers Standardization Society o the Valve and Fittings Industry Inc.


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Figure 6-1 Types o Hangers and Supports (continued)Extracted rom ANSI/MSS SP-58-2009 with permission o the publisher, Manuacturers Standardization Society o the Valve and Fittings Industry Inc.

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system. What these tables cannot do is substitute orthe engineering and design processes that determinethe proper hanger selection based on the environ-mental and physical infuences that will aect thedierent elements o the piping system under vary-ing conditions. The most instructive aspect o Table6-3 is ound in the notes at the end o the table (seenotes b, c, and e).

Hanger and Support Spacing Ater the appropriate hanger components have beenselected or the type o piping system and the type o building or structural support available, the plumbing engineer must identiy the spacing appropriate to thetype o pipe used. Table 6-1 provides support criteria orsome o the most common pipe materials. However, theplumbing engineer must ensure that the design criteria is in compliance with local code requirements.

Just as with Table 6-3, it needs to be noted thatTable 6-1 provides guidelines only based on piping systems under ideal circumstances with little envi-ronmental or physical infuences. Thereore, thesespacing guidelines are at the upper end o the speci-cations. That is, they should be considered themaximum spacing or hangers and supports.

For proper hanger spacing, the engineer mustevaluate and take into account the three-dimensionalfuctuations and movements as well as the environ-mental and physical infuences that will aect theentirety o the plumbing system. Proper spacing isa unction o stress, vibration, and the potential ormisuse (e.g., exposed piping used as a ladder, sca-olding, or exercise equipment). Spacing depends onpipe direction changes, structural attachment ma-terial and anchor points, additional plumbing sys-tem loadings—such as valves, fanges, lters, accessports, tanks, motors, pipe shielding, insulation, anddrip, splash, and condensate drainage—and other

specialty design requirements.

Table 6-5 Load Ratings o Carbon Steel Threaded HangerRods

Nominal RodDiameter

Root Area oThread

Max. Sae Loadat Rod Temp. o650°F (343°C)

in. (mm) in.2(mm

2) lb (kg)

3 ⁄ 8(9.6) 0.068 (43.8) 730(3.23)

½(12.7) 0.126 (81.3) 1,350(5.98)5 ⁄ 8(15.8) 0.202 (130.3) 2,160(9.61)

¾(19.0) 0.302 (194.8) 3,230(14.4)7 ⁄ 8(22.2) 0.419 (270.3) 4,480(19.9)

1 (25.4) 0.551 (356.1) 5,900(26.2)

1¼ (31.8) 0.890 (573.5) 9,500(42.4)

1½ (38.1) 1.29 (834.2) 13,800(61.6)

1¾ (44.4) 1.74 (1125) 18,600(82.8)

2 (50.8) 2.30 (1479) 24,600(109)

2¼ (57.2) 3.02 (1949) 32,300(144)

2½ (63.5) 3.72 (2397) 39,800(177)

2¾ (69.8) 4.62 (2980) 49,400(220)

3 (76.2) 5.62 (3626) 60,100(267)

3¼ (82.6) 6.72 (4435) 71,900(320)

3½ (88.9) 7.92 (5108) 84,700(377)

3¾ (95.2) 9.21 (5945) 98,500(438)

4 (101.6) 10.6 (6844) 114,000(505)

4¼ (108.0) 12.1 (7806) 129,000 (576)

4½ (114.3) 13.7 (8832) 146,000 (652)4¾ (120.6) 15.4 (9922) 165,000 (733)

5 (127.0) 17.2 (11074) 184,000(819)

Notes:

1. For materials other than carbon steel, see requirements o ANSI/MSS SP-58-2009,Section 4.8 and Table A2.

2. Tabulated loads are based on a minimum actual tensile stress o 50 ksi (345 MPa)divided by a saety actor o 3.5, reduced by 25%, resulting in an allowable stress o10.7 ksi. (The 25% reduction is to allow or normal installation and service conditions.)

3. Root areas o thread are based on the ollowing thread series: diam. 4 in. and below:coarse thread (UNC); diam. above 4 in.: 4 thread (4-UN).

Extracted rom ANSI/MSS SP-58-2009 with permission o the publisher, ManuacturersStandardization Society o the Valve and Fittings Industry Inc.

Table 6-4 Recommended Minimum Rod Diameter orSingle Rigid Rod Hangers

Types o Pipe

Steel Water ServiceSteel Vapor Service

Ductile Iron PipeCast Iron Soil

Copper Water ServiceCopper Vapor Service

Glass, PlasticFiberglass Reinorced

NominalPipe or

Tubing Size Nominal Rod Diam. Nominal Rod Diam.

in. (mm) in. (mm) in. (mm)¼(6) 3 ⁄ 8(M10) 3 ⁄ 8(M10)3 ⁄ 8(10) 3 ⁄ 8(M10) 3 ⁄ 8(M10)

½(15) 3 ⁄ 8(M10) 3 ⁄ 8(M10)

¾(20) 3 ⁄ 8(M10) 3 ⁄ 8(M10)

1 (25) 3 ⁄ 8(M10) 3 ⁄ 8(M10)

1¼(32) 3 ⁄ 8(M10) 3 ⁄ 8(M10)

1½(40) 3 ⁄ 8(M10) 3 ⁄ 8(M10)

2 (50) 3 ⁄ 8(M10) 3 ⁄ 8(M10)

2½(65) ½(M12) ½(M12)

3 (80) ½(M12) ½(M12)

3½(90) ½(M12) ½(M12)

4 (100) 5 ⁄ 8(M16) ½(M12)

5 (125) 5 ⁄ 8(M16) ½(M12)

6 (150) ¾(M20) 5 ⁄ 8(M16)

8 (200) ¾(M20) ¾(M20)

10 (250) 7 ⁄ 8(M20) ¾(M20)

12 (300) 7 ⁄ 8(M20) ¾(M20)

14 (350) 1 (M24)

16 (400) 1 (M24)18 (450) 1 (M24)

20 (500) 1¼ (M30)

24 (600) 1¼ (M30)

30 (750) 1¼ (M30)

Notes:

1.For calculated loads, rod diameters may be sized in accordance with MSS SP-58Tables 2 and 2M provided Table 1 and Section 7.2.1 o MSS SP-58 are satised.

2.Rods may be reduced one size or double rod hangers. Minimum rod diameter shall be3 ⁄ 8 in. (M10).



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ANCHORINGThe strength, saety, and integrity o a plumbing system depend on the hangers or supports that arespecied. However, it is not enough to simply speciy a hanger or support—another important considerationis how it is anchored. A hanger or support will per-orm only up to the capability o its attachment to

a structural element. At a minimum, the plumbing engineer needs to ensure close coordination betweenthe plumbing system design and that o the otherdesign engineers, including iron and concrete struc-tural engineers, to ensure properly spaced and appliedhangers and supports and their anchors.

Anchoring hangers and supports requires di-erent methods depending on the structural ele-ments, transitions rom vertical and horizontal

suraces, and diering materials (e.g., rom steelto concrete). Perhaps the most dicult hanger andsupport attachment requirement is that to concretein an existing structure. It might be necessary orthe plumbing engineer to contact the original con-crete designer or supplier or involve an experiencedhanger manuacturer or contractor or the properanchoring o the hangers and supports.

The extent o detail required within the plumb-ing system design depends on the project’s param-eters and the practicality and responsibility o theengineer to the overall building assembly. It mightbe in the plumbing engineer’s scope to establishloading, shear, and stress specications or the hang-er and support anchoring structure. Depending onthe structure, the requirements and specicationsor the hanger and support anchors vary widely. Forinstance, anchoring to wood involves a signicantlydierent process than anchoring to steel. In the lat-ter case, welding specications may need to be in-

cluded and bonding material compatibility ensured. Anchoring to concrete requires the use o implantedanchors during the pouring o the concrete or subse-quent attachment using anchor bolts and plates.

Anchor TpesFigure 6-2 shows some common materials and devicesoten used or anchoring hangers and supports; how-ever, a wide variety o anchor bolts, screws, washers,nuts, rods, plates, and strengtheners is available.Figure 6-3 shows additional supports that might bepreerred by the engineer in very particular circum-stances.

Table 6-4 shows the pipe hanger rod size or a single rigid rod hanger; however, care should betaken to observe the loading associated with specialconditions that may induce a load beyond the hangerrod strength. Moreover, lateral stress and axial ten-sion aect the choice o rod size and material. SeeTable 6-5 or load ratings o threaded hanger rodsand Table 6-6 or minimum design load ratings orrigid pipe hanger assemblies. These tables show ac-ceptable standards or hanger materials, but it is im-portant to check a particular manuacturer’s speci-cations as well. See Table 6-7 or sample design loadtables or a manuacturer’s concrete inserts. In the

overall engineered design, load and stress calcula-tions or multiple hanger and support assembliesand the use o multiple anchor assemblies (such asconcrete rod inserts) require additional evaluationand analysis to properly incorporate the eects o a distributed load.

SLEEVESPipes oten must pass through walls, foors, and otherpenetrations. I unlike materials come into contact,the potential chemical reactions between them can

Table 6-6 Minimum Design Load Ratings or Pipe HangerAssemblies (applicable to all components o complete assembly,including pipe attachment, rod, xtures, and building attachment)

Nominal Pipe or Tube Size Min. Design Load Ratings atNormal Temp. Range

b

in. (mm) lb (kg)3 ⁄ 8(10) 150(0.67)

½(15) 150(0.67)

¾(20) 150(0.67)

1 (25) 150(0.67)

1¼ (32) 150(0.67)

1½ (40) 150(0.67)

2 (50) 150(0.67)

2½ (65) 150(0.67)

3 (80) 200(0.89)

3½ (90) 210(0.93)

4 (100) 250(1.11)

5 (125) 360(1.60)

6 (150) 480(2.14)

8 (200) 760(3.38)

10 (250) 1120(4.98)

12 (300) 1480(6.58)

14 (350) 1710(7.61)

16 (400) 2130(9.47)

18 (450) 2580(11.48)

20 (500) 3060(13.61)

24 (600) 3060(13.61)

30 (750) 3500(15.57)

Notes:

a. See MSS SP-58-2009 Section 4 or allowable stresses and temperatures.

b. Normal temperature range is –20 to 650°F (–29 to 343°C) or carbon steel, –20 to 450°F(–29 to 231°C) or malleable iron, and –20 to 400°F (–29 to 204°C) or gray iron.

c. See MSS SP-58-2009 Section 7.2.1 or minimum rod diameter restrictions.

d. For loads greater than those tabluated, hanger component load ratings shall beestablished by the manuacturer. Design shall be in accordance with all criteria asoutlined in MSS SP-58-2009.

e. Pipe attachment ratings or temperature ranges between 650 and 750°F (343 and 398°C)shall be reduced by the ratio o allowable stress at service temperature to the allowablestresses at 650°F (343°C).

. For services over 750°F (398°C), attachments in direct contact with the pipe shall bedesigned to allowable stresses listed in MSS SP-58-2009, Tables A2 and A2M.


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Table 6-7(A) Sample Design Load Tables or Manuacturer’s Concrete Inserts

Design Load Chart or 3000 psi Hard Rock Concrete

Rod Size(in.)

Design Load Vertical (psi) Design Load Shear (psi) Design Load 45° (psi)

A B C Dea (in.) A B C Dea (in.) A B C3 ⁄ 8 1207 457 457 1 675 675 675 2 612 364 385

½ 2043 496 496 1.4 912 912 912 2 892 454 4545 ⁄ 8 1690 532 532 1.7 1148 1148 1148 2 967 514 514

¾ 2321 567 567 2 1368 1368 1368 2.5 1217 567 567

7 ⁄ 8 2321 878 878 4 1596 1596 1596 3 1338 801 801

Design Load Chart or Lightweight Concrete

Rod Size(in.)

Design Load Vertical (psi) Design Load Shear (psi) Design Load 45° (psi)

A B C Dea (in.) A B C Dea (in.) A B C3 ⁄ 8 905 343 343 7 ⁄ 8 590 590 590 2 547 307 321

½ 1632 372 372 7 ⁄ 8 590 590 590 2 828 323 3745 ⁄ 8 1268 399 399 7 ⁄ 8 590 590 590 2 852 337 419

¾ 1741 426 426 7 ⁄ 8 590 590 590 2½ 1084 350 4597 ⁄ 8 1741 656 656 7 ⁄ 8 590 590 590 3 1178 439 654

Table 6-7(B) Sample Design Load Tables or Manuacturer’s Concrete Inserts

Rod Size(in.)

Design Load Vertical(psi)

Design Load Shear(psi) Design Load 45° (psi) “E”Embedment

Depth (in.)Dea min.

(in.)Hard Rock Lt. Wt. Hard Rock Lt. Wt. Hard Rock Lt. Wt.3 ⁄ 8 1255 753 978 733 777 525 3½ 2

½ 2321 1392 978 733 980 679 3½ 25 ⁄ 8 780 468 1278 958 688 445 4 2

¾ 1346 806 1278 958 927 619 4 2½7 ⁄ 8 2321 1392 1278 958 1166 803 4 6

Source: Table 6-7(A) and (B) courtesy o TolcoaDe = distance to the edge o the concrete that must be maintained or the rod to meet the design load.

Eye Socket

Turnbuckle with Swivel

Steel Spot Insert Nut Concrete Insert Nut

Concrete Insert

Sel–Drilling Anchor

Wedge Anchor

Turnbuckle

Anchor Bolt

L-Rod Threaded Both Ends

Coach Screw Hanger Rod

Hanger Rod Threaded BothEnds

Tie Bolt

“J” Bolt

All Threaded Rod

Linked Eye Rod (Welded and Nonwelded)

Wedge Anchor

Eye Rod(also comes welded)

Rod Stiener

Figure 6-2 Types o Hanger and Support AnchorsSource: Anchor details courtesy o TOLCO®.

Steel Spot Concrete Insert

Side Beam Bracket


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damage the pipe, structure, or both. Likewise, whena pipe passes through a penetration, what happens i the structure collapses on or damages the pipe? Forthis reason, the plumbing engineer must provide pro-tection o the pipes using pipe sleeves. Pipe sleeves canbe constructed o a variety o materials that shouldbe selected based on the application as well as thematerials o the structure and the pipe.

HANGER, SUPPORT, AND ANCHORMATERIALS An almost unlimited variety o materials can be usedor producing hangers, supports, and anchors. Withthe increased use o plastic, berglass, and otherlightweight and corrosion-resistant pipe materials hascome an increased availability o matching hangersand supports. The plumbing engineer must matchand coordinate the various materials available. Dueto possible chemical reactions and galvanic eects,it is very important to match the composition o the

hanger, support, and anchor materials to the composi-tion o the piping system material.

GLOSSARy

Acceleration limiter A device—hydraulic, me-chanical, or spring—used to control acceleration,shock, and sway in piping systems.

Access channel A conduit or channel cast in placewithin concrete structural elements that providesor the passing through o pipe. It is placed hori-zontally throughout a concrete structure to acili-tate uture access.

Access opening An opening or conduit cast inplace within concrete structural elements thatprovides or the passing through o pipe. The mosttypical usage is or short vertical conduit in con-crete slabs to eliminate the subsequent drilling o core holes.

Accumulator A container, used in conjunctionwith a hydraulic cylinder or rotating vane deviceor the control o shock or sway in piping systems,that is used to accommodate the dierence in fuidvolume displaced by the piston. It also serves as a continuous supply o reserve fuid.

Threaded Stand Pipe

Multiuse Plate

Anchor Base Plate

Concrete Deck Inserts

Threaded Side Beam Bracket

Concrete Rod Attachment Plate

Concrete Clevis Plate with Pin

Concrete Single Lug Plate

Welding Lug

Weld Beam Attachment with Pin

Figure 6-2 Types o Hanger and Support Anchors (continued)

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All Steel Ceiling Plate

Top Beam “C” Clamp

Reversible C-Type Beam Clamp

Steel “C” Clamp

Top Beam Clamp

Bar Joist Hanger

Center Load Beam Clamp

Adjustable Beam Attachment

Adjustable Side Beam Clamp

Adjustable Beam Clamp

Beam Clamps

Cable Sway Braces

Sway Brace Attachments

Sway Brace Attachments: Bar Joists

Figure 6-2 Types o Hanger and Support Anchors (continued)


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Adjustable Mechanical or automated movementproviding or linear adjustment capability (regard-less o the plane or dimension). Adjustment maybe mechanical, such as a threaded rod, or assistedwith vacuum or air pressure.

Adjustment device A component that providesor adjustability. (See adjustable.)

Ater cold pull elevation The mechanical draw-ing view incorporating additional piping elementsduring installation that will be necessary or ther-mal fuctuations once the piping system is hot.

Alloy A chrome-moly material (oten less than 5percent chrome) used to resist the eects o hightemperatures (750°F to 1,100°F [399°C to 593°C]). Alloys are used as pipe, hanger, support, and an-chor materials.

Anchor To asten or hold a material or device toprevent movement, rotation, or displacement at

the point o application. Also an appliance used inconjunction with piping systems to asten hang-ers and supports to prevent movement, rotation,or displacement.

Figure 6-3 Hanger and Support Anchors or Particular ApplicationsSource: Support details courtesy o Holdrite®

Hot Water Tank Laundry box/ice maker

Horizontal/vertical piping

Flush Valve Support

Tub/Showervertical/Horizontal pipingThrough Stud Isolation

Suspended WaterHeater Platorm/

Drain Pan

Lavatory or Sink Water Closet (or other single pointconnection)

Horizontal pipingUrinal (Drinking Fountain/Electric Water

Cooler Similar)

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Anchor bolt A astener (e.g., bolt or threaded rod)that is used to attach or connect materials, devices,or equipment. Oten reers to the bolt that is em-bedded in concrete or passed through an opening in steel that is used to attach a hanger or supportto a concrete or steel structure.

As built The actual installation o construction or

conguration placement. Assembly A pre-ormed arrangement or a gath-

ered collection o various appliances and compo-nents used to carry, hold, and/or restrain devices,equipment, or a piping system load in tension.

Auxiliary stop A supplemental restraint thattemporarily locks or holds in place movable parts.Oten used in conjunction with spring devices,such as a spring hanger, to provide or a xed po-sition enabling a load to be transerred to a sup-porting structure in a desired placement during construction or installation.

Axial brace An assembly or bracket device usedto resist twisting or to restrain a piping run in theaxial direction.

Band or strap hanger An appliance or deviceused as a hanger or support or pipe that providesor vertical adjustment. It also is used to connectpipe to a hanger assembly.

Base support A device that carries a load rom be-neath and is used to carry a load’s weight in com-pression.

Beam clamp A mechanical device used to con-

nect, as a hanger or support, or to hold part o a piping system to a structural beam element (typi-cally a steel beam). A clamp rmly holds multiplematerials or devices together and does not requirewelding.

Bearing plate See slide plate and roll plate.

Bent An assembly or rame consisting o two ver-tical members joined by one or more horizontalmembers used or the support o a piping systemto a structural element.

Bolting The use o bolts, studs, and nuts as as-teners.

Brace, brace assembly A pre-ormed applianceor assembly consisting o various componentsthat, depending on its location, is used to hold and/ or restrain a piping system rom horizontal, verti-cal, and lateral orces.

Brace, hanger, or support drawing The me-chanical drawing detailing the elements and com-ponents o an assembly or rame structure thatincorporates a bill o material, load and movementdata, and both general and specic identication.

Bracket A pre-ormed support or astener, usu-ally constructed in a cantilevered manner, with orwithout additional diagonal structural membersor load stability, designed to withstand a gravityload and horizontal and vertical orces.

C clamp A pre-ormed appliance in a C shape thatattaches to a fange or other part o a structural

member and acts as an anchor or a hanger, sup-port, or other device such as a threaded rod.

Cable A component used to brace structural assem-blies and piping systems (also called wire rope).

Cable sway brace Components added to a stan-dard pipe support or hanger system to limit swayduring movement such as during a seismic event.The components include cable, pipe attachments,and attachment to the structure. Cable bracing re-quires two attachment locations as it works undertension only and not tension and compression likerigid bracing.

Cantilever A projecting structural element ormember supported at only one end.

Center beam clamp A jaw-type mechanical de-vice used to connect, as a hanger or support, orused to hold part o a piping system to a structuralbeam element (typically a steel beam). It is usedwith I beams and wide fange beams to provide a centered beam connection.

Channel clamp A mechanical device with a chan-nel adapter and hook rod that provides an o-cen-ter attachment to the bottom fange o a channelbeam or a hanger, support, or other part o a pip-

ing system.

Clamp A mechanical device used to connect, as a hanger or support, or hold part o a piping systemto a structural beam element. (A clamp rmly holdsmultiple materials or devices together and doesnot require welding.) See beam clamp, C clamp,channel clamp, double bolt pipe, three-bolt clamp,double-bolt riser, riser clamp, and pipe clamp.

Clevis A connector device or metal shackle withdrilled ends to receive a pin or bolt that is used orattaching or suspending parts.

Clevis hanger A support device providing verticaladjustment consisting o a clevis-type top bolted toa ormed steel bottom strap.

Cold elevation See design elevation and atercold pull elevation.

Cold hanger location The location o the pipehangers, supports, and assemblies o the installedpiping system in reerence to the building’s struc-ture and structural elements prior to the invoking o an operating environment.


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Cold load The stress or loading put on a piping system prior to the occurrence o a normal orsteady-state operating environment (as measuredat ambient temperature). The cold load equals theoperating load plus or minus load variations.

Cold setting The position at which a mechanicalcontrol device indicator, such as that on a spring

hanger, is set to denote the proper nonoperating position installation setting o the unit.

Cold shoe A T-section hanger or support with in-tegrated insulation that has been designed or coldtemperature piping system application.

Cold spring The act o pre-stressing a piping sys-tem during installation to condition it or minimalfuctuations, expansions, and other reactions whenthe nished piping system and related equipmentare used in the designed operating environment.

Colored fnish A generic term to describe vari-ous color nishes that are used as an identier

or product compatibility. For example, a copper-colored nish on connectors or piping denotes thatthe product was sized or copper tubing.

Commercial piping system A piping system lo-cated in a commercial building structure that gen-erally includes re protection, plumbing, heating,and cooling piping systems.

Component Any individual item, appliance, ordevice that is combined with others to create anassembly or is part o a whole.

Concrete astener A device installed in or at-

tached to concrete by various means (oten pre-cast, drilled, or epoxied) to which a pipe hanger orsupport can be attached.

Concrete insert, concrete insert box An anchordevice cast in place in concrete and provides or a hanger, support, rod, or similar attachment. Theinsert provides load assistance to a piping systemand has nominal lateral adjustment.

Continuous insert An anchoring device in theorm o a channel (which can be o varying lengths)that is cast in place in a concrete structure andprovides or multiple hangers, supports, rods, or

similar attachments. The insert provides load as-sistance to a piping system and has the capabilityor lateral adjustments.

Constant support hanger A mechanical spring-coil device that provides constant support or a piping system while permitting some dimensionalmovement.

Constant support hanger indicator A deviceattached to the movable arm o a constant supporthanger that measures vertical pipe movement.

Copper plating See plating.

Corrosion The process that describes the oxida-tion o a metal that is weakened or worn down bychemical action.

Cut short The shortening or lengthening o a sec-tion o pipe to provide or reduced fuctuations,expansions, and other reactions when the nished

piping system and related equipment are used inthe designed operating environment.

DWV Drain, waste, and venting.

Deadweight load The combination o all stressor loading put on a piping system that takes intoconsideration only the weight o the piping system,including the pipe, hangers, supports, insulation,and pipe contents.

Design elevation The overall mechanical draw-ing view o the piping system as designed.

Design load The combination o all stress or load-

ing put on a piping system as dened in the engi-neered drawing or as part o the engineered designspecication.

Deviation A measurement o dierence oten ex-pressed as a percentage. It oten is used to describethe accuracy dierence between actual and speci-ed perormance criteria.

Double acting A descriptor or a mechanical de-vice that provides resistance in both tension andcompression cycles.

Double-bolt pipe clamp See three-bolt pipeclamp.

Drag The retarding orce that acts on a portiono a hydraulic or mechanical device as it movesthrough fuid, gas, or other riction-generating substances. It also reers to the orce required toextend and retract a hydraulic or mechanical ele-ment o a hanger or support device during activa-tion at low velocity.

Dual-use brace A single brace that can be usedas both a longitudinal and lateral brace in a singlelocation.

Dynamic orce or dynamic loading The addi-

tional loading and stress conditions that must betaken into consideration over and above a steady-state condition.

Dynamic load The temporary stress or loading put on a piping system as the result o internal orexternal orces that create movement or motion inthe system.

Elbow lug An elbow-shaped device with a pipeconnector welded to it or use as an attachment.

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Electrogalvanized A protective coating o elec-troplated zinc. (See also galvanized.)

Electroplated Plating by using an electro-deposi-tion process. (See also plating.)

Electrolysis The producing o chemical changesdue to the dierences in electrical potential be-tween dissimilar materials in the presence o mois-ture. (See also corrosion.)

Elevation A mechanical drawing view that is a geometrical projection as seen on a vertical plane.

Embedded A device or astener that is cast inplace in a concrete structure.

Engineered drawing A mechanical drawing thatdetails the elements and components o a piping system and incorporates a bill o material, loadand movement data, location inormation, andboth general and specic identication.

Engineered hanger assembly A mechanical

drawing that details the elements and componentso a hanger assembly and incorporates a bill o ma-terial, load and movement data, location inorma-tion, and both general and specic identication.(See also semi-engineered hanger assembly.)

Erected elevation See design elevation.

Extension riser clamp An attachment device orthe support o vertical piping that provides or thetranser o the piping load to the bearing suraceto which the clamp is attached.

Eye rod A bolt or rod with a circular or pear-shaped end that permits other components or de-vices to be attached by means o a bolt or pin. Theeye may be orged, welded, or nonwelded.

Eye socket An appliance that provides or the at-tachment o a threaded bolt or rod to the bolt orrod o another component or device.

Fabrication A term used to reer to a part con-structed or manuactured out o standard parts orraw materials.

Fabricated steel part A component that is con-structed rom standard shapes o steel plate.

Fabricator A business engaged in the abrication

o parts.

Forged clevis A connector device, a clevis, thathas been ormed as one piece (i.e., orged).

Four-way brace An assembly consisting o lateraland longitudinal bracing that is designed to con-trol back-and-orth movement in our directions.

Framing steel A structural steel member, normal-ly less than 10 eet in length, used between existing

members as a means o providing or the attach-ment o a hanger or support or a piping system.

Friction load The stress or loading put on a pip-ing system as the result o rictional orces thatexist between dierent suraces that are in con-tact with each other, such as moving or sliding suraces.

Galvanized A zinc coating applied to steel to pro-tect against oxidation and other chemical actions.

Gang hanger A hanger assembly utilizing a com-mon cross-member to provide support or parallelruns or banks o piping.

Guide A device used to permit pipe movement ina predetermined direction while restraining move-ment in other directions.

Hanger A device that is suspended rom a struc-ture and used to carry or support a load.

Hanger assembly A general term used to describe

a series o assembled components that make up a device that is connected to or suspended rom a structure and is used to carry or support a loadin tension or carry a load under compression. Thedevice may be designed to prevent, resist, or limitmovement, or it may be used to permit movementin a predetermined direction while restraining movement in other directions.

Hanger drawing See brace, hanger, or supportdrawing.

Hanger loads See pipe hanger loads.

Hanger rod A round steel bar, normally threaded,used to connect components or hangers and sup-ports.

Heavy bracket A bracket used or the support o heavy loads. (See bracket.)

Hinged pipe clamp Also known as a split ring,a hinged attachment device that permits instal-lation beore or ater piping is in place and usedprimarily on noninsulated piping.

Horizontal traveler A hanger or support devicethat accommodates horizontal piping movement.

Hot-dip galvanized A corrosion protection coat-

ing o zinc applied to steel or other metals.

Hot elevation The mechanical drawing view o a piping system as it will appear in its ull operating environment.

Hot hanger location The location o the pipehangers, supports, and assemblies o the installedpiping system in reerence to the building’s struc-ture and structural elements within the operating environment.


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Hot load The stress or loading put on a piping system as the result o a normal or steady-stateoperating environment. (See operating load.)

Hot setting The position at which a mechanicalcontrol device indicator, such as that on a spring hanger, is set to denote the proper operating posi-tion setting o the unit.

Hot shoe A T-section hanger or support with in-tegrated insulation that has been designed or hottemperature piping system application.

HVAC Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning.

Hydraulic snubber See hydraulic sway brace.

Hydraulic sway brace A hydraulic cylinder orrotating vane device used to control shock or swayin piping systems, while allowing or normal ther-mal expansion.

Hydrostatic load The stress or loading put on a piping system as the result o hydrostatic testing.

(See hydrostatic test load.)

Hydrostatic lock The condition wherein a sup-plemental restraint temporarily locks or holds inplace moveable parts during a hydrostatic test. Itoten is used in conjunction with spring devices,such as a spring hanger, to provide or a xed po-sition enabling a load to be transerred to a sup-porting structure in a desired placement during construction or installation.

Hydrostatic test A pre-operational test wherebythe piping system is subjected to a pressurized fu-id in excess o the specied operational pressure to

ensure the integrity o the system.

Hydrostatic test load The temporary loading condition consisting o the total load weight o thepiping (gravitational load), insulation, and testfuid or piping systems subjected to hydrostatictests.

Industrial piping system A piping system locat-ed in an industrial complex that generally includesre protection, plumbing, heating, and cooling piping systems and also incorporates process, vac-uum, air, steam, or chemical piping systems.

Insert An anchor device that is cast in place in a concrete structure and provides or a hanger, sup-port, rod, or similar attachment. Inserts provideload assistance to a piping system and have nomi-nal lateral adjustment.

Insert box See concrete insert.

Insert nut A emale threaded anchor device thatis locked into position as part o an insert and thatreceives a threaded rod or bolt.

Institutional piping system A piping system lo-cated in an institutional environment or building structure that generally includes re protection,plumbing, heating, and cooling piping systems, aswell as process, vacuum, air, or chemical gas pip-ing systems.

Insulated pipe support A hanger or support

with an integrated insulation insert designed oruse with insulated pipe.

Insulation protection saddle A device used toprevent damage to the insulation on a pipe at thesupport point.

Integral attachment When connector pieces anddevices have been welded together as hangers andsupports or an assembly.

Intermediate anchor An attachment point usedto control the distribution, loading, and movementon a fexible piping system.

Invert A drawing elevation view rom the bottomor underneath.

Jacket A metal covering placed around the insula-tion on a pipe to protect it against damage.

Knee brace A diagonal structural member used totranser load or provide stability.

Lateral brace A brace designed to restrain a pip-ing system against transverse loads.

Lateral stability The state or degree o control o a piping system transverse to the run o the pipe.

Light bracket A bracket used or the support o

light loads. (See bracket.) Limit stop An internal device built into a me-

chanical device to prevent the overstressing o a spring coil, overtravel, or release o a load.

Liner Material placed between hangers, supports,or an assembly to protect a piping system romdamage or other undesirable eects.

Load adjustment scale A scale used on a me-chanical device to indicate the load adjustment.

Load bolt or pin A bolt or pin used to support theweight or load carried by a hanger or assembly.

Load coupling An adjustment device used to con-nect hanger and support components.

Load indicator A pointer, dial, or gauge or read-ing or determining the settings and changes o a device.

Load rated The rating o a particular size o com-ponent or assembly to withstand a specied orcewith a saety actor applied.

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Load scale A measurement pointer, dial, or gaugeattached to a device to provide a means o deter-mining the static or dynamic aspects o a supportedload.

Load variation The dierence in the elevationsat a support point between the time o installation(cold) and actual operating (hot) environment.

Load See pipe hanger load.

Location See pipe hanger location.

Lock up The operational period when a hydraulic,mechanical, or spring device used to control shockand sway in piping systems is actuated.

Longitudinal brace A brace designed to restraina piping system against axial loads.

Lug A welded appliance to provide an attachmentpoint to a structural member or piping.

Mechanical snubber See mechanical sway brace.

Mechanical sway brace A mechanical device usedto control shock or sway in piping systems, whileallowing or normal thermal expansion.

Medium bracket A bracket used or the support o moderate loads. (See bracket.)

Metric hanger A hanger or support that conormsto metric measurements and, where appropriate,contains a metric threaded connection.

Mill galvanized A corrosion-protection coating o zinc applied at the point o abrication.

Multiple support See gang hanger.

Negligible movement The calculated minimummovement at a support point or the portion o a piping system with inherent fexibility.

Nominal size The identied size, which may varyrom the actual size.

Nonintegral attachment When connector piecesand devices do not require being welded together ashangers and supports or an assembly.

Nut, insert See insert nut.

Oset A relative displacement between a struc-tural attachment point and a piping system that is

incorporated into the design to accommodate move-ment.

Operating load The stress or loading put on a pip-ing system as the result o a normal or steady-stateoperating environment.

OSHPD Caliornia Oce o Statewide Health Plan-ning and Development, which provides servicesthat include the ecient processing o approvals orhealth acility construction. OSHPD is a national

leader in seismic restraint guidelines and require-ments.

Pipe attachment Any component or device used toconnect a pipe to a hanger, support, or assembly.

Pipe brace See brace.

Pipe channel A conduit or channel cast in place

within concrete structural elements that providesor the passing through o pipe. It is placed horizon-tally throughout a concrete structure to acilitateuture access.

Pipe clamp A bolted clamp attachment that con-nects a pipe to a hanger, support, assembly, or struc-tural element.

Pipe clip An attachment appliance used to connecta pipe directly to a structural element, also reerredto as a strap or pipe clamp.

Pipe covering protection saddle A protectivecovering used to prevent damage to insulation sur-

rounding a pipe at hanger and support points.

Pipe elevation See design elevation, erected eleva-tion, ater cold pull elevation, and cold elevation.

Pipe hanger An appliance or device attached to orsuspended rom a structural element that is used tosupport a piping system load in tension.

Pipe hanger assembly An assembly o hangersused to hold a piping system.

Pipe hanger drawing A mechanical drawing thatdetails the elements and components o a piping system and incorporates a bill o material, load and

movement data, location inormation, and both gen-eral and specic identication. (See also engineereddrawing and semi-engineered drawing.)

Pipe hanger load See specic load types: cold load,deadweight load, design load, dynamic load, rictionload, hot load, hydrostatic load, operating load, seis-mic load, thermal load, thrust load, trip-out load,water hammer load, and wind load.

Pipe hanger location See location types: coldhanger location and hot hanger location.

Pipe hanger plan and pipe hanger plan loca-tion The engineered design and elevations that

ully detail the hangers, supports, and anchors o a piping system. Mechanical drawings include appro-priate osets as a result o movement and displace-ment expectations.

Pipe insulation shield A rigid insert appliancedesigned to protect pipe insulation passing throughhangers, supports, and assemblies.

Pipe load See specic load types: cold load, dead-weight load, design load, dynamic load, riction load,


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hot load, hydrostatic load, operating load, seismicload, thermal load, thrust load, trip-out load, wa-ter hammer load, and wind load.

Pipe opening An opening, conduit, or channelcast in place within concrete structural elementsthat provides or the passing through o pipe. Themost typical usage is or short vertical conduit in

concrete slabs to eliminate the subsequent drilling o core holes.

Pipe rack A structural rame that is used to sup-port piping systems. (See assembly.)

Pipe roll A pipe hanger or support that utilizes a roller or bearing device to provide the ability orlateral axial movement in a piping system.

Pipe saddle support A pipe support that utilizesa curved section or cradling the pipe.

Pipe shoe A hanger or support (typically T shaped)attached to a pipe to transmit the load or orces to

adjacent structural elements. Pipe size Nominal pipe size, unless otherwise

specied.

Pipe sleeve An opening, conduit, or channel castin place within concrete structural elements thatprovides or the passing through o pipe. The mosttypical usage is or short vertical conduit in con-crete slabs to eliminate the subsequent drilling o core holes. However, conduit or channel may beplaced horizontally throughout a concrete struc-ture to acilitate uture access.

Pipe sleeve, pipe sleeve hanger or support An

appliance or device that surrounds a pipe and con-nects to a hanger or support to provide or align-ment and limited movement.

Pipe slide A hanger or support that incorporatesa slide plate to accommodate horizontal pipemovement.

Pipe strap An attachment appliance used to con-nect a pipe directly to a structural element. (Seepipe clip and pipe clamp.)

Pipe support A device or stanchion by which a pipe is carried or supported rom beneath. In thisposition, the pipe load is in compression.

Pipe system load See specic load types: coldload, deadweight load, design load, dynamic load,riction load, hot load, hydrostatic load, operating load, seismic load, thermal load, thrust load, trip-out load, water hammer load, and wind load.

Plate lug See lug.

Plating An electroplating process whereby a me-tallic coating (e.g., copper, chrome, or zinc) is de-posited on a substrate.

Point loading The point o application o a loadbetween two suraces. It typically describes theload point between a curved and a fat surace.

Preset Prior installation adjustment o hangers,supports assemblies, equipment, and devices.

Protection saddle A saddle that provides a pro-tective covering or coating to prevent damage to

pipe or to the insulation surrounding a pipe athanger and support points.

Protection shield An appliance, which may berigid or fexible, designed to protect pipe or insula-tion at contact points with hangers and supports.

Random hanger A hanger or support that re-quires eld abrication and the exact location,shape, and type o which are let to the discretiono the installer.

Reservoir An attachment or separate containerused in conjunction with a fuid- (or gas-) using

device (e.g., hydraulic) that provides a means tostore or hold a supply o liquid (or gas) to provideor a reserve or otherwise ensure or an adequateor continuous supply o fuid (or gas).

Restraint An appliance, device, or equipment thatprevents, resists, or limits unplanned or randommovement.

Restraining control device A hydraulic, me-chanical, spring, or other rigid or fexible hanger,support, or device used to control movement.

Resilient support A hanger, support, or devicethat provides or vertical, horizontal, lateral, or

axial movement.

Retaining strap An appliance or device used inconjunction with clamps and other componentsto secure hangers and supports to structural ele-ments.

Rigid sway brace Components added to a stan-dard pipe support or hanger system to limit swayduring movement such as a seismic event. Thecomponents include solid strut or pipe, pipe at-tachments, and attachment to the structure. Rigidbracing only requires one attachment per locationbecause it works under tension and compression.

Rigid hanger A hanger or support that controlsor limits vertical and horizontal movement.

Rigid support See rigid hanger.

Rigging Devices, including chain, rope, and cable,used to erect, support, and manipulate.

Ring band An appliance or device consisting o a strap (steel, plastic, or other material) ormed ina circular shape with an attached knurled swivelnut used or vertical adjustment.

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Riser An upright or vertical member, structural orotherwise.

Riser clamp An appliance or device used to pro-vide connections to and support or upright or ver-tical members, structural or otherwise.

Riser hanger A hanger or support used in conjunction with a riser.

Rod A slender bar typically considered to have a circular cross-section, available in a variety o ma-terials. (See threaded rod.)

Rod coupling An appliance or device used to jointwo rods. (See threaded rod coupling.)

Rod hanger A hanger or support that has an inte-grated rod as part o its construction.

Rod stiener An appliance or device used to pro-vide additional rigidity to a rod.

Roll stand A pipe roll mounted on a stand andused or support.

Roll and plate A combination o a pipe roll anda slide plate used or minimal lateral and axialmovement where minimal or no vertical adjust-ment is required.

Roll hanger An appliance or device that utilizes a pipe roll or lateral and axial movement when usedto carry a load in suspension or tension.

Roll plate A fat appliance, typically a steel or al-loy plate, that permits movement and/or acilitatesa sliding motion. (See slide plate.)

Roll trapeze A combination device utilizing a pipe

roll and a trapeze hanger.

Saddle A curved appliance or device designed tocradle a pipe and used in conjunction with a hang-er or support.

Saety actor The ultimate strength o a materialdivided by the allowable stress. It also reers to theultimate strength o a device divided by the ratedcapacity.

Scale plate A device attached to hangers, sup-ports, and assemblies to detect changes in load ormovement.

Seismic control device An appliance or deviceused to provide structural stability in the event o a change in the steady-state environment aecting a building’s structure, such as would occur with a natural event such as an earthquake or other vio-lent action.

Seismic load The temporary stress or loading put on a piping system as the result o a changein the steady-state environment aecting a build-ing’s structure, such as would occur with a natural

event such as an earthquake or other violent ac-tion.

Semi-engineered drawing A mechanical draw-ing that details the elements and components o a piping system and incorporates a bill o material,load and movement data, and other general iden-tication.

Semi-engineered hanger assembly A mechani-cal drawing that details the elements and compo-nents o a hanger assembly and incorporates a billo material, load and movement data, and othergeneral identication.

Service conditions Description o the operating environment and operating conditions, including operating pressures and temperatures.

Shear lug An appliance or device used primarilyto transer axial stress (shear stress) and load to a support element.

Shield See protection shield.Side beam bracket A bracket designed to be

mounted in a vertical position by attachment to a structural element. This bracket provides mount-ing capability or a hanger or support.

Side beam clamp A beam clamp that providesor an o-center attachment to the structural ele-ment.

Signifcant movement The calculated move-ment at a proposed support point or a hanger orsupport.

Single acting A descriptor or a mechanical de-vice that provides resistance in either tension orcompression cycles, but not both. (See double act-ing.)

Single pipe roll A pipe roll used in a trapezehanger.

Sleeper A horizontal support, usually located atgrade.

Slide plate A fat appliance, typically a steel or al-loy plate, which permits movement and/or acili-tates a sliding motion.

Sliding support An appliance or device that pro-

vides or rictional resistance to horizontal move-ment.

Slip ftting An appliance or device used to helpalign and provide or limited movement o a pipe.This device is used as an assembly component.

Snubber A hydraulic, mechanical, or spring deviceused to control shock and sway; a shock absorber.

Special component An appliance or device that isdesigned and abricated on an as-required basis.


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Spider guide An appliance or device used with in-sulated piping to maintain alignment during axialexpansion and contraction cycles.

Split ring See hinged pipe clamp.

Spring cushion hanger A simple, noncalibrated,single-rod spring support used to provide a cush-ioning eect.

Spring cushion roll A pair o spring coils withretainers or use with a pipe roll.

Spring hanger An appliance or device using a spring or springs to permit vertical movement.

Spring snubber See spring sway brace.

Spring sway brace A spring device used to con-trol vibration or shock or to brace against sway.

Stanchion A straight length o structural mate-rial used as a support in a vertical or upright posi-tion.

Stop An appliance or device used to limit move-ment in a specic direction.

Strap An attachment appliance used to connect a pipe directly to a structural element. (See pipe clipand pipe clamp.)

Stress analysis An analytical report that evalu-ates material, structural, or component stress lev-els.

Strip insert See continuous insert.

Structural attachment An appliance or deviceused to connect a hanger, support, or assembly to

a structural element.Strut A rigid tension/compression member.

Strut clamp An appliance or device used to se-cure a pipe to a strut.

Support A device that attaches to or rests on a structural element to carry a load in compression.

Support drawing See brace, hanger, or supportdrawing.

Suspension hanger See pipe hanger.

Sway brace See lateral brace or restraining con-trol device.

Swivel pipe ring See ring band.

Swivel turnbuckle An appliance or device thatprovides fexibility and linear adjustment capabil-ity used in conjunction with hangers and supports.(See turnbuckle.)

Thermal load The stress or loading put on or in-troduced to a piping system as the result o regularor abrupt changes in the steady-state temperature

o the pipe contents or the surrounding environ-ment.

Threaded rod A steel, alloy, plastic, or other ma-terial rod threaded along its ull length. Threadsmay be rolled or cut.

Threaded rod coupling An appliance or deviceused to join two threaded rods.

Three-bolt pipe clamp A pipe clamp normallyused or horizontal insulated piping that utilizesbolts to attach the clamp to the pipe and a sepa-rate load bolt to transer the piping weight to theremainder o the pipe hanger assembly rom a point outside the insulation (previously known asa double-bolt pipe clamp).

Top beam clamp A mechanical device used toconnect, as a hanger or support, or used to holdpart o a piping system to the top o a structuralbeam element (typically a steel beam). A clamprmly holds multiple materials or devices together

and does not require welding.

Thrust load The temporary stress or loading puton a piping system as the result o a change in thesteady-state operating environment o the pipecontents due to regular or abrupt changes associ-ated with equipment or mechanical devices suchas the discharge rom a saety valve, relie valve,pump ailure, or ailure o some other mechanicaldevice or element.

Transverse brace See lateral brace.

Trapeze hanger A pipe hanger consisting o par-

allel vertical rods connected at their lower endsby a horizontal member that is suspended roma structural element. This type o hanger oten isused where an overhead obstruction is present orwhere insucient vertical space is available to ac-commodate a more traditional hanger or support.

Travel device A hanger or support device that ac-commodates piping movement.

Travel indicator See constant support hangerindicator and variable spring hanger indicator.

Travel scale A device attached to a spring unit tomeasure vertical movement.

Travel stop A device that temporarily locks move-able parts in a xed position, enabling a load tobe transerred to a supporting structural elementduring installation and testing phases.

Trip-out load The temporary stress or loading put on a piping system as the result o a changein the steady-state fow o the pipe contents due tothe change associated with equipment or mechani-cal devices such as a turbine or pump.

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Turnbuckle A device with one let-hand emalethreaded end and one right-hand emale threadedend, used to join two threaded rods and providelinear adjustment.

Two-way brace A brace designed to control move-ment in two directions. (See lateral brace and lon-gitudinal brace.)

U-bolt A U-shaped rod with threaded ends thatts around a pipe and is attached to a structuralelement or a supporting member.

Vapor barrier An uninterrupted, nonpermeablematerial used as a cover or insulated pipe to ex-clude moisture rom the insulation.

Variability The load variation o a variable-spring hanger divided by the hot load expressed as a per-centage.

Variable-spring hanger A spring coil device thatproduces varying support while permitting verti-

cal movement.Variable-spring hanger indicator A device at-

tached to a variable-spring hanger that measuresvertical pipe movement.

Velocity limited A term relating to snubbers inwhich velocity is the means o control.

Vibration control device An appliance used toreduce and/or control the transmission o vibra-tion to structural elements.

Vibration isolation device See vibration controldevice.

Water hammer load The temporary stress orloading put on a piping system as the result o a

change, abrupt or otherwise, in the steady-statefow o the pipe contents.

Welded beam attachment A U-shaped, fat-barappliance, normally welded to a steel beam, usedto connect a hanger, support, or assembly.

Welded pipe attachment The use o a weld to at-tach a pipe to a hanger, support, or assembly.

Weldless eye nut A orged steel appliance thatprovides an attachment point or a threaded hang-er rod to a bolt or pin connection.

Wire hook A type o hanger or support that is sim-

ply a bent piece o heavy wire.

Wind load The temporary or steady-state stressor loading put on or added to a piping system asthe result o a change in environmental conditionssuch as increased steady state or alternating airmovement. Usually reers to piping systems in en-vironmentally exposed conditions.


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Vibration Isolation7In modern commercial construction, due to spacerestrictions, HVAC and plumbing system-relatedequipment oten is placed near occupied space, butsuch equipment generates noise and vibration whilerunning that is irritating or unacceptable to tenants.In the past, a very critical installation on an upper

foor could be achieved by allowing not more than 10percent vibration transmission. Thick, sti concretefoors and walls in old buildings could withstand andabsorb such signiicant machinery vibration andnoise. However, today’s lighter structures are not ascapable o shielding equipment vibration, and designsrequire a greater precision to allow no more than a 1 percent or 2 percent transmissibility. Installationsthat were satisactory in the past are no longer ac-ceptable by modern standards. Noise levels now mustbe controlled to the extent that equipment noise doesnot add to the noise level o any building area.

Tests have been conducted to establish accept-able noise criteria or dierent types o occupancies.These noise criteria (NC) curves take into consider-ation an individual’s sensitivity to both the loudnessand requency o noise. This studied criteria is veryprevalent in more sensitive environments such asschools, hospitals, and perormance venues wherethe disturbance hinders the acceptable environment. A similar criterion in vibration analysis shows thatin certain acilities, such disturbance has a dramaticeect on the neurological path-re o tenants.

The only acceptable solution is to analyze thestructure and equipment, not just as individual pieces,

but as a total system during design. Every elementmust be careully considered to ensure a satisactoryend product. It is impossible to separate vibrationand noise issues, but taking a conscientious designapproach can eliminate most problems.

TERMINOLOGy Following are some common actors ound in vibrationisolation theory ormulas.

Vibration Isolator A vibration isolator is a pliant, or resilient, materialthat is placed between the equipment or machineryand the building structure to create a low, naturalrequency support system or the equipment. Com-mon materials are cork, elastomers, neoprene rubber,and steel springs.

Static DefectionStatic defection (d) refects how much the isolatordefects under the weight o the equipment. It ismeasured in inches (mm).

Natural Frequenc Natural requency ( n) is the requency at which thevibration isolator naturally oscillates when com-pressed and released rapidly. It is measured in cyclesper minute (cpm) (Hz).

Disturbing Frequenc

Generated by the equipment, disturbing requency ( d)is the lowest requency o vibration. It is measured incycles per minute (cpm) (Hz).

Resonant AmplicationResonant amplication occurs when the natural re-quency o the isolators and the disturbing requencyequal one another.

Transmissibilit Also known as requency or eciency quotient (Eq),transmissibility is the ratio ( d / n) o the maximumorce to the supporting structure, due to the vibrationo a machine, to the maximum machine orce.

Percent transmissibility (T) is the percentage o the maximum orce given to the building’s structurethrough the isolators.

Damping Damping is the capacity o a material to absorb vibra-tion by essentially acting as the brakes or equipmentmounted on isolators by reducing or stopping motionthrough riction or viscous resistance.

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THEORy OF VIBRATION CONTROL A very simple equation is used to determine thetransmission o steady-state vibration, the constantlyrepeating sinusoidal wave orm o vibration gener-ated by such equipment as compressors, engines,and pumps.

Equation 7-1

T =Ft

=1

Fd ( d / n)2– 1

whereT = TransmissibilityFt = Force transmitted through the resilient

mountingsFd = Unbalanced orce acting on the resiliently

supported system d = Frequency o disturbing vibration, cpm (Hz) n = Natural requency o the resiliently

mounted system, cpm (Hz)

This equation is exact or steel springs becausethey have straight-line load defection characteristicsand negligible damping. When the equation is used ororganic materials, the ollowing corrections normallygive conservative results: For rubber and neoprene,use 50 percent o the static defection when calculating the natural requency, and or cork, use 1.5 times thenatural requency determined by actual test.

The natural requency o a resiliently mountedsystem is the requency at which it will oscillate byitsel i a orce is exerted on the system and thenreleased. The natural requency o the resilientlymounted system can be calculated using the ollow-

ing equation. Equation 7-2

n =188

(1/d)½

whered = Static defection o the resilient mounting,

inches (mm)

When using Equation 7-2 in international stan-dard (SI) units, the 188 multiplying actor should bechanged to 947.5.

The static defection can be obtained rom the ol-

lowing expression. Equation 7-3

d = W

k

whereW = Weight on the mounting, pounds (kg)k = Stiness actor o the mounting o

defection, pounds per inch (kg/mm)

The natural requency o a resiliently mountedsystem can be illustrated by suspending a weight roma very long rubber band. I the weight is pulled downslightly and released, it will oscillate up and down atthe natural requency o the system. A longer rubberband will produce more defection than a shorter one.Systems with more defection have lower naturalrequencies than those with less defection. The im-portance o this can be seen by examining Equation7-1 rewritten in the ollowing orm.

Equation 7-4

Ft = Fd [ 1 ]( d / n)

2– 1

A system may have up to six natural requencies.In the practical selection o machine mountings, i thevertical natural requency o the system is decreasedto allow or a low transmissibility, the horizontal androtational natural requencies generally will be lower

than the vertical and can be disregarded, except ormachines with very large horizontal, unbalancedorces or with large unbalanced moments, such ashorizontal compressors and large two-, three-, and ve-cylinder engines.

Obviously, the transmitted orce should be mini-mized. Since the disturbing orce is a unction o themachine’s characteristics and cannot be reduced,except by dynamic balancing o the machine—orby reducing the operating speed, which is seldompractical—the transmitted orce can be reduced onlyby minimizing the unction 1/[( d / n)

2– 1].

This can be accomplished only by increasing the

requency ratio ( d / n). However, since the disturbing requency is xed or any given machine and is a unc-tion o the revolutions per minute (rpm), it seldomcan be changed. The only remaining variable is themounting natural requency. Reducing the naturalrequency by increasing the static defection o theresilient mountings reduces the vibration transmis-sion. This explains why the eciency o machinerymountings increases as their resiliency and defectionincrease.

Figure 7-1 shows the eect o varying requencyratios on the transmissibility. Note that or requencyratios less than two, the use o mountings actually

increases the transmissibility above what wouldresult i no isolation were used and the machinewere bolted down solidly. In act, i careless selectionresults in a mounting with the natural requencyequal to or nearly equal to the disturbing requency,a very serious condition called resonance occurs. InEquation 7-4, the denominator o the transmissibil-ity unction becomes zero, and the transmitted orcetheoretically becomes innite. As the requency ratio


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Chapter 7 — Vibration Isolation 139

Figure 7-1 Transmissibility vs. Frequency RatioNote: This curve applies to steel spring isolators and other materials with very little damping.

increases beyond two, the resilientmountings reduce the transmittedorce.

Figure 7-2 shows a chart that canbe used to select the proper resilientmountings when the ollowing jobcharacteristics are known: weight

per mounting, disturbing requency,and design transmissibility. The chartshows the limitations o the various types o isolationmaterials, data that is particularly helpul in selecting the proper media.

TyPES OF VIBRATION AND SHOCKMOUNTINGS

Cork Cork is the original vibration and noise isolation ma-terial and has been used or this purpose or at least100 years. The most widely used orm o cork todayis compressed cork, which is made o pure granuleso cork without any oreign binder and is compressedand baked under pressure to an accurately controlleddensity. Cork can be used directly under machines, butits widest applications are under concrete oundations.It is not aected by oils, acids normally encountered,or temperatures between 0°F and 200°F (-17.8°C and93.3°C) and does not rot under continuous cycles o moistening and dryness. However, it is attacked bystrong alkaline solutions.

Cork under concrete oundations still giving goodservice ater 20 years indicates that the material hasa long, useul lie when properly applied. Cork is airly

good as a low-requency shock absorber, but its use as a

vibration isolator is limited to requencies above 1,800cpm. Cork has good sound insulation characteristics.Because o the large amount o damping in cork, thenatural requency cannot be computed rom the staticdefection and must be determined in tests by vibrat-ing the cork under dierent loads to determine theresonance requency, which establishes the naturalrequency o the material. The limiting values or corkgiven in Figure 7-2 were determined in this manner.

Elastomers and Neoprene RubberElastomers having very good sound insulation char-acteristics are acceptable or low-requency shock

absorption and are useul as vibration isolators orrequencies above 1,200 cpm. Static defection typicalto elastomers is rom 0.05 inch to 0.15 inch (1 mm to4 mm). Typical elastomer mountings are illustrated inFigure 7-3. The temperature range o natural rubberis 50°F to 150°F (10°C to 65.6°C), and that o neopreneis 0°F to 200°F (-17.8°C to 93.3°C).

Neoprene rubber is recommended or applicationswith continuous exposure to oil. Special elastomercompounds are available to meet conditions beyondthose cited. Elastomers tend to lose resiliency as theyage. The useul lie o elastomer mountings is aboutseven years under nonimpact applications and about

ve years under impact applications, thoughthey retain their sound insulation value ormuch longer. Individual molded elastomermountings generally are economical onlywith light- and medium-weight machines,since heavier capacity mountings approachthe cost o the more ecient steel spring isolators. Pad-type elastomer isolation hasno such limitations.

Steel Spring IsolatorsSteel spring isolators provide the most e-cient method o isolating vibration and

shock, approaching 100 percent eective-ness. The higher eciency is due to thegreater defections they provide. Standardsteel spring isolators, such as those shownin Figure 7-4, provide defections up to 5inches (127 mm) compared to about ½ inch(12.7 mm) maximum or rubber and othermaterials. Special steel spring isolators canprovide defections up to 10 inches (254 mm).Since the perormance o steel springs ol-

Table 7-1 The Relative Eectiveness o Steel Springs, Rubber, and Cork inthe Various Speed Ranges

Range RPM Springs Rubber CorkLow Up to 1200 Required Not recommended Unsuitable except or shock

a

Medium 1200–1800 Excellent Fair Not recommended

High Over 1800 Excellent Good Fair to good or critical jobsa

For noncritical installations only; otherwise, springs are recommended.

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Figure 7-2 Calculator or Vibration Isolation


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Figure 7-2(M) Calculator or Vibration Isolation

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Figure 7-3 Typical Elastomer and Elastomer-Cork Mountings: (A) Compression and Shear Elastomer Floor Mounting; (B)Elastomer Hanger or Suspended Equipment and Piping; (C) Elastomer/Cork Mounting; (D) Elastomer/Cork Mounting with

Built-In Leveling Screw

(A)

(C)

(B)

(D)

Figure 7-4 Typical Steel Spring Mounting

lows the vibration control equations very closely, theirperormance can be predetermined very accurately,eliminating costly trial and error, which is sometimesnecessary in other materials.

Steel spring isolators are available in static defec-tions rom 0.75 inch to 6.0 in (19 to 152 mm), yielding natural requencies rom 4 Hz to 1.3 Hz with open steel

spring isolators. (Restrained steel spring isolators havedierent capacity levels than open steel spring isola-tors.) Most steel spring isolators are equipped withbuilt-in leveling bolts, which eliminates the need orshims when installing machinery. The more ruggedconstruction possible in steel spring isolators providesor a long lie, usually equal to that o the machine itsel.Since high-requency noises sometimes tend to bypasssteel springs, rubber sound isolation pads usually areused under spring isolators to stop such transmissioninto the foor on critical installations.

Table 7-1 tabulates the useul ranges o cork, rubber,and steel springs or dierent equipment speeds.

APPLICATIONSProperly designed mountings permit the installa-tion o heavy mechanical equipment in penthousesand on roos directly over oces and sleeping areas.Such upper-foor installations oer certain operating economies and release valuable basement space orgaraging automobiles. However, when heavy machineryis installed on upper foors, great care must be taken


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to prevent vibration transmission, which oten showsup many foors below when a wall, ceiling, or even a lighting xture has the same natural requency as thedisturbing vibration. The result o such resonancevibration is a very annoying noise.

Ecient mountings permit lighter, more economicalconstruction o new buildings and prevent diculties

when machinery is installed on concrete-lled, ribbed,metal deck foors. They also permit the installation o heavy machinery in old buildings that were not origi-nally designed to accommodate such equipment.

Vibration and noise transmission through piping is a serious problem. When compressors are installedon resilient mountings, provision should be made orfexibility in the discharge and intake piping to reducevibration transmission. This can be accomplished ei-ther through the use o fexible metallic hose (whichmust be o adequate length and very careully installedin strict accordance with the manuacturer’s specica-tions) or by providing or fexibility in the piping itsel

by running the piping or a distance equal to 15 pipediameters, both vertically and horizontally, beoreattaching the piping to the structure. Additional pro-tection is provided by suspending the piping rom thebuilding on resilient mountings.

Eective vibration control or machines is usuallyquite inexpensive, seldom exceeding 3 percent o the

equipment cost. In many cases, resilient mountingspay or themselves immediately by eliminating specialmachinery oundations or the need to bolt equipmentto the foor. It is much cheaper to prevent vibration andstructural noise transmission by installing mountingswhen the equipment is installed than it is to go backlater and try to correct a aulty installation. Resilientmachinery mountings should not be considered a panacea or noise transmission problems. They havea denite use in the overall solution o noise problems,and their intelligent use can produce gratiying resultsat low cost.

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GreaseInterceptors8

The purpose o a grease interceptor is to interceptand collect grease rom a commercial or institutionalkitchen’s wastewater passing through the device,thereby preventing the deposition o pipe-clogging grease in the sanitary drainage system and ensuring ree fow at all times. Grease interceptors are installed

in locations where liquid wastes contain grease. Thesedevices are required to receive the drainage romxtures and equipment with grease-laden wasteslocated in ood preparation acilities such as restau-rants, hotel kitchens, hospitals, school kitchens, bars,actory caeterias, and clubs. Fixtures and equipmentinclude pot sinks, soup kettles or similar devices, wokstations, foor drains or sinks into which kettles aredrained, automatic hood wash units, pre-rinse sinks,and dishwashers without grinders. Residential dwell-ings seldom discharge grease in such quantities as towarrant a grease interceptor.

Grease interceptors typically come in one o twobasic types. The rst type is called a hydromechani-cal grease interceptor (HGI), previously reerredto as a grease trap. These are preabricated steelmanuactured units, predominately located indoorsat a centralized location in proximity to the xturesserved or at the discharging xture point o use. Theyare relatively compact in size and utilize hydraulicfow action, internal bafing, air entrainment, and a dierence in specic gravity between water and FOG(ats, oils, and grease) or the separation and retentiono FOG rom the xture waste stream. The standardgoverning the installation, testing, and maintenance

o HGIs is PDI G101: Testing and Rating Procedure or Hydro Mechanical Grease Interceptors.

The second type is the gravity grease interceptor(GGI). These are engineered, preabricated, or eld-ormed concrete-constructed units that typically arelocated outside due to their large size and receive FOGdischarge waste rom all required xtures within a given acility. These units essentially utilize gravityfow and retention time as the primary means o separating FOG rom the acility waste stream priorto it entering the municipal drainage system. The

standard or the design and construction o gravitygrease interceptors is IAPMO/ANSI Z1001: Preabri- cated Gravity Grease Interceptors.

Other FOG retention and removal equipment canbe categorized as grease removal devices (GRDs) andFOG disposal systems (FDSs).

Note: It is important or the plumbing engineerto understand that the topic o FOG retention andremoval is a continuing and ever-changing evolutiono both technology and the latest equipment availableat the time. Types o interceptors currently on themarket may be proprietary in nature and may includeeatures specically inherent to one particular manu-acturer. The purpose o the equipment descriptionscontained in this chapter is to expose the reader to thebasic types o FOG treatment equipment presentlyavailable as they currently are dened and listedwithin model codes. The text is not intended to imply

that any one particular type o device is superior toanother or a given application. That being the case,the plumbing engineer must exercise care whenproposing to speciy FOG treatment equipment thatcould be considered proprietary, in conjunction with a government-controlled or publicly unded project thatmay prohibit the speciying o such equipment due toa lack o competition by other manuacturers.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATIONMost currently available grease interceptors oper-ate on the principle o separation by fotation alone(GGI) or fuid mechanical orces in conjunction with

fotation (HGI).The perormance o the system depends on the

dierence between the specic gravity o the waterand that o the grease. I the specic gravity o thegrease is close to that o the water, the globules willrise slowly. I the density dierence between thegrease and the water is larger, the rate o separationwill be aster.

Since the grease globules’ rise rate is inverselyproportional to the viscosity o the wastewater, therate o separation will be aster when the carrier

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fuid is less viscous and vice versa. Grease globulesrise more slowly at lower temperatures and morerapidly at higher temperatures. Grease, especiallywhen hot or warm, has less drag, is lighter thanwater, and does not mix well with water. The nalvelocity or a spherical particle, known as its foating velocity, may be calculated using Newton’s equationor the rictional drag with the driving orce, shownin Equation 8-1.

Equation 8-1

Cd A p v2

= (p1 – p) g V 2

This yields the ollowing mathematical relation-ship:

Equation 8-2

v =√4 g p1 – p

D3 Cd p

whereCd = Drag coecient A = Projected area o the particle, pD

2 /4 or a

spherev = Relative velocity between the particle and

the fuidp = Mass density o the fuid

p1 = Mass density o the particleg = Gravitational constant, 32.2 t/s/sD = Diameter o the particleV = Volume o the particle, 13pr

3or a sphere

(r = radius o the particle)

Experimental values o the drag coecient havebeen correlated with the Reynolds number, a di-

mensionless term expressing the ratio o inertia andviscous orces. (Note: Equation 8-2 applies to particleswith diameters 0.4 inch [10 mm] or smaller andinvolving Reynolds numbers less than 1. For largerdiameters, there is a transition region; thereater,Newton’s law applies.) The expressionor the Reynolds number, R = r v D/m,contains, in addition to the parametersdened above, the absolute viscosity.The drag coecient has been demon-strated to equal 24/R (Stokes’ law). When this value is substituted or Cd inEquation 8-2, the result is the ollowing (Reynolds number < 1):

Equation 8-3

v =g (p1 – p) D

2

18m

The relationship in Equation 8-3,which identies the principle o separa-tion in a gravity grease interceptor, hasbeen veried by a number o investiga-tions or spheres and fuids o various

types. An examination o this equation shows that thevertical velocity o a grease globule in water dependson the density and diameter o the globule, the densityand viscosity o the water, and the temperature o the water and FOG material. Specically, the greaseglobule’s vertical velocity is highly dependent on theglobule’s diameter, with small globules rising muchmore slowly than larger ones. Thus, larger globuleshave a aster rate o separation.

The eect o shape irregularity is most pronouncedas the foating velocity increases. Since grease par-ticles that need to be removed in sanitary drainagesystems have slow foating velocities, particle irregu-larity is o small importance.

Figure 8-1 shows the settling velocities o discretespherical particles in still water. The heavy lines areor settling values computed using Equation 8-3 andor drag coecients depending on the Reynolds num-ber. Below a Reynolds number o 1, the settlement isaccording to Stokes’ law. As noted above, as particle

sizes and Reynolds numbers increase, there is rsta transition stage, and then Newton’s law applies. At water temperatures other than 50°F (10°C), theratio o the settling velocities to those at 50°F (10°C)is approximately (T + 10)/60, where T is the watertemperature. Sand grains and heavy foc particlessettle in the transition region; however, most o theparticles signicant in the investigation o watertreatment settle well within the Stokes’ law region.Particles with irregular shapes settle somewhat moreslowly than spheres o equivalent volume. I thevolumetric concentration o the suspended particlesexceeds about 1 percent, the settling is hindered to

the extent that the velocities are reduced by 10 per-cent or more.

Flotation is the opposite o settling insoar as thedensities and particle sizes are known.

Figure 8-1 Rising and Settling Rates in Still Water

SG-0.85

SG-0.90

SG-0.95


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Chapter 8 — Grease Interceptors 147

Retention PeriodThe retention period (P) is the theoretical time thatthe water is held in the grease interceptor. The volumeo the tank or the required retention period can becomputed as ollows:

Equation 8-4

V = QP7.48

As an example o the use o Equation 8-4, or a retention period (P) equal to two minutes and a fowrate (Q) o 35 gallons per minute (gpm), the tankvolume is:

V = (35 x 2) / 7.48 = 9.36 t3

Retention periods should be based on peak fows. InInternational Standard (SI) units, the denominator inEquation 8-4 becomes approximately unity (1).

Flow-Through PeriodThe actual time required or the water to fow throughan existing tank is called the fow-through period. How closely this fow-through period approximatesthe retention period depends on the tank. A well-designed tank should provide a fow-through periodo at least equal to the required retention period.

Factors Aecting Flotation in the IdealBasin When designing the ideal separation basin, ourparameters dictate eective FOG removal rom thewater: grease/oil droplet size distribution, dropletvelocity, grease/oil concentration, and the condition o the grease/oil as it enters the basin. Grease/oil can bepresent in ve basic orms: oil-coated solids, ree oil,mechanically emulsied, chemically emulsied, anddissolved. When designing the ideal basin, consideronly ree grease/oil.

The ideal separation basin is one that has no

turbulence, short-circuiting, or eddies. The lowthrough the basin is laminar and distributed uni-ormly throughout the basin’s cross-sectional area.The surace-loading rate is equal to the overfow rate.Free oil is separated due to the dierence in specicgravity between the grease/oil globule and the water.Other actors aecting the design o an ideal basinare infuent concentration and temperature.

It is important to evaluate and quantiy a basindesign both analytically and hydraulically. Figure8-2 shows a cross-section o a basin chamber. Thebasin chamber is divided into two zones: liquid treat-ment zone and surace-loading area (grease/oil mat).The mat zone is that portion o the basin where theseparated grease/oil is stored. L is the length o thechamber or basin, and D is the liquid depth or themaximum distance the design grease/oil globule mustrise to reach the grease mat. Vh is the horizontalvelocity o the water, and Vt is the vertical rise rateo the design grease/oil globule.

As noted, the separation o grease/oil rom waterby gravity dierential can be expressed mathemati-cally by Stokes’ law, which can be used to calculate therise rate o any grease/oil globule on the basis o itssize and density and the density and viscosity o the

water. (See Figure 8-1 or the rise rate versus globulesize at a xed design temperature.)

The primary unction o a grease interceptor is toseparate ree-foating FOG rom the wastewater. Sucha unit does not separate soluble substances, and itdoes not break emulsions. Thereore, it never shouldbe specied or these purposes. However, like any set-tling acility, the interceptor presents an environmentin which suspended solids are settled coincident withthe separation o the FOG in the infuent.

Figure 8-2 Cross-Section o a Grease Interceptor Chamber

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The ability o an interceptor to perorm its primaryunction depends on a number o actors. These in-clude the type and state o FOG in the waste fow, thecharacteristics o the carrier stream, and the designand size o the unit. Due to the reliance on gravitydierential phenomena, there is a practical limita-

tion to interceptor eectiveness. In terms o grease/ oil globule size, an interceptor will be eective over a globule diameter range having a lower limit o 0.015centimeter (150 microns).

Gravity separation permits the removal o particlesthat exhibit densities dierent rom their carrierfuid. Separation is accomplished by detaining thefow stream or a sucient time to permit particles toseparate out. Separation, or retention, time (T) is thetheoretical time that the water is held in the basin. A basin must be designed such that even i the grease/ oil globule enters the chamber at the worst possiblelocation (at the bottom), there will be enough time or

the globule to rise the distance needed or capture (seeFigure 8-3). I the grease/oil globule rate o rise (Vt)exceeds the retention time required or separation,the basin will experience pass-through or short-circuiting. Retention time can be expressed as:

Equation 8-5

V = QT

whereV = Volume o basinQ = Design fowT = Retention time

As previously noted, particles that rise to the sur-

ace o a liquid are said to possess rise rates, whileparticles that settle to the bottom exhibit settling rates. Both types obey Stokes’ law, which establishesthe theoretical terminal velocities o the rising and/ or settling particles. With a value o 0.015 centimeteror the diameter (D) o the globule, the rate o rise o oil globules in wastewater may be expressed in eetper minute as:

Equation 8-6

Vt =0.0241 (Sw – So)

u

whereVt = Rate o rise o oil globule (0.015 centimeter

in diameter) in wastewater, eet per minuteSw = Specic gravity o wastewater at design

temperature o fowSo = Specic gravity o oil in wastewater at design

temperature o fowu = Absolute viscosity o wastewater at design

temperature, poises

Grease Interceptor Design EampleThe ollowing example illustrates the application o the above equations or the design o a grease inter-ceptor.

Without additional data describing the distribu-tion o oil droplets and their diameters within a

representative wastewater sample, it is not possibleto quantitatively predict the eect that increasedinterceptor size or reduced low and subsequentincreased retention time within the grease intercep-tor will have on the efuent concentration o theinterceptor. However, experimental research on oildroplet rise time (see Table 8-1) illustrates the e-ect that increased interceptor size or reduced fowand subsequent increased retention time within thegrease interceptor will have on oil droplet removal.Following the logic in Table 8-1 allows the designerto improve the grease interceptor by increasing theinterceptor volume or reducing fow and subsequentlylowering horizontal velocity and increasing retentiontime within the grease interceptor.

Other data or this example is as ollows:

• Specic gravityofgrease/oil inwastewater: 0.9(average)

• Temperatureofwastewaterandoilmixture:68°F(average)

• Rate of rise of oil globules in wastewater: useEquation 8-6

Figure 8-3 Trajectory Diagram


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a decrease in the overfow rate might have the sameeect. A fotation test might determine the point o agglomeration or a known water sample.

PRACTICAL DESIGN While acquaintance with the theory o fotation isimportant to the engineer, several actors have pre-

vented the direct application o this theory to thedesign o grease interceptors. Some turbulence isunavoidable at the inlet end o the tank. This eectis greatly reduced by good inlet design (including bafing) that distributes the infuent as uniormly aspracticable over the cross-section o the tank. Thereis also some intererence with the streamline fow at

the outlet, but this condition is less pronouncedthan the inlet turbulence and is reduced only byusing overfow weirs or bafes. Density currentsare caused by dierences in the temperature,the density o the incoming wastewater, and theinterceptor’s contents. Incoming water has moresuspended matter than the partially claried con-tents o the tank. Thereore, the infuent tends toorm a relatively rapid current along the bottomo the tank, which may extend to the outlet. Thiscondition is known as short-circuiting and occurseven with a uniorm collection at the outlet end.

Flocculation o suspended solids has been

mentioned. Its eects, however, are dicult topredict.

In general, the engineer depends on experienceas well as the code requirements o the variouslocal health departments or the preerred reten-tion and overfow rates. Depth already has beendiscussed as having some eect on the tank’s e-ciency. A smaller depth provides a shorter pathor the rising particle to settle, which gives thebasin greater eciency as the surace-loading rates match the overfow rates based on a givenretention time. The tank’s inlets and outlets re-quire careul consideration by the designer. The

ideal inlet reduces the inlet velocity to preventthe pronounced currents toward the outlet, dis-tributes the inlet water as uniormly as practicalover the cross-section o the tank, and mixes theinlet water with the water already in the tank toprevent the entering water rom short-circuiting toward the outlet.

GREASE INTERCEPTOR TyPES

Hdromechanical Grease InterceptorsFor more than 100 years, grease interceptors havebeen used in plumbing drainage systems to prevent

grease accumulations rom clogging interconnect-ing sanitary piping and sewer lines. However, itwasn’t until 1949 that a comprehensive standardor the basic testing and rating requirements orhydromechanical grease interceptors was devel-oped. This standard is known as PDI G101. It hasbeen widely recognized and is reerenced in mostplumbing codes, replicated in ASME A112.14.3:Grease Interceptors, reerred to in manuactur-ers’ literature, and included in the basic testing and rating requirements o Military Specication

Figure 8-4 (A) Hydromechanical Grease Interceptor; (B) Timer-controlled Grease Removal Device; (C) FOG Disposal System

(A)

(B)

(C)


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MIL-T-18361. A speciying engineer or purchaser o a hydromechanical grease interceptor can be assuredthat the interceptor will perorm as intended whenit has been tested, rated, and certiied in conor-mance with PDI G101, ASME A112.14.3, and ASME A112.14.4: Grease Removal Devices.

Conventional manually operated hydromechanicalinterceptors (see Figure 8-4A) are extremely popularand generally are available with a rated fow capacityup to 100 gpm (6.31 L/s) or most applications. Forfow rates above 100 gpm (6.31 L/s), large capacityunits up to 500 gpm (31.5 L/s) commonly are used.The internal designs o these devices are similar. Theinlet bafes, usually available in various styles andarrangements, act to ensure at least 90 percent e-ciency o grease removal through the HGI, per PDIG101 testing requirements or units o 100 gpm andless. Care should be taken to avoid long runs o pipebetween the source and the interceptor to avoid FOGaccumulation and mechanical emulsication prior to

entering the interceptor.Grease removal rom manually operated hydrome-

chanical grease interceptors is typically perormed byopening the access cover and manually skimming theaccumulated grease rom the interior water surace(along with the removal o a perorated lter screenor cleaning i so equipped).

Semiautomatic UnitsSemiautomatic units are typically a hydromechanicalinterceptor design, with FOG accumulation on thesurace o the water inside the interceptor. However,these types o HGIs are not used as widely as theyonce were due in part to advances in grease retentionequipment technology. In addition, the FOG removalprocess involves the running o hot water throughthe interceptor to raise the water level and orce theFOG into the draw-o recovery cone or pyramid andthen out through the attached draw-o hose to a FOGdisposal container until the running water becomesclear. As compared to the operational qualities o theinterceptor types and technologies currently avail-able, this process wastes potable water at a time whenwater conservation should be o critical concern to theplumbing engineer, especially in certain areas o thecountry where the cost o water may be at a premium

or a acility owner.SeparatorsGrease separators are available rom some manuac-turers. They separate FOG-laden wastes dischargedrom xtures via gravity action. These types o devicesare similar to HGIs in their construction, unction,and cleaning. Unlike HGIs, they are not PDI G101certied and do not contain or rely on external fowcontrol devices or proper unctioning. Internally,they are constructed in such a way that there is no

straight-through travel o wastewater rom inlet tooutlet. Flow through the unit is directed in a specicpattern and/or use o components (engineered bythe device manuacturer) as required to minimizefow velocities and allow or the proper separation o FOG material rom the wastewater. Provided that thedevice has been properly sized and installed correctly,the inlet simply closes when the separator’s holding capacity is reached i short-circuiting devices or meth-ods have not been otherwise utilized. As such, thistype o device has essentially a built-in fow controland needs no external fow control. These devices canbe selected where allowable by local authorities andwhere the installation o a PDI G101-certied deviceis not required or approval.

Grease Removal DevicesGrease removal devices are typically hydromechanicalinterceptors that incorporate automatic, electricallypowered skimming devices within their design. Thetwo basic variations o this type o interceptor are

timer-controlled units and sensor-controlled units.In timer-controlled units (see Figure 8-4B), FOG

is separated by gravity fotation in the conventionalmanner, at which point the accumulated FOG isskimmed rom the surace o the water in the inter-ceptor by a powered skimming device and activatedby a timer on a time- or event-controlled basis.

The skimmed FOG is essentially scraped or wipedrom the skimmer surace and directed into a trough,rom which it drains through a small pipe rom theinterceptor into a disposal container located adjacentto the interceptor. Most GRDs are tted with an elec-tric immersion heater to elevate the temperature inthe interceptor to maintain the contained FOG in a liquid state or skimming purposes.

A variation o this type o interceptor utilizes a FOG removal pump that is positioned in a tray insidethe interceptor and controlled rom a wall unit thatcontains a timer device. The pump is attached to a small translucent tank with a drain outlet that islocated adjacent to the interceptor.

To operate these units, a timer is set to turn onthe skimmer or FOG removal pump within a selectedperiod. In a short time, the accumulated FOG isdrained into the adjacent container, to be disposed o

in a proper manner.Sensor-controlled units employ computer-con-

trolled sensors or probes, which sense the presence o FOG and automatically initiate the draw-o cycle ata predetermined percentage level o the interceptor’srated capacity. FOG is then drawn rom the top o the FOG layer in the interceptor. The draw-o cyclecontinues until the presence o water is detected bythe sensor, which stops the cycle to ensure that onlywater-ree FOG is recovered. I required, an immer-sion heater is activated automatically at the onset o

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the draw-o cycle to liquey FOG in the interceptor.In addition, i either the unit’s grease collection res-ervoir (where the recovered grease is stored pending removal) or the interceptor itsel is near capacity withpotential overloading sensed, warning measures andunit shutdown are activated automatically.

When GRDs are considered or installation,the manuacturer should be consulted regarding electrical, service, and maintenance requirements.The plumbing engineer must coordinate these re-quirements with the appropriate trades to ensurea proper installation. Furthermore, owing to theserequirements, it is essential that those responsibleor operating GRDs be trained thoroughly in theiroperation.

FOG Disposal Sstems A FOG disposal system is very similar to a hydro-mechanical interceptor in its operation. However, inaddition to reducing FOG in efuent by separation,it automatically reduces FOG in efuent by mass

and volume reduction, without the use o internalmechanical devices or manual FOGremoval. This system is specically en-gineered, and one type is congured tocontain microorganisms that are usedto oxidize FOG within the interceptorto permanently convert the FOG mate-rial into the by-products o digestion, a process otherwise reerred to as bioreme-diation. (It should be noted that this isalso the same process used by municipalwastewater treatment plants.) OtherFOG disposal systems utilize thermal orchemical methods o oxidation.

Figure 8-4C is an example o a bioremediation type o interceptor. Theinterceptor is divided into two mainchambers, separated by bafes at theinlet and outlet sides. The bafe locatedat the inlet side o the interceptor actsto distribute the infow evenly across thehorizontal dimension o the interceptor.However, unlike conventional HGIs, a media chamber is its main compartment,which contains a coalescing media that

is engineered to cause FOG to rise along the vertical suraces o the media struc-ture, where it comes into contact withmicroorganisms inhabiting a bioilmattached to the media. A wall-mountedshel located above the interceptor sup-ports a metering pump, timer, controls,and a bottle lled with a bacteria cultureprovided by the system manuacturer.

As the FOG material collects in thebiolm, bacteria rom the culture bottle

(injected by the metering pump) break the bondsbetween atty acids and glycerol and then the bondsbetween the hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen atomso both, thereby reducing FOG volume. Drainagecontinues through the media chamber around theoutlet bafe, where it then is discharged to the sani-tary system.

Though FOG disposal systems signicantly reducethe need or manual FOG removal or the handling o mechanically removed FOG materials, the needor monitoring efuent quality, routine maintenanceto remove undigested materials, and inspections toensure all components are clean and unctioning properly are required and should be perormed on a regular basis.

Furthermore, it is essential that the plumbing en-gineer coordinate all electrical and equipment spaceallocation requirements with the appropriate tradesto allow or the proper installation and unctioning o a FOG disposal system.

Figure 8-5 (A) Gravity Grease Interceptor; (B) Passive, Tank-TypeGrease Interceptor

(A)

(B)


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Gravit Grease InterceptorsGravity grease interceptors commonly are made o 4-inch (101.6-mm) minimum thickness concrete walls,with interior concrete barriers that act to sectional-ize the interior into multiple chambers that dampenfow and retain FOG by fotation. Figure 8-5A showsa typical installation. However, standards allow other

materials such as berglass, plastic, and protectedsteel. Generally, these units are used outside buildingsas inground installations rather than as inside sys-tems adjacent to or within kitchen areas. These unitsgenerally do not include the draw-o or fow-controlarrangements common to hydromechanical units.

The unit should be installed as close to the sourceo FOG as possible. I this cannot be achieved due toeld conditions or other site constraints, a heat tracesystem can be installed along the drain piping thatis routed to the inlet side o the GGI to help keep theFOG-laden waste rom solidiying beore it enters theinterceptor. Increasing the slope o the drain piping to

the interceptor also can be considered in lieu o heattracing where allowable by local codes and authoritieshaving jurisdiction.

I a unit is located in a trac area, care must betaken to ensure that the access covers are capableo withstanding any possible trac load. It is alsoimportant that the interceptor be located in such a way as to allow easy cleanout.

Preabricated GGIs also tend to be internallyand externally congured with unique, pre-installedeatures designed to meet the local jurisdictionalrequirements o any given project location. Theplumbing engineer must veriy the local requirements

to which these units must conorm to ensure properunit selection.

Field-ormed concrete gravity grease interceptorsare basically identical to the preabricated units asdescribed above, with the exception that they usu-ally are constructed at the project site. Though likelymore expensive to install than a preabricated unit,one reason or its installation could be unique projectsite constraints. For example, a GGI may need to beinstalled in a very tight area, too close to existing property lines or adjacent structures to allow hoist-ing equipment the necessary access to an excavatedarea that otherwise would be sucient or a standardpreabricated GGI installation.

Following is a list o recommended installationprovisions or preabricated and eld-ormed GGIslocated outside a building.

• Theunitshouldbeinstalledasclosetothesourceo FOG as possible. I this cannot be achieved dueto eld conditions or other site constraints, a heattrace system can be installed along the drain pip-ing that is routed to the inlet side o the GGI.

• Theinuentshouldentertheunitatalocationbe-low the normal water level or near the bottom o the GGI to keep the surace as still as possible.

• The inlet and the outlet of the unit should beprovided with cleanouts or unplugging both thesewers and the dip pipes.

• Theefuentshouldbedrawnfromnearthebot-

tom o the unit, via a dip pipe, to remove as muchfoating grease and solids as possible.

• A largemanhole, or removable slab, should beprovided or access to all chambers o the greaseinterceptor or complete cleaning o both thefoating and the settled solids.

• Thetop,orcover,shouldbegas-tightandcapableo withstanding trac weight.

• Adifferenceinelevationbetweentheinletandtheoutlet o 3 to 6 inches (76.2 to 152.4 mm) shouldbe provided to ensure fow through the greaseinterceptor during surge conditions without the

waste backing up in the inlet sewer. As the greasebegins to accumulate, the top o the grease layerwill begin to rise above the normal water level ata distance o approximately 1 inch (25.4 mm) oreach 9 inches (228.6 mm) o grease thickness.

• Afterinstallation,testingoftheGGIforleakageshould be a specication requirement prior to -nal acceptance.

In addition to concrete GGIs, gravity grease inter-ceptors in the orm o preabricated round, cylindricalprotected steel tanks are also available (see Figure8-5B). These units oten are reerred to as passive

grease interceptors, but they all into the same cat-egory as gravity grease interceptors because theyoperate in virtually the same manner. Interceptors o this type are available with single and multiple cham-bers (depending on local jurisdictional requirements),with internal bafes, vent connections, and manholeextensions as required to allow or proper operation.They are manuactured in single- and double-wallconstruction and can be incorporated with steam orelectric heating systems to help acilitate FOG separa-tion and extraction rom the unit.

Protected steel tank GGIs are built to UL specica-tions or structural and corrosion protection or both

the interior and the exterior o the interceptor. The ex-terior corrosion protection is a two-part, polyurethane,high-build coating with interior coating options o polyurethane, epoxy, or a proprietary material (depend-ing on infuent wastewater temperature, wastewatercharacteristics, etc.). When protected steel tank GGIsare considered or installation, the manuacturershould be consulted regarding venting and hold-downrequirements or buoyancy considerations.

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INSTALLATIONMost local administrative authorities require in their jurisdictions’ codes that spent water rom ood servicextures and equipment producing large amounts o FOG discharge into an approved interceptor beoreentering the municipality’s sanitary drainage system.These requirements (generally code and pretreatment

regulations, with pretreatment coordinators having the nal word) can include multi-compartment potsinks, pre-rinse sinks, kettles, and wok stations, aswell as area foor drains, grease-extracting hoodsinstalled over rying or other grease-producing equip-ment, and dishwashing equipment.

I foor drains are connected to the interceptor, theengineer must give special consideration to other adjacent xtures that may be connected to a commonline with a foor drain upstream o the interceptor.Unless fow control devices are used on high-volumextures or multiple xtures fowing upstream o thefoor drain connection, fooding o the foor drain can

occur. A common misapplication is the installationo a fow control device at the inlet to the intercep-tor that may restrict high-volume xture dischargeinto the interceptor, but foods the foor drain on thecommon branch. Floor drains connected to an inter-ceptor require a recessed (beneath the foor) inter-ceptor design.

An acceptable design concept is to locate the in-terceptor as close to the grease-producing xtures aspossible. Under-the-counter or above-slab intercep-tor installations are oten possible adjacent to thegrease-producing xtures. This type o arrangementoten avoids the individual venting o the xtures,

with a common vent and trap downstream o thegrease interceptor serving to vent the xtures andthe grease interceptor together. Thereore, a p-trap isnot required on the xture outlet. However, providedthis particular arrangement is allowed by governing codes and local jurisdictions, special attention shouldbe paid to air inlet sources or the air-injected fowcontrol i no p-trap is attached to the xture outlet toavoid circuiting the building vent to the xture.

I the grease interceptor is located ar rom thextures it serves, the grease can cool and solidiy inthe waste lines upstream o the grease interceptor,

causing clogging conditions or requiring more re-quent cleaning o the waste lines. However, a heattrace system can be installed along the main wasteline that is routed to the inlet side o the interceptorto help keep the FOG-laden waste rom solidiying beore it enters the interceptor. Long horizontal andvertical runs also can cause mechanical emulsica-tion o entrained FOG, which makes it dicult toseparate.

Some practical considerations are also importanti an interceptor is to be located near the xturesit serves. I the interceptor is an under-the-counter,above-the-slab device, the engineer should leaveenough space above the cover to allow completecleaning and FOG removal rom the unit.

Some ordinances also require that interceptorsnot be installed where the surrounding tempera-tures under normal operating conditions are lessthan 40°F (4.4°C).

Some administrative authorities prohibit the dis-charge o ood waste disposers through HGIs andGRDs because o the clogging eect o ground-upparticles. Other jurisdictions allow this setup, pro-vided that a solids interceptor or strainer basket isinstalled upstream o these devices to remove anyood particulates prior to entering the interceptor.It is recommended that ood waste disposers be con-nected to HGIs and GRDs (in conjunction with a sol-ids strainer) when allowed by the authority having

jurisdiction due to the act that disposer waste dis-charge is a prime carrier o FOG-laden material.

The same situation is similar with respect todishwashers. Some administrative authorities pro-hibit the discharge o dishwasher waste to HGIs andGRDs, while other jurisdictions allow it, providedthat the dishwashers are without pre-rinse sinks. Itis recommended that dishwashers not be connectedto HGIs or GRDs. Although the high discharge wastetemperature rom a dishwasher may be benecial tothe FOG separation process by helping maintain theFOG in a liquid state, the detergents used in dish-washing equipment can inhibit the device’s ability to

separate FOG altogether, which allows FOG to passthrough the device where it eventually can revert toits original state and cause problems within the mu-nicipal sanitary system.

FLOW CONTROLFlow control devices are best located at the outlet o the xtures they serve. However, fow control ttingsare not common or foor drains or or xtures thatwould food i their waste discharge was restricted(such as a grease-extracting hood during its fushing cycle).

A ew precautions are necessary or the proper

application o fow control devices. The engineershould be sure that enough vertical space is availablei the fow control device is an angle pattern witha horizontal inlet and a vertical outlet. A commondiculty encountered is the lack o available heightor an above-slab grease interceptor adjacent to thexture served when the vertical height needed orthe drain outlet elbow, pipe slope on the waste armrom the xture, vertical outlet fow control tting,


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and height rom the grease interceptor inlet to thefoor are all compensated.

The air intake (vent) or the fow control tting may terminate under the sink as high as possible toprevent overfow or terminate in a return bend atthe same height on the outside o the building. Whenthe xture is individually trapped and back-vented,air intake may intersect the vent stack. All instal-lation recommendations are subject to the approvalo the code authority. The air intake allows air tobe drawn into the fow control downstream o theorice bafe, thereby promoting air-entrained fowat the interceptor’s rated capacity. The air entrainedthrough the fow control also may aid the fotationprocess by providing a liting eect or the rising grease.

It is particularly important to install the greaseinterceptor near the grease-discharging xturewhen fow control devices are used because o thelower fow in the waste line downstream o the fow

control device. Such fow may not be enough to en-sure sel-cleaning velocities o 3 eet per second (ps)(0.9 m/s).

While fow control is necessary to ensure thatan interceptor will meet PDI G101 standards andunction as designed, it should be stated that theycan also be problematic due to their nature and pur-pose. Along with the issues previously mentioned,these devices clog airly rapidly i not maintained ona regular basis due to their construction. It is notuncommon or these devices to be removed entirelyand discarded by acility maintenance personnel inan eort to alleviate clogging and minimize mainte-

nance expenses. Whether legal or not, this deeatsthe purpose o having the device in the rst place,resulting in an interceptor installation that may notunction as intended.

An alternative to utilizing a fow control devicemay be to select an interceptor whose fow charac-teristics exceed the design fow rate established ora acility or xture. In the case o a single xture orpoint-o-use application, Equation 1-11 rom Plumb-ing Engineering Design Handbook, Volume 1 couldbe used to determine the actual fow rate o a x-ture. The subsequent selection o an interceptorwould then be o a capacity greater than that o the

discharge fow rate o the xture to ensure properoperation and removal o FOG. The same method ora central interceptor installation could be used or a group o xtures, except that the Manning ormula could then be used to determine the necessary infu-ent fow rate. While either method typically resultsin the selection o an interceptor that is somewhatoversized, the elimination o a fow control deviceand longer durations between interceptor cleanings

could be achieved, thus osetting initial installationcost over time.

GUIDELINES FOR SIZINGThe ollowing recommended sizing procedure orgrease interceptors may be used as a general guidelineor the selection o these units. The engineer shouldalways consult the local administrative authoritiesregarding variations in the allowable drain-downtimes acceptable under the approved codes. Calcula-tion details and explanations o the decision-making processes have been included in ull in the examplesas an aid to the engineer using these guidelines inspecic situations.

Example 8-1

Assume an HGI or a GRD or a single-xture installa-tion with no fow control. Size the grease interceptoror a three-compartment pot (scullery) sink, with eachcompartment being 18 × 24 × 12 inches.

1. First, determine the sink volume:Cubic contents o one sink compartment =

18 × 24 × 12 = 5,184 in.3

Cubic contents o three sink compartments =

3 × 5,184 = 15,552 in.3

Contents expressed in gallons =

15,552 in.3 /231 = 67.3 gallons

2. Then add the total potable water supply that couldbe discharged independent o a xture calculatedabove, including manuacturer-rated appliancessuch as water-wash exhaust hoods and disposers(i allowed to discharge to the interceptor).

3. Next, determine the xture load. A sink (or x-ture) seldom is lled to the brim, and dishes, pots,or pans displace approximately 25 percent o thewater. Thereore, 75 percent o the actual xturecapacity should be used to establish the drainageload:

0.75 × 67.3 gal = 50.8 gal

4. Calculate the fow rate based on drain time, typi-cally one minute or two minutes. The fow ratesare calculated using the ollowing equation:

Drainage load, in gallons / Drainage load, inminutes

Thereore, the fow rate or this example wouldbe:

50 gpm (3.15 L/s) or one-minute drainage or 25gpm (1.58 L/s) or two-minute drainage.

5. Last, select the interceptor. Choose between a hydromechanical interceptor with a rated ca-pacity o 50 gpm or one-minute fow or 25 gpmor two-minute fow or a gravity interceptor

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with a capacity o 1,500 gallons (50-gpm fowrate × 30-minute detention time).

Local administrative authorities having jurisdic-tion should be consulted as they may dictate a spe-cic ormula or sizing criteria that would ultimatelydetermine the specic fow parameters or whichthe interceptor could be selected. It is extremely im-

portant to determine not only the governing modelcode requirements regarding specic interceptor cri-teria, but also local jurisdictional requirements pro-mulgated by the pretreatment authority since theysometimes contradict each other, especially wherelocal jurisdictions adopt certain amendments andregulations that may supersede any model code re-quirements.

Grease extraction water-wash hood equipmentmay be used. It should be noted that while these sys-tems are used in some cases, grease hoods that incor-porate troughs that entrap grease, which are slopedto drip cups at the ends o the hood, are used quite

prevalently. These cup drains are removed by hand,and the FOG material contained is disposed o in a proper manner and never discharges to the intercep-tor. It is important to veriy which types o systemswill be used with respect to grease hood equipmentprior to the selection o the interceptor so the propercapacity can be determined.

It also should be noted that the phrase “sizing aninterceptor” is used throughout the industry quiteloosely. However, grease interceptors are not sized.They are selected based on specic fow parametersand requirements as determined by the plumbing engineer during the design process or each indi-vidual acility. Furthermore, the design fow ratesand pipe sizing criteria or ood preparation acilitiesshould not be determined by using the xture unitmethod typically used or other types o acilitiesdue to the act that the probability o simultaneoususe actors associated with xture unit values do notapply in ood preparation acilities where increasedand continuous fow rates are encountered. Also, theacility determines the peak fows used to select theproper interceptor or the intended application, notthe other way around (i.e., a single acility does notdischarge at a multitude o dierent fow rates de-

pending on which particular type o interceptor isbeing considered or installation.)Lastly, in certain projects the plumbing engineer

may be called on to select an interceptor in whichthe fow rates or a acility are not readily quanti-able at the time o design, such as or a uture ex-pansion, restaurant, or ood court area within a newdevelopment. In this case, tables or ormulas canbe used in an eort to help quantiy the maximumfow rate that will be encountered or a specic pipesize at a given slope and velocity that ultimately dis-

charges to the interceptor. This inormation can beused to select the proper interceptor capacity or theintended fow rates anticipated.

CODE REQUIREMENTSThe necessity or the plumbing engineer to veriy allstate and local jurisdictional requirements prior tothe start o any ood service acility design cannotbe emphasized enough. Although state and modelplumbing codes provide inormation with respectto interceptor requirements and regulations, localhealth departments and administrative authoritieshaving jurisdiction have likely established their ownset o guidelines and requirements or an intercep-tor on a specic project and, thereore, also shouldbe consulted at the start o the design. It is up to theplumbing engineer to pull together the various agencyrequirements in an eort to design a code-compliantsystem, while incorporating any additional governing requirements and regulations.

Following are itemized lists incorporating the major provisions o the model plumbing codes and areincluded herein as an abbreviated design guide orthe engineer when speciying sizing. It is importantto review the applicable code in eect in the area orany variation rom this generalized list.

UPC Requirements or Interceptors

1. Grease interceptors are not required in individualdwelling units or residential dwellings.

2. Water closets, urinals, and other plumbing x-tures conveying human waste shall not drain intoor through any interceptor.

3. Each xture discharging into an interceptor shallbe individually trapped and vented in an approvedmanner.

4. Grease waste lines leading rom foor drains, foorsinks, and other xtures or equipment in serving establishments such as restaurants, caes, lunchcounters, caeterias, bars, clubs, hotels, hospitals,sanitariums, actory or school kitchens, or otherestablishments where grease may be introducedinto the drainage or sewage system shall be con-nected through an approved interceptor.

5. Unless specically required or permitted by the

authority having jurisdiction, no ood waste dis-posal unit or dishwasher shall be connected toor discharge into any grease interceptor. Com-mercial ood waste disposers shall be permittedto discharge directly into the building drainagesystem.

6. The waste discharge rom a dishwasher may bedrained into the sanitary waste system through a gravity grease interceptor when approved by theauthority having jurisdiction.


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7. Flow control devices are required at the drainoutlet o each grease-producing xture connectedto a hydromechanical grease interceptor. Flowcontrol devices having adjustable (or removable)parts are prohibited. The fow control device shallbe located such that no system vent shall be be-tween the fow control and the interceptor inlet.(Exception: Listed grease interceptors with inte-

gral fow controls or restricting devices shall beinstalled in an accessible location in accordancewith the manuacturer’s instructions.)

8. A vent shall be installed downstream o hydrome-chanical grease interceptors.

9. The grease collected rom a grease interceptormust not be introduced into any drainage piping or public or private sewer.

10. Each gravity grease interceptor shall be so in-stalled and connected that it shall be at all timeseasily accessible or inspection, cleaning, and re-moval o intercepted grease. No gravity grease in-

terceptor shall be installed in any part o a build-ing where ood is handled.

11. Gravity grease interceptors shall be placed asclose as practical to the xtures they serve.

12. Each business establishment or which a grav-ity grease interceptor is required shall have aninterceptor that shall serve only that establish-ment unless otherwise approved by the authorityhaving jurisdiction.

13. Gravity grease interceptors shall be located so asto be readily accessible to the equipment requiredor maintenance and designed to retain grease

until accumulations can be removed by pumping the interceptor.

IPC Requirements or HdromechanicalGrease Interceptors

1. Grease interceptors are not required in individualdwelling units or private living quarters.

2. A grease interceptor or automatic grease removaldevice shall be required to receive the drainagerom xtures and equipment with grease-ladenwaste located in ood preparation areas such asrestaurants, hotel kitchens, hospitals, schoolkitchens, bars, actory caeterias, and clubs. The

xtures include pre-rinse sinks, soup kettles orsimilar devices, wok stations, foor drains or sinksto which kettles are drained, automatic hood washunits, and dishwashers without pre-rinse sinks.

3. Where ood waste disposal units are connectedto grease interceptors, a solids interceptor shallseparate the discharge beore connecting to theinterceptor. Solids interceptors and grease inter-ceptors shall be sized and rated or the dischargeo the ood waste grinder.

4. Grease interceptors shall be equipped with de-vices to control the rate o water fow so that thewater fow does not exceed the rated fow. Thefow control device shall be vented and terminatenot less than 6 inches above the food rim levelor be installed in accordance with manuacturer’sinstructions.

5. Hydromechanical grease interceptors shall havethe minimum grease retention capacity or thefow-through rates indicated in Table 8-2.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCEOperational methods can create problems or the en-gineer even i all o the design techniques or greaseinterceptors presented have been observed. Failing to scrape dinner plates and other ood waste-bearing utensils into the ood waste disposer prior to loading them into dishwasher racks means that the liquidwaste discharged rom the dishwasher to the greaseinterceptor also carries solid ood particles into the

grease interceptor unit. The grease interceptor is nota ood waste disposer.

Another common problem is insucient greaseremoval. The period between removals diers oreach interceptor type and is best let to the expe-rience o licensed proessional cleaning services.However, i the fow rate o the unit is constantlyexceeded (no fow control) with high-temperaturewater, such as a heavy discharge rom a dishwasher,the grease in the unit may periodically be liqueedand washed into the drainage system downstream

Table 8-2 Minimum Grease

Retention CapacityTotal Flow-

Through Rating(gpm)

Grease RetentionCapacity(pounds)

4 8

6 12

7 14

9 18

10 20

12 24

14 28

15 30

18 36

20 40

25 50

35 70

50 100

75 150

100 200

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Keeping a fuid isolated in a complex piping networkin a modern building may seem like a straightorwardproposition. However, such eorts all short unless alldetails are addressed thoroughly. Plumbing conveysone o society’s most cherished commodities, saewater, to be used or personal hygiene and consump-

tion, or industry, or medical care, and or landscapeirrigation. Thus, a clear and distinct barrier betweenpotable water and pollution, toxic substances, ordisease-causing microbes is required. Good plumb-ing practices also call or similar controls related tograywater.

A cross-connection control (CCC) is a piping designor device, oten combined with requent monitoring,that prevents a reverse fow o water at a cross-connec-tion, or the point in the water supply where the waterpurity level is no longer known because o the transi-tion rom an enclosed streamline o water to another

surace, basin, drain system, pipe system, or piping beyond the control o the water purveyor. Examples o potential cross-connections include plumbing xtures,hose bibbs, appliance connections, hydronic watersupply connections, re sprinkler and standpipe wa-ter supply connections, water supply connections toindustrial processes, laundries, medical equipment,ood service equipment, HVAC equipment, swimming pool water makeup, water treatment backwash, trapprimers, irrigation taps, dispensers that dilute theirproduct with water, pressure-relie valve dischargepiping, and drain-fushing water supply. However, a cross-connection is not necessarily hard piped. Rather,

because o the nature o fuid mechanics, it also couldbe where the end o a water supply pipe is suspendedbelow the rim o a xture or foor drain.

HyDROSTATIC FUNDAMENTALS

A cross-connection hazard is relative to the natureo the contaminants likely to be present in the en-vironment o the cross-connection. To understandthe hazards o cross-connections and the associatedcontrol methods, a knowledge o hydrostatics is es-sential since the pressure at any point in a static water

system is a unction only o the water’s depth. Thisrelationship is understood by considering that at anypoint, the weight o water above it is the product o its volume and its specic weight. Specic weight issimilar to density; however, it is dened as weight perunit volume rather than mass per unit volume. Like

density, it varies slightly with temperature.To derive the pressure relationship in a hydrostatic

fuid, consider the volume o the fuid at a given depthand a horizontal area at that depth. The pressure isthe weight divided by the area. Hence,

p = W / A , or

Equation 9-1

p = h × w

wherep = Static gauge pressure, pounds per square

inch (psi) (kPa)

W =

Weight, pounds (N)A = Area, square inches (square meters)h = Static head, eet (meters)w = Specic weight o water, pounds per cubic

eet (N/m3)

I 1 cubic oot o water is 62.4 lb and 1 square ooto area is 144 in

2, then p = h × 62.4/144 = 0.433h.

For absolute pressure in a water supply, the localatmospheric pressure is added to the gauge pressure.For example, in Figure 9-1, i the local atmosphericpressure is 14.7 psi, the absolute pressure at the top o the column is ound rom [(0.433)(-23)] + 14.7 = 4.73psia. Note that atmospheric pressure is not constant.

Rather, it varies with the weather, geographic loca-tion, and the eects o HVAC systems.

Hydrodynamics, or additional orces related to themomentum rom moving water, aect the magnitudeo a reverse fow and the transient nature o a fow de-mand. Pressure reversals at booster pump inlets andcirculator pump inlets may cause other hydrodynamicissues. These pressure eects are superimposed on hy-drostatic pressures. Nonetheless, impending reversalsgenerally are aected by hydrostatics only.

Cross-ConnectionControl9

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As an example, consider a 100-oot (30.5-m) tallwater supply riser pipe with 20 pounds per squareinch gauge (psig) (138 kPa) at its top. From Equation9-1, the pressure at the base o the riser will be 63.3psig (436 kPa). I an event causes a 30-psig (207-kPa)pressure loss, the pressure at the top xture will be-10 psig (-69 kPa gauge), or 4.7 pounds per squareinch absolute (psia) (32 kPa absolute). This vacuumwill remain in the piping until any aucet, fush valve,or other valve is opened on the riser.

CAUSES OF REVERSE FLOW Cross-connection control methods must be appliedbetween varying water supplies to prevent pollu-tion or a contaminant rom inadvertently entering the potable water supply. A general water supply isrepresented in Figure 9-2. Although it shows onlyour endpoints, you can expand it to any number o endpoints with any arrangement o pipes o dierentelevations and lengths. Hence, the network o pipesmay represent a small network, such as a residence,

or it may represent a large network, such as a building complex or a major city.

At each endpoint in a plumbing water supply,any o ve general details, such as shown in Figure9-3, may be connected. Elevation is represented bythe vertical lines. For illustration purposes, no CCCis included. An example o Figure 9-3(a) is a waterstorage tank with an open or vented top, such as a city water tower. Figure 9-3(b) could be a pressurevessel such as a boiler, Figure 9-3(c) a plumbing basin,Figure 9-3(d) a hose immersed in a plumbing basinor a supply to a water closet with a fushometer, andFigure 9-3(e) a re suppression system, a hydronicsystem, or a connection point or process piping oror a building’s water distribution in contrast to thestreet distribution.

I you include a pump anywhere in a network,an elevated reservoir can illustrate the eect o thepump. The pump’s discharge head is equivalent to thesurace elevation level o the reservoir relative to thepiping system discharge level.


Figure 9-1 Hydrostatics Showing Reduced AbsolutePressure in a Siphon

Figure 9-2 Pipe Network With Four Endpoints

Figure 9-3 Five Typical Plumbing Details Without Cross-Connection Control

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Chapter 9 — Cross-Connection Control 161

All discussions o CCC include identication o back-pressure and back-siphonage. Back-pressureis the pressure at a point in a water supply systemthat exists i the normal water supply is cut o oreliminated. Back-siphonage is an unintended siphonsituation in a water supply with the source reservoirbeing a xture or other source with an unknown levelo contamination. A siphon can be dened as a benttube ull o water between two reservoirs under atmo-spheric pressure, causing fow in the reservoirs despitethe barrier between them.

For example, the maximum back-pressure at thebase o the riser in Figure 9-3(a), or a reservoir otherthan the normal water supply, occurs i the tank shownis lled to its rim or overfow outlet. In Figure 9-3(d),fow rom the basin may occur i the water supply iscut o or eliminated and i the water elevation is nearor above the pipe outlet. This reverse fow, or siphonaction, is caused by atmospheric pressure against theree surace o the water in the basin.

In a network, when the law o hydrostatics isgenerally applied to the reservoir with the highestelevation, the network’s pressure distribution is

identiable, and the direction o fow can be knownthrough general fuid mechanics. In an ideal case,the presence o that reservoir generally keeps thedirection o fow in a avorable direction. However,the connection o a supply reservoir is vulnerable toany cause or a pressure interruption, and the normalnetwork pressure distribution may be disturbed. Forexample, when a valve anywhere in a general systemisolates a part o the system away rom the supplyreservoir, another part o the isolated section maybecome the water source, such as any xture, equip-ment, or connected system. Reer back to Figure 9-2.I endpoint 2 is the city water supply and endpoint4 is a closed-loop ethylene glycol system on a roo, i the city supply is cut o, the glycol may reely eedinto endpoints 1 and 3.

Other pressure interruptions include broken pipes,broken outlets, air lock, pressure caused by thermalenergy sources, malunctioning pumps, malunction-ing pressure-reducing valves, and uncommon water

discharges such as a major reghting event.Because it cannot be predicted where a valve may

close or where another type o pressure interruptionmay occur, each water connection point becomesa potential point or reverse fow. Thus, everyxture, every connected piece o equipment, andevery connected non-plumbing system becomesa point o reverse fow. Containers o any liquidthat receive water rom a hose or even a spout o inadequate elevation potentially may fow in a reverse direction. Submerged irrigation systemsor yard hydrants with a submerged drain pointpotentially may fow soil contaminants into the

water supply system. Hence, the saety o a watersupply distribution depends on eective control ateach connection point. The saety is not ensured i the eectiveness o one point is unknown despitecontrols at all other points.

Further, control methods today do not detector remove the presence o contaminants. A con-trol device added to hot water piping supplying a laboratory will not be eective i the circulationreturn brings contaminated hot water out o thelaboratory.

A manually closed water supply valve is notconsidered a cross-connection control, even i

the valve is bubble-tight and well supervised.Ordinary check valves also are not considereda cross-connection control. The history o suchgood intentions or equipment connections orwater ll into processing operations has notbeen suciently eective as compared to cross-connection control.

In addition, as a measure o containment, a control device in the water service is a primarycandidate to isolate a hazard within a building.

Table 9-1 Plumbing System Hazards

Direct Connections Potential Submerged Inlets

Air-conditioning, air washerAir-conditioning, chilled waterAir-conditioning, condenser waterAir lineAspirator, laboratoryAspirator, medicalAspirator, herbicide and ertilizer

sprayerAutoclave and sterilizerAuxiliary system, industrialAuxiliary system, surace waterAuxiliary system, unapproved wellsupplyBoiler systemChemical eeder, pot typeChlorinatorCoee urnCooling systemDishwasherFire standpipeFire sprinkler systemFountain, ornamental

Hydraulic equipmentLaboratory equipmentLubrication, pump bearingsPhotostat equipmentPlumber’s riend, pneumaticPump, pneumatic ejectorPump, prime linePump, water-operated ejectorSewer, sanitarySewer, stormSwimming pool or spa equipment

Baptismal ontBathtubBedpan washer, fushing rimBidetBrine tankCooling towerCuspidor

Drinking ountainFloor drain, fushing rimGarbage can washerIce makerLaboratory sink, serrated nozzleLaundry machineLavatoryLawn sprinkler systemPhoto laboratory sinkSewer fushing manholeSlop sink, fushing rimSlop sink, threaded supplySteam tableUrinal, siphon jet blowoutVegetable peeler

Water closet, fush tank, ball cockWater closet, fush valve, siphon jet

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StandardDevice orMethod

Type oProtection

aHazard

Installation Dimensionsand Position

PressureCondition

bComments Use

ANSI A 112.2.1 Air Gap BS and BP High Twice eective opening;not less than 1 inch abovefood rim level

C Lavatory, sink or bathtubspouts, Residentialdishwasher (ASSE 1006)and clothes washers (ASSE1007)

ASSE 1001 Pipe-appliedvacuum breaker BS Low 6 inches above highestoutlet; vertical position only I Goosenecks and appliancesnot subject to backpressure or continuouspressure

ASSE 1011 Hose bibbvacuum breaker

BS Low Locked on hose bibbthreads; at least 6 inchesabove grade

I Freeze-resistanttype required

Hose bibbs, hydrants, andsillcocks

ASSE 1012c

Dual-checkvalve withatmosphericvent

BS and BP Low tomoderate

Any position; drain pipedto foor

C Air gap requiredon vent outlet;vent piped tosuitable drain

Residential boilers, spas,hot tubs, and swimmingpool eedlines, sterilizers;ood processing equipment;photo lab equipment;hospital equipment;commercial dishwashers;water-cooled HVAC;

landscape hose bibb;washdown racks; makeupwater to heat pumps

ASSE 1013 Reduced-pressure zonebackfowpreventer

BS and BP High Inside building: 18–48inches (centerline to foor);outside building: 18–24inches (centerline to foor);horizontal only

C Testing annually(minimum);Overhaulve years(minimum); drain

Chemical tanks; submergedcoils; treatment plants;solar systems; chilledwater; heat exchangers;cooling towers; lawnirrigation (Type II); hospitalequipment; commercialboilers, swimming pools,and spas; re sprinkler(high hazard as determinedby commission)

ASSE 1015 Dual-checkvalve assembly

BS and BP Low Inside and outside building:18–24 inches (centerlineto foor); horizontal only;60 inches required abovedevice or testing

C Testing annually(minimum);overhaul veyears (minimum)

Fire sprinkler systems(Type II low hazard);washdown racks; largepressure cookers andsteamers

ASSE 1020 Pressure-typevacuum breaker

BS High 12–60 inches abovehighest outlet; vertical only


Degreasers; laboratories;photo tanks; Type I lawnsprinkler systems andswimming pools (must belocated outdoors)

ASSE 1024c

Dual-checkvalve

BS and BP Low Any position C Fire sprinkler systems(Type I building); outsidedrinking ountains;automatic grease recoverydevice

ASSE 1035 Atmospheric BS Low 6 inches above food level

per manuacturer

I/C Chemical aucets; ice

makers; dental chairs;miscellaneous aucetapplications; sot drink,coee, and other beveragedispensers; hose sprayson aucets not meetingstandards

ASSE 1056 Spill-resistantindoor vacuumbreaker

BS High 12–60 inches abovehighest outlet; vertical only


Degreasers; laboratories;photo tanks; Type I lawnsprinkler systems andswimming pools (must belocated outdoors)

aBS = Back-siphonage; BP = Back-pressure

bI = Intermittent; C = Continuous

cA tab shall be axed to all ASSE 1012 and 1024 devices indicating installation date and the ollowing statement: “FOR OPTIMUM PERFORMANCE AND SAFETY, IT IS RECOMMENDED THAT THISDEVICE BE REPLACED EVERY FIVE (5) YEARS.”

Table 9-2 Application o Cross-Connection Control Devices

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• ASSE 1006: Perormance Requirements or Residential Use Dishwashers

• ASSE 1007: Perormance Requirements or Home Laundry Equipment

Barometric Loop

The design o a barometric loop requires part o theupstream supply pipe to be adequately above the re-ceiving basin. The minimum height is derived romEquation 9-1. For an atmospheric pressure o 31 inch-es (788 mm) o mercury, h = 35.1 eet (10.8 m). Thetechnique, shown in Figure 9-4, is eective becausethe room’s atmospheric pressure is not sucient to

push a column o water up that much elevation. Active TechniquesMechanisms in an active control device prevent re-verse fow either by allowing fow in one direction onlyor by opening the pipe to atmospheric pressure. Theormer generally is categorized as a back-pressurebackfow preventer, which typically utilizes a disc thatlits rom a seat to maintain normal fow. The latteris generally a vacuum breaker, which has greaterapplication restrictions. A device o either broadcategory uses a specially designed, abricated, tested,and certied assembly. For high hazard applications,the assembly oten includes supply and dischargevalves and testing ports. For various applications,Tables 9-3 and 9-4 list several back-pressure backfowpreventer standards and vacuum breaker standardsrespectively.

Examples o locating back-pressure backlowpreventers that are required or eective cross-con-nection control in Figure 9-3(a), (b), and (e) are shownwith a small square in corresponding applications inFigure 9-5(a), (b), and (e). The hydrostatic pressureo the water downstream o the backfow preventer

Table 9-3 Types o Back-Pressure Backfow PreventerDescription Alternate Description Application ASSE Reerence

Dual-check valve with atmospheric vent Intermediate atmospheric Low hazard 1012

Reduced-pressure principle Reduced-pressure zone High hazard 1013

Dual-check valve with atmospheric vent Intermediate atmospheric Carbonated beverage 1022

Reduced-pressure principle detector assembly* Reduced-pressure zone Fire protection 1047

* In most jurisdictions, the double check valve detector is approved.

Table 9-4 Types o Vacuum BreakersDescription Application ASSE Reerence

Pipe applied Mop basin, indoor hose 1001

Hose connection Indoor hose 1011

Hose connection Handheld shower 1014

Frost resistant Wall hydrant 1019

Pressure-type Tur irrigation 1020

Pressure fush Flushometer 1037

Spill resistant High hazard 1056

Figure 9-5 Five Typical Plumbing Details With Cross-Connection Control

Figure 9-4 Siphon Suciently High to Create aBarometric Loop


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Figure 9-6 Example o Cross-Connection Controls in aBuilding

must be resisted by the active control in the evento water supply pressure ailure. Figure 9-6 showsseveral backfow preventers as isolation at xturesand equipment as well as hazard containment at thewater service.

Types o back-pressure backlow preventersinclude double-check valve assemblies, reduced-pres-sure principle backfow preventers, and dual checkswith atmospheric vents. Types o vacuum breakersinclude atmospheric, pressure, spill-resistant, hose

connection, and fush valve.

Double Check Valve Assembly

This control, with its two check valves, supplyvalves, and testing ports, can eectively isolatea water supply rom a low hazard system suchas a re standpipe and sprinkler system. Thedesign includes springs and resilient seats (seeFigure 9-7). Some large models, called detec-tor assemblies, include small bypass systemso equivalent components and a meter, whichmonitors small water usages associated withquarterly testing o a re sprinkler system.

A small version o a double check orcontainment CCC has been developed orresidential water services.

Reduced-Pressure Principle Backow Preventer

This control is similar to the double checkvalve but employs added eatures to isolatea water supply rom a high hazard. An alter-nate name is reduced-pressure zone backfowpreventer, or RPZ. A heavier spring is usedon the upstream check valve, which causesa pronounced pressure drop or all portionso the piping system downstream. A relie port between the check valves opens to theatmosphere and is controlled by a diaphragm.

Each side o the diaphragm is ported to eachside o the upstream check valve (see Figure9-8). A rated spring is placed on one side o the diaphragm. An articial zone o reducedpressure across the check valve is created bytorsion on the check valve spring. Pressureon the inlet side o the device is intended toremain a minimum o 2 psi (13.8 kPa) higherthan the pressure in the reduced-pressurezone. I the pressure in the zone increases towithin 2 psi (13.8 kPa) o the supply pressure,the relie valve will open to the atmosphereto ensure that the dierential is maintained.

This circumstance occurs i the downstreamequipment or piping has excessive pressure.It also occurs i the upstream check valve ailsor i the water supply is lost.

These devices are designed to be in-line, testable, and maintainable. They areequipped with test cocks and inlet and outletshuto valves to acilitate testing and main-tenance and an air gap at the relie port. Thedevice should be installed in an accessibleFigure 9-7 Double Check Valve

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location and orientation to allow or testing andmaintenance. Like the double check valve detectorassembly, this backfow preventer is available as a detector assembly.

Dual Check with Atmospheric Vent

This control is similar to the reduced-pressure prin-ciple type, but the diaphragm design is replaced by

a piston combined with the downstream check valve(see Figure 9-9). It eectively isolates a water sup-ply rom a low hazard such as beverage machinesand equipment with nontoxic additives. The unc-tion o its design is not suciently precise or highhazards. The relie port is generally hard-piped withits air gap located remotely at a similar or lowerelevation.

A vacuum breaker is o a similar design, but it iselevation-sensitive or eective isolation o a hazard.Permitted maximum back-pressure ranges rom 4.3psig (29.7 kPa) to zero depending on the type.

Atmospheric Vacuum Breaker

This control, with a single moving disc, can eectivelyisolate a water supply rom a low hazard system. Without this control in Figure 9-3(d), a reverse fowwill occur rom the basin i the fuid level in the basinis near or above the pipe discharge, the water supplypressure is lost, and the highest elevation o the pip-ing above the fuid level is less than that needed or a barometric loop. The reverse fow, reerred to as back-siphonage, is caused by atmospheric pressure againstthe surace o the fuid, which pushes the fuid up thenormal discharge pipe and down into the water sup-ply. Static pressure or any point in the basin and in

the pipe, ater discounting pipe riction, is a unctiononly o elevation. Above the fuid surace elevation,

this pressure is less than atmospheric; that is, it is a vacuum. The reverse fow thereore is stopped i thevacuum is relieved by opening the pipe to atmosphere.Figure 9-10 illustrates the vent port and the disc thatcloses under normal pressure.

Pressure-Type Vacuum Breaker

This control is similar to the atmospheric vacuum

breaker but employs one or two independent spring-loaded check valves, supply valves, and testing ports.It is used to isolate a water supply rom a high hazardsystem.

Spill-Resistant Vacuum Breaker

This control is similar to the pressure-type vacuumbreaker, but it employs a diaphragm joined to thevacuum breaker disc. It is used to isolate a watersupply rom a high hazard system and to eliminatesplashing rom the vent port.

Hose Connection Vacuum Breaker

This control is similar to the atmospheric vacuum

breaker in unction but varies in design and applica-tion. The disc is more elastic, has a pair o sliced cutsin the center, and deorms with the presence o watersupply pressure to allow the water to pass through thecuts (see Figure 9-11). The deormation also blocksthe vent port. A more advanced orm employs twodiscs, and the design allows perormance testing.

Flush Valve Vacuum Breaker

This control is similar to the hose connection vacuumbreaker in unction but varies somewhat in the designo the elastic part.

Hbrid Technique

A hybrid o passive and active controls is the breaktank. Consisting o a vented tank, an inletpipe with an air gap, and a pump at thedischarge, a break tank provides eectivecontrol or any application ranging roman equipment connection to the waterservice o an entire building. Its initial andoperating costs are obviously higher thanthose o other controls.

INSTALLATION All cross-connection controls requirespace, and the active controls require

service access. In addition, an air gapcannot be conned to a sealed space orto a subgrade location, and it requiresperiodic access or inspection. A vacuumbreaker may ail to open i it is placedin a ventilation hood or sealed space. A backfow preventer is limited to certainorientations.

I a water supply cannot be interruptedor the routine testing o a control device,Figure 9-8 Reduced-Pressure Principle Backfow

Preventer


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Figure 9-11 Hose Connection Vacuum Breaker

Figure 9-9 Dual-Check with Atmospheric Vent

Figure 9-10 Atmospheric Vacuum Breaker

a pair o such devices is recommended. Some manu-acturers have reduced the laying length o backfowpreventers in their designs. Backfow preventers withrelie ports cannot be placed in a subgrade structurethat is subject to fooding because the air gap couldpotentially be submerged. Thus, backfow preven-ters or water services are located in buildings andabovegrade outdoors. Where required or climaticreasons, heated enclosures can be provided. Features

include an adequate opening or the relie port fowand large access provisions.

Manuacturers o reduced-pressure principlebackfow preventers recommend an inline strainerupstream o the backfow preventer and a drain valvepermanently mounted at the strainer’s upstreamside. Periodic fushing o the screen and upstreampiping should include brisk opening and closing to jarpotential debris and fush it away beore it can enterthe backfow preventer. Manuacturers also have in-corporated fow sensors and alarm devices that canprovide warnings o malunctions.

I special tools are required to service and maintainan active control device, the specication should re-quire the tools to be urnished with and permanentlysecured to the device.

Installation ShortallsThough relatively simple, air gaps have some shortalls.Namely, the structure o the outlet must be sucientlyrobust to withstand abuse while maintaining the gap.

The general openings around the air gap must not becovered. The rim o the basin must be wide enoughto capture attendant splashing that occurs rom astdischarges. The nature o the rim must be adequatelyrecognized so the gap is measured rom a valid eleva-tion. That is, i the top edge o the basin is not practical,the invert o a side outlet may be regarded as the validelevation. Similarly, the rim o a standpipe inside thebasin may be regarded as the valid elevation. In eitherdesign, the overfow and downstream piping must beevaluated to consider i it will handle the greatest inletfow likely to occur. A common design o potable waterlling a tank through an air gap that is below the tankrim, but where the tank has an overfow standpipe, isthe design ound in water closet tanks. The generousstandpipe empties into the closet bowl so the air gapis never compromised.

Vacuum breakers also have several shortalls. A valve downstream o the vacuum breaker will sendshock waves through the vacuum breaker every timethe valve closes. This causes the disc to drop during the percussion o the shock wave, which momentarilyopens the vent port, allowing a minute amount o waterto escape. The design o vacuum breakers is sensitiveto the elevation o the breaker relative to the elevation

o the water in the basin. A vacuum breaker mountedtoo low may allow back-siphonage because the vacuumis too low or the disc to respond.

With back-pressure backfow preventers, a foordrain or indirect waste receptor is required, whichcomplicates its installation, especially in renovationwork and or water services. An air gap is requiredor the relie port, which has its own set o shortalls.Lastly, the public’s perception o backfow preventers ismuddled by conusing regulations, misunderstandings

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when they ail, and modications o the air gap whennuisance splashing occurs.

For the reduced-pressure principle backfow preven-ter, its testing disrupts the water service. In addition,it requires space or its large size and its accessibilityrequirement. Another hazard exists with this backfowpreventer in re protection supplies because o the ad-ditional pressure drop in the water supply in contrastwith a single check valve. Reduced-pressure principlebackfow preventers also represent a signicant foodhazard during low-fow conditions i the upstreamcheck has a slight leak because the pressure will equal-ize, which opens the relie to the supply pressure.

The vent openings o both active devices and airgaps are prone to splashing and causing wet foors.Each drain with its rim above the foor should be ac-companied by a nearby foor drain or indirect wastedrain.

In addition to noise, energy consumption, andmaintenance, break tanks allow the opportunity or

microbial growth. Chlorine eventually dissipates inthe open air above the water level i consumptionis modest. Lastly, an obstructed overfow pipe mayrender the air gap ineective.

Existing water distribution systems and con-nection points commonly have installation aults.These range rom submerged inlets in xtures ortanks, direct connections to equipment or the sani-tary drain system, tape wrapped around air gaps tolimit splashing, and the discharge o relie pipes be-low foor drain rims. In retrotting existing build-ings with backfow prevention on the water services,complete knowledge o the building’s water uses is

essential. This must be conrmed by a eld surveyand reviewed by the building’s operating person-nel. Usually the existing building conditions presenteven greater challenge in providing backfow pre-vention. Existing buildings may require additional,more costly, equipment to accommodate the installa-tion o the backfow prevention equipment.

With new construction, the installation o backfowprevention could result in increased drainage costs orRPZ relies and the associated water pumping. Whenproviding RPZ-type devices or new constructioninside the building, the ideal location is abovegradeon the main foor to minimize the possibility o sub-

merging the relie port. However, on many buildings,this is a dicult location to obtain since the mainfoor is prime space reserved or building operationalunctions. I the RPZ must be installed in the spacebelowgrade, drainage provisions must be consideredand designed to accommodate the maximum possibledischarge fow. In small basements, the fooding po-tential is greater and, thereore, must be evaluatedmore careully. In all basements, drainage provisions

must include emergency power or pumping as wellas constantly monitored food alarms.

QUALITy CONTROL

Product Standards and ListingsFor quality assurance in cross-connection control,standard design and device testing have been part o

the manuacturing and sale o active control devices.In addition, the product is urnished with an identiy-ing label o the standard, and the model number isurnished in a list that is published by a recognizedagency.

Field Testing Frequent testing, such as upon installation, uponrepairs, and annually, provides additional qualityassurance.

Tests or a pressure-type vacuum breaker and a spill-resistant vacuum breaker include observing theopening o the air-inlet disc and veriying the check

valve(s). The air-inlet disc shall open at a gauge read-ing o not less than 1 psig (6.9 kPa) measured witha pressure gauge mounted on the vacuum breakerbody. To test the check valve, open the downstreampiping and mount a sight glass, open to atmosphereat its top, upstream o the check valve and purge it o air. Then open the supply valve and close it when 42inches (1,070 mm) o water are in the sight glass. Thewater level in the sight glass o a properly unctioning device will drop as water escapes past the check valve,but it will not drop below 28 inches (710 mm) aboveits connection point.

Tests or a reduced-pressure principle backfow

preventer include verication o each check valve,the downstream shuto valve, and operation o therelie valve. On a properly unctioning device withall air purged, upstream pressure is deliberatelyapplied downstream o the second check valve, andthe pressure dierential across it is held when thedownstream shuto is both open and closed. In thenext test, a pressure dierential is observed across theupstream check valve. A deect in the check valve seatwill prevent a dierential rom being held. In the lasttest, a bypass on the test instrument is opened slowlyto begin equalizing the pressure across this checkvalve, and the pressure dierential, or a properly

unctioning device, is noted as not being less than 3psi (20.7 kPa) when fow is rst observed rom therelie port.

Regulator Requirements Authorities having jurisdiction create and enorcelegally binding regulations regarding the applica-tions o cross-connection control, the standards andlistings or passive and active controls, and the typesand requencies o eld testing. The authority mayrequire evidence o eld testing by keeping an instal-


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lation record o each testable device and all tests o the device.

Authorities having jurisdiction typically are wa-ter purveyors, plumbing regulation ocials, healthdepartment ocials, or various qualied agents incontract with government regulators. Regulationso cross-connection control are generally part o a plumbing code, but they may be published by a localhealth department or as the requirements o a mu-nicipal water service connection.

GLOSSARy

Absolute pressure The sum o the indicatedgauge pressure and the atmospheric local pressure.Hence, gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressureequals absolute pressure.

Air gap A separation between the ree-fowing discharge end o a water pipe or aucet and thefood level rim o a plumbing xture, tank, or anyother reservoir open to the atmosphere. Generally,to be acceptable, the vertical separation betweenthe discharge end o the pipe and the upper rimo the receptacle should be at least twice the di-ameter o the pipe, and the separation must be a minimum o 1 inch (25.4 mm).

Air gap, critical The air gap or impending re-verse fow under laboratory conditions with stillwater, with the water valve ully open and one-hal atmospheric pressure within the supply pipe.

Air gap, minimum required The critical air gapwith an additional amount. It is selected based onthe eective opening and the distance o the outletrom a nearby wall.

Approved Accepted by the authority having juris-diction as meeting an applicable specication stat-ed or cited in the regulations or as suitable or theproposed use.

Atmospheric pressure Equal to 14.7 psig (101kPa) at sea level.

Atmospheric vacuum breaker A device thatcontains a moving foat check and an internal airpassage. Air is allowed to enter the passage whengauge pressure is zero or less. The device should

not be installed with shuto valves downstream.The device typically is applied to protect againstlow hazard back-siphonage.

Auxiliary water supply Any water supply on oravailable to the premises other than the purvey-or’s approved public potable water supply.

Backow An unwanted fow reversal.

Backow preventer A device that prevents back-fow. The device should comply with one or more

recognized national standards, such as those o ASSE, AWWA, or the University o Southern Cali-ornia Foundation or Cross-Connection Controland Hydraulic Research, and with the require-ments o the local regulatory agency.

Back-pressure Backfow caused by pressure thatexceeds the incoming water supply pressure.

Back-siphonage A type o backfow that occurswhen the pressure in the water piping alls to lessthan the local atmospheric pressure.

Barometric loop A abricated piping arrangementrising at least 35 eet at its topmost point above thehighest xture it supplies. It is utilized in watersupply systems to protect against back-siphonage.

Containment A means o cross-connection con-trol that requires the installation o a back-pres-sure backfow preventer in the water service.

Contaminant A substance that impairs the quality

o the water to a degree that it creates a serioushealth hazard to the public, leading to poisoning or to the spread o disease.

Cross-connection A connection or potential con-nection that unintentionally joins two separatepiping systems, one containing potable water andthe other containing pollution or a contaminant.

Cross-connection control Active or passive con-trols that automatically prevent backfow. Suchcontrols include active and passive devices, stan-dardized designs, testing, labeling, and requentsite surveys and eld testing o mechanical de-

vices.Cross-connection control program A program

consisting o both containment and point-o-usexture or equipment isolation. The containmentprogram requires a control installed at the pointwhere water leaves the water purveyor’s systemand enters the consumer side o the water meter. The isolation program requires an ongoing sur-vey to ensure that there have been no alterations,changes, or additions to the system that may havecreated or recreated a hazardous condition. Isola-tion protects occupants as well as the public.

Double check valve assembly A device that con-sists o two independently acting spring-loadedcheck valves. They typically are supplied with testcocks and shuto valves on the inlet and outletto acilitate testing and maintenance. The deviceprotects against both back-pressure and back-si-phonage; however, it should be installed only orlow hazard applications.

Double check valve with intermediate atmo-

spheric vent A device having two spring-loaded

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check valves separated by an atmospheric ventchamber.

Dual check valve assembly An assembly o two in-dependently operating spring-loaded check valveswith tightly closing shuto valves on each side o the check valves, plus properly located test cocksor the testing o each check valve.

Eective opening The diameter or equivalent di-ameter o the least cross-sectional area o a aucetor similar point at a water discharge through anair gap. For aucets, it is usually the diameter o the aucet valve seat.

Fixture isolation A method o cross-connectioncontrol in which a backfow preventer is located tocorrect a cross-connection at a xture location orequipment location. Such isolation may be in addi-tion to containment.

Flood level rim The elevation at which wateroverfows rom its receptacle or basin.

Flushometer valve A mechanism energized bywater pressure that allows a measured volume o water or the purpose o fushing a xture.

Free water surace A water surace in which thepressure against it is equal to the local atmospher-ic pressure.

Hose bibb vacuum breaker A device that is per-manently attached to a hose bibb and acts as anatmospheric vacuum breaker.

Indirect waste pipe A drainpipe that fows intoa drain system via an air gap above a receptacle,

interceptor, vented trap, or vented and trappedxture.

Joint responsibility The responsibility sharedby the purveyor o water and the building owneror ensuring and maintaining the saety o the po-table water. The purveyor is responsible or pro-tecting their water supply rom hazards that origi-nate rom a building. The owner is responsible orensuring that the building’s system complies withthe plumbing code or, i no code exists, within rea-sonable industry standards. The owner is also re-sponsible or the ongoing testing and maintenance

o backfow devices that are required to protect thepotable water supply.

Negligent act An act that results rom a ailureto exercise reasonable care to prevent oreseeablebackfow incidents rom occurring or when anoth-er problem is created when correcting a potentialproblem. For example, i a closed system is createdby requiring a containment device without consid-ering how such a device will alter the hydrodynam-ics within the system, and this causes the rupture

o a vessel such as a water heater, this could beconsidered negligent.

Plumbing code A legal minimum requirement orthe sae installation, maintenance, and repair o a plumbing system, including the water supply sys-tem. Where no code exists, good plumbing practiceshould be applied by ollowing reasonable industry

standards. Pollutant A oreign substance that, i permitted

to get into the public water system, will degradethe water’s quality so as to constitute a moderatehazard or to impair the useulness or quality o the water to a degree that is not an actual hazardto public health but adversely and unreasonablyaects the water or domestic use.

Potable water Water that is urnished by the wa-ter purveyor with an implied warranty that it issae to drink. The public is allowed to make the as-sumption that it is sae to drink by the water pur-

veyor or regulatory agency having jurisdiction. Pressure-type vacuum breaker A device that

contains two independently operating valves, a spring-loaded check valve, and a spring-loadedair inlet valve. The device has test cocks or inlinetesting and two tightly sealing shuto valves to a-cilitate maintenance and testing. It is used only toprotect against back-siphonage.

Proessional An individual who, because o hisor her training and experience, is held to a higherstandard than an untrained person. The proes-sional is exposed to liability or their actions or

inaction. Reasonable care Working to standards that are

known and accepted by the industry and applying those standards in a practical way to prevent injury or harm via predictable and oreseeable cir-cumstances.

Reduced-pressure principle backow preven-ter A device consisting o two separate and inde-pendently acting spring-loaded check valves, with a dierential pressure-relie valve situated betweenthe check valves. Since water always fows roma zone o high pressure to a zone o low pressure,

this device is designed to maintain a higher pres-sure on the supply side o the backfow preventerthan is ound downstream o the rst check valve.This ensures the prevention o backfow. Thisdevice provides eective high hazard protectionagainst both back-pressure and back-siphonage.

Residential dual check An assembly o twospring-loaded, independently operating checkvalves without tightly closing shuto valves andtest cocks. Generally, it is employed immediately


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downstream o a residential water meter to act asa containment device.

Special tool A tool peculiar to a specic deviceand necessary or the service and maintenance o that device.

Spill-resistant vacuum breaker A device con-taining one or two independently operated spring-

loaded check valves and an independently oper-ated spring-loaded air inlet valve mounted on a diaphragm that is located on the discharge side o the check(s). The device includes tightly closing shuto valves on each side o the check valves andproperly located test cocks or testing.

Survey A eld inspection within and around a building, by a qualied proessional, to identiy andreport cross-connections. Qualication o a proes-sional, whether an engineer or licensed plumber,

includes evidence o completion o an instructionalcourse in cross-connection surveying.

Vacuum A pressure less than the local atmospher-ic pressure.

Vacuum breaker A device that prevents back-siphonage by allowing sucient air to enter thewater system.

Water service entrance That point in the owner’swater system beyond the sanitary control o thewater district, generally considered to be the out-let end o the water meter and always beore anyunprotected branch.

Water supply system A system o service anddistribution piping, valves, and appurtenances tosupply water in a building and its vicinity.

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Many types o possible pathogenic organ-isms can be ound in source water. Theseinclude dissolved gases, suspended mat-ter, undesirable minerals, pollutants, andorganic matter. These substances can beseparated into two general categories:

chemical and biological. They generallyrequire dierent methods o remediation.No single ltration or treatment processsatises all water-conditioning require-ments.

Surace water may contain more o these contaminants than groundwater,but groundwater, while likely to containless pathogens than surace water, maycontain dissolved minerals and have un-desirable tastes and odors. Water providedby public and private utilities is regarded

to be potable, or adequately pure orhuman consumption so long as it meetsthe standards o the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency’s Sae Drinking Water Act and the local health ocial. However,such water still might contain some levelso pathogens and other undesirable com-ponents. Even i the water quality wouldnot cause a specic health threat to thegeneral public, it may not be suitable orbuildings such as hospitals and nursing homes that house populations that may bevulnerable. Moreover, it may not be pure

enough or certain industrial, medical, orscientic purposes.

Impure water damages piping andequipment by scoring, scaling, and cor-roding. Under certain conditions, watercontaining particles in suspension erodesthe piping and scores moving parts. Watercontaining dissolved acidic chemicals insucient quantities dissolves the metalsuraces with which it comes in contact.Pitted pipe and tank walls are common

WaterTreatment10

Table 10-1 Chemical Names, Common Names, and Formulas

Chemical Name Common Name FormulaBicarbonate (ion) — HCO3

–

Calcium (metal) — Ca2+

Calcium bicarbonate — Ca(HCO3)2

Calcium carbonate Chalk, limestone, marble CaCO3

Calcium hypochlorite Bleaching powder, chloride o lime Ca(ClO)2

Chlorine (gas) — Cl2Calcium sulate — CaSO4

Calcium sulate Plaster o paris CaSO4.½H2O

Calcium sulate Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O

Carbon Graphite C

Carbonate (ion) — CO32-

Carbon dioxide — CO2

Ferric oxide Burat ochre Fe2O3

Ferruous carbonate — FeCO3

Ferrous oxide — FeO

Hydrochloric acid Muriatic acid HCl

Hydrogen (ion) — H+

Hydrogen (gas) — H2

Hydrogen sulde — H2S

Iron (erric ion) — Fe3+

Iron (errous ion) — Fe2+

Magnesium bicarbonate — Mg(HCO3)2

Magnesium carbonate Magnesite MgCO3

Magnesium oxide Magnesia MgO

Magnesium sulate — MgSO4

Magnesium sulate Epsom salt MgSO4.7H2O

Manganese (metal) — Mn

Methane Marsh gas CH4

Nitrogen (gas) — N2

Oxygen (gas) — O2

Potassium (metal) — K

Potassium permanganate Permanganate o potash KMnO4

Sodium (metal) — Na

Sodium bicarbonate Baking soda, bicarbonate o soda NaHCO3

Sodium carbonate Soda ash Na2CO3

Sodium carbonate Sal soda Na2CO3.10H2O

Sodium chloride Salt NaCl

Sodium hydroxide Caustic soda, lye NaOH

Sodium sulate Glauber’s salt Na2SO4.10H2O

Sulate (ion) — SO42–

Suluric acid Oil o vitrol H2SO4

Water — H2O

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maniestations o the phenomenon called corrosion.Scaling occurs when calcium or magnesium com-pounds in the water (in a condition commonly knownas water hardness) become separated rom the waterand adhere to the piping and equipment suraces. Thisseparation is usually induced by a rise in temperaturebecause these minerals become less soluble as thetemperature increases. In addition to restricting fow,scaling damages heat-transer suraces by decreasing heat-exchange capabilities. The result o this condi-tion is the overheating o tubes, ollowed by ailuresand equipment damage.

Changing the chemical composition o the waterby means o mechanical devices (lters, soteners,demineralizers, deionizers, and reverse osmosis) iscalled external treatment because such treatment isoutside the equipment into which the water fows.Neutralizing the objectionable constituents by adding chemicals to the water as it enters the equipment isreerred to as internal treatment. Economic consid-

erations usually govern the choice between the twomethods. Sometimes it is necessary to apply morethan one technology. For instance, a water sotenermay be required to treat domestic water, but a reverseosmosis system may be needed beore the water is sentto HVAC or medical equipment. Another example isthe need or an iron prelter to remove large iron par-

ticles to protect a reverse osmosis membrane, whichwould be damaged by the iron particles.

For reerence, the chemical compounds commonlyound in water treatment technologies are tabulatedin Table 10-1. Table 10-2 identies solutions to listedimpurities and constituents ound in water.

BASIC WATER TyPESFollowing are the basic types o water. Keep in mindthat these terms oten have multiple meanings de-pending on the context or the discipline being used.

Raw WaterRaw water, or natural water, is ound in the environ-ment. Natural water is rainwater, groundwater, wellwater, surace water, or water in ponds, lakes, streams,etc. The composition o raw water varies. Oten rawwater contains signicant contaminants in dissolvedorm such as particles, ions, and organisms.

Potable Water

Potable water as dened in the International Plumb-ing Code is water ree rom impurities present inamounts sucient to cause disease or harmul physi-ological eects and conorming to the bacteriologicaland chemical quality requirements o the publichealth authority having jurisdiction. The U.S. EPA Sae Drinking Water Act denes the requirementsor water to be classied as potable. Potable water is

Table 10-2 Water Treatment—Impurities and Constituents, Possible Eects and Suggested Treatments

Possible Eectsa

Treatment

S c a l e

C o r r o s i o n

S l u d g e

F o a m i n

P r i m i n g

E m b r i t l e m e n t

N o n e ( I n e r t )

S e t t i n g , c o a g u l a t i o n ,

f l t r a t i o n , e v a p o r a t i o n

S e t t i n g , c o a g u l a t i o n ,

f l t r a t i o n , e v a p o r a t i o n , i o n

e x c h a n g e

S o t e n i n g b y c h e m i c a l s ,

i o n e x c h a n g e m a t e r i a l s ,

e v a p o r a t o r s

S o t e n i n g b y h e a t e r s ,

c h e m i c a l s , i o n e x c h a n g e

m a t e r i a l s , e v a p o r a t i o r s

N e u t r a l i z i n g , o l l o w e d b y

s o t e n i n g o r e v a p o r a t i o

n

E v a p o r a t i o n a n d

d e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n b y i o n

-

e x c h a n g e m a t e r i a l

D e - a e r a t i o n

C o a g u l a t i o n , f l t r a t i o n ,

e v a p o r a t i o n

C o n s t i t u e n t s

Suspended solids X X X X X

Silica — SiO2 X X

Calcium carbonate — CaCO3 X X

Calcium bicarbonate — Ca(HCO3)2 X X

Calcium Sulate — CaSO4 X X X

Calcium chloride — CaCl2 X X

Magnesium carbonate — MgCO3 X X

Magnesium bicarbonate — Mg(HCO3)2 X X

Magnesium chloride — MgCl2 X X X

Free acids — HCI, H2SO4 X X

Sodium chloride — NaCl X X

Sodium carbonate — Na2CO3 X X X X

Sodium bicarbonate — NaHCO3 X X X X

Carbonic acid — H2CO3 X X

Oxygen — O2 X X

Grease and oil X X X X X

Organic matter and sewage X X X X X

aThe possibility o the eects will increase proportionately to an increase in the water temperature.


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Chapter 10 — Water Treatment 175

oten ltered, chlorinated, and/or otherwise treatedto meet these standards or drinking water.

Process WastewaterCooling tower water is classied as a process wastewa-ter. Cooling tower water can scale and corrode. Whenlet untreated, cooling tower water can encouragebacteria growth and the subsequent health risks. As

with many process wastewaters, cooling tower wateris monitored and controlled or pH, algae, and totaldissolved solids.

Sot and Hard WaterSot water contains less than 60 parts per million(ppm) o dissolved calcium or magnesium.

Hard water contains dissolved minerals such ascalcium or magnesium in varying levels. As dened bythe U.S. Geological Survey, water containing 61–120ppm o dissolved minerals is considered moderatelyhard, and water containing 121–180 ppm o dissolvedminerals is considered hard. Water containing greater

than 181 ppm o dissolved minerals is considered veryhard. (Note: pH and temperature aect the behavioro dissolved minerals and should be considered in thedesign o systems containing hard water.)

Deionized WaterDeionized water has been stripped o mineral ionssuch as cations rom sodium, iron, calcium, and cop-per as well as anions o chloride and sulate. However,the deionization process does not remove viruses,bacteria, or other organic molecules. Deionized wateris specied in ranges o conductivity.

Distilled Water

Distilled water also meets the requirements o thelocal health department as well as the Sae Drinking Water Act. Distilling water involves removing theimpurities by boiling and collecting the condensing steam into a clean container. Distilled water has manyapplications, and distillation is commonly the processused to provide bottled water or consumption.

Puried WaterPuried water meets the requirements o the localhealth department as well as the Sae Drinking Water Act. It is mechanically processed or laboratory orpotable water use.

Pure water is a relative term used to describe wa-ter mostly ree rom particulate matter and dissolvedgases that may exist in the potable water supply. Purewater is generally required in pharmacies, centralsupply rooms, laboratories, and laboratory glassware-washing acilities. The two basic types o pure waterare high-purity water, which is ree rom minerals,dissolved gases, and most particulate matter, andbiopure water, which is ree rom particulate matter,minerals, bacteria, pyrogens, organic matter, and mostdissolved gases.

Water purity is most easily measured as specicresistance in ohm-centimeters (Ω-cm) or expressed asparts per million o ionized salt (NaCl). The theoreti-cal maximum specic resistance o pure water is 18.3megaohm-centimeters (MΩ-cm) at 25°C, a purity thatis nearly impossible to produce, store, and distribute.It is important to note that the specic resistance o water is indicative only o the mineral content andin no way indicates the level o bacterial, pyrogenic,or organic contamination.

The our basic methods o producing pure waterare distillation, demineralization, reverse osmosis,and ltration. Depending on the type o pure waterrequired, one or more o the methods will be needed.Under certain conditions, a combination o methodsmay be required. These processes are explained indetail later in the chapter.

WATER CONDITIONS ANDRECOMMENDED TREATMENTS

Turbidit Turbidity is caused by suspended insoluble matter,including coarse particles that settle rapidly in stand-ing water. Amounts range rom almost zero in mostgroundwater and some surace supplies to 60,000nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) in muddy,turbulent river water. Turbidity is objectionable orpractically all water uses. The standard maximumor drinking water is 1 NTU (accepted by industry),which indicates quite good quality. Turbidity exceed-ing 1 NTU can cause health concerns.

Generally, i turbidity can be seen easily, it will clog pipes, damage valve seats, and cloud drinking water.For non-process water, i turbidity cannot be seen, itshould present ew or no problems.

Turbidity that is caused by suspended solids in thewater may be removed rom such water by coagula-tion, sedimentation, and/or ltration. In extremecases, where a lter requires requent cleaning dueto excessive turbidity, it is recommended that engi-neers use coagulation and sedimentation upstream o the lter. Such a device can take the orm o a basinthrough which the water can fow at low velocities tolet the turbidity-causing particles settle naturally.

For applications where water demand is high and

space is limited, a mechanical device such as a clarierutilizing a chemical coagulant may be more practical.This device mixes the water with a coagulant (such aserric sulate) and slowly stirs the mixture in a largecircular container. The coarse particles drop to thebottom o the container and are collected in a sludgepit, while the ner particles coagulate and also dropto the bottom o the container. The claried waterthen leaves the device ready or use or urther treat-ment, which may include various levels o ltrationand disinection.

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The water provided by municipalities is usuallylow enough in turbidity and organic constituents topreclude the use o lters, clariers, or chlorinators. As always, however, there are exceptions to the rule. When dealing with health and saety or with theoperating eciency o machinery, engineers alwaysmust consider the occasional exception.

HardnessThe hardness o water is due mainly to the presenceo calcium and magnesium cations. These salts, inorder o their relative average abundance in water,are bicarbonates, sulates, chlorides, and nitrates.They all produce scale.

Calcium salts are about twice as soluble as mag-nesium salts in natural water supplies. The presenceo bicarbonates o calcium and magnesium producesa condition in the water called temporary hardnessbecause these salts can be easily transormed into a calcium or magnesium precipitate plus carbon dioxidegas. The noncarbonic salts (sulates, chlorides, and ni-

trates) constitute permanent hardness conditions.Hardness is most commonly treated by the sodium-

cycle ion exchange process, which exchanges thecalcium and magnesium salts or very soluble sodiumsalts. Only calcium and magnesium (hardness ions) inthe water are aected by the sotening process, whichproduces water that is non-scale orming. I the oxy-gen or carbon dioxide content o the water is relativelyhigh, the water may be considered aggressive.

The carbonic acid may be removed by aerationor degasication, and the remaining acids may beremoved by neutralization, such as by blending hy-drogen and sodium cation exchanger water. Anothermethod o neutralizing the acid in water is by adding alkali. The advantage o the alkali neutralizationmethod is that the cost o the sodium cation exchangesotener is eliminated. However, the engineer maywant to weigh the cost o chemicals against the costo the sodium ion exchange unit.

Aeration and Deaeration As hardness in water is objectionable because it ormsscale, high oxygen and carbon dioxide contents arealso objectionable because they corrode iron, zinc,brass, and several other metals.

Free carbon dioxide (CO2) can be ound in most

natural water supplies. Surace waters have the low-est concentration, although some rivers may containas much as 50 ppm. In groundwater, the CO2 contentvaries rom almost zero to concentrations so high thatthe carbon dioxide bubbles out when the pressure isreleased.

Carbon dioxide also orms when bicarbonates aredestroyed by acids, coagulants, or high temperatures.The presence o CO2 accelerates oxygen corrosion.

Carbon dioxide can be removed rom water by anaeration process. Aeration is simply a mechanicalprocess that mixes the air and the water intimately.It can be done with spray nozzles, cascade aerators,pressure aerators, or orced drat units. When thisaeration process is complete, the water is relativelyree o CO2 gas.

Water with a high oxygen content can be extremelycorrosive at elevated temperatures. Oxygen (O2) canbe removed rom the water by a deaeration process.Oxygen becomes less and less soluble as the watertemperature increases; thus, it is removed easily romthe water by bringing the water to its boiling point.

Pressure and vacuum deaerators are available. When it is necessary to heat the water, as in boilers,steam deaerators are used. Where the water is usedor cooling or other purposes where heating is notdesired, vacuum units may be employed.

With aerators and deaerators in tandem, waterree o CO2 and O2 is produced.

MineralsPure water is never ound in nature. Natural watercontains a series o dissolved inorganic solids, whichare largely mineral salts. These mineral salts are in-troduced into the natural water by a solvent action asthe water passes through (or across) the various lay-ers o the Earth. The types o mineral salts absorbedby natural water depend on the chemical contento the soil through which the natural water passesbeore it reaches the consumer. This may vary romarea to area. Well water diers rom river water, andriver water diers rom lake water. Two consumersseparated by a ew miles may have water supplies o very dissimilar characteristics. The concentrationsand types o minerals in the same water supply evenmay vary with the changing seasons.

Many industries can benet greatly by being sup-plied with high-grade pure water. These industriesare nding that they must treat their natural watersupplies in various ways to achieve this condition.The recommended type o water treatment dependson the chemical content o the water supply and therequirements o the particular industry. High-gradepure water typically results in greater economy o production and better products.

Beore the advent o the demineralization process,the only method used to remove mineral salts romnatural water was distillation. Demineralization has a practical advantage over distillation. The distillationprocess involves removing the natural water rom themineral salts (or the larger mass rom the smallermass). Demineralization is the reverse o distillation:it removes the mineral salts rom the natural water.This renders demineralization the more economicalmethod o puriying natural water in most cases.


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Many industries today are turning to demineraliza-tion as the answer to their water problems.

The stringent quality standards or makeup wateror modern boilers are making demineralizers andreverse osmosis a must or these users. Modern plat-ing practices also require the high-quality water thatdemineralization produces.

CHLORINATIONChlorination o water is most commonly used todestroy organic (living) impurities. Organic impuri-ties all into two categories: pathogenic, which causedisease such as typhoid and cholera, and nonpatho-genic, which cause algae and slime that clog pipes andvalves, discolor water, and produce undesirable odors.These pathogenic and nonpathogenic organisms canbe controlled saely by chlorine with scienticallyengineered equipment to ensure constant and reliableapplications. An intelligent choice o the treatmentnecessary cannot be made until a laboratory analy-

sis o the water has determined its quality and thequantities o water to be used are known. I micro-organisms are present in objectionable amounts, a chlorination system is required.

Chlorination traditionally has been used or thedisinection o drinking water. However, the initialinvestment required to properly chlorinate a potablewater supply has, in many cases, restricted its use tothe large water consumer or to cities, which have theadequate nancial support and sucient manpowerto properly maintain the chlorination system. Anotherdrawback to the use o chlorine as a disinectant is

that the transportation and handling o a gas chlori-nation system are potentially dangerous. When thesaety procedures are ollowed, however, there are ewproblems than with either liquid or solid products.

Chemically, chlorine is the most reactive halo-gen and is known to combine with nitrogenous andorganic compounds to orm weak bactericidal com-pounds. Chlorine also combines with hydrocarbonsto orm potentially carcinogenic compounds (triha-lomethanes).

When chlorine is added to the water, hypochlorousand hydrochloric acids are ormed. Hydrochloric acidis neutralized by carbonates, which are naturallypresent in the water. The hypochlorous acid providesthe disinecting properties o chlorine solutions. Parto the hypochlorous acid is used quickly to kill (bythe oxidation process) the bacteria in the water. Theremaining acid keeps the water ree o bacteria untilit reaches the point o ultimate use.

This residual hypochlorous acid can take two

orms. It may combine with the ammonia present inalmost all waters to orm a residual, or chloramine,that takes a relatively long time to kill the bacteria,but it is very stable. Thus, when a water system islarge, it is sometimes desirable to keep a combinedresidual in the system to ensure saety rom thetreatment point to the arthest end use. I enoughchlorine is added to the system, more hypochlorousacid than can combine with the ammonia in the wa-ter is present. The excess hypochlorous acid is calledree residual. It is quite unstable, but it kills organicmatter very quickly. Though the time it takes or this

Figure 10-1 Automatic ChlorinatorsNotes: The system illustrated in (A) maintains a given residual where the fow is constant or where it changes only gradually. The direct residual control is most eective on

recirculated systems, such as condenser cooling water circuits and swimming pools. The desired residual is manually set at the analyzer. The fow is chlorinated until the residualreaches a set upper limit. The analyzer starts the chlorinator and keeps it operating until the residual again reaches the established upper limit. In (B) the compound loop controlsthe chlorinator output in accordance with two variables, the fow and the chlorine requirements. Two signals (one rom the residual analyzer and another rom the fow meter), whensimultaneously applied to the chlorinator, will maintain a desired residual regardless o the changes in the fow rates or the chlorine requirements.

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water to pass rom the treatment plantto the point o ultimate use is short,only ree residual can ensure that allbacteria will be killed. Maintaining anadequate ree residual in the water isthe only way to ensure that the wateris sae. Its presence proves that enoughchlorine was originally added to disin-ect the water. I no residual is present,it is possible that not all o the bacteria in the water were killed; thereore,more chlorine must be added.

Chlorine gas or hypochlorite solu-tions can be readily and accuratelyadded to the water at a constant rate orby proportional eeding devices oeredby a number o suppliers. Large mu-nicipal or industrial plants use chlorinegas because it is less expensive thanhypochlorite solutions and convenient.

Chlorinators, such as those shown in Figure 10-1,inject chlorine gas into the water system in quantitiesproportional to the water fow.

For the treatment o small water supplies, hy-pochlorite solutions sometimes are ound to be moreadvantageous. In eeding hypochlorite solutions,small proportioning chemical pumps, such as the oneillustrated in Figure 10-2, may be used to inject thehypochlorite solution directly into the pipelines orthe reservoir tanks.

CLARIFICATIONTurbid water has insoluble matter suspended in it.

As turbidity in the water increases, the water looksmore clouded, is less potable, and is more likely toclog pipes and valves.

Particles that are heavier than the fuid in whichthey are suspended tend to settle due to gravity ac-cording to Stokes’ law:

Equation 10-1

v=kd

2(S1 – S2)

z

where v = Settling velocity o the particle

k = Constant, usually 18.5d = Diameter o the particleS1 = Density o the particleS2 = Density o the fuidz = Viscosity o the fuid

From Equation 10-1, it can be seen that the set-tling velocity o the particle decreases as the density(S2) and the viscosity (z) o the fuid increase. Becausethe density and viscosity o the water are unctions o its temperature, it is readily understood why, or ex-ample, the rate o the particle settling in the water at

a temperature o 32°F is only 43 percent o its settling rate at 86°F. Thereore, the removal o water turbidityby subsidence is most ecient in the summer.

Where the water turbidity is high, ltration alonemay be impractical due to the excessive requirementsor backwash and media replacement. Subsidence isan acceptable method or the clarication o waterthat permits the settling o suspended matter.

Although water fow in a horizontal plane doesnot seriously aect the particle’s settling velocity, anupward fow in a vertical plane prevents particle set-tling. The design o settling basins should, thereore,keep such intererences to a minimum. For practicalpurposes, the limit or solids removal by subsidence

is particles o 0.01 millimeter or larger in diameter.Smaller particles have such a low rate o settling thatthe time required is greater than can be allowed.Figure 10-3 shows a typical design o a settling basin.Obviously, when a large volume o water is being handled, the settling basin occupies a large amounto space. Also, it can present saety and vandalismproblems i not properly protected.

Where space is limited, a more practical approachmight be the use o a mechanical clarier that employschemical coagulants (see Figure 10-4). Such devicescan be purchased as packaged units with simplein-and-out connections. Many chemical coagulants

currently are available, including aluminum sulate,sodium aluminate, ammonium alum, erric sulate,and erric chloride. Each coagulant works betterthan the others in certain types o water. However,no simple rules guide the engineer in the choice o the proper coagulant, coagulant dosages, or coagu-lant aids. Water analysis, water temperature, typeo clarication equipment, load conditions, and enduse o the treated water are some o the actors thatinfuence the selection o the proper coagulant. A ew

Figure 10-2 Manual Control Chlorinator


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Backwashing As the suspended particles removed rom the wateraccumulate on the lter material, it should be cleanedto avoid any excessive pressure drops at the outletand the carryover o turbidity. The need or cleaning,particularly in pressure lters, is easily determinedthrough the use o pressure gauges, which indicate

the inlet and outlet pressures. Generally, when thepressure drop exceeds 5 pounds per square inch (psi),backwashing is in order.

In this process (see Figure 10-7), the ltered wateris passed upward through the lter at a relativelyhigh fow rate o 10–20 gpm per square oot. The bedshould expand at least 50 percent, as illustrated inFigure 10-8. This process keeps the grains o the ltermedium close enough to rub each other clean, but itdoes not lit them so high that they are lost down thedrain. Backwashing can be automated by employing pressure dierential switches (electronically, hydrau-lically, or pneumatically) to activate the diaphragm

or control valves that initiate the backwash cycle ata given pressure drop.

Some problems connected with lter beds are il-lustrated in Figures 10-9 through 10-11. Extremelyturbid water or insucient backwashing causes ac-cumulations called mudballs (see Figure 10-9). I notremoved, mudballs result in uneven ltration andshort lter runs and encourage ssures. When thelter bed surace becomes clogged with these depositsand simple backwashing does not remove them, thelter may need to be taken out o service and drainedand the deposits removed by hand skimming, or thelter must be rebedded.

When ssures occur in the sand bed (see Figure10-10), the cause usually can be traced to one or a combination o three items: the inlet water is notbeing distributed evenly or is entering at too higha velocity; backwash water is not being distributedevenly or is entering at too high a velocity; or mudballshave stopped the passage o water through certainareas and raised velocities in others. The lter mustbe drained and opened and the lter medium cleanedand reoriented.

Gravel upheaval (see Figure 10-11) usually iscaused by violent backwash cycles during which wateris distributed unevenly or velocities are too high. I not corrected, ssures are encouraged, or worse, ltermedia is allowed to pass into the distribution systemwhere it may seriously damage valves and equipmentas well as appear in potable water.

Diatomaceous Earth FiltersThe use o diatomaceous earth as a water-ltering medium achieved prominence during the 1940s asa result o the need or a compact, lightweight, andportable ltering apparatus.

The water enters the lter vessel and is drawnthrough a porous supporting base that has beencoated with diatomaceous earth. Filter cloths, porousstone tubes, wire screens, wire wound tubes, andporous paper lter pads are some o the support basematerials most commonly used today. Figure 10-12illustrates a typical lea design lter.

Figure 10-9 Mudballs

Figure 10-11 Gravel Upheaval

Figure 10-10 Fissures

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Diatomaceous earth, or silica (SiO4), is producedrom mineral deposits ormed by diatoms, or ossilized

plants that are similar to algae. Deposits o diatomshave been ound as much as 1,400 eet in thickness.Commercial lter aids are produced rom the crudematerial by a milling process that separates the dia-toms rom one another. The nished product is in theorm o a ne powder.

When diatomaceous earth orms a cake on thesupport base, a lter o approximately 10 percentsolids and 90 percent voids is achieved. The openingsin this lter are so small that even most bacteria arestrained out o the water. However, the openings inthe support base are not small enough initially toprevent the passage o individual diatomite particles.

Some o these diatomite particles pass through thesupport base during the precoating operation. How-ever, once the ormation o the coating is complete,the interlocked mass o diatomite particles preventsany urther passage o the particles.

Commercial diatomaceous earth is manuacturedin a wide range o grades with diering ltration ratesand dierences in the clarity o the ltered water. Theadvantages o diatomaceous earth lters, as comparedto pressure sand lters, are a considerable savingsin the weight and required space, a higher degree o ltered water clarity and purity in the outgoing water,and no required coagulant use. One disadvantage isthat only waters o relatively low turbidity can beused eciently. It is not advisable to use these lterswhere incoming water turbidities exceed 100 ppm,since low-eciency, short lter runs will result. Otherdisadvantages are that the initial and operating costsusually ar exceed those o conventional sand ltersand that the incidence o high pressure drop acrossthe unit (as much as 25 to 50 psi) and intermittentfows cause the lter cake to detach rom the supportbase.

DEMINERALIZATIONSometimes called deionization, demineralizationproduces high-purity water that is ree rom miner-als, most particulate matter, and dissolved gases.Depending on the equipment, the treated water canhave a specic resistance o 50,000Ω to nearly 18 MΩ.However, it can be contaminated with bacteria, pyro-

gens, and organics, as these can be produced insidethe demineralizer itsel. Demineralized water can beused in most laboratories, in laboratory glassware-washing acilities as a nal rinse, and as pretreatmentor still eed water.

The typical demineralizer apparatus consists o either a two-bed unit with a resistivity range o 50,000Ω to 1 MΩ or a mixed-bed unit with a resistivity rangeo 1 MΩ to nearly 18 MΩ. The columns are o an inertmaterial lled with a synthetic resin that removesthe minerals by an ionization process. Since the unitruns on pressure, a storage tank is not required orrecommended, as bacteria may grow in it. A demin-

eralizer must be chemically regenerated periodically,during which time no pure water is being produced.I a continuous supply o water is needed, a backupunit should be considered, as the regeneration processtakes several hours. An atmospheric, chemical-resis-tant drain is needed, and higher-pressure water isrequired or backwash during regeneration.

I deionized water is required in a small amountand the acility does not want to handle the regener-ant chemicals and/or the regenerant wastewater, itmay contract with a deionized water service providerto supply the acility with the quality and quantity o deionized water required. The service deionized wa-

ter (SDI) provider urnishes the acility with servicedeionized water exchange tanks to supply the quality,fow rate, and quantity o water required. When thetanks are exhausted, the SDI provider urnishes a newset o tanks. The SDI provider takes the exhaustedtanks back to its acility or regeneration.

Ion Echange According to chemical theory, compounds such asmineral salts, acids, and bases break up into ions whenthey are dissolved in water. Ions are simply atoms,singly or in groups, that carry an electric charge. Theyare o two types: cation, which is positively charged,

and anion, which is negatively charged. For example,when dissolved in water, sodium chloride (NaCl)splits into the cation Na

+and the anion Cl

–. Similarly,

calcium sulate (CaSO4) in solution is present as thecation Ca

2+and the anion SO4

2–. All mineral salts in

water are in their ionic orm.Synthetic thermosetting plastic materials, known

as ion exchange resins, have been developed toremove these objectionable ions rom the solutionand to produce very high-purity water. These resins

Figure 10-12 Lea Design, Diatomaceous Earth Filter


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are small beads (or granules) usually o phenolic, orpolystyrene, plastics. They are insoluble in water,and their basic nature is not changed by the processo ion exchange. These beads (or granules) are veryporous, and they have readily available ion exchangegroups on all internal and external suraces. Theelectrochemical action o these ion exchange groupsdraws one type o ion out o the solution and puts a dierent one in its place. These resins are o threetypes: cation exchanger, which exchanges one positiveion or another, anion exchanger, which exchangesone negative ion or another, and acid absorber, whichabsorbs complete acid groups on its surace.

A demineralizer consists o the required numbero cation tanks and anion tanks (or, in the case o monobeds, combined tanks) with all o the necessaryvalves, pipes, and ttings required to perorm thesteps o the demineralization process or the cationresin, as well as an acid dilution tank material orthe cation resin and an acid dilution tank, as suluric

acid is too concentrated to be used directly. I hydro-chloric acid is to be used as a cation regenerant, thismix tank is unnecessary since the acid is drawn indirectly rom the storage vessel. A mixing tank orsoda ash or caustic soda, used in anion regeneration,is always provided.

Since calcium and magnesium in the raw regener-ant water precipitate the hydroxide (or carbonate)salts in the anion bed, the anion resin must be re-generated with hardness-ree water. This conditionmay be accomplished either with a water sotener(which may be provided or this purpose) or by use o the efuent water rom the cation unit to regenerate

the anion resin. The use o a sotener decreases theregeneration time considerably, as both units may beregenerated simultaneously rather than separately.

Provided with each unit is a straight reading vol-ume meter, which indicates gallons per run as well asthe total volume put through the unit. Also providedwith each unit is a conductivity and resistivity indi-cator used to check the purity o the efuent waterat all times. This instrument is essentially a meteror measuring the electrical resistance o the treatedwater leaving the unit. It consists o two principalparts: the conductivity cell, which is situated in theefuent line, and the instrument box to which the

conductivity cell is connected.The conductivity cell contains two electrodes

across which an electric potential is applied. Whenthese poles are immersed in the treated water, theresistance to the fow o the electricity between thetwo poles (which depends on the dissolved solidscontent o the water) is measured by a circuit in theinstrument. The purity o the water may be checkedby reading the meter. When the purity o the wateris within the specic limits, the green light glows.

When the water becomes too impure to use, the redlight glows. In addition, a bell may be added that ringswhen the red light glows to provide an audible as wellas a visible report that the unit needs regeneration.This contact also can close an efuent valve, shitoperation to another unit i desired, or put the unitinto regeneration.

ControlsSeveral types o controls are currently availableto carry out the various steps o regeneration andreturn to service. The two most common arrange-ments ollow:

• TypeA:Thisconsistsofcompletelyautomatic,individual air- or hydraulic-operated diaphragmvalves controlled by a sequence timer, andregeneration is initiated via a conductivitymeter. This arrangement provides maximumfexibility in varying amounts and concentrationso regenerants, length o rinsing, and all othersteps o the operating procedure. The diaphragm

valves used are tight seating, oering maximumprotection against leakage and thus contaminationwith minimal maintenance.

• TypeB:Thisconsists ofmanually operatedindividual valves. This system combines maximumlexibility and minimal maintenance with aneconomical rst cost. It typically is used on largerinstallations.

Figure 10-13 Ion ExchangeVessel—Internal Arrangement

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Internal Arrangements

The internal arrangements o the vessels are similaror all types o controls. The internal arrangementused on medium to large units is shown in Figure10-13. Smaller units have simpler arrangementssince the distribution problems are less complex. Thepositive and thorough distribution o regenerants,rinse, and wash waters to achieve maximum eciencyprovides economy and reliability.

Ion Exchange Water Soteners

A typical hydrogen-sodium ion exchange plant isshown in Figure 10-14. This process combines sodium-cycle ion exchange sotening with hydrogen-cycle

cation exchange.The sodium ion exchange process is exactly the

same as a standard ion exchange water sotener.The hardness (calcium and magnesium) is replacedwith sodium (non-scaling). The alkalinity (bicarbon-ates) and other anions remain as high as in the rawwater.

The cation exchanger is exactly the same as theone used with demineralizers; thereore, its efuentcontains carbonic acid, suluric acid, and hydrochloricacid. Sodium ion exchange units are operated in par-

allel, and their efuentsare combined. Mineralacids in the hydrogenion exchange eluentneutralize the bicarbon-ates in the sodium ionexchange eluent. Theproportions o the twoprocesses are varied toproduce a blended efu-ent having the desiredalkalinity. The carbondioxide is removed by a degasier. The efuent issot, low in solids, and asalkaline as desired.

In the sodium ionexchange sotener plusacid addition process (seeFigure 10-15), the acid

directly neutralizes thebicarbonate’s alkalinityto produce a sot, low-al-kaline water. The carbondioxide produced is re-moved by a degasier. Thechie disadvantages o thisprocess are that the totaldissolved solids are notreduced and control o theprocess is dicult.

In a sodium ion ex-change sotener plus

chloride dealkalizer process, water passes irstthrough the sodium ion exchange sotener, whichremoves the hardness, and then through a chloridedealkalizer, which is an ion exchanger that operatesin the chloride cycle. The bicarbonates and sulatesare replaced by chlorides. The resin is regeneratedwith sodium chloride (common salt). The equipmentis the same as that or sodium ion soteners. Thisprocess produces sot, low-alkaline water. Total dis-solved solids are not reduced, but the chloride levelis increased. The chie advantages o this processare the elimination o acid and the extreme simplic-ity o the operation. No blending or proportioning is

required.In some cases, the anion resin can be regenerated

with salt and caustic soda to improve capacity andreduce the leakage o carbon dioxide.

WATER SOFTENING Water sotening is required or practically all commer-cial and industrial building water usage. Generallyspeaking, almost any building supplied with waterhaving a hardness o 3.5 grains per gallon (gpg) or

Figure 10-15 Sodium Cycle Sotener Plus Acid Addition

Figure 10-14 Hydrogen-Sodium Ion Exchange Plant


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more should have a water sotener. This is true eveni the only usage o the water other than or domesticpurposes is or heating because the principal threatto water heater lie and perormance is hard water. Approximately 85 percent o the water supplies inthe United States have hardness values above the3.5 gpg level.

However, it is not good practice to speciy a watersotener to supply the heating equipment only anddisregard the sotening needs or the balance o thecold water usage in the building. A typical exampleo this condition is a college dormitory. Many xturesand appliances in a dormitory in addition to the hotwater heater require sot water, including the piping itsel, fush valve toilets, shower stalls, basins, andlaundry rooms. Many xtures and appliances that usea blend o hot and cold water experience scale buildupand staining, even when the hot water is sotened.

One o the most common reasons or installing water sotening equipment is to prevent hardness

scale buildup in piping systems, valves, and otherplumbing xtures. Scale builds up continually and ata aster rate as the temperature increases. The graphin Figure 10-16 illustrates the degree o scale depositand the rate increase as thetemperature o the water iselevated on water having a hardness o 10 gpg. For watero 20-gpg hardness, scale de-posit values can be multipliedby two. Although the rate o scale deposit is higher as thetemperature increases, sig-

nicant scale buildup occurswith cold water. Thus, thecold water scale, while taking a longer period to build up, isnevertheless signicant.

Water SotenerSelectionThe actors the designershould consider in sizing water soteners include theollowing: low rate, sot-ener capacity, requency o

regeneration, single ver-sus multiple systems, spacerequirements, cost, and op-erating eciency.

Flow Rate

Ater determining the totallow rate requirements orthe building, including allequipment, the engineer canconsider the size o the water

sotener. The unit selected should not restrict thewater fow rate beyond the pressure loss that thebuilding can withstand, based on the pressures avail-able at the source and the minimum pressure neededthroughout the entire system. A water sotener thatmeets both fow rate and pressure drop requirementsshould be selected.

The sotener system also should be capable o providing the design fow rates within the desiredpressure drop. This means not only that the pipeand valve sizes must be adequate, but also that thewater sotener tank and its mineral must be capable o handling the fows while providing the sot water. Thewater sotener design should be based on hydraulicand chemical criteria.

Good design practices or general use dictate thatservice fow rates through the water sotener be ap-proximately 1–5 gpm per cubic oot with mineral beddepths o 30 inches or more. Based on these acceptedpractices, the water sotener is generally able to

handle peak fows or short periods.Standard sotener units are designed or a pressure

dierential o approximately 15 psi, the most com-mon dierential acceptable or building design. Thus,

Figure 10-16 Lime Deposited rom Water o 10 Grains Hardness as a Function oWater Use and Temperature

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sotening mineral is used. This amount is based on therecommended depth o the mineral (normally 30–36inches) and the proper ree-board space above themineral (the space required or the proper expansiono the mineral during backwashing). Thus, rom theunit initially selected, a standard capacity is known.

The capacity o a water sotener is its total hard-ness exchange ability, generally expressed in termso grains exchange. The normal capacity o availablesotening mineral (resins) is 20,000–30,000 grains oreach cubic oot o mineral. Thus, the total capacity

or the water sotener is obtained by multiplying thisvalue by the number o cubic eet o mineral in thewater sotener. The hardness o the raw water mustbe ascertained. By dividing the water hardness (grainsper gallon), expressed as CaCO3 equivalent, into thetotal sotener capacity (grains), the designer can de-termine the number o gallons o sot water that theunit will produce beore requiring regeneration.

Knowing (or estimating) the total gallons o waterused per day indicates the requency o regeneration.Most oten, it is best to have a slight reserve capacityto accommodate any small increases in water usage.

Sotening is not really a orm o water puricationsince the unction o a sotener is to remove only thehardness (calcium and magnesium) rom the waterand substitute, by ion exchange, the soter element o sodium. Soteners requently are used in hard waterareas as pretreatment to distillation to simpliy main-tenance. They are oten necessary as a pretreatmentto deionizers and reverse osmosis, depending on the

analysis o the eed water and the type o deionizer.The ollowing steps should be taken prior to select-

ing a water sotener.

1. Perorm a water analysis by analyzing the waterwith a portable test kit, obtaining a water analysisrom the local authorities, or sending a watersample to a qualied water testing lab.

2. Determine the water consumption using sizing charts or consumption gures rom water bills orby taking water meter readings.

3. Determine continuous and peak fow rates using the xture count fow rate estimating guide to

determine the required fow rate, obtaining fowrate gures or the equipment to be serviced, or bytaking water meter readings during peak periodso water consumption.

4. Determine the water pressure by installing a pressure gauge. I there is a well supply, check thepump’s start and stop settings.

5. Determine the capacity: gallons per day × grainsper gallon = grains per day.

6. Select the smallest unit that can handle themaximum capacity required between regenerationswith a low salt dosage. Avoid sizing equipment with

the high dosage unless there is reason to do so,such as a high-pressure boiler.

Example 10-2

For example, the capacity required is 300,000grains. What size unit should be selected?

A 300,000-grain unit will produce this capacitywhen regenerated with 150 pounds o salt.

A 450,000-grain unit will produce this capacitywhen regenerated with 60 pounds o salt.

Table 10-3 Water Consumption Guide

ApartmentsOne-bedroom units 1.75 people/apartment

Two-bedroom units Three people/apartment

Three-bedroom units Five people/apartment

Full line 60 gpd/person

Hot only 25 gpd/person

One bath 1.5 gpm/apartment

Two baths 2.5 gpm/apartment

Barber shops 75 gpm/chair

Beauty shops 300 gpd/person

Bowling alleys 75 gpd/lane

Factories (not including process waters)With showers 35 gpd/person/shit

Without showers 25 gpd/person/shit

Farm animals

Dairy cow 35 gpd

Bee cow 12 gpd

Hog 4 gpd

Horse 12 gpd

Sheep 2 gpd

Chickens 10 gpd/100 birdsTurkeys 18 gpd/100 birds

Hospitals 225 gpd/bed (Estimate air-conditioning and laundryseparately.)

Motels (Estimate the restaurant, bar, air-conditioning,swimming pool, and laundry acilities separately, and add these

to the room gallonage or total consumption.)Full line 100 gpd/room

Hot only 40 gpd/room

Mobile home courts Estimate 3.75 people/home,and estimate 60 gpd/person.(Outside water or sprinkling,washing cars, etc., should bebypassed.)

RestaurantsTotal (ull line) 8 gal/meal

Food preparation (hot and cold) 3 gal/meal

Food preparation (hot only) 1.5 gal/meal

Cocktail bar 2 gal/person

Rest homes 175 gpd/bed (Estimate laundryseparately.)

SchoolsFull line 20 gpd/student

Hot only 8 gpd/student

Trailer parks 100 gpd/space

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Salt Reccling SstemsTo increase the eciency o the water sotener interms o salt consumption and water usage during the regeneration cycle, one option to consider is theuse o a salt recycling system. It is essentially a hard-ware modication available or both new and existing water soteners that immediately reduces the amount

o salt needed to regenerate a sotener by 25 percent,without any loss o resin capacity or treated waterquality. It works best with water sotener equipmentthat utilizes a nested diaphragm valve congurationas seen in Figure 10-19. It is not recommended orwater soteners that utilize a top-mounted, multi-portmotorized control valve.

The salt recycling process adds a brine reclaimstep to the regeneration process ater the brine drawhas occurred. During brine reclaim, used dilute brinefow is diverted rom the drain and routed back to thebrinemaker tank where it is stored and resaturatedor later use, thereby saving both salt and water. The

salt savings occur because the make-up water to thebrinemaker contains approximately 25 percent o the salt needed or the next regeneration. Thereore,only 75 percent o “new” salt is dissolved or thenext regeneration. Water savings occur because therecycled brine is not discharged to drain but is usedto make up the brine solution or the next regenera-tion. The eective salt dosage or the water soteneris unchanged; thereore, the 25 percent salt savingscan be realized in sotener systems that use bothmaximum and minimum salt dosages.

The hardware package consists o a diverter valve(see Figure 10-19) in the drain line that routes the

recycled brine to the brinemaker tank and a modi-

ed control system that incorporates the extra brinereclaim step.

Salt Storage Options A ew options or salt storage are available. Salt blocksand bags o salt, or beads, may not be suitable or largesystems in which dozens or even hundreds o poundsmay be needed on a daily basis. These systems may

require bulk salt storage and delivery systems, con-sisting o an aboveground storage tank that is loadeddirectly rom salt trucks. The salt then is conveyedthrough piping to the brine tank. This system maybe wet or dry.

Underground storage tanks almost always requirethe salt to be premixed with water in the storagetank. It then can be piped to the brine tank as a brinesolution and mixed down to the desired concentra-tion levels.

DISTILLATIONDistillation produces biopure water that is ree rom

particulate matter, minerals, organics, bacteria, py-rogens, and most dissolved gases and has a minimumspecic resistance o 300,000 Ω-cm. Until recentadvances in the industry, the use o distilled waterwas limited to hospitals and some pharmaceuticalapplications. Now, in hospitals, schools with sciencedepartments, laboratories, and industries other thanpharmaceuticals, distilled water is vital to manyoperational unctions. When used in healthcare acili-ties, biopure water is needed in the pharmacy, centralsupply room, and any other area where patient con-tact may occur. Biopure water also may be desired inspecic laboratories at the owner’s request and as a nal rinse in a laboratory glassware washer.

date

Project name

Location

Type o acility

What is water being used or?

Water analysis: (express in gr./ gal. or ppm as CaCo3)

Total hardness

Sodium

Total dissolved solids

Sodium to hardness ratioIron

Flow rate (gpm) peak Normal Average

Allowable pressure loss System inlet pressure

Operating hours/day Gallons/day

Inuent header pipe size

Electrical characteristics

Type o operation

Special requirement or options (ASME, lining, accessories)

Space limitation L W H

Figure 10-17 Water Sotener Survey Data

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The Distillation ProcessThe typical water distillation system consists o anevaporator section, internal bafe system, water-cooled condenser, and storage tank. The heat sources,in order o preerence based on economy and main-tenance, are steam, electricity, and gas. (Gas is not a good choice.) The still may be operated manually orautomatically. The distilled water may be distributedrom the tank by gravity or by a pump. A drain isrequired. On stills larger than 50 gallons per hour(gph), a cooling tower should be considered or thecondenser water.

The principles o distillation are quite simple. Thewater passes through two phase changes, rom liquidto gas and back to liquid (see Figure 10-20). All thesubstances that are not volatile remain behind in theboiler and are removed either continuously or inter-mittently. Water droplets are prevented rom coming up with the water vapor by proper design o the still,which takes into account the linear velocity, and byuse o an appropriate system o bafes.

Although distillation removes nonvolatile sub-stances suciently, the volatile substances in the eedwater cause more problems. These, mainly carbondioxide, which are already present in the eed water

or are ormed by the decomposition o bicarbonates,can be removed by keeping the distillate at a relativelyhigh temperature because carbon dioxide is less sol-uble at high temperatures. Ammonia (NH3) is muchmore soluble in water than carbon dioxide, and itstendency to redissolve is much higher as well. More-over, the ionization constant o ammonium hydroxide(NH4OH) is much greater than that o carbonic acid(H2CO3), which means that equal amounts o ammo-nia and carbon dioxide show dierent conductivities

(that or ammonia is much higher than thator carbon dioxide).

The purity o the distillate is usuallymeasured with a conductivity meter, and a resistivity o 1 MΩ—or a conductivity o 1microsiemen (µS)—is equivalent to approxi-mately 0.5 ppm o sodium chloride. Mosto the conductivity is accounted or by thepresence o carbon dioxide (and ammonia)and not by dissolved solids. The questionarises: Which is preerred, 1 MΩ resistivityor a maximum concentration o dissolvedsolids? It is quite possible that a distillatewith a resistivity o 500,000 Ω (a conduc-tivity o 2 µS) contains ewer dissolvedsolids than a distillate with a resistivity o 1,000,000 Ω (1 µS).

A problem in distillation can be scaleormation. Scale orms either by the de-composition o soluble products o insoluble

substances or because the solubility limito a substance is reached during the concentration.Solutions to this problem include the ollowing:

• Acarefulsystemofmaintenance,withdescalingat regular intervals

• Softeningofthefeedwater,thatis,removingallcalcium and magnesium ions. However, this does

Figure 10-19 Water Sotener with Salt Recycling System

Figure 10-20 Distillation

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not remove the silica, which then may orm a hard,dense scale that is very dicult to remove.

• Removalofthealkalinity(bicarbonates).Whenoriginally present, sulate and silica still orm a harder scale than a carbonate scale.

• Removalofallormostofthedissolvedsubstances.This can be done by demineralization with ion

exchangers or by reverse osmosis.It may sound oolish to remove the impurities rom

the water beore distilling the water. However, keep inmind that distillation is the only process that produceswater guaranteed to be ree o bacteria, viruses, andpyrogens. It may pay to have pretreatment beore a still to cut down on maintenance (descaling), down-time, and energy consumption and to have bettereciency, capacity, and quality. Pretreatment mayrequire a higher initial investment, but the supplierwho has the experience and technology in all watertreatment systems can give unbiased advice—that is,

to oer a systems approach instead o pushing onlyone method.Distilled water is oten called hungry water. This

reers to the act that distilled water absorbs in solu-tion much o the matter, in any phase, with which itcomes in contact. It becomes important, thereore, toselect a practical material or the production, storage,and distribution o distilled water. Years o experienceand research have shown that pure tin is the mostpractical material or the production, storage, anddistribution o distilled water due to its inert charac-teristic. It is the least soluble. (Other materials, suchas gold, silver, and platinum, have equal or superior

qualities but are not considered or obvious reasons.) A secondary but almost equal advantage o tin is itsrelatively low porosity, which virtually eliminates thepossibility o particle entrapment and growth in pores.In a good water still, thereore, all o the suraces thatcome in contact with the pure vapors and distillateshould be heavily coated with pure tin. Likewise, thestorage tank should be heavily coated or lined withpure tin on all interior suraces. Tinned stills andstorage tanks are not signicantly more expensivethan glass ones in all but the smallest sizes.

Titanium is being strongly considered as a prom-ising material or distillation equipment. Although

some stills have been made o titanium, it is moreexpensive than tin and has not yet been proven su-perior.

Distillation Equipment Applications andSelectionIn the construction o buildings requiring distilledwater, the selection o the appropriate equipment isusually the responsibility o the plumbing engineer.Beore the proper equipment can be selected, the ol-lowing actors should be considered:

• Thequantityofdistilledwaterthatwillberequiredper day (or per week) by each department

• Thepurityrequirementsofeachdepartment

• Thespaceavailablefortheequipment

• Theavailabilityofpower

Regarding the rst two items, the engineer should

obtain the anticipated quantity and purity require-ments rom all department heads who require distilledwater.

In this section, it is assumed that less than 1,000gallons per day (gpd) o distilled water is required. Thesingle-eect still operated at atmospheric pressure isgenerally the most practical and widely used. For theconsumption o larger quantities o distilled water,consideration may be given to other types o stills(such as the multiple-eect and vapor-compressionstills). These stills have advantages and disadvantagesthat should be studied when conditions warrant.

Centralized vs. Decentralized Systems

The choice between central distillation equipmentand individual stills in each department is a mattero economics. In the case o central distillation, theactors to consider are the distances involved in piping the water to the various departments—hence, the costo the appropriate piping and, possibly, the pumping requirements. The original and maintenance costs o multiple individual stills can be high. In the majorityo installations, the use o one or two large, centrallylocated stills with piped distribution systems hasproven more practical and economical than a numbero small, individual stills.

Stills While a well-designed still can produce pure distilledwater or most purposes, the distilled water to beused by a hospital or intravenous injections or by a pharmaceutical company manuacturing a productor intravenous injections must be ree o pyrogens(large organic molecules that cause individuals togo into shock). For such uses, a still with specialbafes to produce pyrogen-ree distilled water mustbe specied.

Other types o stills are designed to meet variouspurity requirements. The recommendations o themanuacturer should be obtained to speciy the propertype o still or a specic application.

Due to the amount o heat required in the opera-tion to change the water into steam, it is impracticalto make large-capacity, electrically heated and gas-heated stills. All stills larger than 10 gph, thereore,should be heated by steam. For each gallon per houro a still’s rated capacity, steam-heated stills requireapproximately 1/3 boiler horsepower, electricallyheated stills need 2,600 watts, and gas-red stills need14,000 British thermal units per hour.


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The still must be well designed and bafed to eectan ecient vapor separation without the possibilityo carryover o the contaminants and to ensure opti-mum removal o the volatile impurities. It is equallyimportant that the materials used in construction o the still, storage reservoir, and all components coming in contact with the distilled water do not react withthe distilled water.

Distribution Systems

Cost can be a signicant actor in the distributionsystem, particularly i it is extensive. The distribu-tion system can consist o 316 stainless steel, CPVCSchedule 80, and polyvinylidene fuoride (PVDF). Thettings should be o the same material.

The purity requirements should be consideredand a careul investigation made o the propertiesand characteristics o the materials being considered.Many plastics have a relatively porous surace, whichcan harbor organic and inorganic contaminants. Withsome metals, at least trace quantities may be imparted

to the distilled water.

Storage Reservoir

The storage reservoir used or distilled water should bemade o a material that is suited or the application andsealed with a tight cover so that contaminants rom theatmosphere cannot enter the system. As the distilledwater is withdrawn rom the storage tank, air mustenter the system to replace it. To prevent airbornecontamination, an ecient lter should be installed onthe storage tank so that all air entering the tank maybe ltered ree o dust, mist, bacteria, and submicronparticulate matter, as well as carbon dioxide.

Figure 10-21 illustrates a typical air lter. Thisair lter (both hydrophilic and hydrophobic) removesgases and airborne particles down to 0.2 µ. Puriedair leaves at the bottom. The rectangular chamberis a replaceable lter cartridge. A and B are intakebreather valves, and C is an exhaust valve.

As a urther saeguard against any possiblecontamination o the distilled water by biologicalimpurities, an ultraviolet light can be attached tothe inside o the cover (not very eective) and/orimmersed in the distilled water (also not very eec-tive) or in the fow stream to eectively maintain itssterility. Ultraviolet lighting should be given strong

consideration or hospital and pharmaceutical instal-lations, as well as or any other applications wheresterility is important.

Example 10-3

Assume that a total o 400 gpd o distilled water isrequired by all departments. A ully automatic stilland storage tank combination should be used in thisapplication. Fully automatic controls stop the stillwhen the storage tank is ull and start the still whenthe level in the storage tank reaches a predetermined

low level. In addition, the evaporator is fushed outeach time it stops. A 30-gph still (with a 300-gallonstorage tank) produces more than the desired 400gpd. Because the still operates on a 24-hour basis, asthe storage tank calls or distilled water (even i nodistilled water is used during the night), 300 gallonsare on hand to start each day. As water is withdrawnrom the storage tank, the still starts and replenishesthe storage tank at a rate o 30 gph.

In this example, the storage tank volume, in gal-lons, is 10 times the rated capacity o the still. Thisis a good rule o thumb or a ully automatic still andstorage tank combination. A closer study o the pat-tern o the anticipated demands may reveal unusualpatterns, which may justiy a larger ratio.

Purity Monitor

One requently used accessory is the automatic puritymonitor. This device tests the purity o the distilledwater coming rom the still with a temperature-compensated conductivity cell. This cell is wired to

a resistivity meter that is set at a predeterminedstandard o distilled water commensurate with thecapability o the still. I or any reason the purity o the distilled water is below the set standard, the sub-standard water does not enter the storage tank andis automatically diverted to waste. At the same time,a signal alerts personnel that the still is producing substandard water so an investigation may be made asto the cause. Simple wiring may be used to make the

Figure 10-21 Typical Air Filter

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is the most powerul oxidizer that can be saely usedin water treatment.

Ozone requently is used to treat wastewater and asa disinectant and oxidant or bottled water, ultrapurewaters, swimming pools, spas, breweries, aquariums,cooling towers, and many other applications. Ozoneis not able to produce a stable residual in a distribu-tion system. However, ozone can lower the chlorinedemand and thus the amount o chlorine required andthe chlorinated by-products.

Ozone systems can be big enough to serve centralplants or municipalities. Figure 10-22 shows an ex-ample o a large-scale system. Figure 10-23 shows a simplied plan view o such a system.

Ultraviolet Light TreatmentUltraviolet light is electromagnetic radiation, orradiant energy, traveling in the orm o waves. A short-range (UVC) wavelength is considered a germi-cidal UV. When ultraviolet light o a sucient energylevel is absorbed into matter, it causes a chemical or

physical change. In the case o microorganisms, ultra-violet light is absorbed to a level that is just enoughto physically break the bonds in DNA to prevent liereproduction. Thereore, ultravi-olet light is a mechanism capableo disinecting water. The mostwidely used source o this lightis low-pressure mercury vaporlamps emitting a 254-nanometer(nm) wavelength. However, 185nm can be used or both disinec-tion and total oxidizable carbonreduction. The dosage requiredto destroy microorganisms isthe product o light intensityand exposure time. The expo-sure requirements or dierentmicroorganisms are well docu-mented by the EPA. Ultravioletbulbs are considered to provide8,000 hours o continuous useand to not degrade to morethan 55 percent o their initialoutput.

When ultraviolet equipment

is sized, the fow rate and qual-ity o the incoming water mustbe taken into consideration. Itis generally necessary to lterthe water beore the ultravioletequipment. Sometimes it may benecessary to lter downstream o the ultraviolet equipment with0.2-µ absolute lter cartridgesto remove dead bacteria and cellragments.

Ultraviolet equipment oten is used in drinking water, beverage water, pharmaceutical, ultra-purerinse water, and other disinection applications.

To validate eectiveness in drinking water systems,the methods described in the U.S. EPA’s Ultraviolet Disinection Guidance Manual is typically used. Forwastewater systems, the National Water ResearchInstitute’s Ultraviolet Disinection Guidelines or

Drinking Water and Water Reuse is typically used,specically in wastewater reclamation applications.

Reverse OsmosisReverse osmosis produces a high-purity water thatdoes not have the high resistivity o demineralizedwater and is not biopure. Under certain conditions,it can oer economic advantages over demineralizedwater. In areas that have high mineral content, it canbe used as a pretreatment or a demineralizer or stillwhen large quantities o water are needed. Reverseosmosis is used primarily in industrial applications andin some hospitals and laboratories or specic tasks. It

also is used by some municipalities and end users orthe removal o dissolved components or salts.

Figure 10-22 Schematic Diagram o a Large-Scale Ozone System

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Several types o reverse osmosis units are available.Basically, they consist o a semipermeable membrane,and water is orced through the membrane under highpressure. A drain and storage tank are required withthis system.

RO is a relatively simple concept. When equalvolumes o water are separated by a semipermeable

membrane, osmosis occurs as pure water perme-ates the membrane to dilute the more concentratedsolution (see Figure 10-24). The amount o physicalpressure required to equalize the two volumes aterequilibrium has been reached is called the osmoticpressure. I physical pressure is applied in excess o theosmotic pressure, reverse osmosis (see Figure 10-25)occurs as water passes back through the membrane,leaving contaminants such as dissolved salts, organics,and colloidal solids concentrated upstream. In practice,the concentrate is diverted to drain, thus rejecting contaminants rom the system altogether. The con-tinuous fushing process o the membrane preventsa phenomenon known as concentration polarization,which is a buildup o the polarized molecules on themembrane surace that urther restricts fow in a short period.

For dependable long-term perormance, RO equip-ment or large-volume applications should be o allstainless steel ttings and bowls. Such a system shoulduse solid-state controls (with simple indicator lightsand gauges) plus a conductivity meter that readsthe tap and permeates water quality. High-pressure

relie devices and low-pressure switches protect themembrane and the pump rom any prelter block-age and accidental eed water shuto. A water-saverdevice that completely shuts o water fow when thestorage tank is ull but allows an hourly washing o the membrane is essential.

Three types o semipermeable membranes are

manuactured rom organic substances: tubularmembrane, cellulose-acetate sheet membrane, andpolyamide-hollow ber membrane. They may be usedor similar applications, assuming that the proper pre-treatment or each is urnished. In properly designedand maintained systems, RO membranes may lasttwo or three years.

RO Membranes

The current technology o RO developed rapidly asone specic application o the larger technology o synthetic membranes. Several code requirementshad to be met beore these membranes could be con-

sidered practical or economical or water puricationprocesses.

First, the membrane had to be selective—that is,it had to be capable o rejecting contaminants and yet still be highly permeable to water. This conditionmeant that it had to have a consistent polymericstructure with a pore size in the range o the smallestcontaminant molecules possible.

Second, the membrane had to be capable o sus-tained high fux rates to be economical and practicalin water applications. This condition meant that the

Figure 10-23 Simplied Plan View o Ozone SystemSource: Ozone Technology, Inc. All rights reserved. Pressureless Ozone Water Purication Systems is a trademark o Ozone Technology, Inc. Copyright, 2006.


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produced at high fow rates as needed, thus eliminat-ing the need to store it.

Laboratory-grade water is less rigorously dened,but it still reers to water rom which one or moretypes o contaminants have been removed. This deni-tion should be distinguished rom other processes thatexchange one contaminant or another, such as watersotening (in which calcium and magnesium saltsare removed by exchanging them with sodium salts).The reverse osmosis, deionization, and distillationprocesses are all capable o producing laboratory-grade water.

The quality o the laboratory-grade water producedby several methods o central-system water produc-tion is shown in Table 10-4. The RO and distillationprocesses remove more than 99 percent o all bacte-ria, pyrogens, colloidal matter, and organics abovemolecular weight 200. These methods remove thedissolved inorganic material, such as multivalent ions,calcium, magnesium, carbonates, and heavy metals to

the level o 98 percent, while monovalent ions, suchas sodium, potassium, and chloride, are removed tothe level o 90 percent to 94 percent by RO and 97percent by distillation.

Large-scale deionization processes achieve simi-lar levels o inorganic ion removal, but they do notremove bacteria, pyrogens, particles, and organics.Bacteria, in act, can multiply on the resins, result-ing in an increase in biological contaminants overnormal tap water.

It should be stressed that the degrees o waterpurity shown in Table 10-4 are obtainable only romwell-cleaned equipment that is perorming to itsoriginal specications. Maintaining this condition orthe deionization process means that the resins mustbe replaced (or regenerated) regularly and that theinternal components o the still must be thoroughlycleaned. I a still is not properly and regularly cleaned,the residual contaminants can cause the pH valueo the end product water to all as low as 4. Reverseosmosis is the only one o the methods that uses a reject stream to continuously remove the residualcontaminants. Regularly scheduled prelter changesand system maintenance are, o course, necessary tomaintain the desired water quality.

Applications or RO

The quality and cost o RO water make RO a strong competitor or distillation and deionization in manyapplications. Table 10-5 compares the three methodso water purication or several research and indus-

trial applications.Frequently, the user needs both laboratory-grade

and reagent-grade waters to meet a wide range o needs. Figure 10-26 shows two ways o approaching this situation. Alternative A consists o a central ROsystem rom which the water is piped to a point-o-use polishing system to be upgraded to reagent-gradewater. This approach utilizes the economics o a large central RO system while ensuring the highestreagent-grade purity at those use points that requireit. Alternative B employs smaller point-o-use RO

Figure 10-26 Approaches to Providing Laboratory-Grade and Reagent-Grade Water: (A) RO WaterPuried Centrally and Transported by Pipe to Points o Use Then Polished, (B) RO System Coupled with

Deionization System Totally at the Point o Use, Eliminating Piping


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systems with point-o-use polishing, which eliminateslengthy distribution piping, a potential source o recontamination. Both alternatives include a nal

polishing by activated carbon, mixed-bed deioniza-tion, and 0.2-µ membrane ltration. In each case,laboratory-grade water is readily available directlyrom the RO system. Moreover, the transportation andstorage o the reagent-grade water are avoided.

NanoltrationNanoltration (NF) is a cross-fow membrane ltra-tion system that removes particles in approximatelythe 300–1,000 molecular weight range, rejecting se-lected ionic salts and most organics. Nanoltrationrejects the dissociated inorganicsalts that are polyvalent, such as

calcium, magnesium, and sulate,while passing monovalent salts,such as sodium and chloride. There-ore, nanoltration oten is calleda sotening membrane system.Nanoltration operates at low eedpressures. The equipment is similarto that or reverse osmosis.

UltraltrationUltraltration (UF) is a membraneiltration system that separatesliquids and solids. This separationprocess is used in industry andresearch to puriy and concentratemacromolecular solutions, especiallyprotein solutions. It provides ltra-tion in the range o 0.0015 µ to 0.1 µ, or approximately 1,000–100,000molecular weight. Ultraltrationin an industrial application oten isused to separate oil and water as incutting solutions, mop water, andcoolants.

Copper-Silver IonizationCopper-silver ionization is a nota ltration system, but a methodo injecting positive ions into thewater stream. The positive cationsattach to the negative anions o organic pathogens, destroying

their cell structures. It is used toeliminate Legionella and otherwaterborne organisms; thus, thesesystems are used extensively inhospitals and healthcare centers.Figure 10-27 shows the basic sys-tem components.

GLOSSARy

Absorption The process o tak-ing up a substance into the physi-

cal structure o a liquid or solid by a physical orchemical action but without a chemical reaction.

Adsorption The process by which molecules, col-loids, and/or particles adhere to suraces by physi-cal action but without a chemical reaction.

Algae A microscopic plant growth that may beound in some well waters in certain areas o thecountry. This plant growth may collect on the resinin the water conditioner, resulting in poor opera-tion because o restricted water fow. Chlorinationand dechlorination control this problem and pro-tect plumbing lines and xtures.

Table 10-5 Applications o Puried Water

Water Use

Method o Purication

RO Distilled DeionizedGeneral process use Yes Yes Yes

General lab use (buers, chemicalmg.)

Yes Yes Yes (exceptor pyrogens,bacteria, and

organics)

Dishwasher nal rinse Yes Yes YesCritical lab use (reagents, tissueculture, etc.)

Post-treatment necessary

USP XXIII water or injection Yes (must meetpuried water

standard)

Yes No

Hemodialysis Yes No Yes (exceptor pyrogens,bacteria, and

organics)

Figure 10-27 Silver Ionization Unit and Control Panel

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Countercurrent regeneration During the re-generation o a water conditioner, in all steps o the regeneration cycle, when the fow is in the op-posite direction o the service fow.

Cross-ow membrane fltration The separa-tion o the components o a fuid by a semiperme-able membrane such as reverse osmosis, nanol-

tration, ultraltration, and microltration.Cubic oot o mineral A measurement o the

high-capacity resin or ion exchange mineral usedin a water sotener.

Cycle The length o time a water sotener will op-erate without backwashing and/or regeneration.

Cycle operation Usually the sequence o valveoperations on automatic water soteners. A two-cycle valve is a device in which upfow brining iscombined with the backwash cycle, sacricing theperormance on both the backwashing and thebrining. The ve-cycle valve perorms each es-

sential regeneration step separately, providing a longer lie, more ecient service, and better per-ormance.

Diatom An organism commonly ound in wa-ters and considered by health ocials to be non-harmul. Diatoms occasionally may impart objec-tionable odors, and their calcied skeletons makechalk and provide a diatomite powder used orswimming pool eatures.

Dissolved iron Iron that is dissolved in water.The dissolved, or errous, iron is highly soluble inmost waters, and the undissolved, or erric, iron is

almost always insoluble in water.

Dissolved solids The residual material remain-ing ater a ltered solution evaporates.

Distributor A device used within a sotener tankto distribute the fow o the water throughout thetank and to prevent the resin rom escaping intothe lines. Sometimes called a strainer.

Down ow Usually designates the down directionin which the water fows during the brine cycle o manual and semiautomatic water soteners.

Drain valve (drain line) A valve or line em-

ployed to direct or carry the backwash water, usedregenerant, and rinse water to the nearest drain o the waste system.

Euent The water moving away rom, or out o, a water conditioner.

Endotoxin A heat-resistant pyrogen ound in thecell walls o viable and nonviable bacteria. Ex-pressed as EDU units.

Exhaustion In water sotening or ion exchange,the point where the resin no longer can exchangeadditional ions o the type or which the processwas designed.

Ferric iron The insoluble orm o iron. Ferrousiron in water is readily converted to erric iron byexposure to oxygen in the air.

Ferrous iron The soluble orm o iron.

Filter-ag A ceramic-like, insoluble, granular ma-terial used in a clarier to physically separate thesuspended matter in some water supplies. It back-washes reely with less water than sand and othersimilar lter materials.

Filtration The process o passing a fuid througha lter material or the purpose o removing tur-bidity, taste, color, or odor.

Floc The suspended particles in water that havecoagulated into larger pieces and may orm a mat

on the top o the mineral or resin bed in a waterconditioner and reduce or impair the ecient op-eration o the equipment.

Flow rate In water treatment, the quantity o wa-ter fowing, in a unit o time, oten given in gallonsper minute or gallons per hour.

Flow regulator A mechanical or automatic de-vice used in water treatment equipment to regu-late the fow o the water to a specied maximumfow rate.

Flux In cross-fow ltration, the unit membranethroughput, expressed as volume per unit o time

per area, such as gallons per day per square oot.

Free board The space above a bed o ion exchangeresin or mineral in a water sotener tank that al-lows or the unobstructed expansion o the bedduring the backwash cycle.

Grains capacity The amount o hardness min-eral (calcium or magnesium) that is removed by a water sotener mineral or resin within a speciedlength o time or by a specic quantity o resin.

Grains per gallon A common basis o reporting water analysis. One grain per gallon equals 17.1parts per million. One grain is 1/7,000 o a pound.

Hardness The compounds o calcium and magne-sium that are usually present in hard water.

Hardness leakage The presence o hardnessminerals (calcium and magnesium) ater the wa-ter has passed through the sotener due to hard-ness retained in the resin bed rom the previousservice run. The amount o leakage expected in a properly operating system is directly proportional

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to the salt rate and the total dissolved solids in theincoming water. While some leakage is normal, ex-cessive leakage usually indicates aulty regenera-tion.

High-capacity resin A manuactured material,in the orm o beads or granules, that has thepower to take hardness-orming ions and give up

sotness-orming ions and the reverse cycle there-o. Sometimes called ion exchange resin.

High purity A term describing highly treated wa-ter with attention to microbiological reduction orelimination, commonly used in the electronic andpharmaceutical industries.

Hydrogen sulfde A highly corrosive gas that o-ten is ound in water supplies. Water containing hydrogen sulde gas has a characteristic rottenegg odor.

Inuent The water moving toward, or into, a wa-ter sotener.

Inlet or outlet valve A gate valve on the inlet oroutlet piping o a water conditioner.

Installation sequence In water treatment appli-cations, the proper procedure or installing equip-ment when more than one piece o water treat-ment equipment is needed to properly conditionthe untreated water.

Ion An electrically charged atom or molecule.

Ion exchange The replacement o one ion by an-other. In the sotening process, the sodium in thesotener resin is exchanged or calcium, magne-

sium, iron, and manganese (i present).

Iron An element common to most undergroundwater supplies, though not present in the largequantities that calcium and magnesium can be.Even small amounts o iron are objectionable inthe water system.

Limestone A common rock composed primarilyo calcium. It combines with carbon dioxide pres-ent in groundwater to orm calcium carbonate andcauses hardness o water.

Magnesium An element that, along with calcium,is responsible or the hardness o water.

Natural water Water containing dissolved inor-ganic solids, mostly mineral salts, which are in-troduced into the water by a solvent action as thewater passes through, or across, various layers o the Earth.

Nitrate A naturally occurring orm o nitrogenound in soil and groundwater. High nitrate levels,generally 10 parts per million or more, can cause

a condition known as blue baby that inhibits thetranser o oxygen through the lung tissue to thebloodstream, resulting in oxygen starvation.

Ohm A unit o measurement. One ohm (1Ω) equals0.5 × 10

–6parts per million or 10

–6microsiemens.

Parts per million A common method o report-ing water analyses. 17.1 ppm equals 1 grain per

gallon. Parts per million is commonly consideredequivalent to milligrams per liter.

pH value A number denoting the alkaline or acid-ic nature o water (or a solution). The pH scaleranges rom 0 to 14, with 7 being the accepted neu-tral point. A pH value below 7 indicates acidity,and values above 7 indicate alkalinity.

Precipitate A solid residue ormed in the processo removing certain dissolved chemicals out o a solution.

Pressure drop A decrease in water pressure, typi-

cally measured in pounds per square inch. Regeneration A process that rereshes the resin

bed in a water sotener to remove any hardnessions collected in the resin.

Resin A synthetic polystyrene ion exchange mate-rial (oten called high-capacity resin).

Rinse Part o the regeneration cycle o a watersotener where reshwater is passed through a water sotener to remove the excess salt (sodiumchloride) prior to placing the water sotener intoservice.

Salt A high-grade sodium chloride o a pellet orbriquette type used or regenerating a water sot-ener.

Service run The operating cycle o a water sot-ener, during which the hard water passes throughthe ion exchange resin and enters the service linesas sot water.

Sodium An element usually ound in water supplies(depending on local soil conditions) that is a basicpart o common salt (sodium chloride).

Sot water Water without hardness material,which has been removed either naturally or

through ion exchange.Sulate A compound commonly ound in waters in

the orm o calcium sulate (CaS04) or magnesiumsulate (MgS04).

Suspension The oreign particles carried (but notdissolved) in a liquid, like rusty iron in water.

Tannin An organic color or dye, not a growth,sometimes ound in waters. (The latter is the resulto decomposition o wood buried underground.)


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Titration A laboratory method o determining the presence and amount o chemical in a solution,such as the grains hardness (calcium and magne-sium) o water.

Total dissolved solids All dissolved materials inthe water that cannot be removed by mechanicalltration, generally expressed in terms o parts

per million.Turbidity A term used to dene the degree o

cloudiness o water due to undissolved materialssuch as clay, silt, or sand. It is measured in neph-elometric turbidity units.

Upow The upward direction in which water fowsthrough the water conditioner during any phase o the operating cycle.

Virus A tiny organism that is smaller than bacte-ria and resistant to normal chlorination. Virusescause diseases, such as poliomyelitis and hepatitis(both o which are transmitted primarily through

water supplies).

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All piping materials undergo dimensional changesdue to temperature variations in a given system. Theamount o change depends on the material character-istics (the linear coecient o thermal expansion orcontraction) and the amount o temperature change.The coecient o expansion or contraction is dened

as the unit increase or decrease in length o a mate-rial per 1°F increase or decrease in temperature.Coecients o thermal expansion or contraction ora number o commonly used pipe materials are shownin Table 11-1. These coecients are in accordancewith ASTM D696 and are based on completely unre-strained specimens.

I the coecient o thermal expansion or contrac-tion is known, the total change in length may becalculated as ollows:

Equation 11-1

L2 – L1 =αL1 (T2 – T1)

whereL1 = Original pipe length, eetL2 = Final pipe length, eetT1 = Original temperature, °FT2 = Final temperature, °F

α= Coecient o expansion or contraction, oot/ oot/°F

A typical range o temperature change in a hotwater piping system is rom 40°F entering water to120°F distribution water, or an 80°F temperature di-erential. Total linear expansion or contraction or a 100-oot length o run when subject to an 80°F change

in temperature can be calculated or the usual piping materials in a hot water system. A typical range o temperature in a drain, waste, and vent (DWV) systemis rom 100°F (the highest temperature expected) to50°F (the lowest temperature expected), or a 50°Ftemperature dierential.

THERMAL STRESSTo not exceed the maximum allowable strain in thepiping, the developed length can also be calculatedrom the ollowing equation.

Equation 11-2

∆=PL

3

3EI

where ∆

= Maximum defection at the end o a cantilever beam, inches

P = Force at end, poundsL = Length o pipe subjected to fexible stress,

inchesE = Flexural modulus o elasticity, pounds per

square inch (psi)I = Moment o inertia, inches

4

For pipes in which the wall thickness is not largewith respect to the outside diameter, the moment o inertia and the sectional modulus can be calculatedas ollows:

I =πR3t

andZ =πR

2t

whereR = Outside radius, inchest = Wall thickness, inchesZ = Section modulus, cubic inches

For thin-walled pipes, the maximum allowablestress and the maximum allowable strain can becalculated as ollows:

S =4PL

πD2t

ε=πD

2St

4L

whereS = Maximum ber stress in bending = M/Z, psi

M = Bending moment = PL, inch-poundsD = Outside diameter, inches

ε= Strain

Substituting the maximum allowable stress andthe maximum allowable strain into Equation 11-2,

ThermalEpansion11

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the development length o piping can be estimatedby Equations 11-3 and 11-4 respectively.

Equation 11-3

L =(3ED∆

)½

2S

Equation 11-4

L =(3D∆

)½

2ε

Equation 11-3 is used when the maximum allow-able stress is xed, and Equation 11-4 is used whenthe maximum allowable strain is xed. When Equa-tion 11-4 is used, the fexural modulus o elasticitymust be known. In cases where the modulus o thespecic compound is not available, the ollowing ap-proximately average values are usually adequate:

Material E at 73˚F(psi)

S at 73˚F(psi)*

Steel 30,000,000 16,450

Copper (type L) 17,000,000 6,000

Brass (red) 17,000,000 6,000

ABS 1210 250,000 1,000

ABS 1316 340,000 1,600

PVC 1120 420,000 2,000

PVC 1220 410,000 2,000

PVC 2110 340,000 1,000

PB 2110 38,000 1,000

PE 2306 90,000 630

PE 3306 130,000 630

PE 3406 150,000 630

CPVC 4120 423,000 2,000*ASME B31 values

Equation 11-3 can be actored to yield the ollow-ing equation:

Equation 11-5

L =(3E

)( D∆ )½

2S

where E and S = Constants or any given material

L is measured in eet.

Using the values or E and S in the above table,Equation 11-3 or Equation 11-5 reduces to the ol-lowing:

• Steel pipe: L = 6.16 (D∆)½

• Brass pipe: L = 7.68 (D∆)½

• Copper pipe: L = 7.68 (D∆)½

• ABS 1210: L = 1.61 (D∆)½

• ABS 1316: L = 1.49 (D∆)½

• PVC 1120: L = 1.48 (D∆)½

• PVC 1220: L = 1.46 (D∆)½

• PVC 2110: L = 1.88 (D∆)½

• PB 2110: L = 0.63 (D∆)½

• PE 2306: L = 1.22 (D∆)½

• PE 3306: L = 1.47 (D∆)½

• PE 3406: L = 1.57 (D∆)½

• CPVC 4120: L = 1.48 (D∆)½

Many computer programs are available that read-ily solve these equations as well as address the variousinstallation congurations. Also, reer to the manu-acturer o the material that is being used or specicinormation regarding expansion and contraction.

Provisions must be made or the expansion andcontraction o all hot water and circulation mains,risers, and branches. I the piping is restrained rommoving, it will be subjected to compressive stress ona temperature rise and to tensile stress on a tempera-ture drop. The pipe itsel usually can withstand thesestresses, but ailure requently occurs at pipe jointsand ttings when the piping cannot move reely. Thetwo methods commonly used to absorb pipe expansionand contraction without damage to the piping areexpansion loops and osets and expansion joints.

Epansion Loops and OsetsThe total movement to be absorbed by any expan-sion loop or oset oten is limited to a maximumo 1½ inches or metallic pipes. Thus, by anchoring at the points on the length o run that produce 1½-inch movement and placing the expansion loops or

joints midway between the anchors, the maximummovement that must be accommodated is limited to¾ inch. The piping conguration used to absorb themovement can be in the orm o a U bend, a single-elbow oset, a two-elbow oset, or a three-, ve-, orsix-elbow swing loop. In the great majority o piping systems, the loop or joint can be eliminated by tak-ing advantage o the changes in direction typicallyrequired in the layout.

Table 11-2 provides the total developed lengthrequired to accommodate a 1½-inch expansion. (Thedeveloped length is measured rom the rst elbow to

the last elbow, as shown in Figure 11-1.)Epansion JointsExpansion loops and osets should be used whereverpossible; however, when movements are too large andnot enough space is available to provide an expansionloop (especially or risers in high-rise buildings), ex-pansion joints can be used.

It should be noted that expansion joints are me-chanical devices that present a ailure risk. I notinstalled properly with guides and anchors, they can


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Table 11-3 Approximate Sine Wave Conguration With Displacement

Flexible PipeMaximum Temperature Variation (Between Installation and Service), °F

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Loop Length, t Oset or Contraction, in.20 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

50 7½ 10 12½ 15 17½ 20 22½ 25 27½ 30

100 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60

Rigid Pipe

Maximum Temperature Variation (Between Installation and Service), °F10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Loop Length, t Oset or Contraction, in.20 1½ 2 2½ 3 3½ 4 4½ 5 5½ 6

50 3¾ 5 6¼ 7½ 8¾ 10 11¼ 12½ 13¾ 15

100 7½ 10 12½ 15 17½ 20 22½ 25 27½ 30

Note: °C = (F – 32) /1.8mm = in. × 25.4m = t × 0.3048

long stacks are installed. Three methods o accommo-dating expansion or contraction are described below.

1. Osets may be provided. The developed length o the oset that should be provided can be calculatedin accordance with the appropriate ormula. Forexample, or a 50°F temperature dierential inthe straight run, the amount to be accommodated

at the branch connection is approximately ⅜ inch.To accommodate this amount o expansion, thebranch pipe must have sucient developed lengthto overcome a bending twist without being subjectedto excessive strain.

2. Where allowed by applicable codes, expansion jointsmay be used.

3. Engineering studies have shown that by restraining the pipe every 30 eet to prevent movement,satisactory installations can be made. Tensile orcompressive stresses developed by contractionor expansion are readily absorbed by the piping without any damage. Special stack anchors are

available and should be installed according to themanuacturer’s recommendations.

THERMOPLASTIC PIPINGThermoplastic piping (ABS, PVC, PE, and CPVC)expands and contracts in reaction to temperaturechanges at a much aster rate, up to 10 times aster,than metallic pipe. Because o this, some manuactur-

ers o plastic piping use a maximum allowable straino 0.005 inch per inch. When this is the case, Equation11-4 reduces to:

L = 1.44 (D∆)½

Use o plastic piping in high-rise buildings inparticular requires careul calculations to minimizeexpansion and contraction.

UNDERGROUND PIPINGUnderground piping temperature changes are lessdrastic than aboveground piping changes becausethe piping is not exposed to direct heating rom solarradiation, the insulating nature o the soil preventsrapid temperature changes, and the temperature o the transported medium can have a stabilizing eecton the pipe’s temperature.

Contraction or expansion o fexible pipe can beaccommodated by snaking the pipe in the trench. Anapproximate sine wave conguration with a displace-ment rom the centerline and a maximum oset asshown in Table 11-3 accommodate most situations.The installation should be brought to the service tem-perature prior to backlling. Ater increased length istaken up by snaking, the trench can be backlled inthe normal manner.

Up to 3-inch nominal size, rigid pipe can be handledby snaking in the same manner used or fexible pipe.


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Chapter 11 — Thermal Expansion 209

Osets and loop lengths under specic temperaturevariations are shown in Table 11-3. For distances o less than 300 eet, 90-degree changes in direction takeup any expansion or contraction that occurs.

For larger sizes o pipe, snaking is not practical orpossible in most installations. In such cases, the pipeis brought to within 15°F o the service temperature,and the nal connection is made. This can be accom-plished by shade backlling, allowing the pipe to coolat night and then connecting early in the morning,or cooling the pipe with water. The thermal stressesproduced by the nal 15°F service temperature areabsorbed by the piping.

ExPANSION TANKS When water is heated, it expands. I this expansionoccurs in a closed system, dangerous water pressurescan be created. A domestic hot water system can be a closed system when the hot water xtures are closedand the cold water supply piping has backfow preven-

ters or any other device that can isolate the domestichot water system rom the rest o the domestic watersupply, as shown in Figure 11-2(A).

These pressures can quickly rise to a point atwhich the relie valve on the water heater unseats,thus relieving the pressure, but at the same timecompromising the integrity o the relie valve, asshown in Figure 11-2(B). A relie valve installed on a water heater is not a control valve, but a saety valve.It is not designed or intended or continuous usage.Repeated excessive pressures can lead to equipmentand pipe ailure and personal injury.

When properly sized, an expansion tank connected

to the closed system provides additional system vol-ume or water expansion while ensuring a maximumdesired pressure in a domestic hot water system. Itdoes this by utilizing a pressurized cushion o air(see Figure 11-3). The ollowing discussion explainshow to size an expansion tank or a domestic hot

water system and the theory behind the design andcalculations. It is based on the use o a diaphragm orbladder-type expansion tank, which is the type mostcommonly used in the plumbing industry. This typeo expansion tank does not allow the water and airto be in contact with each other.

Epansion o Water

A pound o water at 140°F has a larger volume thanthe same pound o water at 40°F. To put it anotherway, the specic volume o water increases with anincrease in temperature. I the volume o water at a specic temperature condition is known, the expan-sion o water can be calculated as ollows:

Vew = Vs2 – Vs1

whereVew = Expansion o water, gallonsVs1 = System volume o water at

temperature 1, gallonsVs2 = System volume o water at

temperature 2, gallons

Vs1 is the initial system volume and can be deter-mined by calculating the volume o the domestic hotwater system. This entails adding the volume o thewater-heating equipment to the volume o the piping and any other part o the hot water system.

Vs2 is the expanded system volume o water at thedesign hot water temperature. Vs2 can be expressedin terms o Vs1. To do that, look at the weight o thewater at both conditions.

The weight (W) o water at temperature 1 (T1)equals the weight o water at T2, or W 1 = W 2. At T1, W 1 = Vs1 /vsp1, and similarly at T2, W 2 = Vs2 /vsp2,

where vsp equals the specic volume o water at thetwo temperature conditions. (See Table 11-4 or spe-cic volume data.) Since W 1 = W 2, then:

Vs1=

Vs2

vsp1 vsp2

Solving or Vs2:

Vs2 = Vs1( vsp2)vsp1

Earlier it was stated that Vew = Vs2 – Vs1. Sub-stituting Vs2 rom above, it can be calculated thatsince

Vs2 = Vs1( vsp2), thenvsp1

Vew = Vs1( vsp2 ) – Vs1 , orvsp1

Equation 11-6

Vew = Vs1( vsp2 )vsp1 – 1

Table 11-4 Thermodynamic Properties o Water at aSaturated Liquid

Temp., °FSpecic Volume,

t3 /lb

40 0.01602

50 0.01602

60 0.0160470 0.01605

80 0.01607

90 0.01610

100 0.01613

110 0.01617

120 0.01620

130 0.01625

140 0.01629

150 0.01634

160 0.01639

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Example 11-1

A domestic hot water system has 1,000 gallons o water. How much will the 1,000 gallons expand roma temperature o 40°F to a temperature o 140°F?

From Table 11-4, vsp1= 0.01602 (at 40°F) and vsp2 = 0.01629 (at 140°F). Utilizing Equation 11-6,

Vew = 1,000

(0.01629

)=

16.9 gallons0.01602 – 1

Note that this is the amount o water expansionand should not be conused with the size o the expan-sion tank needed.

Epansion o Material Will the expansion tank receive all o the water expan-sion? The answer is no, because not just the water isexpanding. The piping and water-heating equipmentexpand with an increase in temperature as well. Anyexpansion o these materials results in less o the wa-ter expansion being received by the expansion tank. Another way o looking at it is as ollows:

Venet = Vew – Vemat

whereVenet = Net expansion o water received by the

expansion tank, gallonsVew = Expansion o water, gallons

Vemat = Expansion o material, gallons

To determine the amount o expansion each mate-rial experiences per a certain change in temperature,look at the coecient o linear expansion or that ma-terial. For copper, the coecient o linear expansionis 9.5 × 10

–6inch/inch/°F, and or steel it is 6.5 × 10

–6

inch/inch/°F. From the coecient o linear expansion,

a material’s coecient o volumetric expansion can bedetermined. The coecient o volumetric expansionis three times the coecient o linear expansion:

ß= 3α

whereß = Volumetric coecient o expansion

α= Linear coecient o expansion

Thus, the volumetric coeicient or copperis 28.5 × 10

–6gallon/gallon/°F, and or steel it is

19.5 × 10–6

gallon/gallon/°F. The material will expandproportionally with an increase in temperature.

Equation 11-7

Vemat = Vmat × ß (T2 – T1)

Making the above substitution and solving or Venet,

Equation 11-8

Venet = Vew – [Vmat1 × ß1 (T2 – T1) + Vmat2 × ß2 (T2 – T1)]

Example 11-2

A domestic hot water system has a water heater madeo steel with a volume o 900 gallons. It has 100 eeto 4-inch piping, 100 eet o 2-inch piping, 100 eeto 1½-inch piping, and 300 eet o ½-inch piping. All o the piping is copper. Assuming that the initialtemperature o the water is 40°F and the nal tem-perature o the water is 140°F, (1) how much will eachmaterial expand, and (2) what is the net expansion o water that an expansion tank will see?

1. Utilizing Equation 11-7 or the steel (materialno. 1), Vmat1 = 900 gallons and Vemat1 = 900(19.5 × 10

–6)(140 – 40) = 1.8 gallons.

For the copper (material no. 2), rst look at Table11-5 to determine the volume o each size o pipe:

4 inches = 100 x 0.67 = 67 gallons

2 inches = 100 x 0.17 = 17 gallons 1½ inches = 100 x 0.10 = 10 gallons

½ inch = 300 x 0.02 = 6 gallons

Total volume o copper piping = 100 gallons

Utilizing Equation 11-7 or copper, Vmat2 = 100gallons and Vemat2 = 100 (28.5 × 10

–6)(140 – 40)

= 0.3 gallon.

2. The initial system volume o water (Vs1) equals Vmat1 + Vmat2, or 900 gallons + 100 gallons.From Example 11-1, 1,000 gallons o watergoing rom 40°F to 140°F expands 16.9 gallons.Thus, utilizing Equation 11-8, Venet = 16.9 –(1.8 + 0.03) = 15 gallons. This is the net amounto water expansion that the expansion tank willsee. Once again, note that this is not the size o the expansion tank needed.

Bole’s Law Ater determining how much water expansion theexpansion tank will see, it is time to look at howthe cushion o air in an expansion tank allows thedesigner to limit the system pressure.

Table 11-5 Nominal Volume o Piping

Pipe Size, in.Volume o Pipe, gal/linear

t o pipe½ 0.02

¾ 0.03

1 0.04

1¼ 0.07

1½ 0.10

2 0.172½ 0.25

3 0.38

4 0.67

6 1.50

8 2.70

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Boyle’s law states that at a constant temperature,

the volume occupied by a given weight o perectgas (including or practical purposes atmosphericair) varies inversely as the absolute pressure (gaugepressure + atmospheric pressure). It is expressed bythe ollowing:

Equation 11-9

P1 V 1 = P2 V 2

whereP1 = Initial air pressure, pounds per square inch

absolute (psia)V 1 = Initial volume o air, gallonsP2 = Final air pressure, psia

V 2 = Final volume o air, gallonsHow does this law relate to sizing expansion tanks

in domestic hot water systems? The air cushion inthe expansion tank provides a space into which theexpanded water can go. The volume o air in thetank decreases as the water expands and enters thetank. As the air volume decreases, the air pressureincreases.

Utilizing Boyle’s law, the initial volume o air (i.e.,the size o the expansion tank) must be based on (1)initial water pressure, (2) desired maximum waterpressure, and (3) change in the initial volume o theair. To utilize the above equation, realize that thepressure o the air equals the pressure o the waterat each condition, and make the assumption that thetemperature o the air remains constant at condition1 and condition 2 in Figure 11-4. This assumption isreasonably accurate i the expansion tank is installedon the cold water side o the water heater. Remember,in sizing an expansion tank, the designer is sizing a tank o air, not a tank o water.

Reerring to Figure 11-4, at condition 1 the tank’sinitial air pressure charge, P1, equals the incoming

water pressure on the other side o the diaphragm.

The initial volume o air in the tank, V 1, is also thesize o the expansion tank. The nal volume o air inthe tank, V 2, also can be expressed as V 1 less the netexpansion o water (Venet). The pressure o the air atcondition 2, P2, is the same pressure as the maximumdesired pressure o the domestic hot water system atthe nal temperature, T2. P2 should always be lessthan the relie valve setting on the water heater.

Utilizing Boyle’s law, P1 V 1 = P2 V 2. Since V 2 = V 1 – Venet, then:

P1 V 1 = P2 (V 1 – Venet)

P1 V 1 = P2 V 1 – P2 Venet

(P2 – P1)V 1 = P2 Venet

V 1 =P2 Venet

P2 – P1

Multiplying both sides o the equation by (1/P2)/ (1/P2), or by 1, the equation becomes:

Equation 11-10

V 1 = Venet

1 – (P1 / P2)

whereV 1 = Size o expansion tank required to

maintain the desired system pressure, P2,gallons Venet = Net expansion o water, gallons

P1 = Incoming water pressure, psia (Note: Absolute pressure is gauge pressure plusatmospheric pressure, or 50 psig = 64.7psia.)

P2 = Maximum desired pressure o water, psia

Example 11-3

Looking again at the domestic hot water systemdescribed in Example 11-2, i the cold water supply

Figure 11-4 Sizing the Expansion Tank


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pressure is 50 psig and the maximum desired waterpressure is 110 psig, what size expansion tank isrequired?

Example 11-2 determined that Venet equals 15gallons. Converting the given pressures to absoluteand utilizing Equation 11-10, the size o the expansiontank needed can be determined as:

V 1 = 15 = 31 gallons1 – (64.7/124.7)

Note: When selecting the expansion tank, makesure the tank’s diaphragm or bladder can accept 15gallons o water (Venet).

SUMMARy Earlier in this section, the ollowing were estab-lished:

Equation 11-6

Vew = Vs1

(vsp2

)vsp1 – 1

Equation 11-8

Venet = Vew – [Vmat1 × ß1 (T2 – T1) + Vmat2 × ß2 (T2 – T1)]

In Equation 11-6, Vs1 was dened as the systemvolume at condition 1. Vs1 also can be expressed interms o Vmat:

Vs1 = Vmat1 + Vmat2

Making this substitution and combining the equa-tions provides the ollowing two equations, whichare required to properly size an expansion tank or a domestic hot water system.

Equation 11-11

Venet = (Vmat1 + Vmat2) ( vsp2

)–vsp1 – 1

[Vmat1 × ß1(T2 – T1) + Vmat2 × ß2(T2 – T1)]

Equation 11-10

V 1 = Venet

1 – (P1 / P2)

where Venet = Net expansion o water seen by the

expansion tank, gallons Vmat = Volume o each material, gallons

vsp = Specic volume o water at each condition,cubic eet per pound ß = Volumetric coecient o expansion o each

material, gallon/gallon/°FT = Temperature o water at each condition, °FP = Pressure o water at each condition, psia

V 1 = Size o expansion tank required, gallons

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In the early 1900s, Halsey Willard Taylor and LutherHaws both invented their own version o the drinking ountain. Haws later patented the rst drinking aucet(see Figure 12-1) in 1911. While the original xturessupplied room-temperature water, demand or chilledwater led to the development o a unit that used large

blocks o ice to chill the water. A later evolution wasa cumbersome foor-standing unit with a belt-drivenammonia compressor used to chill the water.

Today, a plethora o types and aesthetically pleas-ing models o water coolers satises even the mostdemanding applications. The industry is ocused onproviding the highest quality o water while using theleast amount o foor space, allowing water coolersto be installed in heavy-trac areas while satisying code and end-user requirements.

WATER AND THE HUMAN BODy The importance o nutrients is judged by how long the human body can unction without them. Water isessential because humans can subsist or only about

a week without it. It constitutes approximately 75percent o the human body and on average it takeseight cups o water to replenish the water a bodyloses each day.

Water has two primary tasks in the metabolicprocess: It carries nutrients and oxygen to dierent

parts o the body through the bloodstream and lym-phatic system, and it allows the body to remove toxinsand waste through urine and sweat. Furthermore, itregulates body temperature, cushions joints and sottissues, and lubricates articulations, hence balancing the unctions o the body.

Considering the importance o water to the humanbody, the plumbing designer should keep in mind thatthe plumbing codes are nothing more than minimumrequirements; thereore, the designer should evaluatei the code requirements will be sucient to satisythe building occupants’ water needs.

UNITARy COOLERS A mechanically rerigerated drinking-water coolerconsists o a actory-made assembly in one structure.This cooler uses a complete mechanical rerigerationsystem to cool potable water and provide such wateror dispensing by integral and/or remote means.

Water coolers dier rom water chillers. Watercoolers are used to dispense potable water, whereaswater chillers are used in air-conditioning systems orresidential, commercial, and industrial applicationsand in cooling water or industrial processes.

The capacity o a water cooler is the quantity

o water cooled in one hour rom a specied inlettemperature to a specied dispensing temperature,expressed in gallons per hour (gph) (L/h). Standardcapacities o water coolers range rom 1 gph to 30 gph(3.8 L/h to 114 L/h).

Ratings Water coolers are rated on the basis o their continu-ous fow capacity under specied water temperatureand ambient conditions (see Table 12-1). ARI 1010:Sel-Contained, Mechanically Rerigerated Drinking

Figure 12-1 Early Drinking FaucetSource: Haws Corp.

Potable WaterCoolers and

Central WaterSstems12

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Water Coolers provides the gen-erally accepted rating conditionsand reerences test methods asprescribed in ANSI/ASHRAE 18: Methods o Testing or Rating Drinking-Water Coolers with

Sel-Contained Mechanical Re- rigeration.

Water Cooler TpesThe three basic types o watercoolers are:

• Bottled water cooler (seeFigure 12-2), which uses a bottle, or reservoir, to storethe supply o water to becooled and a aucet or similarmeans to ll glasses, cups, orother containers. It also includes a wastewater re-ceptacle. The designer should always check withthe authority having jurisdiction to ensure that a

bottled water cooler satises the local minimumplumbing xture requirements.

• Pressure-typewatercooler(seeFigures12-3and12-4), which is supplied with potable water un-

der pressure and in-cludes a wastewaterreceptacle or meanso disposing water to

a plumbing drainage system. Such coolers can usea aucet or similar means to ll glasses or cups, aswell as a valve to control the fow o water as a projected stream rom a bubbler so water may be

consumed without the use o a glass or cup.

• Remote-typecooler,whichisafactory-assembledsingle structure that uses a complete mechani-cal rerigeration system. Its primary unction isto cool potable water or delivery to a separatelyinstalled dispenser.

Table 12-1 Standard Rating Conditions

Type o Cooler

Temperature, °F (°C)

Ambient Inlet WaterCooledWater

HeatedPotable Water

aSpill(%)

Bottle type 90 (32.2) 90 (32.2) 50 (10) 165 (73.9) None

Pressure type

Utilizing precooler(bubbler service)

90 (32.2) 80 (26.7) 50 (10) 165 (73.9) 60

Not utilizing precooler 90 (32.2) 80 (26.7) 50 (10) 165 (73.9) NoneCompartment type cooler During the standard capacity test, there shall be no melting o ice

in the rerigerated compartment, nor shall the average temperatureexceed 46°F (7.8°C).

Source: ARI Standard 1010, reprinted by permission.

Note: For water-cooled condenser water coolers the established fow o water through the condenser shall not exceed 2.5times the base rate capacity, and the outlet condenser water temperature shall not exceed 130°F (54.4°C). The base ratecapacity o a pressure water cooler having a precooler is the quantity o water cooled in 1 h, expressed in gallons perhour, at the standard rating conditions, with 100% diversion o spill rom the precooler.

aThis temperature shall be reerred to as the “standard rating temperature” (heating).

Figure 12-2 Bottled Water Cooler

Figure 12-4 Pressure-Type PedestalWater Cooler

Source: Halsey Taylor

Figure 12-3 Wheelchair-AccessiblePressure-Type Water Cooler



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Chapter 12 — Potable Water Coolers and Central Water Systems 217

In addition to these three basic types, water cool-ers are categorized by specialized conditions o use,additional unctions they perorm, or the type o installation, as described below.

Special-Purpose Water Coolers

Explosion-proo water coolers are constructed orsae operation in hazardous locations (volatile atmo-

spheres), as classied in Article 500 o the NationalElectrical Code.

Vandal-resistant water coolers are made or heavy-use applications such as in schools or prisons.

Extreme climate water coolers include rost re-sistance or occasional cold temperatures and reezeprotection or those used during sustained cold tem-peratures.

A caeteria-type cooler is supplied with waterunder pressure rom a piped system and is intended

primarily or use in caeterias and restaurants to dis-pense water rapidly and conveniently into glasses orpitchers. It includes a means or disposing wastewaterto a plumbing drainage system.

A drainless water cooler is a pressure-type coolersupplied by ¼-inch tubing rom an available watersupply and does not have a waste connection. As withthe bottled water cooler, a drip cup sits on a pressureswitch to activate a solenoid valve on the inlet sup-ply to shut o the supply by the weight o the waterin the cup.

Water coolers that accommodate wheelchairs areavailable in several styles. In the original design, thechilling unit was mounted behind the backsplash,with a surace-mounted bubbler projecting 14 inchesrom the wall, enabling a person in a wheelchair toroll under the xture. In today’s wheelchair-accessibleunits, the chilling unit is located below the level o thebasin (see Figures 12-3 and 12-5), with the bubblerprojecting rom the wall at such a height that a person

in a wheelchair can roll under it. Dual-height designs(see Figures 12-6 and 12-7), also known as barrier-ree, are the most popular designs today. These unitsrecognize the needs o able-bodied individuals, thosewith bending diculties, and those in wheelchairs ata consolidated location. In ully recessed accessibledesigns, or barrier-ree inverted, the chilling unit ismounted above the dispenser to allow a recess underthe ountain or wheelchair access. When using this

Figure 12-5 Wheelchair-Accessible UnitSource: Halsey Taylor

Figure 12-6 Dual-Height DesignSource: Halsey Taylor

Figure 12-7 Dual-Height Design with Chilling UnitMounted Above Dispenser

Source: Haws Corp.

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Figure 12-8 Fully RecessedWater Cooler


style, the designer should ensure thatthe grill vanes go upward and that therecess is o sucient depth and widthor a person in a wheelchair. (For ad-ditional inormation on ADA-compliantxtures, reer to Plumbing Engineering

Design Handbook, Volume 1, Chapter 6,

“Plumbing or People with Disabilities”and ICC/ANSI A117.1: Accessible andUseable Buildings and Facilities. Childrequirements are based on the nal rul-ing o the U.S. Access Board.)

The dierent types o water coolerinstallations include the ollowing:

• Freestanding(seeFigure12-4)

• Wall hung (see Figures 12-3, 12-5,and 12-6)

• Fullyrecessed(seeFigure12-8),al-lowing an unobstructed path

• Fullyrecessedwithaccessories(seeFigure 12-9)

• Fullyrecessedbarrier-free(seeFig -ure 12-10), or wheelchair access

• Semi-recessedorsimulatedrecessed(see Figure 12-11)

Options and AccessoriesThe designer should consider all ac-cessories and options to satisy projectrequirements. Water coolers are avail-able with several dierent options:

• Activation devices, such as hands-ree, sensor-operated, oot pedals, orpush bottoms and push bars

• Glassorpitcherllers,suchaspushlever or push down

• Bottle llers, an industry responseto new trends that aim to eliminateplastic water bottles (see Figure 12-12)

• Iceand/orcupdispensers,hotwaterdispensers, water lters, and reriger-ated compartments

• Cane apron, an accessorydesigned

to bring wall-hung, dual-mount watercoolers into ADA compliance

• Bubblers, including standard, van-dal resistant, and fexible, which is con-structed o pliable polyester elastomerthat fexes on impact beore returning to its original position to help protectagainst accidental injuries. Flexiblebubblers usually contain an antimicro-bial agent blended into the plastic to

Figure 12-9 Fully Recessed Water Coolerwith Accessories


Figure 12-10 Fully Recessed,Barrier-Free Water Cooler

Source: Oasis

Figure 12-11 Semi-Recessed orSimulated Recessed Water Cooler



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prevent bacteria rom multiplying on the suraceo the bubbler.

Water Cooler Components Water coolers may contain any o the ollowing com-ponents (see Figure 12-13):

1. Antimicrobial saety

2. Stainless steel basin3. Activation, such as push button, push bar, or in-

rared

4. Stream height regulator, which automaticallymaintains a constant stream height

5. Water system, manuactured o copper compo-nents or other lead-ree materials

6. Compressor and motor

7. Non-pressurized cooling tank

8. Fan motor and blade

9. Condenser coil, n or tube type

10. Drier, which prevents internal moisture romcontaminating the rerigeration system

11. Drain outlet with 1¼-inch slip-joint tting

12. Preset cooler control

13. Water inlet connection (not shown), which ac-

cepts ⅜-inch outside diameter tubing or hookupto incoming water line

14. Inline strainer (not shown)

15. Water ltration

Stream RegulatorsSince the principal unction o a pressure-type water

cooler is to provide a drinkable stream o cold waterrom a bubbler, it usually is provided with a valve tomaintain a constant stream height, independent o supply pressure. A fow rate o 0.5 gallon per minute(gpm) (0.03 L/s) rom the bubbler generally is acceptedas providing an optimum stream or drinking.

REFRIGERATION SySTEMS As stipulated in the Montreal Protocol o 1987 andsubstantially amended in 1990 and 1992, HFC-134a rerigerant replaced the use o chlorofuorocarbons(CFCs), which have been implicated in the acceler-ated depletion o the ozone layer. HFC-134a is a

commercially available, environmentally acceptablehydrofuorocarbon (HFC) commonly used as a rerig-erant in HVAC systems.

Hermetically sealed motor compressors commonlyare used or alternating-current (AC) applications,both 50 hertz (Hz) and 60 Hz. Belt-driven compressorsgenerally are used only or direct-current (DC) and25-Hz supply. The compressors are similar to those

Figure 12-12 Bottle FillerSource: Elkay

Figure 12-13 Water Cooler Accessories

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used in household rerigerators and range rom 0.08horsepower (hp) to 0.5 hp (0.06 kW to 0.37 kW).

Forced air-cooled condensers are most commonlyused. In coolers rated less than 10 gallons per hour(gph) (38 L/h), natural convection, air-cooled (static)condensers sometimes are included. Water-cooledcondensers o tube-on-tube construction are used onmodels intended or high ambient temperatures orwhere lint and dust in the air make air-cooled typesimpractical.

Capillary tubes are used almost exclusively or re-rigerant fow control in hermetically sealed systems.

Pressure-type coolers oten are equipped withprecoolers to transer heat rom the supply waterto the wastewater. When drinking rom a bubblerstream, the user wastes about 60 percent o the coldwater down the drain. In a precooler, the incoming water is put in a heat exchange relationship withthe wastewater. Sometimes the cold wastewater alsois used to subcool the liquid rerigerant. A precooler

with this arrangement is called an economizer. Cool-ers intended only to dispense water into cups arenot equipped with precoolers since no appreciablequantity o water is wasted.

Most water coolers manuactured today consist o an evaporator ormed by rerigerant tubing bondedto the outside o a water circuit. The water circuit isusually a tank or a coil o large tubing. Materials usedin the water circuit are usually nonerrous or stain-less steel. Since the coolers dispense water or humanconsumption, sanitary requirements are essential (seeUL 399: Drinking Water Coolers).

Water coolers that also provide a rerigerated

storage space, commonly reerred to as compartmentcoolers, have the same control compromises commonto all rerigeration devices that attempt two-temper-ature rerigeration using a single compressor. Mostbottle-type compartment coolers are provided with thesimplest series system, one in which the rerigeranteeds rst to a water-cooling coil and then through a restrictor device to the compartment. When the com-pressor operates, both water cooling and compartmentcooling take place. The thermostat usually is locatedto be more aected by the compartment temperature,so the amount o compressor operation and watercooling available depends considerably on the usage

o the compartment.Some compartment coolers, generally pressure

types, are equipped with more elaborate systems,ones in which separate thermostats and solenoidvalves are used to switch the rerigerant fow rom a common high side to either the water-cooling evapora-tor or the compartment evaporator. A more recentlydeveloped method o obtaining the two-temperatureunction uses two separate and distinct systems, each

having its own compressor, high side, rerigerantfow-metering device, and controls.

WATER CONDITIONINGMost water coolers are classied by UL in accordancewith NSF/ANSI 61: Drinking Water System Compo-nents—Health Eects and the Sae Drinking Water Act, which protects public health by regulating thenation’s public drinking water and its sources. Also,this legislation makes proessional engineers, contrac-tors, architects, building owners, and maintenancesta responsible or the quality o water dispensedrom the equipment and xtures they provide.

The eects o lead are devastating to the humanbody, as it accumulates on vital organs and alters theneurological system. Children are particular sensitiveto lead because their bodies and vital organs are stilldeveloping. Even in low concentrations, lead can hin-der growth and cause learning disabilities. High leadlevels also can cause seizures, unconsciousness, and,

in extreme cases, death rom encephalopathy.

CHILLERSTORAGE TANK

BASEMENT

1ST FLOOR

2ND FLOOR

3RD FLOOR

4TH FLOOR

5TH FLOOR

6TH FLOOR

7TH FLOOR

WATERFILTER

(OPTIONAL)

RECIRCULATINGPUMP

DOMESTICWATERSUPPLY

CHILLEDWATERSUPPLY

DRINKINGFOUNTAIN

(TYPICAL)

CIRCULATINGWATERRETURN

AIRVENT

BALANCINGVALVE

ISOLATIONVALVE

RISERSHUT-OFFVALVE

8TH FLOOR

9TH FLOOR

10THFLOOR

Figure 12-14 Upeed Central System


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In cases where the quality o a building’s watersupply is a concern, manuacturer units can beequipped with lead-reduction systems designed toremove cysts, lead particles, and chlorine. Methodsto avoid and remove lead beore it enters the wateror the cooler include the ollowing:

• Lead-absorbentlters,forinstallationonthein-

coming water to the cooler• Reverseosmosis(RO)systems,whichcanbebuilt

into the water cooler

• Lead-free plumbing products complying withNSF/ANSI 61 Annex G and NSF/ANSI 372: Drinking Water System Components—Lead Con-tent

CENTRAL SySTEMS A central chilled drinking water system typically isdesigned to provide water at 50°F (10°C) to the drink-ing ountains. Water is cooled to 45°F (7.2°C) at the

central plant, thus allowing or a 5°F (2.8°C) increasein the distribution system. System working pressures

generally are limited to 125 pounds per square inchgauge (psig) (861 kPa). (The designer should checkthe local code or the maximum pressure allowed.) A central chilled drinking water system should beconsidered in any building, such as a multistory ocebuilding, where eight or more drinking ountains arestacked one above the other.

Components A central chilled drinking water system consists o thechilling unit, distribution piping, drinking ountains,and controls.

Chilling Unit

The chiller may be a built-up or actory-assembledunit, but most installations use actory-assembledunits. In either case, the chiller consists o the ol-lowing:

• Asemi-hermetic,direct-drivencompressorusingHFC-134a

• Acondenser ofthe shell-and-tube orshell-and-

coil type (water- or air-cooled)

• Adirect-expansionwatercooleroftheshell-and-tube type, with a separate eld-connected stor-age tank or an immersion-type coil installed inthe storage tank. I a separate tank is used, a circulating pump normally is needed to circulatethe water between the evaporator and the tank.Evaporator temperatures o 30°F to 34°F (-1.1°Cto 1.1°C) are used.

• An adequately sized storage tank to accommo-date the fuctuating demands o a multiple-outletsystem. Without a tank or with a tank that is too

small, the fuctuations will cause overloading or short-cycling, causing excessive wear on theequipment. The tank must be o nonerrous con-struction. The evaporator mounted in the tankshould be o the same construction as the tank toreduce galvanic action.

• Circulatingpumps,normallyofthebronze-tted,close-coupled, single-stage type with mechanicalseals. For systems designed or 24-hour opera-tion, duplex pumps are installed, with alternating controls allowing each pump to be used 12 hoursper day.

• Controls consisting of high- and low-pressure

cutouts, reeze protection, and thermostatic con-trol to limit the temperature o the water leaving the chiller. A fow switch or dierential pressurecontrol also should be provided to stop the com-pressor when there is no fow through the cooler. Another desirable item is a time switch that canbe used to operate the plant during periods o building occupancy.

Figure 12-15 Downeed Central System

1ST FLOOR

2ND FLOOR

3RD FLOOR

4TH FLOOR

5TH FLOOR

6TH FLOOR

BALANCINGVALVE

MECHANICALPENTHOUSE

BASEMENT

DRINKINGFOUNTAIN

(TYPICAL)

CIRCULATINGWATER

RETURN

RECIRCULATINGPUMP

CHILLERSTORAGE TANK

AIRVENT

CHILLEDWATER

SUPPLY

WATERFILTER

(OPTIONAL)

DOMESTICWATERSUPPLY

DRINKINGFOUNTAIN

(TYPICAL)

7TH FLOOR

8TH FLOOR

9TH FLOOR

10THFLOOR

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Distribution Piping System

The distribution piping delivers chilled water to thedrinking ountains. Systems can be upeed as shownin Figure 12-14 or downeed as shown in Figure 12-15. The piping can be copper, brass, or plastic (CPVC,PP, or PEX) designed or a working pressure o 125psig (861 kPa).

The makeup cold water lines are the same mate-rial as the distribution piping. When the water supplyhas objectionable characteristics, such as high ironor calcium content, or contains odorierous gases insolution, a lter should be installed in the makeupwater line.

Insulation is necessary on all distribution pip-

ing and the storage tanks. The insulation should beglass ber or closed cell oam insulation—such asthat normally used on chilled-water piping—with a conductivity ( k) o 0.22 (32) at a 50°F (10°C) meantemperature and a vapor barrier jacket, or equal. Allvalves and piping, including the branch to the xture,should be insulated. The waste piping rom the drink-ing ountain, including the trap, should be insulated.This insulation is the same as is recommended or useon cold water lines.

Drinking Fountains

Any standard drinking ountain (see Figure 12-16)can be used in a central drinking water system.However, the automatic volume or stream regulatorprovided with the ountain must be capable o provid-ing a constant stream height rom the bubbler withinlet pressures up to 125 psig (861 kPa).

Sstem Design Rerigeration

For an oce building, a usage load o 5 gph (19 L/h)per ountain or an average corridor and oce is nor-mal. The water consumption or other occupancies isgiven in Table 12-2. Table 12-3 is used to convert theusage load in gph (L/h) to the rerigeration load inBritish thermal units per hour (Btuh) (W). The heatgain rom the distribution piping system is based ona circulating water temperature o 45°F (7.2°C). Table12-4 lists the heat gains or various ambient tempera-tures. The length o all lines must be included when

calculating the heat gain in the distribution piping.Table 12-5 tabulates the heat input rom variouslysized circulating pump motors.

The total cooling load consists o the heat removedrom the makeup water, heat gains rom the piping,heat gains rom the storage tank, and heat inputrom the pumps. A saety actor o 10 to 20 percent isadded beore selecting a condensing unit. The size o the saety actor is governed by usage. For example,in a building with weekend shutdowns, the highersaety actor allows pickup when reopening the build-ing on Monday morning when the total volume o water in the system would need to be cooled to the

operating temperature. Since the water to the chilleris a mixture o makeup and return water, the chillerselection should be based on the resultant mixedwater temperature.

Circulating Pump

The circulating pump is sized to circulate a minimumo 3 gpm (0.2 L/s) per branch or the gpm (L/s) neces-sary to limit the temperature rise o the circulatorywater to 5°F (2.8°C), whichever is greater. Table 12-6lists the circulating pump capacity needed to limit thetemperature rise o the circulated water to 5°F (2.8°C).I a separate pump is used to circulate water between

the evaporator and the storage tank, the energy inputto this pump must be included in the heat gain.

Storage Tank

The storage tank’s capacity should be at least 50percent o the hourly usage. The hourly usage maybe selected rom Table 12-2.

Distribution Piping

General criteria or sizing the distribution piping or a central chilled drinking water system are asollows:


Figure 12-16 Drinking Fountains

Source: Haws Corp.


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Table 12-3 Rerigeration Load

Btu/Gal (W/L) Cooled to 45°F (7.2°C)

Water inlet temp., °F (° C) 65 (18.3) 70 (21.1) 75 (23.9) 80 (26.7) 85 (29.4) 90 (32.2)

Btu/gal 167 (13) 208 (17) 250 (20) 291 (23) 333 (27) 374 (30)

Multiply load or 1 gal (L) by total gph (L/h).

Table 12-2 Drinking Water Requirements

Location

Bubbler Service: PersonsServed Per Gallon (Liter) oStandard Rating Capacity

Cup Service: PersonsServed Per Gallon (Liter)o Base Rate Capacity

Oces 12 (3) 30 (8)Hospitals 12 (3) —

Schools 12 (3) —

Light manuacturing 7 (2) —

Heavy manuacturing 5 (2) —

Hot heavy manuacturing 4 (1) —

Restaurants 10 (3)

Caeterias 12 (3)

Hotels (corridors) —

Required Rated Capacity per Bubbler, gph (L/h)

One Bubbler Two or More BubblersRetail stores, hotel lobbies,oce building lobbies

12 (3) 5 (20) 5 (20)

Public assembly halls,amusement parks, airs, etc. 100 (26) 20–25(80–100) 15 (60)

Theaters 19 (5) 10 (40) 7.5 (30)

Source: Reprinted rom ARI Standard 1010, by permission.

Note: Based on standard rating conditions, with delivered water at 50°F (10°C).

• Limitthemaximumvelocity ofthewaterin thecirculating piping to 3 eet per second (ps) (0.9m/s) to prevent the water rom having a milky ap-pearance.

• Avoid excessive frictionhead losses. The energynecessary to circulate the water enters the wateras heat and requires additional capacity in the wa-

ter chiller. Accepted practice limits the maximumriction loss to 10 eet (3 m) o head per 100 eet(30 m) o pipe.

• Dead-endpiping,suchasthatfromthemainriserto the ountain, should be kept as short as possi-ble, and in no event should it exceed 25 eet (7.6 m)in length. The maximum diameter o such dead-end piping should not exceed⅜-inch (9.5-mm) ironpipe size (IPS), except on very short runs.

• Sizepipingonthetotalnumberofgallonscircu-lated. This includes gallons consumed plus gallonsnecessary or heat leakage.

General criteria or the design layout o piping or a central chilled drinking water system are as ollows:

• Keeppiperunsasstraightaspossiblewithamini-mum number o osets.

• Use long sweepttingswherever possible tore-duce riction loss.

• Ingeneral,limitthemaximumpressuredevelopedin any portion o the system to 80 psi (552 kPa). I the height o a building should cause pressures inexcess o 80 psi (552 kPa), divide the building intotwo or more systems.

• Ifmorethanonebranchlineisused, installbal-ancing cocks on each branch.

• Provide a pressure relief valve and air vents athigh points in the chilled water loop.

The ollowing example illustrates the calculationsrequired to design a central chilled drinking watersystem.

Example 12-1

Design a central drinking water system or the build-ing in Figure 12-15. The net foor area is 14,600 squareeet (1,356 square meters) per foor, and occupancyis assumed to be 100 square eet (9.3 m

2) per person.

Domestic water is available at the top o the building,with 15-psig (103-kPa) pressure. Applicable codes are

the Uniorm Plumbing Code and the Uniorm Build-ing Code.

First calculate the number o drinking ountainsrequired. The occupancy is 146 people per loor(14,600/100). The Uniorm Building Code requiresone ountain on each foor or every 75 people, so

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146/74 = 1.94 ountains per foor. Thereore, use twoountains per foor, or a total o 20 ountains.

Calculate the estimated ountain usage. FromTable 12-2, (146 × 0.083)/2 = 6 gph (22.7 L/h) perountain.

Then determine the total anticipated makeup wa-ter. 6 gph × 10 ountains = 60 gph per riser, or 120gph or two risers (22.7 L/h × 10 ountains = 227 L/h

per riser, or 454 L/h or two risers).The rerigeration load to cool the makeup water is

determined rom Table 12-3. Assuming 70°F (21.1°C)water inlet temperature, 120 gph × 208 Btuh per gal-lon = 25,000 Btuh (454 L/h × 16 W/L = 7,300 W).

Determination o heat gain in piping requires pipesizes, but these sizes cannot be accurately knownuntil the heat gains rom the makeup water, piping,storage tank, and pumps are known. Thereore, as-sume 1-inch (25-mm) diameter chilled water risers,circulation line, and distribution piping to the risers.Then, the heat gains in the piping system are as ol-lows (rom Table 12-4):

Risers: (120 eet) (490 Btu/100 eet) (2 risers) =1,189 Btuh (349 W)

Distribution mains: (90 eet) (490 Btu/100 eet) =440 Btuh (129 W)

Return riser: (330 eet) (490 Btu/100 eet) =1,620 Btuh (475 W)

Total piping heat gain = 3,249 Btuh (953 W)The water that must be cooled and circulated is

at a minimum o 3 gpm (11.4 L/h) per riser, or a totalo 6 gpm (22.7 L/h).

Next, calculate the rerigeration load due to thecirculating pump input. The pump head can be de-termined rom data given in Table 12-7 and Figure

12-15. The results o the calculations are given inTable 12-8, with the indicated pumping requirementsbeing 6 gpm (22.7 L/h) at a 25.77-oot (7.85-m) head.Data rom one manuacturer indicates that a ¾-hp

(0.56-kW) motor is needed. From Table 12-5, the heatinput o the pump motor is 1,908 Btuh (559 W).

Finally, calculate the rerigeration load due to thestorage tank heat gain. The tank is normally sizedor 50 percent o the total hourly demand. Thus, or100 gph (379 L/h), a 50-gallon (190-L) tank would beused. This is approximately the capacity o a standard16-inch (406-mm) diameter, 60-inch (1,524-mm) long tank. Assume 1½-inch (38-mm) insulation, 45°F(7.2°C) water, with the tank in a 90°F (32.2°C) room. Assume an insulation conductivity o 0.13 Btuh persquare oot

(0.4 W/m

2). The surace area o the tank

is about 24 square eet (2.2 m2). Thus, the heat gain

is 24 x 0.13 x (90 – 45) = 140 Btuh (41 W).Thus, the load summary is as ollows:

Item Heat Gain, Btuh (W)Makeup water 25,000 (7,325)

Piping 3,240 (949)

Pump heat input 1,908 (559)

Storage tank 140 (41)

Subtotal 30, 288 (8,874)20 percent saety actor 6,050 (1,773)

Required chiller capacity 36,338 (10,647)

Installation

A supply stop should be used so the unit may be ser-viced or replaced without shutting down the watersystem. Also, the designer should consult local, state,and ederal codes or proper mounting height.

STANDARDS, CODES, ANDREGULATIONS Whether a sel-contained (unitary) cooler or a central

chilled water system, most mechanical installationsare subject to regulation by local codes. They mustcomply with one or more plumbing, rerigeration,electrical, and accessibility codes. The majority o such local codes are based on model codes preparedby associations o nationally recognized experts.

Table 12-4 Circulating System Line Loss

Pipe Size, in.(mm)

Btu/h per FtPer °F

(W/°C/m)

Btu/h per 100 Ft (W per 100 m)[45°F (7.2°C) Circulating Water]

Room Temperature, °F (°C)

70 (21.1) 80 (26.7) 90 (32.2)½ (13) 0.110 (0.190) 280 (269) 390 (374) 500 (480)

¾ (19) 0.119 (0.206) 300 (288) 420 (403) 540 (518)1 (25) 0.139 (0.240) 350 (336) 490 (470) 630 (605)

1¼ (32) 0.155 (0.268) 390 (374) 550 (528) 700 (672)

1½ (38) 0.174 (0.301) 440 (422) 610 (586) 790 (758)

2 (51) 0.200 (0.346) 500 (480) 700 (672) 900 (864)

2½ (64) 0.228 (0.394) 570 (547) 800 (768) 1030 (989)

3 (76) 0.269 (0.465) 680 (653) 940 (902) 1210 (1162)

Table 12-6 Circulating Pump Capacity

Pipe Size,in. (mm)

Room Temperature, °F (°C)

70 (21.1) 80 (26.7) 90 (32.2)½ (13) 8.0 (99) 11.1 (138) 14.3 (177)

¾ (19) 8.4 (104) 11.8 (146) 15.2 (188)

1 (25) 9.1 (113) 12.8 (159) 16.5 (205)

1¼ (32) 10.4 (129) 14.6 (181) 18.7 (232)1½ (38) 11.2 (139) 15.7 (195) 20.2 (250)

Notes

1. Capacities are in gph per 100 t (L/h per 100 m) o pipe including all branchlines necessary to circulate to limit temperature rise to 5°F (2.8°C) [water at45°F (7.2°C)].

2. Add 20% or a saety actor. For pump head, gure longest branch only. Installpump on the return line to discharge into the cooling unit. Makeup connectionshould be between the pump and the cooling unit.

Table 12-5 Circulating Pump Heat Input

Motor, Hp (kW) ¼ (0.19) 1 ⁄ 3(0.25) ½ (0.37) ¾ (0.56) 1 (0.75)

Btu/h (W) 636 (186) 850 (249) 1272 (373) 1908 (559) 2545 (746)


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Table 12-7 Friction o Water in Pipes

gpm (L/h)

½-in. (13-mm) Pipe ¾-in. (19-mm) Pipe 1-in. (25-mm) Pipe 1¼-in. (32-mm) Pipe 1½-in. (38-mm) Pipe

Velocity,t/s (m/s)

Head, t(m)

Velocity,t/s (m/s)

Head, t(m)

Velocity,t/s (m/s)

Head, t(m)

Velocity,t/s (m/s)

Head, t(m)

Velocity,t/s (m/s)

Head, t(m)

1 (227) 1.05 (0.32) 2.1 (0.64) — — — — — — — —

2 (454) 2.10 (0.64) 7.4 (2.26) 1.20 (0.37) 1.90 (0.58) — — — — — —

3 (681) 3.16 (0.96) 15.8 (4.82) 1.80 (0.55) 4.1 (1.25) 1.12 (0.34) 1.26 (0.38) — — — —

4 (912) — — 2.41 (0.73) 7.0 (2.13) 1.49 (0.65) 2.14 (0.65) 0.86 (0.26) 0.57 (0.17) — —5 (1,135) — — 3.01 (0.92) 10.5 (3.20) 1.86 (0.57) 3.25 (0.99) 1.07 (0.33) 0.84 (0.26) 0.79 (0.24) 0.40 (0.12)

10 (2,270) — — — — 3.72 (1.13) 11.7 (3.57) 2.14 (0.65) 3.05 (0.93) 1.57 (0.48) 1.43 (0.44)

15 (3,405) — — — — — — 3.20 (0.98) 6.50 (1.98) 2.36 (0.72) 3.0 (0.91)

20 (4,540) — — — — — — — — 3.15 (0.96) 5.2 (1.58)

Note: Table gives loss o head in eet (meters) due to riction per 100 t (30 m) o smooth straight pipe.

Municipalities choose one o these model codes andmodiy it to suit local conditions. For this reason, it isimportant to reer to the code used in the locality andto consult the authority having jurisdiction.

Local rerigeration codes vary considerably. TheUniorm Building Code sets up guide regulations per-taining to the installation o rerigeration equipment.It is similar in most requirements to ANSI/ASHRAE15: Saety Standard or Rerigeration Systems, withsome notable exceptions. Thereore, it is important

to careully apply the local code in the design o thererigeration portion o a chilled drinking water sys-tem. Other local codes that merit careul review arethe electrical regulations as they apply to controls,disconnection switches, power wiring, and ASMErequirements or tanks and piping.

In addition to ARI 1010 and ANSI/ASHRAE 18,UL 399 covers saety and sanitation requirements.Federal Specication WW-P-541: Plumbing Fixtures,among others, usually is prescribed by governmentpurchasers.

NSF/ANSI 61 is intended to cover specic materi-als or products that come into contact with drinking water, drinking water treatment chemicals, or both.The ocus o the standard is the evaluation o contami-nants or impurities imparted indirectly to drinking water.

A ew states, including Caliornia, Vermont,Maryland, and Louisiana, have enacted “lead-ree”legislation applicable to any product that dispensesor conveys water or human consumption. (Note that

this does not replace NSF/ANSI 61 requirements.)Federal legislation revising the denition or “leadree” within the Sae Drinking Water Act as it pertainsto pipe, pipe ttings, and xtures will go into eecton January 4, 2014.

Many local plumbing codes apply directly to watercoolers. Primarily, these codes are directed towardeliminating any possibility o cross-connection be-tween the potable water system and the wastewater(or rerigerant) system. Thereore, most coolers aremade with double-wall construction to eliminate thepossibility o confict with any code.

Table 12-8 Pressure Drop Calculations or Example 12-1

Froma

Pipe Length, t (m)Water Flow,

gpm (L/h)Selected gpm

Size, in.

Pressure Drop, t (m) CumulativePressure Drop,

t (m)Actual Equivalentb

100 t Actual tA to B 30(9) 45(14) 6(23) 1 5.0(1.5) 2.25 (0.7) 2.25(0.7)

B to D 180(55) 270(82) 3(11.5) 1 1.3(0.4) 3.5 (1.1) 5.75(1.8)

D to A 270(82) 406(124) 6(23) 1 5.0(I.5) 20.02 (6.1) 25.77(7.9)

a Reer to Figure 12-15.bIncrease 50% to allow or ttings. I an unusually large number o ttings is used, each should be considered or its actual contribution to pressure drop.

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Pretreatment o eluent prior to discharge is a requirement established by ederal legislation andimplemented by ederal regulations and state andlocal legislation. Pretreatment requirements ap-ply to both direct discharges (i.e., to drain elds,streams, lakes, and oceans) and indirect discharges

as in collection systems leading to treatment works.Pretreatment is required o all industrial discharges,which includes all discharges other than those roma domestic residence.

Pretreatment can involve the removal o metals,adjustment o pH, and removal o organic compounds.CFR Title 40: Protection o Environment, publishedby the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),denes pretreatment as “the reduction o the amounto pollutants, or the alteration o the nature o pol-lutant properties in wastewater prior to or in lieu o discharging or otherwise introducing such pollutants

into a POTW [publicly owned treatment works]. Thereduction or alteration may be obtained by physical,chemical, or biological processes, process changes, orby other means, except as prohibited.”

Bioremediation is a pretreatment method thatsimultaneously removes a pollutant rom the wastestream and disposes o it by altering its chemical orphysical structure such that it no longer depreci-ates water quality (in the case o direct discharges)or causes intererence or pass-through (in the caseo indirect discharges). Generally speaking, biore-mediation can be described as the action o living organisms on organic or inorganic compounds to

reduce in complexity or destroy the compound. Typi-cally, bioremediation processes are conducted at thesource o the pollutant to avoid transporting largequantities o polluted wastewater or concentrationso pollutants. The most common application o biore-mediation to plumbing systems is or the disposal o ats, oils, and grease (FOG).

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATIONBioremediation systems, as described here, do notinclude the practice o adding enzymes, bacteria, nu-

trients, or combinations thereo (additives) to greasewaste drainage, grease traps, or grease interceptors.The use o additives in conventional apparatus is a cleaning method resulting in the removal o FOGrom the apparatus and its deposition downstream.Recombined FOG is usually a dense orm, which is

more dicult to remove rom sewer mains and litstations than the substance not altered by the ap-plication o additives.

Bioremediation systems are engineered systemscontaining the essential elements o a bioreactorthat can be operated by the kinetic energy impartedrom fowing water or mechanically agitated by vari-ous pumping and aeration methods. Bioremediationsystems can be aerobic (requiring oxygen or themetabolic activity o the organisms), anaerobic (notrequiring oxygen), or a combination o both. The typeo bioremediation system employed is determined

mainly by the target compound and the organismsnecessary to metabolize that compound. In the caseo FOG, typically the application o bioremediationis aerobic. Figure 13-1 shows a kinetically operatedaerobic bioremediation system.

Central to the operation o all on-site bioremedia-tion systems applied to FOG are:

• Separation, or the removal o FOG rom thedynamic waste fow

• Retention, allowing the cleaned wastewater toescape, except or the static water content o thedevice

• Disposal, or the metabolic disassembly o FOGto its elements o hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon,usually in the orm o water and carbon dioxide

Incidental to the application o a bioremediationsystem to FOG are:

• Sizing, or the calculation o the potential maximumfow over a designated interval

• Food solids removal rom the liquid wastestream

BioremediationPretreatment

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• Placement, to minimize the length o untreatedgrease waste piping

SeparationSeparation o FOG with the greatest eciency, mea-sured as the percentage o FOG present in the wastestream and the time necessary to eect separation,is essential to the accomplishment o retention and

disposal. The standards or this measurement arePDI G101, PDI G102, and ASME A112.14.6. Separa-tion can be eected by simple gravity fotation, inwhich case the device must be o sucient volumeto provide the proper retention time and quiescenceto allow ascension o suspended FOG (see Chapter8). Separation also can be eected by coalescence,coagulation, centriugation, dissolved air fotation,and skimming. In these instances, or a given fow,the device is typically smaller in dimension than inthe gravity fotation design.

Because ood particles generally have a specicgravity greater than 1 and are oleophilic, the pres-ence o ood particles materially intereres with theecient separation o FOG rom the waste stream.Food grinders typically are not used upstream o bioremediation systems or this reason and becauseo the increased biological oxygen demand (BOD) thatthe additional waste places on the system.

RetentionThe retention o FOG in a bioremediation systemis essential to its disposal by a reduction in its con-stituent elements. Retention is acilitated by bafes,

compartmentalization, or sedimentation, depending on the system design. Because only 15 percent o sus-pended FOG (at a specic gravity o 0.85) is above thewater’s surace, bioremediation systems that retainFOG a greater distance rom dynamic fows generallyhave greater retention eciencies and capacities thanthose that rely on suspension alone.

DisposalThe disposal o FOG by biochemical processes withinan on-site system is the most distinguishing eatureo bioremediation systems. The organisms respon-sible or metabolizing the FOG may be endemic tothe waste stream or, more likely, seeded by means o a timed or fow-sensitive metering device. Crucial toa disposal unction equal to ongoing separation andretention rates is a sucient population o organismsin contact with the FOG. While this is a unction o sizing (see the section on sizing guidelines later in thischapter), it is also a unction o system design.

The mechanism typically utilized to provide a stable, structured population o organisms in a biore-mediation system is a biolm, which is a controlledbiological ecosystem that protects multiple specieso organisms rom washouts, biocides, and changing environmental conditions in the bioremediation sys-tem. Biolm orms when bacteria adhere to suracesin aqueous environments and begin to excrete a slimy,glue-like substance that can anchor them to manymaterials, such as metals, plastics, soil particles,medical implants, and tissue.

Figure 13-1 Kinetically Operated Aerobic Bioremediation System


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Chapter 13 — Bioremediation Pretreatment Systems 229

Biolms are cultivated on structures o variouscongurations o the greatest possible surace area pergiven volume. The structure or structures generallyare reerred to as media. The media may be xed (i.e.,stationary relative to the device and the waste fow),moved by a mechanism such as a series o rotating discs or small, ball-shaped elements, or moved ran-domly by the energy o the waste stream fow and/orpump or aerator agitation.

The organisms inhabiting a biolm reduce theFOG to carbon dioxide and water through a processcalled beta oxidation, in which atty acid chains areshortened by the successive removal o two carbonragments rom the carboxyl end o the chain. Biore-mediation systems utilizing structured biolms aremuch more resistant to the eects o biocides, deter-gents, and other chemicals requently ound in kitchenefuent than systems using planktonic application o organisms. The eciency o bioremediation systemsin terms o disposal depends on the total surace area

o the media relative to the quantity o FOG separatedand retained, the viability and species diversity o thebiolm, system sizing, and installation.

FLOW CONTROLFlow control is sometimes used with bioremediationsystems depending on system design. When fowcontrol devices are prescribed by the manuacturer,generally they are best located near the discharge o the xtures they serve. However, because bioreme-diation systems are engineered systems, the use andplacement o system elements are prescribed by themanuacturer. In instances in which elements o a

bioremediation system may be common to the plumb-ing industry, the manuacturer’s prescription or theapplication o those elements to the system shall pre-vail over common practice or code requirements.

SIZING GUIDELINESThese guidelines are intended as a tool or the engi-neer to quantiy the maximum hydraulic potentialrom a given acility. Typically, xture unit equiva-lency prediction sizing methods and other estimationtools based on utilization rate weighted actors arenot acceptable sizing tools or bioremediation sys-tems. Bioremediation systems must be capable o

accommodating maximum hydraulic events withoutexperiencing upset, blockage, or pass-through.

The sizing procedure is as ollows:

1. Fixture inventory: Itemize every xture capableo liquid discharge to the grease waste piping system including but not limited to sinks, hoods,ware washers, foor sinks and drains, and kettles.Grinder pulpers are generally not discharged tobioremediation systems. Review the manuactur-er’s requirements or each particular system.

2. Capacity calculation: Calculate the capacity o liquid-retaining devices such as sinks as ollows:

Length × Width × Depth = Capacity, in cubicinches

Capacity × Number o compartments = Total ca-pacity, in

cubic inches

Total cubic capacity ÷ 231 = Gallons capacity

Gallons capacity × 0.75 (ll actor) = Rated dis-charge, in gallons per minute (gpm)

(Note: I a two-minute drain duration is used, di-vide the rated discharge by two.)

3. Rated discharges: Fixtures such as ware wash-ers with a manuacturer’s rated water consump-tion or single discharge rate are calculated at thegreater rate.

4. Floor sinks and drains: Floor sinks and drainsgenerally are rated at 4 gpm. Count the numbero foor drains and sinks not receiving indirect

discharges rom the xtures calculated above andmultiply by our to determine the gpm potential.I this number exceeds the total supply to the a-cility, select the smaller o the two numbers.

5. Loading infuences: Some manuacturers mayprescribe multipliers or various acility char-acteristics such as cuisine to accommodate an-ticipated increased organic content per gallon o calculated discharge. Reer to the manuacturer’srequirements or specic systems.

DESIGN STANDARDSEach manuacturer o a bioremediation system has

specic design elements to establish tness or thepurpose o its particular design. Certain undamen-tal materials and methods utilized in the design andmanuacture o bioremediation systems are indicatedby the ollowing standards:

• ASME A112.14.6: FOG (Fats, Oils, and Greases) Disposal Systems

• ASTM C33: Standard Specifcation or Concrete Aggregates

• ASTM C94: Standard Speciication or Ready Mixed Concrete

• ASTM C150: Standard Specifcation or Portland

Cement

• ASTM C260: Standard Speciication or Air- Entraining Admixtures or Concrete

• ASTM C618: Standard Specifcation or Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan orUse in Concrete

• PDI G101: Testing and Rating Procedure or Hydro Mechanical Grease Interceptors

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• PDIG102:Testing and Certifcation or Grease Interceptors with FOG Sensing and Alarm Devices

• ACI 318: Bu ilding Code Requirements o rStructural Concrete

• IAPMO PS 1: Tank Risers

• UL 5085-3: Low Voltage Transormers—Part 3:Class 2 and Class 3 Transormers

• AASHTO H20-44

• U.S. EPA Test Method 1664

MATERIALS

ConcreteI concrete is used as the container material ora bioremediation system, the concrete and rein-orcement should be o sucient strength to resiststresses caused during handling and installationwithout structural cracking and be o such corro-

sion-resistant quality to resist interior and exterioracids that may be present. Concrete should have a minimum compressive strength o 3,500 pounds persquare inch (psi) (24,132 kPa) and a maximum water-cementing materials ratio o 6 gallons per sack o cement. Concrete should be made with Type II or V,low-alkali Portland cement conorming to ASTM C150and also should include the sulate expansion optionas specied in Table 4 o ASTM C150 or Type II or V. Concrete should contain 4 to 7 percent entrainedair utilizing admixtures conorming to ASTM C260.Concrete aggregates should conorm to ASTM C33.I ready-mix concrete is used, it should conorm to

ASTM C94. Fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzo-lan, i used as mineral admixture in Portland cementconcrete, should conorm to ASTM C618.

Stainless SteelStainless steel used in bioremediation systems shouldbe o type 316 or o some other type with equal orgreater corrosion resistance.

Fiberglass-Reinorced PolesterBioremediation systems constructed principally o berglass-reinorced polyester should comply with theminimum requirements expressed or septic tanks inSection 5 o IAPMO PS 1.

PolethleneBioremediation systems constructed principallyo polyethylene should comply with the minimumstandards expressed or septic tanks in Section 5 o IAPMO PS 1.

STRUCTURAL CONSIDERATIONSBioremediation systems should be designed to handleall anticipated internal, external, and vertical loads.

Bioremediation system containers, covers, andstructural elements that are intended or burial and/ or trac loads should be designed or an earth loado not less than 500 pounds per square oot (24 kPa)when the maximum coverage does not exceed 3 eet(0.9 meter). Each system and cover should be struc-turally designed to withstand all anticipated earthor other loads and should be installed level and on a solid surace.

Bioremediation systems, containers, covers, andstructural elements or installation in trac areasshould be designed to withstand an AASHTO H20-44 wheel load and an additional 3-oot (0.9-m) earthload with an assumed soil weight o 100 pounds persquare oot (4.8 kPa) and a fuid equivalent sidewallpressure o 30 pounds per square oot (1.4 kPa).

Internal construction o separations, coalescing suraces, bafes, and structures that may compart-mentalize fuids should be designed to withstandthe maximum expected hydrostatic pressure, which

includes the pressure exerted by one compartmentat maximum capacity with adjacent compartmentsempty. The internal structures should be o suitable,sound, and durable materials consistent with indus-try standards.

In buried applications, bioremediation systemsshould have sae, reasonable access or prescribedmaintenance and monitoring. Access could consisto horizontal manways or manholes. Each accessopening should have a leak-resistant closure thatcannot slide, rotate, or fip. Manholes should extendto grade, have a minimum diameter o 20 inches (0.5m) or be 20 × 20 inches (0.5 × 0.5 m) square, and

should comply with IAPMO PS 1 Section 4.7.1.Bioremediation systems should be provided with

drawings as well as application and disposal unc-tion details. Descriptive materials should be com-plete, showing dimensions, capacities, fow rates,structural and process ratings, and all applicationand operation acts.

DIMENSION AND PERFORMANCECONSIDERATIONSBioremediation systems dier regarding type andoperating method, but all should have a minimumvolume-to-liquid ratio o 0.4 gallon per 1-gpm fow

rating and a minimum retention ratio o 3.75 poundso FOG per 1-gpm fow. The inside dimension betweenthe cover and the dynamic water level at ull-ratedfow should be a minimum o 2 inches (51 mm). Whilethe air space should have a minimum volume equal to10.5 percent o the liquid volume, air management andventing shall be prescribed by the manuacturer.

The bioremediation system’s separation and re-tention eciency rating should be in accordance


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Chapter 13 — Bioremediation Pretreatment Systems 231

with PDI G101. Bioremediation systems shouldshow no leakage rom seams, pinholes, or other im-perections.

Perormance testing o bioremediation systemsshould demonstrate perormance equal to or exceed-ing manuacturer claims and should have a minimumdischarge FOG content not to exceed 100 milligramsper liter. Perormance testing should be conductedonly by accredited, third-party, independent labora-tories in accordance with current scientic methodsand EPA analysis procedures.

INSTALLATION AND WORKMANSHIPInstallation should be in accordance with the manu-acturer’s requirements. Bioremediation systemsshould be ree o cracks, porosity, fashing, burrs,chips, and lings or any deects that may aect per-ormance, appearance, or serviceability.

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Plumbing engineers are not the green police. Theirprimary responsibility is serving the client who hiresthem to design a specic set o plumbing systems.However, plumbing engineers can try to educateclients and help them appreciate the immediate andlong-term benets o sustainable design, and as a

result o these eorts, more projects are going green.In act, many authorities having jurisdiction requiresome o the practices discussed in this chapter.

By incorporating sustainable design practicesinto their projects, plumbing engineers can helpclients save water, energy, and money, as well aspotentially obtain Leadership in Energy and En-vironmental Design (LEED) certication. All par-ties benet by increasing the eciency o buildings. Also, it is essential to make eorts to preserve someo the natural resources that are being fushed awayevery day. Some o these design considerations are

mandated by ederal law. Some may be legislatedin the uture. Others provide immediate nancialbenets, and many provide health benets. Sustain-able design practices are constantly evolving, andit is up to each individual to investigate emerging technologies and choose the best systems or theirclients.

WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE DESIGN?Sustainable design is not a new concept. It has beendone or decades. In some cases, current sustainabledesign practices actually return to old technologiesthat were abandoned when petroleum products be-

came so available and cheap. However, sustainabledesign has taken on new meaning with the popularityo green building. Plumbing engineers should alwaysconsider the eciency o the systems they design orany project and utilize the sustainable technologiesthat are appropriate or each project’s needs. Whilesome sustainable practices help achieve LEED certi-cation, many do not, but certication should not bethe only objective.

In a 1987 report, the Brundtland Commission,ormerly known as the U.N. World Commission on

the Environment and Development, dened sus-tainable development as “development that meetsthe needs o the present without compromising theability o uture generations to meet their needs.”Sustainable development also might be described asdesign and construction practices that signicantly

reduce or eliminate the negative impact o buildingson the environment and occupants in ve broad ar-eas: sustainable site planning, saeguarding waterand water eciency, energy eciency and renewableenergy, conservation o materials and resources, andindoor environmental quality.

ASSESSMENT AND VALIDATIONNumerous organizations worldwide provide rat-ing and accreditation processes or various types o construction. The Building Research EstablishmentEnvironmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) isthe European equivalent to the U.S. Green Building Council’s LEED program.

The USGBC and LEEDThe U.S. Green Building Council is a nonprot co-alition o leaders rom across the building industrywho promote buildings that are environmentallyresponsible, protable, and healthy places to liveand work. The purpose o this organization is to in-tegrate building industry sectors and lead a markettransormation—including the education o owners

and practitioners.LEED stands or Leadership in Energy and Envi-

ronmental Design. The LEED certication program

encourages a whole-building approach. It promotesand guides a collaborative process o integrated designand construction. Rating systems are available ornew construction, existing building operations andmaintenance, core and shell, commercial interiors,schools, retail, homes, healthcare, and neighborhooddevelopment.

LEED helps plumbing engineers design systemsthat optimize environmental and economic actors,increasing eiciency in these areas. LEED also

Green Plumbing

14

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provides recognition o quality buildings and environ-

mental stewardship through third-party validation o achievement and ederal, state, and local governmentincentives.

The our levels o LEED certication are Certied,Silver, Gold, and Platinum. Note that the certicationlevels are subject to change and refect the currentsystem. Always double-check which system and ver-sion applies to each particular project. For the latestinormation on LEED systems and certication, visitusgbc.org.

The LEED program is broken into categories inwhich numerous credits can be obtained. The programocuses on sustainable sites, water eciency, energy

and the atmosphere, materials and resources, indoorenvironmental quality, and innovation in design. Theplumbing systems that plumbing engineers design canhelp obtain credits in many o the categories.

REAL-LIFE FINANCIAL BENEFITSThe most common objections to building green are theperceived high cost o LEED documentation and high-er design and construction costs. While it is estimatedthat construction costs may increase 3 percent or a

LEED-certied building,the construction cost o a typical oce building hasbeen shown to be about2 percent o the totallietime cost, assuming a 20-year liespan, andabout 5 percent or oper-ation and maintenance,whereas the people in-habiting the building may account or as muchas 92 percent o the totalcost through salaries andbenets.

Increased sustain-ability in plumbing sys-tem designs can havedirect nancial rewards.Some o the ways that

sustainable design prac-tices can provide tan-gible nancial benetsare through reducedoperating and mainte-nance costs, as well asreduced insurance andliability through the im-proved health o occu-pants, greater occupantsatisaction, improvedperormance o occu-pants, reduced absentee-

ism, lower environmental impacts, and streamlinedregulatory approvals. Sustainable design also leadsto higher building valuations. The rule o thumb isto divide the reduction in annual operating costs by10 percent to get the increased value o the build-ing, which may be up to $4 in increased valuation orevery $1 spent. Green buildings also typically enjoyhigher visibility and marketability.

HOW PLUMBING SySTEMSCONTRIBUTE TO SUSTAINABILITy

Domestic Water Use Reduction orIrrigation

Some LEED credits are related to irrigation. A build-ing can earn points by reducing or eliminating theamount o domestic water required or irrigation andlandscaping. How can this be accomplished? Methodsor earning these credits include many design choices,such as utilizing plantings that do not require water-ing other than the rain that they receive naturally,using rainwater to sustain the landscaping, and cap-turing and reusing wastewater rom the building,such as condensate waste, or landscaping needs.

Table 14-1 Treatment Stages or Water Reuse

Level 1 ComponentsNonpotable systems needing limited treatment• Catchmentushing• Largecontaminateremoval• Sedimentltration

• Screen• FirstFlush• Vortex/Centrifugal

Level 2 ComponentsLow-level potable systems

• Alloftheprevioussteps• Treatmentforodorcontrol• Increasedlevelofltration• Limitedtreatmentfordisease-causingpathogens

• Everythingabove

• Cartridgelters• Automatedsandlters• Ultraviolet(UV)light• Ozone

Level 3 ComponentsPotable water or human consumption• Alloftheprevioussteps• Automatedsystemtestingofpre-potableincomingwater• Increasedlevelofltration• Increasedlevelofdisinfectionprocesses• Automatedsystemoftestingthewateraftertreatment

to conrm water quality meets the standards or humanconsumption

• Everythingabove• Membraneltration• Reverseosmosis(RO)• Nanoltration• Chlorinationasrequired

Level 4 ComponentsBlack water or nonpotable systems

• Alloftheprevioussteps• Bio-remediationwithmembranesystemandairinjectors• Post-recoveryltrationsimilartoLevel3:RO,O3,UL,etc.• Additionaltestingwithstrictmanualandelectronicmonitoring• Biosludgedisposal• On-sitetechnician,24/7

• Everythingabove.

• Manmadewetlands• Additionalltration• Additionaltestingandmonitoring.• 24-hourtechnicianonsite• 24-hourtechnicianonsite• Properdisposalplanandsystems

Level 5 ComponentsBlack water or potable systems• Alloftheprevioussteps• AdditionalltrationsimilartoLevel3:RO,O3,UL,etc.• Additionaltestingwithstrictmanualandelectronicmonitoring• On-sitetechnician,24/7

• Everythingabove• Additionalltration• Additionaltestingandmonitoring• Properdisposalplanandsystems


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Domestic Water Use Reduction orFituresTo earn LEED points or plumbing xtures, the proj-ect team must demonstrate that the domestic waterrequired or the plumbing xtures was reduced. Speci-ying low-fow xtures in lieu o conventional xturescan easily accomplish this objective or most projects.

The standards used as the reerence, or baseline, areper the requirements o the Energy Policy Act o 1992.This includes 1.6-gallon-per-fush (gp) toilets, 1-gp urinals, 2.5-gallon-per-minute (gpm) aucets, and2.5-gpm showerheads. Note that fush xtures arerated in gp, and fow xtures are rated in gpm. Thesexture types have dierent characteristics and needto be addressed relative to their unctionality.

Some o the reduced-consumption xtures include1.28-gp toilets; 0.5-gp, 0.125-gp, and waterlessurinals; 0.5-gpm aucets; 1.6-gpm kitchen aucets;and 2-gpm, 1.8-gpm, 1.5-gpm, and even 1-gpm show-erheads. Which xtures are best? It depends on the

project. This is a decision that must be made by theplumbing designer in conjunction with the architect,taking into consideration the needs o the owner.Some o the considerations may be site-specic. Forinstance, waterless urinals may be a good choice inareas that have little or no water supply. 0.125-gp urinals may be more appropriate or other projects.

Another water-saving technique is vacuum-operated waste transport systems. They are used oncruise ships and in some prisons. The water closetsrequire only 0.5 gp, but additional energy is requiredto operate the vacuum pumping system. This drainagesystem relies on a mechanical device requiring power

to operate, which adds another po-tential weak point to the system.

Wastewater Management Wastewater management must bepart o a total sustainable building strategy. This includes consider-ation o the environmental impactso wastewater: the quality, quantity,and classication o wasted mattermust be taken into account. Thewastewater expelled rom buildingsis a combination o biodegradable

waste, reusable waste, storm waterruno, and non-degradable waste.The biodegradable waste can beconsidered a source o nutrientsthat can go back into nature bybioremediation methods. Manynon-degradable wastes can be recy-cled. Some by-products may requirehandling as hazardous materials.

Storm water runo can be recycled and used to reducedomestic water consumption.

Wastewater reclamation and reuse systems canbe categorized into the ollowing levels (see Table14-1).

• Level 1—Nonpotable systems needinglimitedtreatment: Rainwater and condensate waste

collection systems shall be provided or irrigationand cooling use. Provide a collection tank,circulating pump, and point o connection orlandscaping, coordinating with the landscape andheating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC)contractors. Recovery and delivery systems shouldinclude redundant tanks and other equipment toacilitate cleaning and maintenance. Domesticwater makeup also should be included oremergency use and when supplementary water isrequired. Excess water production rom Level 1shall be conveyed to Level 2.

• Level 2—Low-level potable systems: Level 2 systems

shall collect water rom graywater processing, aswell as rom Level 1 production surpluses. Eachsystem should include redundant tanks and otherequipment to acilitate cleaning and maintenance.Domestic water makeup also should be includedor emergency use and when supplementary wateris required. Each graywater system shall includelters, an ultraviolet (UV) system, tanks, pumps,etc., all o which must be indicated on the plumbing drawings. The graywater reuse xtures may returntheir waste to a black water treatment system.This type o system typically treats suspended

Figure 14-1 Typical Small Rainwater Cistern System Diagram


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Chapter 14 — Green Plumbing 237

solids, odors, and bacteria in water to be reusedor toilet fushing.

• Level 3—Potable water or human consumption:Level 3 consists o both public domestic waterand water rom Level 1 and Level 2 systems, withadditional treatment. Water shall be collected romthe public water utility, as well as rom Level 1 and

Level 2 production surpluses. The Level 1 and 2water must be processed with UV, reverse osmosis(RO), ozone, and ltering systems similar to Level2, but monitored to EPA or NSF Internationalstandards or the local equivalents. Each systemshall include lters, a UV or similar system, tanks,

pumps, etc., all o which must be indicated on theplumbing drawings.

• Level 4—Black water or nonpotable systems:Level 4 includes water not meant or humanconsumption without urther processing. It canbe used or toilet fushing and laundry acilities.This system must include redundancy. Water shall

be collected rom the graywater system, as wellas rom Level 1 and Level 2 production surpluses.Each system shall be provided with emergencydomestic water makeup. Each system shall includelters, a UV system, tanks, pumps, etc., all o whichmust be indicated on the plumbing drawings.

Table 14-2 Rainwater Treatment Options

Treatment Method Location Result

Screening

Lea screens and strainers Gutters and downspoutsPrevents leaves and debris romentering tank

SettlingSedimentation Within tank Settles out particulates

Activated charcoal Beore tap Removes chlorine*

FilteringRoo washers Beore tank Removes suspended material

Inline multistage cartridge Ater pump Sieves sediment

Activated charcoal Ater sediment lter Removes chlorine* and improves taste

Slow sand lters Ater tank Traps particulates

Microbial Treatment/DisinectionBoiling/distilling Beore use Kills microorganisms

Chemical treatment(chlorine or iodine)

Within tank or at pump (liquid, tablet, orgranular) beore activated charcoal

Kills microorganisms

Ultraviolet light Ater activated charcoal lter and beore tap Kills microorganisms

Silver ionization Ater activated charcoal lter and beore tap Kills microorganisms

Ozonation Ater activated charcoal lter and beore tap Kills microorganisms

Nanoltration Beore use, polymer membrane (10-3

–10-4

pores) Removes moleculesReverse osmosis Beore use, polymer membrane (10

-3–10

-4pores)

Removes ions (contaminants) andmicroorganisms

*Should be used i chlorine has been used as a disinectant.

Source: Texas Guide to Rainwater Harvesting, 2nd

edition, Texas Water Development Board

Table 14-3 Filtration/Disinection Method Comparison

Treatment Method Cost Maintenance Eectiveness Comments

Cartridge lters $20–60 Change lters regularlyRemoves particulates > 3microns

Disinection treatment alsois recommended

Reverse osmosis $400–1,500Change lter whenclogged (depends onturbidity)

Removes particulates >0.001 microns

Disinection treatment alsois recommended

Ultraviolet light $350–1,000 ($80 bulbreplacement)

Replace bulb every 10,000

hours or 14 months; cleanprotective cover regularly

Disinects ltered water

provided (< 1,000coliorms per 100millimeters)

Water must be ltered

prior to exposure ormaximum eectiveness

Ozonation $700–2,600

Monitor eectivenesswith requent testing ormonitoring equipment(about $1,200)

Less eective in highturbidity; should bepreltered

Requires pump to circulateozone molecules

Chlorination$1/month manual dose or$600–3,000 or automaticdosing system

Include monitoring withautomatic dosing

Less eective in highturbidity; should bepreltered

Excessive chlorine levelshave been linked to healthissues and damage tocopper piping systems

Source: Texas Guide to Rainwater Harvesting, 2nd

edition, Texas Water Development Board

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• Level 5—Black water or potable systems: Level 5includes water not meant or human consumptionor contact without additional treatment. It consistso black water that has been collected and treated.Each system shall include membrane ilters,bio-chambers, a UV system, tanks, pumps, etc.,as indicated on the plumbing drawings. Sludgeaccumulation shall be conveyed to a suitable site

or urther processing and disposal, based on ananalysis o the sludge components.

Rainwater Capture and ReuseRainwater reuse can help earn more than one credit:water use reduction, wastewater management, stormwater management, and innovation in design. Thecaptured water may be used or irrigation, fushing toilets, or cooling tower makeup, among other uses. Various ltration methods may be necessary, depend-ing on the nal use o the water. Ideally, the storagetanks should be elevated, such as on the top foor o the building, to reduce or eliminate pumping require-

ments. Remember that tanks store water, but also canstore pressure by permitting the stored water to fow bygravity. Static head increases with height. I the build-ing is high enough to require multiple water pressurezones, multiple tanks can be located at varying levels,possibly with one tank cascading down to another. Aswith all aspects o design, the approach must be cus-tomized relative to each individual project. Figure 14-1shows a typical small cistern system diagram.

Many jurisdictions require rainwater detentionto control the release rate into the sewer systems.Many municipal systems are overloaded and cannotprocess the storm water entering the system during

signicant rain events. Some cities have combinedstorm and sanitary sewer systems, which can makethe problem even worse. One o the causes o this

problem is increased impermeable surace eaturesdue to increased density, a result o urban sprawl. Thiseect can be reduced through the use o green roos,permeable paving materials, storm water detention,and other innovative approaches.

Table 14-2 outlines some types o treatment orrainwater systems. Many options are available,or dierent purposes. Most systems require somecombination o these treatment options. Table 14-3compares the cost, maintenance, and eectiveness o these ltration and disinection methods.

Storage tanks come in many shapes, sizes, andmaterials. They can be located below grade, abovegrade, near the roo, or in many other locations. Table14-4 compares the dierent storage tank options orrainwater collection.

Grawater and Black Water About 68 percent o household wastewater is gray-water. The other approximately 32 percent is blackwater. Figure 14-2 and Table 14-5 compare the two

types. Wastes rom dishwashers and kitchen sinkscan be piped to automatic grease separators. Theseseparators automatically siphon o the ats, oils, andgreases, which can be used or bio-diesel uel. Theremaining wastewater then is processed as blackwater. It’s a good idea to locate these acilities on thetruck dock or another location that provides plentyo external venting to reduce odors indoors.

Biosolids Technolog Biosolids can be a by-product o graywater, butthey primarily come rom black water processing. A biosolid is the remaining sludge and also what is

skimmed rom the surace. It consists o dierentcomponents requiring a variety o handling methodsand technologies.

Table 14-4 Storage Tank Options

Material Features Cautions Cost Weight

Plastics

Polyethylene/polypropyleneCommercially available,alterable, and moveable

UV-degradable; must bepainted

$.035–1.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon

FiberglassCommercially available,alterable, and moveable

Must be sited on smooth,solid, level ooting

$0.50–2.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon

Metals

Steel Commercially available,alterable, and moveable Prone to rust and corrosion $0.50–2.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon

Welded steelCommercially available,alterable, and moveable

Possibly prone to rust andcorrosion; must be lined orpotable use

$0.80–4.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon

Concrete and MasonryFerrocement Durable and immovable Potential to crack and ail $0.50–2.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon

Stone, concrete block Durable and immovable Dicult to maintain $0.50–2.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon

Monolithic/poured in place Durable and immovable Potential to crack and ai l $0.30–1.25/gallon 8 lbs/gallon

Wood

Redwood, r, cypressAttractive, durable, can bedisassembled and moved

Expensive $2.00/gallon 8 lbs/gallon


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A compostable material is one that undergoesphysical, chemical, thermal, and/or biological deg-radation in a mixed municipal solid waste (MSW)composting acility such that it is physically indis-tinguishable rom the nished compost. The nalproduct ultimately mineralizes (biodegrades to carbondioxide, water, and biomass as new microorganisms)at a rate like that o known compostable materials insolid waste such as paper and yard waste. A compost-compatible material is one that disintegrates andbecomes indistinguishable rom the nal compost andis either biodegradable or inert in the environment. A removable material is one that can be removed (notto be composted) by existing technologies in MSW composting (such as plastics, stones, or glass).

To ensure that biosolids applied to the land do notthreaten public health, the EPA created 40 CFR Part503. This rule categorizes biosolids as Class A or Bdepending on the level o pathogenic organisms in thematerial and describes specic

processes to reduce pathogensto these levels. The rule alsorequires vector attraction re-duction (VAR)—reducing thepotential o the spreading o inectious disease agents byvectors (i.e., lies, rodents,and birds)—and spells outspeciic management prac-tices, monitoring requencies,record keeping, and reporting requirements. Incineration o biosolids also is covered in the

regulation.Class A biosolids contain

minute levels o pathogens. Toachieve Class A certication,biosolids must undergo heat-ing, composting, digestion,or increased pH to reducepathogens to less than detect-able levels. Some treatmentprocesses change the composi-tion o the biosolids to a pelletor granular substance, whichcan be used as a commercial

ertilizer. Once these goals areachieved, Class A biosolids canbe applied to land without anypathogen-related restrictionsat the site. Class A biosolidscan be bagged and marketedto the public or applicationon lawns and gardens.

Class B biosolids have lessstringent standards or treat-

ment and contain small but compliant amounts o bacteria. Class B requirements ensure that pathogensin biosolids have been reduced to levels that protectpublic health and the environment and include cer-tain restrictions or crop harvesting, grazing animals,and public contact or all orms o Class B biosolids. Asis true o their Class A counterpart, Class B biosolidsare treated in a wastewater treatment acility andundergo heating, composting, digestion, or increasedpH processes beore leaving the plant. This semi-solidmaterial can receive urther treatment when exposedto the natural environment as a ertilizer, whereheat, wind, and soil microbes naturally stabilize thebiosolids.

Class A Technologies

Technologies that can meet Class A standards includethermal treatment methods such as composting, heatdrying, heat treatment, thermophilic (heat generat-ing) aerobic digestion, and pasteurization. Class A

Table 14-5 Comparison o Graywater and Black Water

Parameter Graywater Black Water Grey + BlackBOD5

1(g/p/d

2and mg/l) 25 and 150-300 20 and 2,000–3,000 71

BOD5 (% o UOD3) 90 40 –

COD4(g/p/d and mg/l) 48 and 300 72 and 2,000–6,000 –

Total P (g/p/d and mg/l) 2 and 4–35 1.6 4.6

Total N (g/p/d) 1 (0.6–5 mg/l) 11 (main source urine) 13.2

TSS (g/p/d) 18 > 50 70

Pathogens Low Very high Very high

Main Characteristic Inorganic chemicals Organics, pathogensInorganics, organics,

and pathogens1BOD5 = Oxygen required or the decomposition o the organic content in graywater during the rst ve days, determined as BOD

ater a ve-day period o incubation under standard conditions2g/p/d = grams/person/day

3UOD = Ultimate (total) oxygen demand in a sample taken

4COD = Oxygen demand or all chemical (organic and inorganic) activities; a measure o organics

Sources: Haug 1993; Droste 1997; Dixon et al. 1999b; Hammes et al. 2000; Lindstrom 2000a, 2000b

Figure 14-2 Graywater vs. Black Water

Graywater Black Water

Showers Toilets

Baths Urinals

Lavatories Kitchen Sinks

Clothes Washers Dish Washers

Graywater = Wastewaterthat has a low bacteria,

chemical, or solids loading

Black water = Wastewaterthat has a high bacteria or

high organic content

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Figure 14-3 Simple Solar Domestic Water Heater Diagram

SOLAR

RADIATION

1. SOLAR COLLECTORS

2. TEMPERATURE/PRESSURE

RELIEF VALVE

3. STORAGE TANK

4. HEAT EXCHANGER

5. WATER SUPPLY

6. AUXILLARY HEAT SOURCE

7. TO BUILDING

1

2

4 3

7

5

6

2

LEGEND

technologies are known as PFRP, or processes thatcan urther reduce pathogens. The technologies mustprocess the biosolids or a specic length o time at a specic temperature.

• Composting:Thisisanenvironmentallyfriendlyway to recycle the nutrients and organic matteround in wastewater solids. Composting systems

turn wastewater biosolids, sawdust, yard waste,and wood chips into high-quality compost. As thematerial decomposes, oxygen lters through thecompost site, releasing water, heat, and carbondioxide. This process helps dry the organic material,while the generated heat increases the rate o decomposition and kills pathogens.

• Heat drying: This process applies direct or indirectheat to reduce the moisture in biosolids. Iteliminates pathogens, reduces volume, and resultsin a product that can be used as a ertilizer or soilamendment. Because dryers produce a 90 percentdry material, additional VAR is not required.

• Digestion: In autothermal thermophilic aerobicdigestion (ATAD) systems, biosolids are heatedrom 131°F to 140°F (55°C to 60°C) and aerated orabout 10 days. This autothermal process generatesits own heat and reduces volume. The result is a high-quality Class A product acceptable or reuseas a liquid ertilizer.

• Pasteurization: Pasteurization producesa Class A material when the biosolidsare heated to at least 158°F (70°C)or 30 minutes. This extreme heatkills pathogens in the organic matter.

When ollowed by anaerobic digestion,the VAR is attained, and the biosolidscan be applied to land with minimalrestrictions. The majority o the energyused in the pasteurization processis recovered with an innovative heatexchanger system and used to maintainthe proper temperature in downstreamanaerobic digesters.

Class B Technologies

EPA regulations list technologies, which,under certain operating conditions, can

treat and reduce pathogens so the mate-rial qualies as a Class B biosolid. Theseprocesses are known as processes that cansignicantly reduce pathogens, or PSRP.Class B technologies include anaerobicdigestion, aerobic digestion, composting,air-drying, and lime stabilization.

Several EPA-approved stabilizationtechnologies are available or anaerobicand aerobic digestion, including:

• Heaters, heat exchangers, digester covers, gas, andhydraulic mixing systems, all important componentsin conventional anaerobic digestion systems

• Temperature-phased anaerobic digestion (TPAD)systems, which optimize anaerobic digestionthrough a heat-recovery system that pre-heats rawmaterial and simultaneously cools the digested

biosolids• Membrane gas storage systems, which include

an expandable membrane cover that providesvariable digester gas storage, optimizes digester gasutilization or heating and electrical generation, andincreases storage capacity

• Hydraulic mixers, which use a multi-port dischargevalve to greatly improve biosolids mixing in thedigestion process

• Air diusers and aerators, which can be incorporatedin any aerobic digester conguration

Adding lime can stabilize biosolids by raising the pH

and temperature. While adding sucient amounts o lime to wastewater solids produces Class B biosolids,adding higher amounts yields Class A biosolids. Com-bining low amounts o lime with anoxic storage alsocan yield Class A biosolids.


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Energ RequirementsRainwater and condensate collection systems use mini-mal electrical power. Graywater systems or a largeproject may require up to 10,000 kilowatt-hours per year. Black water systems or the same project may beestimated to require as much as 20,000 kilowatt-hoursper year. These numbers are subject to the building

systems or the particular project and vary greatlyrom project to project. As an example, the power consumption ratios o a

typical bioremediation system may consists o 38 per-cent or membrane aeration blowers, 35 percent orother blowers, 16 percent or recirculation pumps, 5percent or process pumps, 4 percent or mixers, and 2percent or controls, monitors, and other equipment.This does not include pumping the water throughoutthe building, which may require additional power.

ENERGy EFFICIENCy AND ENERGy-SAVING STRATEGIES

Energy consumption within plumbing systems can bereduced using several methods, such as variable-re-quency drive domestic booster pump systems. However,energy savings are dicult to dene precisely and varyor every project.

Water heaters oer a potential area or energysavings, as plumbing engineers are speciying morehigh-eciency equipment these days. I required tospeciy a minimum eciency o 84 percent or gas-redboilers, speciying 98 percent ecient units can save14 percent o energy costs, theoretically. One problemin quantiying these savings lies in the act that e-ciencies vary with several actors, including incoming

water temperature and return temperature. Theseactors apply to all types o heaters, but the numberstypically are jaded. Thus, it might be reasonable to as-sume that the system is still 14 percent more ecient.Using low-fow xtures, with their related reduced hotwater consumption, saves as much as 40 percent o theenergy required to heat the domestic hot water.

The expected energy savings can be calculated us-ing gallon-per-day (gpd) gures and extrapolating an

estimated savings. These numbers, combined withenergy consumption and reduction gures or otheraspects o the building, can indicate the percentage o total energy saved. These savings may be applied toLEED energy credits.

High eciency does not always come rom high-eiciency equipment alone. The eicacy must beconsidered relative to the application. 98 percent e-cient water heaters do not necessarily save energyon every system. All designs require an integrated ap-proach and a balance o the correct elements relativeto the needs o the project and the goals o the client.

Solar Water Heating Solar water heating is an excellent way to reduce ener-gy consumption. The average solar system or a typicalhome (see Figure 14-3) can save about two-thirds o thehome’s yearly cost or providing domestic hot water.The energy savings or a commercial application aremore dicult to precisely quantiy, but they may be inthe same range, depending on a variety o actors.

One important actor in any system involving heat transer is the loading o the system. Other thanwhen they are shut down and using no energy, heatexchangers, like pumps, are most ecient when theyare running at 100 percent capacity. Oversizing equip-ment leads to reduced eciencies and maybe evenpremature ailure o the equipment.

Reer to other Plumbing Engineering Design Hand-

book chapters or additional inormation, including Volume 3, Chapter 10: “Solar Energy” and Volume 2,Chapter 6: “Domestic Water Heating Systems,” as wellas the resources listed at the end o this chapter.

Geothermal SstemsGeothermal energy can be used or homes, as well asindustrial and commercial buildings. They even areused by some utility companies to generate steam tospin turbines, creating electrical power or munici-palities. They can be used or radiant heat, as well asradiant cooling. Reer to other Plumbing Engineering

Design Handbook chapters or additional inormation,including Volume 4, Chapter 10.

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Inde

µ (micro) prex, 2009 V1: 34S (ohms), 2009 V1: 34S cm (ohm-centimeter units), 2011 V3: 47, 2012 V4: 175S m (ohm-meters), 2009 V1: 341-compartment sinks, 2012 V4: 111-occupant toilet rooms, 2012 V4: 21

1-piece water closets, 2012 V4: 31-stage distillation, 2010 V2: 2001-time costs, dened, 2009 V1: 2171-wall tanks, 2011 V3: 1392-bed deionizing units, 2011 V3: 482-compartment sinks, 2012 V4: 112-pipe venturi suction pumps, 2010 V2: 1572-point vapor recovery, 2011 V3: 1452-step deionization (dual-bed), 2010 V2: 206, 2072-valve parallel pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 69–702-way braces, 2012 V4: 1362-word expressions o unctions, 2009 V1: 218, 2253-bolt pipe clamps, 2012 V4: 1353-compartment sinks, 2012 V4: 113E Plus, 2009 V1: 1184-way braces, 2012 V4: 13010-year storms, 2010 V2: 4218-8 SS, 2009 V1: 13218-8-3 SS, 2009 V1: 13228 CFR Part 36, 2009 V1: 9870:30 Cu Ni, 2009 V1: 13280/20 rule, 2009 V1: 218, 24990:10 Cu Ni, 2009 V1: 132100% area (ull port), 2012 V4: 89100-year storms, 2010 V2: 421964 Alaska Earthquake, 2009 V1: 1521971 San Francisco Earthquake, 2009 V1: 1523408 HDPE. See HDPE (high density polyethylene)6061 aluminum alloy, 2011 V3: 277

A A, X#, X#A (compressed air). See compressed air A/m (amperes per meter), 2009 V1: 33 A (amperes). See amperes A (area). See area (A)a (atto) prex, 2009 V1: 34 AAMI (Association or the Advancement o Medical

Instrumentation), 2010 V2: 187, 219, 220 AAV (automatic air vents), 2009 V1: 10

abandoned uel tanks, 2011 V3: 154abandoned septic tanks, 2010 V2: 148abandoned wells, 2010 V2: 159abbreviations

existing building survey reports, 2009 V1: 269–270International System o Units, 2009 V1: 33

plumbing and piping symbols, 2009 V1: 7–15text, drawings, and computer programs, 2009 V1:14–15

The ABC’s o Lawn Sprinkler Systems, 2011 V3: 96above-nished foor (AFF), 2009 V1: 14above-slab grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 154aboveground piping

inspection checklist, 2009 V1: 95materials or, 2010 V2: 12–13thermal expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 207–208

aboveground sanitary piping codes, 2009 V1: 42aboveground tank systems

abandonment and removal, 2011 V3: 154codes and standards, 2011 V3: 137connections and access, 2011 V3: 148construction, 2011 V3: 147–148corrosion protection, 2011 V3: 148electronic tank gauging, 2011 V3: 142lling and spills, 2011 V3: 148industrial wastes, 2011 V3: 84installation, 2011 V3: 152leak prevention and monitoring, 2011 V3: 148–149leakage detection, 2011 V3: 141–145liquid uel systems, 2011 V3: 147–149materials or, 2011 V3: 147–148overll prevention, 2011 V3: 148product-dispensing systems, 2011 V3: 149tank protection, 2011 V3: 149testing, 2011 V3: 152–154vapor recovery, 2011 V3: 149venting, 2011 V3: 148

abrasion, 2010 V2: 16, 186corrosion and, 2009 V1: 136dened, 2009 V1: 16insulation and, 2012 V4: 103specications to prevent, 2009 V1: 256–258

ABS. See acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)abs, ABS (absolute), 2009 V1: 14absolute (abs, ABS), 2009 V1: 14absolute pressure

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Boyle’s law, 2012 V4: 211–213dened, 2009 V1: 16, 2011 V3: 183, 186, 2012 V4: 169ormulas, 2012 V4: 159in vacuums, 2010 V2: 166

absolute temperature, 2009 V1: 16, 2011 V3: 183absolute zero, 2009 V1: 16absorber (plate), dened, 2011 V3: 190absorber area, dened, 2011 V3: 190

absorphan (carbon ltration). See activated carbonltration (absorphan)absorptance, dened, 2011 V3: 190absorption

air drying, 2011 V3: 178–179dened, 2009 V1: 16, 2012 V4: 199rates or soils, 2011 V3: 91trenches. See soil-absorption sewage systems

AC (air chambers). See air chambers (AC)ac, AC (alternating current), 2009 V1: 14 AC-DC rectiers, 2009 V1: 139, 140acc (accumulate or accumulators), 2009 V1: 16acceleration

earthquakes, 2009 V1: 149, 150linear, 2009 V1: 34, 35measurements, 2009 V1: 34

acceleration limiters, 2012 V4: 125accelerators (dry-pipe systems), 2011 V3: 8–9accellerograms, 2009 V1: 150access. See also people with disabilities

aboveground tank systems, 2011 V3: 148bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 230clean agent gas re containers, 2011 V3: 27to equipment, piping and, 2012 V4: 25underground liquid uel tanks, 2011 V3: 139–140

access channels or pipes, 2012 V4: 125access doors, 2009 V1: 16access openings or pipes, 2012 V4: 125access to (dened), 2009 V1: 16accessibility, 2009 V1: 16. See also people with disabilities

storm drainage, 2010 V2: 48–49 Accessibility Guidelines or Buildings and Facilities, 2009

V1: 97 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities, 2009 V1:

97, 115, 2012 V4: 2accessories

as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 189in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85, 88section in specications, 2009 V1: 71

accreditation o health care acilities, 2011 V3: 51accumulation, dened, 2009 V1: 16accumulators (acc, ACCUM), 2009 V1: 16, 2012 V4: 125accuracy

dened, 2009 V1: 16in measurements, 2009 V1: 33o pressure-regulating valves, 2010 V2: 94

ACEC (American Consulting Engineers Council), 2009 V1: 56

acetone, 2009 V1: 141acetylene, 2010 V2: 114 ACF (altitude correction actor), 121, 2010 V2: 117ach (actual ch), 2010 V2: 126acm (actual cubic eet per minute)

dened, 2011 V3: 76, 187

gas systems, 2011 V3: 269medical air compressors, 2011 V3: 62medical vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 64vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 166

acid absorbers in ion exchange, 2012 V4: 183acid-containing inhibitors, 2010 V2: 207acid dilution tanks, 2012 V4: 183acid eed pumps, 2011 V3: 129–130

acid umes, 2011 V3: 46acid manholes, 2011 V3: 231acid neutralization, 2011 V3: 43–44, 85acid-neutralization tanks, 2011 V3: 43–44acid pickling, 2012 V4: 56acid radicals, 2010 V2: 189acid regenerants, 2010 V2: 199, 206, 207acid resins, 2010 V2: 199acid-resistant foor drains, 2010 V2: 15acid-resistant glass oam insulation, 2012 V4: 106acid-resistant piping, 2010 V2: 13, 239acid-resistant sinks, 2011 V3: 41acid vents (AV), 2009 V1: 8, 16acid-waste systems

acid-waste treatment, 2010 V2: 235continuous systems, 2010 V2: 236health and saety concerns, 2010 V2: 229–230health care acilities, 2011 V3: 42–46introduction, 2010 V2: 229large acilities, 2010 V2: 235metering, 2011 V3: 45piping and joint material, 2010 V2: 232–234, 2012 V4: 51solids interceptors, 2011 V3: 45system design considerations, 2010 V2: 234–235types o acid, 2010 V2: 230–232

acid wastes (AW), 2009 V1: 8, 16, 2011 V3: 42–46acidity

in corrosion rates, 2009 V1: 134pH control, 2011 V3: 85–87in water, 2010 V2: 160, 189, 192

acidsdened, 2009 V1: 16, 2010 V2: 188eed water treatment, 2010 V2: 220

acoustics in plumbing systemscork insulation, 2012 V4: 139costs o mitigation, 2009 V1: 188critical problems with noise, 2012 V4: 137design and construction issues, 2009 V1: 201–202drainage system mitigation, 2009 V1: 189–190hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 118insulation and, 2012 V4: 103, 113introduction, 2009 V1: 187–188mitigating xture noise, 2009 V1: 193–194

neoprene vibration control, 2012 V4: 139noise-related lawsuits, 2009 V1: 263pumps, 2009 V1: 194–201silencers on vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 179sources o noise, 2009 V1: 188–189STC (Sound Transmission Class), 2009 V1: 187transmission in pipes, 2010 V2: 13–14vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 174valves, pumps and equipment, 2009 V1: 194–201water distribution system noise mitigation, 2009 V1:

190–193

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Index 245

water hammer, 2010 V2: 70–73acoustics in swimming pools, 2011 V3: 108acquisition costs

acquisition prices dened, 2009 V1: 210base acquisition costs, 2009 V1: 217

ACR/MED pipes, 2012 V4: 32 ACR piping, 2012 V4: 32acres, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38

acrylic xtures, 2012 V4: 1acrylic insulation jackets, 2012 V4: 108acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber (ABR), 2011 V3: 150acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS)

corrosion, 2009 V1: 141dened, 2009 V1: 32expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 208xtures, 2012 V4: 1insulation jackets, 2012 V4: 108piping, 2010 V2: 13, 14, 2011 V3: 49, 2012 V4: 39, 51standards, 2012 V4: 70stress and strain gures, 2012 V4: 206thermal expansion or contraction, 2012 V4: 207

activated alumina air dryers, 2011 V3: 179activated alumina water treatment, 2010 V2: 218activated carbon ltration (absorphan)

in gray-water systems, 2010 V2: 25illustrated, 2010 V2: 205overview, 2010 V2: 201–204pure-water systems, 2010 V2: 221RO treatments, 2012 V4: 197, 199small water systems, 2010 V2: 218well water, 2010 V2: 160

Activated Carbon Process or Treatment o Wastewater

Containing Hexavalent Chromium (EPA 600/2-79-130), 2011 V3: 89

activated sludge, 2009 V1: 16activated sludge systems, 2011 V3: 88active, dened, 2009 V1: 141active controls, cross-connections, 2012 V4: 164–166active potential, dened, 2009 V1: 141 Active Solar Energy System Design Practice Manual, 2011

V3: 204active solar systems, 2011 V3: 192active solar water heaters, 2009 V1: 122active verbs in unction analysis, 2009 V1: 218activities in FAST approach, 2009 V1: 223actual capacity, 2009 V1: 16actual ch (ach), 2010 V2: 126actual cubic eet per minute. See acm (actual cubic eet

per minute)actual fow rates, 2011 V3: 4, 210actual liters per minute (aL/min), 2011 V3: 187

actual pressure. See static pressure (SP)actuators, 2009 V1: 16ad (area drains), 2009 V1: 14 ADA. See Americans with Disabilities Act ADAAG (Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility

Guidelines), 2009 V1: 97, 98 ADAAG Review Federal Advisory Committee, 2009 V1: 115adapter ttings, 2009 V1: 16addenda in contract documents, 2009 V1: 56–57additions to buildings, 2009 V1: 265–266adhesives, 2009 V1: 16

adiabatic compression, 2009 V1: 16adjustable, dened, 2012 V4: 127adjustable diverter plate, ountains, 2011 V3: 103adjustable high-pressure propane regulators, 2010 V2: 133adjustment devices, 2012 V4: 127adjustment section in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 72administrative and operation costs in value engineering.

See overhead

administrative authorities, 2009 V1: 16admiralty brass, 2009 V1: 132adsorption, 2009 V1: 16, 2011 V3: 178–179, 2012 V4: 199adult-sized wheelchairs, dimensions, 2009 V1: 100. See

also wheelchairsadvanced oxidation water treatment, 2010 V2: 218 Advanced Plumbing Technology, 2010 V2: 46, 47, 55aerated lagoons, 2011 V3: 88aeration, 2009 V1: 16, 2012 V4: 176aeration cells, 2009 V1: 141aerators

aeration treatment, 2010 V2: 197–198, 218lavatories and sinks, 2011 V3: 35Provent aerators, 2010 V2: 17–18Sovent aerators, 2010 V2: 17–18

aerobic, dened, 2009 V1: 16aerobic bioremediation, 2012 V4: 227aerobic digestion, biosolids, 2012 V4: 239aerobic wastewater treatment plants, 2010 V2: 150aerosols, 2009 V1: 16 AFF (above-nished foor), 2009 V1: 14 AFFF oam concentrates, 2011 V3: 25anity laws (pumps), 2012 V4: 94, 95ater cold pull elevation, 2012 V4: 127ater-coolers, 2009 V1: 16

air compressors, 2011 V3: 174, 178medical air compressors, 2011 V3: 62

ater-cooling, dened, 2011 V3: 183 AGA (American Gas Association)

dened, 2009 V1: 32relie valve standards, 2010 V2: 106water heating standards, 2010 V2: 112

age o water mains, 2011 V3: 6age-related disabilities, 2009 V1: 99agglomeration, 2012 V4: 149aggressiveness index, 2010 V2: 196aging, 2009 V1: 16aging disabilities, 2009 V1: 99aging water mains, 2011 V3: 6agitators in kill tanks, 2010 V2: 242agreement documents, 2009 V1: 56agreement states, 2010 V2: 238 AHJ. See authorities having jurisdiction

AHRI (Air Conditioning, Heating, and RerigerationInstitute), 2009 V1: 46

AI (aggressiveness index), 2010 V2: 196 AIA (American Institute o Architects). See American

Institute o Architectsair

compressed, 2009 V1: 16depleted in air chambers, 2010 V2: 72expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 211–213ree, 2009 V1: 16, 2011 V3: 171–172, 186oil-ree, 2011 V3: 76

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in pipes, 2010 V2: 2pollutants, 2011 V3: 264–265properties, 2011 V3: 171–172, 263–266standard, 2009 V1: 16, 2011 V3: 187water vapor in, 2011 V3: 172–173

air, compressed. See compressed airair, ree, 2009 V1: 16, 2011 V3: 171–172, 186air, oil-ree, 2011 V3: 76

air, standard, 2009 V1: 16, 2011 V3: 187air-admittance valves, 2009 V1: 16, 43, 2010 V2: 39air-bleed vacuum controls, 2010 V2: 179air-bleed valves, 2010 V2: 171air breaks. See air gapsair chambers (AC)

dened, 2009 V1: 16symbols or, 2009 V1: 11water hammer arresters, 2010 V2: 72

air circuits in instrumentation, 2011 V3: 171air compressors

accessories, 2011 V3: 177–182compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 174–176dry-pipe systems, 2011 V3: 8laboratory inlet piping, 2011 V3: 280medical systems, 2011 V3: 61–62pulsation, 2011 V3: 177sizing, 2011 V3: 183types o, 2011 V3: 174–176vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 169–170

AIR COND (air conditioning). See air-conditioning systems

Air-Conditioning and Rerigeration Institute (ARI), 2012 V4: 215–216

air-conditioning cooling towers. See cooling-tower waterair-conditioning engineers, 2011 V3: 29 Air-Conditioning, Heating, and Rerigeration Institute

(AHRI), 2009 V1: 46air-conditioning systems (AIR COND)

direct water connections, 2012 V4: 161xture-unit values, 2010 V2: 8pipes, 2012 V4: 32waste heat usage, 2009 V1: 123water chillers, 2012 V4: 215

air-consuming devices, 2011 V3: 180air-cooled ater-coolers, 2011 V3: 178air densities, calculating, 2009 V1: 5air dryers

compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 178–179deliquescent dryers, 2011 V3: 178desiccant dryers, 2011 V3: 179medical air compressors, 2011 V3: 63rerigerated air dryers, 2011 V3: 178

selection, 2011 V3: 179air lters

hydrophilic and hydrophobic, 2012 V4: 193stills, 2012 V4: 193

air gaps. See also eective openingsbooster pumps and, 2010 V2: 64dened, 2009 V1: 16, 2012 V4: 169shortalls, 2012 V4: 167standards, 2012 V4: 162–164

air-gate valves, 2010 V2: 179air-handling units, condensate traps, 2011 V3: 167

air intakes, 2011 V3: 182, 2012 V4: 155air lines

ABS pipe, 2012 V4: 51direct connection hazards, 2012 V4: 161

air locks, 2009 V1: 16air pressure, 2010 V2: 166, 2011 V3: 8air purges in vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 171air receivers, 2011 V3: 177–178

air solar systems, 2011 V3: 192air springs in noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 197air temperature

condensate estimates, 2011 V3: 167swimming pools and, 2011 V3: 108

air testsin cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 90dened, 2009 V1: 16

air velocity in vacuum cleaning systems, 183, 2010 V2: 181air vents in centralized drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 223airborne contamination, 2012 V4: 193airborne noise, 2009 V1: 187, 190aircrat cable bracing method, 2009 V1: 160aircrat uel, 2010 V2: 12airgaps. See air gapsairport runways, piping underneath, 2012 V4: 118airport security checkpoints, numbers o xtures beore,

2012 V4: 19 AISC. See American Institute o Steel Construction (AISC)aL/min (actual liters per minute), 2011 V3: 187 ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable), 2010 V2: 238alarm check valves, 2009 V1: 13, 16, 2011 V3: 6alarm lines on sprinklers, 2011 V3: 6alarm relays, 2011 V3: 28alarms

dened, 2009 V1: 16, 2011 V3: 76on aboveground tanks, 2011 V3: 149on bulk oxygen supply, 2011 V3: 59on compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 182on corrosive-waste systems, 2011 V3: 43on hazardous waste systems, 2011 V3: 84on kill tanks, 2010 V2: 242on laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 275on medical gas systems

area alarms, 2011 V3: 67master alarms, 2011 V3: 67testing, 2011 V3: 74–75

on pressurized uel delivery systems, 2011 V3: 145on vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 169, 173overll prevention, 2011 V3: 141, 148

Alaska Earthquake, 2009 V1: 152 Albern, W.F., 2010 V2: 186alcohol-resistant AFFF oam concentrates, 2011 V3: 25

algae, 2010 V2: 188, 195, 2012 V4: 177, 199alignment, storm drainage piping, 2010 V2: 47alkali, 2009 V1: 16alkali neutralization, 2012 V4: 176alkalinity

ater ion exchange, 2012 V4: 184alkaline solutions in corrosion rates, 2009 V1: 134boiler eed water, 2010 V2: 216cork and, 2012 V4: 139dealkalizing treatment, 2010 V2: 199dened, 2012 V4: 200

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distillation eed water, 2012 V4: 192low-alkalinity water, 2012 V4: 184measuring, 2010 V2: 189neutralization o water, 2012 V4: 176pH and, 2010 V2: 192, 228–229, 2011 V3: 85predicting scale and corrosion, 2010 V2: 196swimming pools, 2011 V3: 127–131water saturation, 2010 V2: 196

all-service jackets (ASJ), 2012 V4: 106, 108allowable gas pressure, 2010 V2: 119–121allowable leakage in compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 183allowable radiation levels, 2010 V2: 237allowable vacuum system pressure loss, 2010 V2: 174alloy pipes, 2009 V1: 17alloys, 2009 V1: 16, 2012 V4: 127alpha ray radiation, 2010 V2: 236–237alterations (altrn, ALTRN), 2009 V1: 265–266alternate bracing attachments or pipes, 2009 V1: 167alternating current (ac, AC), 2009 V1: 14alternative collection and treatment o waste water, 2010

V2: 144–145, 149alternative energy sources, 2009 V1: 121–126alternative sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 16–19 Alternatives or Small Wastewater Treatment Systems:

Cost-Eectiveness Analysis, 2010 V2: 154 Alternatives or Small Wastewater Treatment Systems:

On-site Disposal/Seepage Treatment and Disposal,2010 V2: 154

A lternatives or Small Wastewater Treatment Systems:

Pressure Sewers/Vacuum Sewers, 2010 V2: 154alternators

medical air compressors, 2011 V3: 62vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 65

altitude (alt, ALT), 2011 V3: 183. See also elevationair pressure corrections, 2011 V3: 264natural gas and, 2010 V2: 121

altitude correction actor (ACF), 121, 2010 V2: 117altitude valves, 2010 V2: 163–164alum, 2010 V2: 199, 2012 V4: 178aluminosilicates, 2011 V3: 179aluminum, 2009 V1: 129, 132, 2010 V2: 189aluminum 1100, 2009 V1: 132aluminum 2017 and 2024, 2009 V1: 132aluminum gas cylinders, 2011 V3: 268aluminum hydroxide, 2010 V2: 189aluminum jackets, 2012 V4: 108aluminum mills, 2011 V3: 26aluminum piping, 2010 V2: 122, 2011 V3: 49, 277, 2012

V4: 54aluminum silicates, 2010 V2: 205aluminum sulate, 2010 V2: 199, 2012 V4: 178

aluminum tubing, 2010 V2: 122ambient temperature

dened, 2009 V1: 17drinking-water coolers and, 2012 V4: 216hangers and supports or systems, 2012 V4: 119piping or ambient temperatures, 2012 V4: 118

ambulatory accessible stalls, 2009 V1: 106 American Chemical Society, 2009 V1: 142 American Concrete Institute (ACI), 2010 V2: 54 American Consulting Engineers Council (ACEC), 2009

V1: 56

American Gas Association (AGA), 2010 V2: 117abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 14, 32codes and standards, 115, 2010 V2: 114, 115relie valve standards, 2010 V2: 106water heating standards, 2010 V2: 112

American Institute o Architects (AIA)General Conditions o the Contract or Construction,

2009 V1: 56

Masterspec, 2009 V1: 65medical gas guidelines, 2011 V3: 51specications ormat, 2009 V1: 57

American Institute o Steel Construction (AISC), 2009 V1: 14

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 14, 32consensus process, 2009 V1: 41gas approvals, 2010 V2: 114list o standards, 2009 V1: 45–46publications (discussed)

accessibility standards, 2012 V4: 2, 13air gap standards, 2012 V4: 162backfow prevention standards, 2012 V4: 162backfow protection standards, 2012 V4: 13copper drainage ttings standards, 2012 V4: 33drinking water system standards, 2012 V4: 220emergency eyewash and showers, 2012 V4: 18gasket standards, 2012 V4: 63medical gas tube standards, 2012 V4: 34pipe and ttings standards, 2012 V4: 68–71plug valve standards, 2012 V4: 87plumbing xture standards, 2012 V4: 2plumbing xture support standards, 2012 V4: 5preabricated grease interceptors standards, 2012

V4: 145tee ttings standards, 2012 V4: 58water closet standards, 2012 V4: 4, 8water quality standards, 2010 V2: 220

publications (listed), 2009 V1: 41 ANSI A117.1-1980, 2009 V1: 97 ANSI A117.1-1986, 2009 V1: 97 ANSI A117.1-1998, 2009 V1: 97, 98, 99–115 ANSI/ASME B36.10: Welded and Seamless

Wrought-Steel Pipe, 2010 V2: 122 ANSI LC/CSA 6.26: Fuel Gas Piping Systems

Using Corrugated Stainless Steel Tubing,2010 V2: 122

ANSI/NFPA 30: Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, 2010 V2: 115

ANSI/NFPA 54: National Fuel Gas Code, 2011 V3:251, 256

ANSI/UL 144: Pressure Regulating Values or

Liquifed Petroleum Gas, 2010 V2: 115 ANSI Z21.75/CSA 6.27: Connectors or Outdoor

Gas Appliances and Manuactured Homes,2010 V2: 124

ANSI Z83.3: Gas Utilization Equipment or Large

Boilers, 2010 V2: 115 ANSI ZE 86.1: Commodity Specifcation or Air,

2011 V3: 61, 76 ASA A117.1-1961, 2009 V1: 97Connectors or Gas Appliances, 2010 V2: 124Connectors or Movable Gas Appliances, 2010 V2: 124

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NSF/ANSI 50: Equipment or Swimming Pools,Spas, Hot Tubs, and Other Recreational

Water Facilities, 2011 V3: 111, 122web site, 2011 V3: 89

American Petroleum Institute (API) API abbreviation, 2009 V1: 14publications (discussed)

emergency vent standards, 2011 V3: 148

berglass pipe standards, 2012 V4: 53removal o globules standards, 2010 V2: 245separators, 2011 V3: 88valve standards, 2012 V4: 73

publications (listed) AOIRP 1004: Bottom Loading and Vapor

Recovery or MC-306 Tank Motor

Vehicles, 2011 V3: 156 API Bulletin no. 1611: Service Station Tankage

Guide, 2011 V3: 156 API Bulletin no. 1615: Installation o Underground

Gasoline Tanks and Piping at ServiceStations, 2011 V3: 156

API Specifcation 12D: Field Welded Tanks or

Storage o Production Liquids, 2011 V3: 88 API Specifcation 12F: Shot Welded Tanks or

Storage o Production Liquids, 2011 V3: 88 API Standard 650: Welded Tanks or Oil Storage,

2011 V3: 88web site, 2011 V3: 89, 156

American Public Health Service, 2010 V2: 193 American Society or Healthcare Engineering (ASHE),

2010 V2: 108–109 American Society or Testing and Materials (ASTM)

abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 14, 32 ASTM A53 piping, 2011 V3: 257 ASTM A106 piping, 2011 V3: 257 ASTM B819 tubing, 2011 V3: 69consensus process, 2009 V1: 41list o standards, 2009 V1: 41, 49–51publications (discussed)

aluminum insulation jacket standards, 2012 V4: 108bronze valve standards, 2012 V4: 83calcium silicate insulation standards, 2012 V4: 106cast iron valve standards, 2012 V4: 83cellular glass insulation standards, 2012 V4: 106concrete aggregate standards, 2012 V4: 230copper drainage tube standards, 2012 V4: 33copper water tube standards, 2012 V4: 29elastomeric insulation standards, 2012 V4: 105electric-resistance-welded steel pipe standard, 2012

V4: 37electrousion joining standards, 2012 V4: 61

electronics-grade water standards, 220, 2010 V2: 219berglass insulation standards, 2012 V4: 105fame testing standards, 2012 V4: 105fux standards, 2012 V4: 30, 59oamed plastic insulation standards, 2012 V4: 106gray iron standards, 2012 V4: 77high-purity water standards, 2010 V2: 218–219hub and spigot cast iron soil pipe, 2012 V4: 25hubless coupling standards, 2012 V4: 57low-zinc alloy valve stems, 2012 V4: 83membrane lters, 2010 V2: 194

pipe and ttings standards, 2012 V4: 68–71plastic pipe and tubing standards, 2010 V2: 123–124polyurethane insulation standards, 2012 V4: 106Portland cement standards, 2012 V4: 230ready-mix concrete standards, 2012 V4: 230reagent-grade water standards, 2010 V2: 187,

218–219, 2012 V4: 197silicon bronze valve stems, 2012 V4: 83

soldering standards, 2012 V4: 30, 59stainless steel insulation jacket standards, 2012 V4: 108

steel gas pipe specications, 2010 V2: 122steel pipe standards, 2012 V4: 36surace burning pipe characteristics, 2010 V2: 224tee ttings standards, 2012 V4: 58thermal expansion and contraction standards,

2012 V4: 205publications (listed)

A-270: Standard Specifcation or Seamless and

Welded Austenitic Stainless Steel SanitaryTubing, 2011 V3: 276

B-75: Standard Specifcation or Seamless Copper

Tube, 2011 V3: 276 B-88: Standard Specifcation or Seamless Copper

Water Tube, 2011 V3: 276 B-210: Standard Specifcation or Aluminum and

Aluminum-Alloy Drawn Seamless Tubes,2011 V3: 277

B-280: Standard Specifcation or Seamless

Copper Tube or Air Conditioning and Rerigeration Field Service, 2011 V3: 276

B-819: Standard Specifcation or Seamless Copper

Tube or Medical Gas Systems, 2011 V3: 276 D-2863: Method or Measuring the Minimum

Oxygen Concentration to Support Candle-like Combustion o Plastics, 2011 V3: 77

American Society o Civil Engineers (ASCE)contract publications, 2009 V1: 56 Minimum Design Loads or Buildings and Other

Structures, 2009 V1: 147, 174, 185sewer publications, 2010 V2: 55

American Society o Heating, Rerigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE)

abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 14, 32list o standards, 2009 V1: 46publications (discussed)

cold water systems, 2010 V2: 96drinking water cooler standards, 2012 V4: 225drinking water coolers standards, 2012 V4: 216Legionella standards, 2010 V2: 108–109rerigeration system standards, 2012 V4: 225

water heating codes and standards, 2010 V2: 112publications (listed)

Equipment Handbook, 2011 V3: 204 Handbook o Fundamentals, 2009 V1: 2, 5, 6, 39,

2010 V2: 136, 2011 V3: 169, 203Systems and Applications Handbook, 2011 V3: 204

American Society o Mechanical Engineers (ASME)abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 14, 32list o standards, 2009 V1: 46–48publications (discussed)

air gap standards, 2012 V4: 162

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air receivers, 2011 V3: 177backfow protection standards, 2012 V4: 13boiler and pressure vessel codes, 2010 V2: 112drinking water cooler standards, 2012 V4: 225grease interceptor standards, 2012 V4: 228hydraulic requirements or water closets and

urinals, 2012 V4: 4medical gas tube standards, 2012 V4: 34

pipe and ttings standards, 2012 V4: 68–71plumbing xture standards, 2012 V4: 2plumbing xture support standards, 2012 V4: 5propane tank specications, 2010 V2: 132relie valve standards, 2010 V2: 106urinal standards, 2012 V4: 8

publications (listed) ASME A17.1: Saety Code or Elevators and

Escalators, 2011 V3: 29 ASME A112.18.8: Suction Fittings or Use in

Swimming Pools, Wading Pools, and Hot

Tubs, 2011 V3: 101, 104, 112, 135 ASME B31.3: Process Piping Design, 2011 V3:

176, 277

ASME International Boiler and Pressure VesselCode, 2011 V3: 88 Fuel-Gas Piping, 2010 V2: 136Welded and Seamless Wrought-Steel Pipe, 2010

V2: 122web site, 2011 V3: 89

American Society o Plumbing Engineers (ASPE)abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 14, 32list o standards, 2009 V1: 48publications (discussed)

medical gas station guidelines, 2011 V3: 51, 52publications (listed)

Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, 2010 V2:96, 2011 V3: 47

Plumbing Engineering and Design Handbook o Tables, 2010 V2: 130

Siphonic Roo Drainage, 2010 V2: 55 American Society o Plumbing Engineers Research

Foundation (ASPERF), 2009 V1: 32 American Society o Sanitary Engineering (ASSE)

abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 14, 32list o standards, 2009 V1: 48–49publications

anti-siphon ll valve standards, 2012 V4: 162backfow prevention standards, 2012 V4: 162dishwasher standards, 2012 V4: 162–164laundry equipment standards, 2012 V4: 164siphon ll valves standard, 2012 V4: 6water hammer arrester certication, 2010 V2: 72

American standard pipe threads, 2009 V1: 17 American Standard Specifcations or Making Buildings

and Facilities Usable by the Physically Handicapped, 2009 V1: 97

American Standards Association. See American NationalStandards Institute (ANSI)

American Water Works Association (AWWA)abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 14, 32list o standards, 2009 V1: 51publications (discussed)

cold water systems, 2010 V2: 94

gate valve standards, 2012 V4: 83, 88pipe and ttings standards, 2012 V4: 68–71valve epoxy coating standards, 2012 V4: 83, 88

publications (listed) AWWA Standard or Disinecting Water Mains,

2010 V2: 95 AWWA Standard or Disinection o Water Storage

Facilities, 2010 V2: 95

AWWA Standard or Hypochlorites, 2010 V2: 95 AWWA Standard or Liquid Chlorine, 2010 V2: 95 Recommended Practice or Backow Prevention

and Cross-connection Control, 2010 V2: 95 American Welding Society (AWS), 2009 V1: 51, 159, 2012

V4: 58 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)

ADAAG Review Federal Advisory Committee, 2009 V1: 115

aucet fow rates, 2009 V1: 128xture standards, 2012 V4: 2history, 2009 V1: 98–99overview, 2009 V1: 97, 98–99swimming pool guidelines, 2011 V3: 135

Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines(ADAAG), 2009 V1: 98–99

Amin, P., 2010 V2: 224amines in boiler eed water, 2012 V4: 194ammonia (NH3), 2010 V2: 189, 199, 2012 V4: 191ammonium alum, 2012 V4: 178ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), 2012 V4: 191amoebic dysentery, 2012 V4: 200amp, AMP, AMPS (ampere). See amperesampacity, 2011 V3: 76amperes (A, amp, AMP, AMPS)

amperes per meter, 2009 V1: 33corrosion, 2009 V1: 129measurement conversions, 2009 V1: 33symbols or, 2009 V1: 14

amphoteric corrosion, dened, 2009 V1: 141amphoteric materials, 2009 V1: 134amplication actor in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 177ampliers, 2009 V1: 17amplitude, 2009 V1: 17anaerobic, dened, 2009 V1: 17, 141anaerobic bacteria in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 145anaerobic bioremediation, 2012 V4: 227anaerobic digestion, biosolids, 2012 V4: 240anaerobic wastewater treatment, 2011 V3: 88analysis, 2009 V1: 17 Analysis phase o value engineering, 2009 V1: 209, 218–

223. See also Function Analysis phase in valueengineering

analytical grade water, 2010 V2: 219anchor bolts, 2012 V4: 128anchoring equipment

anchorage orces in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 180anchors, dened, 2009 V1: 185re-protection equipment, 2011 V3: 28seismic protection, 2009 V1: 153

anchoring pipes, 2010 V2: 16, 54anchors, dened, 2012 V4: 127anchors or hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 123DWV stacks, 2012 V4: 208

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hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 123–125types o anchors, 2012 V4: 59–60, 62, 124water hammer and, 2012 V4: 117

anchors, dened, 2009 V1: 17, 2012 V4: 127anesthesia workrooms

xtures, 2011 V3: 39health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36medical air, 2011 V3: 53

medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 52anesthetic gas management, 2011 V3: 65–66anesthetics, 2011 V3: 76anesthetizing locations, 2011 V3: 76angle o incidence, dened, 2011 V3: 190angle o refection, dened, 2011 V3: 190angle o reraction, dened, 2011 V3: 190angle snubbers, 2009 V1: 156angle stops, 2009 V1: 17angle valves (AV), 2009 V1: 9, 17

abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 14dened, 2012 V4: 75resistance coecients, 2010 V2: 92stems, 2012 V4: 79

angled grates in school shower rooms, 2010 V2: 11angles (ANG), measurements, 2009 V1: 34angles o bend, 2009 V1: 17angular acceleration measurements, 2009 V1: 34angular velocity measurements, 2009 V1: 34animal research centers, 2010 V2: 241, 2011 V3: 52animal shelters, 2010 V2: 15animal treatment rooms, 2011 V3: 47anion exchangers, dened, 2012 V4: 183anions

anion resins, 2010 V2: 191, 207dened, 2009 V1: 17, 141, 2010 V2: 187, 2012 V4:

182, 200in electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 134in ion exchange, 2010 V2: 205in pH values, 2010 V2: 229

annealed temper (sot), 2012 V4: 29annealing, 2009 V1: 17annual costs. See costs and economic concernsannular chambers in dry-pipe systems, 2011 V3: 8annular spaces in wells, 2010 V2: 156, 158annunciators, 2011 V3: 28anodes

anode expected lie, 2009 V1: 138anodic protection, 2009 V1: 141dened, 2009 V1: 129, 141galvanic series o metals, 2009 V1: 132sacricial anodes, 2009 V1: 137

anodic inhibitors, 2009 V1: 141

anodic potential (electronegative potential), 2009 V1: 14anodic protection, dened, 2009 V1: 141 ANSI. See American National Standards Institute (ANSI)anthracite coal lters, 2010 V2: 160, 201anthropometrics or wheelchairs, 2009 V1: 99–101anti-cross-connection precautions, 2010 V2: 27anti-siphon ballcocks, 2012 V4: 6antireeze, 2009 V1: 122antireeze systems, re sprinklers, 2011 V3: 11antisiphons, 2009 V1: 17apartment buildings

reghting demand fow rates, 2011 V3: 224gas demand, 2010 V2: 123, 124, 130hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99, 100natural gas demand, 2010 V2: 123numbers o xtures or, 2012 V4: 21plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 187water consumption, 2012 V4: 187

API. See American Petroleum Institute

appearance unctionsdened, 2009 V1: 218in value engineering, 2009 V1: 223

appearance o pipes, 2009 V1: 262–263, 2012 V4: 103, 107appliance gas regulators, 2010 V2: 117appliances. See also xtures

appliance regulators, 2010 V2: 117as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 189codes and standards, 2009 V1: 43–44fexible gas connections, 2010 V2: 124gas control valves, 118, 2010 V2: 115gas demand, 2010 V2: 115, 116gas regulators, 2011 V3: 254–255propane vaporizers, 2010 V2: 134venting systems, 2010 V2: 118

Applied Technology Council (ATC), 2009 V1: 174, 185approaches (heat), 2009 V1: 17approaches to toilet compartments, 2009 V1: 106approvals

or radioactive materials systems, 2010 V2: 238or special-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 227–228

approved, dened, 2009 V1: 17, 2012 V4: 169approved testing agencies, 2009 V1: 17approximate values, 2009 V1: 33aquastats, 2009 V1: 10 Aqueous Film-Forming Foam (AFFF), 2011 V3: 25aquiers

dened, 2009 V1: 17, 2010 V2: 155ormation o, 2010 V2: 155potentiometric suraces, 2010 V2: 157unconsolidated aquiers, 2010 V2: 157

Arabic numerals, 2009 V1: 33 Architect-engineers Tur Sprinkler Manual, 2011 V3: 96architect’s supplemental instructions (ASI), 2009 V1: 57 Architectural Barriers Act (90-480), 2009 V1: 98area (A)

calculating, 2009 V1: 3–5conversion actors, 2009 V1: 35measurements, 2009 V1: 34non-SI units, 2009 V1: 34

area, aperture, dened, 2011 V3: 190area, gross collector, dened, 2011 V3: 190area alarms, 2011 V3: 50, 67, 75

area drains (ad), 2009 V1: 14, 17areas o sprinkler operation, 2011 V3: 12areaways, 2009 V1: 17 ARI (Air Conditioning and Rerigeration Institute), 2012

V4: 215–216arm baths, 2010 V2: 99, 2011 V3: 36, 38, 40 Army Corps o Engineers, 2009 V1: 57arresters or water hammer. See water hammer arrestersarticulated-ceiling medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 56as built, dened, 2012 V4: 128as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA), 2010 V2: 238

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Index 251

ASA. See American National Standards Institute (ANSI) ASA A117.1-1961, 2009 V1: 97asbestos cement piping, 2010 V2: 75, 2011 V3: 242 ASCE. See American Society o Civil Engineers (ASCE) ASHE (American Society or Healthcare Engineering),

2010 V2: 108–109 ASHRAE. See American Society o Heating, Rerigerating

and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE)

ASHRAE Handbook - Fundamentals, 2010 V2: 136 ASI (architect’s supplemental instructions), 2009 V1: 57 ASJ (all-service jackets), 2012 V4: 106, 108 ASME. See American Society o Mechanical Engineers

(ASME) ASPE. See American Society o Plumbing Engineers

(ASPE) ASPERF (American Society o Plumbing Engineers

Research Foundation), 2009 V1: 32asphalt-dipped piping, 2010 V2: 78asphalt mixers, 2010 V2: 133asphalt pavement, runo, 2010 V2: 42asphyxiant gases, 2009 V1: 17aspirators, 2009 V1: 17, 2011 V3: 40, 2012 V4: 161 ASSE. See American Society o Sanitary Engineering

(ASSE)assemblies, dened, 2012 V4: 128assembly costs, 2009 V1: 210assisted creativity, 2009 V1: 227 Association or the Advancement o Medical

Instrumentation (AAMI), 2010 V2: 187, 219, 220 Association o Pool and Spa Proessionals (APSP), 2011

V3: 104 Association o State Drinking Water Administrators, 2010

V2: 155 ASTM. See American Society or Testing and Materials

(ASTM) ASTs (aboveground storage tanks). See aboveground tank

systemsasynchronous, dened, 2009 V1: 17 ATBCB (U.S. Architectural and Transportation Barriers

Compliance Board), 2009 V1: 98, 99 ATC-3 (Tentative Provisions or the Development o

Seismic Regulations or Buildings), 2009 V1:174, 185

Atienze, J., 2010 V2: 29atmospheres (atm, ATM)

converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38vacuum units, 2010 V2: 166

atmospheric backfow preventers, 2012 V4: 163atmospheric pressure

Boyle’s law, 2012 V4: 211–213dened, 2012 V4: 169

in vacuum, 2010 V2: 165atmospheric regulators, 2011 V3: 255atmospheric tanks

dened, 2011 V3: 136oam, 2011 V3: 25venting, 2011 V3: 141

atmospheric vacuum breakers (AVB)backfow prevention, 2012 V4: 166dened, 2009 V1: 17, 2012 V4: 169aucets, 2012 V4: 13illustrated, 2012 V4: 167

irrigation sprinklers, 2011 V3: 95atmospheric vaporizers, 2011 V3: 57atmospheric vents (steam or hot vapor) (ATV), 2009 V1: 9atomic weight, 2009 V1: 17attachments, 2009 V1: 185atto prex, 2009 V1: 34 ATV (atmospheric vents), 2009 V1: 9 Auciello, Eugene P., 2010 V2: 55

auditoriums, numbers o xtures or, 2012 V4: 20, 22augered wells, 2010 V2: 156austenitic stainless steel, 2012 V4: 56authorities having jurisdiction

alterations to existing buildings, 2009 V1: 266alternative sanitary systems, 2010 V2: 16clean agent re-suppression systems, 2011 V3: 27cross-connection programs, 2012 V4: 168–169dened, 2009 V1: 17, 2011 V3: 76re-protection system design, 2011 V3: 1xture vents, 2010 V2: 32gas approvals, 2010 V2: 114laboratory gas systems, 2010 V2: 121, 2011 V3: 263manholes, 2011 V3: 225medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 51public sewer availability, 2011 V3: 225swimming pools, 2011 V3: 104, 107vent stacks, 2010 V2: 39–40

autoclaves, 2012 V4: 161autoignition, 2009 V1: 17automatic air vents (AAV), 2009 V1: 10automatic alternators, 2011 V3: 65automatic controls on ion exchangers, 2012 V4: 183automatic drain valves, 2011 V3: 95automatic drains in vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 65automatic dry standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 20automatic re-detection devices, 2011 V3: 9automatic re-protection systems

history and objectives, 2011 V3: 1pipes and hangers, 2011 V3: 18, 19

automatic fushometer valves, 2012 V4: 7automatic grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 151–152automatic heat-up method, condensate drainage, 2011

V3: 164automatic overll prevention, 2011 V3: 148automatic overrides or irrigation controllers, 2011 V3: 95automatic purity monitors, 2012 V4: 193automatic soteners, 2012 V4: 200automatic sprinkler systems

combined dry-pipe and pre-action, 2011 V3: 10–11design density, 2011 V3: 11–12elevator shats, 2011 V3: 29re hazard evaluation, 2011 V3: 2

re pumps or, 2011 V3: 21–22oam re-suppression systems and, 2011 V3: 25history, 2011 V3: 1hydraulic design, 2011 V3: 11–13numbers o sprinklers in operation, 2011 V3: 12pipes, 2011 V3: 9pipes and hangers, 2011 V3: 18, 19pre-action systems, 2011 V3: 9system design, 2011 V3: 2–18types, 2009 V1: 28–29, 2011 V3: 6–11water supplies, 2011 V3: 2–6

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Automatic Sprinkler Systems Handbook, 2009 V1: 185automatic storage water heaters, 2010 V2: 101automatic tank gauging, 2011 V3: 142automatic trap primers, 2010 V2: 11automatic wet standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 20automotive trac, 2010 V2: 11autopsy rooms

xtures, 2011 V3: 38, 40

health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 52, 56medical vacuum, 2011 V3: 54non-potable water, 2011 V3: 47

auxiliary energy subsystems, 2011 V3: 190auxiliary stops, 2012 V4: 128auxiliary water supplies

dened, 2012 V4: 169direct connection hazards, 2012 V4: 161

AV (acid vents), 2009 V1: 8, 16 AV (angle valves). See angle valves (AV)availability. See demandavailability o water, 2009 V1: 17available net positive suction head, 2012 V4: 100available vacuum, saety actors and, 2010 V2: 186 AVB. See atmospheric vacuum breakers (AVB)average fow rates or xtures, 2012 V4: 186average water use, 2009 V1: 117 AW (acid wastes), 2009 V1: 8, 16, 2011 V3: 42–46, 2012

V4: 51 AWS. See American Welding Society (AWS) AWWA. See American Water Works Association (AWWA)axial braces, 2012 V4: 128axial fow, 2012 V4: 100axial motions, hangers and supports and, 2012 V4: 116, 118axial pumps, 2012 V4: 91 Ayres, J.M., 2009 V1: 185

Bback pressure, 2012 V4: 169back pressure tests, 2012 V4: 5back pressures in pipes, 2010 V2: 2, 4, 2011 V3: 255, 2012

V4: 161back-siphonage, 2010 V2: 94, 2011 V3: 95. See also backfow

dened, 2009 V1: 17, 2012 V4: 169reverse fow, cause o, 2012 V4: 161

back-spud water closets, 2012 V4: 3back-to-back water closets, 2012 V4: 5backlling

around septic tanks, 2010 V2: 146backll dened, 2009 V1: 17building sewers and, 2010 V2: 14–15

labor productivity rates, 2009 V1: 87, 88in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85storage tanks, 2011 V3: 137, 155

backfow. See also back-siphonagebackfow connections, dened, 2009 V1: 17dened, 2009 V1: 17, 2010 V2: 94, 2012 V4: 169prevention, 2012 V4: 164–166, 169swing check valves, 2012 V4: 76

backfow preventers (BFP)codes, 2009 V1: 42cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 60cross-connection control devices, 2010 V2: 60–61

dened, 2009 V1: 14, 17, 2012 V4: 169, 170domestic cold water systems, 2010 V2: 60domestic water supply, 2011 V3: 214–216aucets, 2012 V4: 12–13re-protection connections, 2011 V3: 217, 220xtures in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 35pressure loss, 2011 V3: 215reduced pressure zones, 2011 V3: 215

thermal expansion compensation and, 2010 V2: 106vacuum breakers, 2011 V3: 35, 46background levels o radiation, 2010 V2: 237backing rings, 2009 V1: 17backpressure, 2009 V1: 17backpressure appliance regulators, 2010 V2: 117backup, dened, 2009 V1: 17backup demineralizers, 2011 V3: 48backup storm-drainage systems, 2010 V2: 52backwash rom water soteners, 2010 V2: 160, 210backwashing

dened, 2012 V4: 200lters, 2010 V2: 201, 2012 V4: 180, 181pressure dierential switches, 2012 V4: 181in regeneration cycle, 2010 V2: 206

backwater valves, 2009 V1: 17, 43, 2010 V2: 12bacteria

biological ouling, 2010 V2: 195, 217chemical control, 2010 V2: 213copper-silver ionization, 2012 V4: 199dened, 2012 V4: 200demineralizer systems, 2011 V3: 48distilled water and, 2011 V3: 47–48, 2012 V4: 189, 192drinking water and, 2010 V2: 160, 2012 V4: 174–175in eed water, 2010 V2: 188in lters, 2010 V2: 201in hot water, 2011 V3: 47killing in water systems, 2010 V2: 109–111laboratory grade water and, 2012 V4: 197ozone treatments and, 2012 V4: 194in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 145solar water heating and, 2011 V3: 196in storm water, 2010 V2: 27, 43in water-heating systems, 2010 V2: 108–111in wells, 2010 V2: 158

bacteriological examination, 2012 V4: 200bafe systems

bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 230bioremediation systems, 2012 V4: 228grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 150stills, 2012 V4: 192water distillation, 2011 V3: 48

bafeplates, 2009 V1: 17

bag-lter gross ltration, 2010 V2: 201Bahamas, gray-water systems in, 2010 V2: 27bailers, 2011 V3: 144baking soda, 2012 V4: 173balanced-piston valves, 2012 V4: 82balancing cocks, 2012 V4: 223balancing valves (BLV), 2009 V1: 9ball check valves, 2009 V1: 18ball joints, 2009 V1: 18, 161, 2012 V4: 63ball removal tests, 2012 V4: 5ball valves (BV), 2009 V1: 9, 14, 18, 2010 V2: 92, 230

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Index 253

compressed-air systems, 2012 V4: 84dened, 2012 V4: 75, 88handle extensions, 2012 V4: 75high-rise service, 2012 V4: 88hot and cold water supply service, 2012 V4: 83low-pressure steam systems, 2012 V4: 85medical gas service, 2011 V3: 67, 2012 V4: 85noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 194

vacuum system service, 2012 V4: 84–85Ballanco, Julius, 2010 V2: 55ballast pads, 2011 V3: 155ballcocks, 2012 V4: 6Baltimore Dept. o Public Works, 2010 V2: 29band hangers, 2012 V4: 119, 128baptismal onts, 2012 V4: 161bar joist hangers, 2012 V4: 126bar joists, 2012 V4: 126bare earth, runo, 2010 V2: 42bare pipe, 2009 V1: 139bariatric water closets (WC), 2012 V4: 4, 6barium, 2010 V2: 189baro pr, BARO PR (barometric pressure). See barometric

pressurebarometers (baro, BARO), 2010 V2: 166barometric loops, 2012 V4: 169barometric pressure (baro pr, BARO PR, BP)

altitude adjustments, 2010 V2: 166–167dened, 2011 V3: 172, 183, 186in vacuums, 2010 V2: 166, 185

barrelsconverting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38dimensions, 2012 V4: 27–29

barrier ree, 2009 V1: 18. See also people with disabilitiesbarrier-ree water coolers, 2012 V4: 217barriers around tanks, 2011 V3: 149bars, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38base acquisition costs, 2009 V1: 217base materials

base dened, 2009 V1: 18compounds in water, 2010 V2: 188pH control, 2011 V3: 85–87

base supports, 2012 V4: 128base units, 2009 V1: 33basic unctions in value engineering, 2009 V1: 219, 221basic material standards, 2009 V1: 61basket strainers, 2010 V2: 92bathhouses, 2010 V2: 151, 2011 V3: 108–110bathing rooms, 2009 V1: 104–105bathroom groups, 2009 V1: 18, 2011 V3: 206bathtub ll valves, 2012 V4: 17bathtub spout noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 200

bathtubs (BT)abbreviations or, 2009 V1: 14accessibility design, 2009 V1: 109–110acoustic ratings o, 2009 V1: 194bathtub enclosures, 2009 V1: 110xture pipe sizes and demand, 2010 V2: 86xture-unit loads, 2010 V2: 3grab bars, 2009 V1: 109gray-water systems and, 2009 V1: 126health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99

inant bathtubs, 2011 V3: 38minimum numbers o, 2012 V4: 20–23noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 194, 198, 201overfows, 2012 V4: 16patient rooms, 2011 V3: 37seats, 2009 V1: 114–115standards, 2012 V4: 2submerged inlet hazards, 2012 V4: 161

temperatures, 2011 V3: 47types and requirements, 2012 V4: 16–17water xture unit values, 2011 V3: 206

batteries, corrosion cells in sacricial anodes, 2009 V1: 137batteries o xtures, 2009 V1: 18battery installations o water-pressure regulators, 2012

V4: 82Baumeister, Theodore, 2009 V1: 1, 2, 3, 5, 39BCMC (Board or Coordination o Model Codes), 2009

V1: 98BCuP brazing, 2012 V4: 34beach components in pools, 2011 V3: 108bead-to-bead joints, 2012 V4: 36, 61bead-to-cut-glass end joints, 2012 V4: 36bead-to-plain-end joints, 2012 V4: 61beadless butt usion, 2012 V4: 62beads, ion exchange, 2012 V4: 183beam attachments, 2012 V4: 126beam clamps, 2009 V1: 182, 2012 V4: 119, 120, 126, 128bearing plates. See roll plates; slide platesBeckman, W.A., 2011 V3: 204bed depths, 2012 V4: 200bed locator units, 2011 V3: 55bedding and settlement

building sewers and, 2010 V2: 14–15dened, 2009 V1: 18, 2011 V3: 225–226illustrated, 2011 V3: 227pipe supports and, 2010 V2: 12protecting against settlement, 2010 V2: 16settlement loads, 2009 V1: 180

bedpan washers, 2011 V3: 36, 37, 39, 40, 2012 V4: 161beer, 2009 V1: 141bell-and-spigot joints and piping. See also hub-and-spigot

piping and jointsdened, 2009 V1: 18earthquake protection and, 2009 V1: 160

bell-hub depressions, 2010 V2: 14bell-mouth inlets or reducers, 2010 V2: 93bellows expansion joints, 2012 V4: 207bellows-style water hammer arresters, 2010 V2: 72–74bellows traps, 2011 V3: 162bells, dened, 2009 V1: 18belt-driven compressors, 2012 V4: 219

bending moments, 2012 V4: 205bending movements, 2009 V1: 35bending pipes, 2012 V4: 61bending presses, 2012 V4: 61benets in value engineering presentations, 2009 V1: 249Bennett, E.R., 2010 V2: 154bentonite clay, 2010 V2: 205bentonite grout, 2010 V2: 157bents, 2012 V4: 128Bergstrom, Ken, 2011 V3: 135Bernoulli’s equation, 2009 V1: 5–6

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dened, 2012 V4: 100pump applications, 2012 V4: 94

beta oxidation, 2012 V4: 229beta ray radiation, 2010 V2: 236–237beveling edges or welding, 2012 V4: 61BFP (backfow preventers). See backfow preventersBFV (butterfy valves). See butterfy valvesbhp, BHP (brake horsepower), 2009 V1: 6, 14, 2011 V3: 21,

2012 V4: 100bicarbonate ions (HCO3), 2012 V4: 173, 184bicarbonate o soda, 2012 V4: 173bicarbonates, 2010 V2: 189, 196, 199, 2012 V4: 176, 184bid bonds, 2009 V1: 56bid by invitation, 2009 V1: 56bid shopping, 2009 V1: 62bidders

dened, 2009 V1: 55inormation in project manuals, 2009 V1: 55well construction, 2010 V2: 164

bidding documents, 2009 V1: 55bidding requirements, 2009 V1: 55Biddison, 2009 V1: 185bidets, 2010 V2: 86, 2011 V3: 206, 2012 V4: 2, 17, 161bilge pumps, 2012 V4: 98bimetallic traps, 2011 V3: 162binding, preventing in cleanouts, 2010 V2: 9biochemical measurements o microorganisms, 2010 V2: 188biocides, 2010 V2: 213, 217, 222–223biodegradable oam extinguishers, 2011 V3: 26biolm, 2010 V2: 109, 2012 V4: 228bioouling, 2010 V2: 195, 217biohazardous materials. See inectious and biological waste

systemsbiological and biomedical laboratories. See laboratoriesbiological characteristics o drinking water, 2010 V2: 217biological control in pure water systems. See microbial

growth and controlbiological ouling, 2010 V2: 195, 217biological oxygen demand (BOD), 2011 V3: 26, 88, 2012

V4: 200, 228biological treatment

in gray-water treatment, 2010 V2: 27o oil spills, 2010 V2: 245in pure water systems, 2010 V2: 222–223o sewage in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 145wastewater treatment plants, 2011 V3: 88

biological waste systems. See inectious and biologicalwaste systems

biopure waterdened, 2012 V4: 175distillation, 2012 V4: 175

health care acilities, 2011 V3: 47bioreactors, 2012 V4: 227bioremediation grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 152bioremediation pretreatment systems

codes and standards, 2012 V4: 229–230dened, 2012 V4: 227dimensions and perormance, 2012 V4: 230–231fow control, 2012 V4: 229materials and structure, 2012 V4: 230principles, 2012 V4: 227–229retention system, 2012 V4: 228

separation, 2012 V4: 228sizing, 2012 V4: 229types o, 2012 V4: 227

biosaety cabinets, 2010 V2: 240Biosaety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories,

2010 V2: 172biosaety levels (BL1-BL4), 2010 V2: 172, 241biosolids, 2012 V4: 238–240

biostats, 2010 V2: 213, 217birthing rooms, 2011 V3: 39, 52, 56bitumastic-enamel-lined piping, 2010 V2: 75BL1-4 levels, 2010 V2: 241black iron coated pipe, 2012 V4: 37black pipes, 2009 V1: 18black steel piping, 2010 V2: 122, 2011 V3: 148, 257black-water systems

amount o generated black water, 2012 V4: 238compared to gray water, 2010 V2: 21dened, 2010 V2: 21estimating sewage quantities, 2010 V2: 150–152sources, 2012 V4: 239types o, 2012 V4: 237

bladder bags, 2009 V1: 108bladder tanks, 2011 V3: 26, 2012 V4: 209Blake, Richard T., 2010 V2: 224blank fanges, 2009 V1: 18blast urnace gas, 2010 V2: 114blast gates, 2010 V2: 179bleach, 2009 V1: 141bleaches, 2010 V2: 147bleaching powder, 2012 V4: 173bleed air, 2010 V2: 171bleed cocks, 2011 V3: 3bleed throughs, 2012 V4: 200block-like soils, 2010 V2: 141block-method irrigation, 2011 V3: 92blocking creativity, 2009 V1: 225blood analyzers, 2010 V2: 13blood or other objectionable materials, 2010 V2: 15. See

also inectious and biological waste systemsblood-type foor drains, 2011 V3: 38blow-o in air compressors, 2011 V3: 177blowdown

boiler blowdown, 2010 V2: 216cooling towers, 2010 V2: 216removing sludge, 2010 V2: 195

blowout urinals, 2012 V4: 8blowout water closets, 2012 V4: 2–3blue dyes in gray water, 2010 V2: 27BLV (balancing valves), 2009 V1: 9Board or Coordination o Model Codes (BCMC), 2009

V1: 98BOCA. See Building Ocials and Code Administrators

International, Inc. (BOCA)BOD (biological oxygen demand), 2011 V3: 26, 88, 2012

V4: 200, 228bodies o valves, 2012 V4: 73, 88body sprays, 2012 V4: 16Boegly, W.J., 2010 V2: 154boiler blow-os, 2009 V1: 18boiler room earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 158 Boiler Water Treatment, 2010 V2: 224

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Index 255

boilersallowable pressure, 2010 V2: 119boiler steam as distillation eed water, 2012 V4: 194cast-iron supports or, 2009 V1: 152central heating, 2011 V3: 127codes and standards, 2009 V1: 42direct connection hazards, 2012 V4: 161earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 153

eed lines, 2012 V4: 29eed water corrosion inhibitors, 2009 V1: 140eed water treatments, 2010 V2: 215–216gas demand, 2010 V2: 116gas train arrangements, 2011 V3: 255scaling, 2010 V2: 195sediment buckets in drains, 2010 V2: 11

boiling points (bp, BP)dened, 2009 V1: 18, 2010 V2: 135liquid uels, 2011 V3: 136liquid oxygen, 2011 V3: 57

bollards, 2011 V3: 149, 155bolted bonnet joints, 2012 V4: 79bolted bonnets, 2012 V4: 88bolts and bolting

dened, 2012 V4: 128lubricating, 2012 V4: 60problems in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 184types o bolts, 2012 V4: 120water closets, 2012 V4: 5

bonded joints, 2009 V1: 140bonding, electrical, 2010 V2: 125bonds and certicates, 2009 V1: 56bonnets, 2009 V1: 18, 2012 V4: 73, 79, 88booster pump control valves, 2012 V4: 82booster pump controls, 2012 V4: 99booster-pump systems

cold-water supplies, 2010 V2: 61–68connections, 2011 V3: 217domestic water service, 2011 V3: 206re-protection systems, 2011 V3: 6in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 46swimming pool heaters, 2011 V3: 126vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 172

booster systems, gas, 2010 V2: 119booster water heaters, 2009 V1: 18, 121, 2010 V2: 104borate, 2010 V2: 189bored wells, 2010 V2: 156–157borosilicate glass piping, 2010 V2: 13, 14, 75, 2011 V3: 42,

2012 V4: 35Bosich, Joseph F., 2009 V1: 144bottle llers, 2012 V4: 219bottle water coolers, 2012 V4: 216

bottled gas regulators, 2010 V2: 117bottled water, 2012 V4: 13, 216 Bottom Loading and Vapor Recovery or MC-306 Tank

Motor Vehicles (AOIRP 1004), 2011 V3: 156Bourdon gauges, 2010 V2: 171bowl depth o sinks, 2009 V1: 109Boyle’s law, 2010 V2: 65, 2012 V4: 211–213BP (barometric pressure). See barometric pressurebp, BP (boiling points). See boiling points (bp, BP)BR (butadiene), 2009 V1: 32braces (walking aids), 2009 V1: 99

bracing aircrat cable method, 2009 V1: 160alternate attachments or pipes, 2009 V1: 167brace assemblies, 2012 V4: 128brace, hanger, or support drawings, 2012 V4: 128dened, 2009 V1: 185, 2012 V4: 128hanger rod connections, 2009 V1: 170hanger rods, 2009 V1: 158

hubless cast-iron pipe, 2009 V1: 170lateral sway bracing, 2009 V1: 175–176longitudinal and transverse bracing, 2009 V1: 173longitudinal-only bracing, 2009 V1: 165, 173open-web steel joists, 2009 V1: 169pipes on trapeze and, 2009 V1: 168, 171piping systems or seismic protection, 2009 V1: 158–179riser bracing or hubless pipes, 2009 V1: 171sel bracing, 2009 V1: 184spacing o, 2009 V1: 177steel beam connections, 2009 V1: 168structural angle bracing, 2009 V1: 160structural channel bracing, 2009 V1: 160strut bracing, 2009 V1: 166, 168superstrut, 2009 V1: 163sway bracing, 2009 V1: 172, 173, 175–176, 178–179, 181Tension 360 bracing, 2009 V1: 162transverse bracing, 2009 V1: 160, 172truss-type actions, 2009 V1: 182typical earthquake bracing, 2009 V1: 161

bracketsdened, 2012 V4: 128hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 119illustrated, 2012 V4: 64, 121securing pipes, 2012 V4: 65

brainstorming in creativity, 2009 V1: 227brake horsepower (bhp, BHP)

dened, 2011 V3: 186, 2012 V4: 100re pumps, 2011 V3: 21pumps, 2009 V1: 6symbols or, 2009 V1: 14

branch-bottom connections, 2009 V1: 11branch intervals, 2009 V1: 18, 2010 V2: 35branch length gas pipe sizing method, 2010 V2: 130branch length method, 2010 V2: 87, 89, 94branch-side connections, 2009 V1: 11branch tees, 2009 V1: 18branch-top connections, 2009 V1: 11branch vents

air admittance valves, 2010 V2: 39dened, 2009 V1: 18

branchesbranch lines, dened, 2011 V3: 78

clear water waste, 2010 V2: 50dened, 2009 V1: 18laboratory gases, 2011 V3: 280thermal expansion and contraction in, 2012 V4: 206

brand names in specications, 2009 V1: 60, 62brass

corrosion, 2012 V4: 176dezincication, 2009 V1: 132in electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 132in galvanic series, 2009 V1: 132stress and strain gures, 2012 V4: 206

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thermal expansion or contraction, 2012 V4: 207valves, 2012 V4: 77

brass foor drains, 2010 V2: 15brass (copper alloy) pipe, 2010 V2: 12–13brass pipes, 2010 V2: 75, 78, 122, 2011 V3: 102brass tubing, 2010 V2: 122brazed ends on valves, 2012 V4: 79brazed joints

earthquake protection and, 2009 V1: 160inspection, 74, 2011 V3: 69laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 277medical gas tubing, 2011 V3: 69, 2012 V4: 34

brazing, dened, 2009 V1: 18, 2012 V4: 58brazing ends, 2009 V1: 18break tanks, 2010 V2: 64, 2012 V4: 166, 168breathing apparatus or emergencies, 2010 V2: 229, 231BREEAM (Building Research Establishment

Environmental Assessment Method), 2012 V4: 233brine tanks

dened, 2012 V4: 200submerged inlet hazards, 2012 V4: 161

brinesdened, 2012 V4: 200hydrostatic monitoring systems, 2011 V3: 143rerigerants, 2009 V1: 140in water sotening, 2010 V2: 210, 2012 V4: 189

British thermal units (Btu, BTU)British thermal units per hour (Btu/h), 2009 V1: 18Btu (J) (re loads), 2011 V3: 2calculating hot water savings, 2009 V1: 118condensate estimates, 2011 V3: 167converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38dened, 2009 V1: 18, 128, 2012 V4: 103natural gas services, 2011 V3: 252solar energy, 2011 V3: 193symbols or, 2009 V1: 14

bromine, 2010 V2: 110, 2011 V3: 131bromtrifuoro-methane CBrF3 (halon 1301), 2009 V1: 24bronze-mounted, dened, 2009 V1: 18bronze sediment buckets, 2010 V2: 13bronze valves, 2012 V4: 77bronze, in electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 132Brown, F.R., 2009 V1: 185Brown, J., 2010 V2: 224Brundtland Commission, 2012 V4: 233BT (bathtubs), 2009 V1: 14Btu, BTU (British Thermal units). SeeBritish Thermal unitsBtu (J) (re loads), 2011 V3: 2Btu/h (British thermal units per hour), 2009 V1: 18bubble aerators, 2010 V2: 198bubble tight, dened, 2009 V1: 18

bubble-tight shuto plug valves, 2012 V4: 77bubble-tight valve seating, 2012 V4: 74bubbler irrigation heads, 2011 V3: 94bubbler system (surge tanks), 2011 V3: 132bubblers on water coolers

illustrated, 2012 V4: 222pressure-type water coolers, 2012 V4: 217rating conditions, 2012 V4: 216stream regulators, 2012 V4: 219types o, 2012 V4: 218–219wastage, 2012 V4: 220

water consumption, 2012 V4: 223bubbles. See detergents; soaps; sudsbucket traps, 2011 V3: 162–163, 166Budnick, J., 2011 V3: 203building code list o agencies, 2009 V1: 42building drains

combined, 2009 V1: 18cross-sections o, 2010 V2: 2

dened, 2009 V1: 18fow in, 2010 V2: 2house drains, 2009 V1: 25inspection checklist, 2009 V1: 95installation, 2010 V2: 14–15pneumatic pressure in, 2010 V2: 2–3sanitary. See sanitary drainage systemsstorm. See storm-drainage systems

Building Ocials and Code Administrators International,Inc. (BOCA), 2010 V2: 55

BOCA Basic Plumbing Code, 2010 V2: 55Building Research Establishment Environmental

Assessment Method, 2012 V4: 233building sewers (house drains), 2009 V1: 18, 2010 V2: 14–15building sites. See site utilities; sitesbuilding storm-sewer pipe codes, 2009 V1: 42building structure attachments, 2012 V4: 119building subdrains, 2009 V1: 18building traps

dened, 2009 V1: 18design, 2010 V2: 31–32house traps, 2009 V1: 25

buildingsconstruction and re hazards, 2011 V3: 2dened, 2009 V1: 18dwellings, dened, 2009 V1: 22essential acilities, 2009 V1: 185expansion, 2011 V3: 50minimum numbers o xtures, 2012 V4: 20–23plumbing noise issues, 2009 V1: 187–188standard re tests, 2011 V3: 2storm-drainage systems. See storm-drainage systemssubdrains, 2009 V1: 18surveying existing conditions, 2009 V1: 265–270, 267–270traps, 2009 V1: 18type o structure and earthquake protection, 2009

V1: 159utilities. See site utilitiesvibration and, 2012 V4: 137

built-in showers, 2012 V4: 13bulk oxygen systems, 2011 V3: 57–59bulkhead ttings, 2011 V3: 145bull head tees, 2009 V1: 18

Buna-N (nitrile butadiene), 2011 V3: 150, 2012 V4: 75, 84Bunsen burners, 2010 V2: 116, 121buoyancy, tanks, 2011 V3: 241burat ochre, 2012 V4: 173buried piping. See underground piping burners, dened, 2010 V2: 135burning methane, 2009 V1: 122burning rates o plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 50burrs, 2009 V1: 18burst pressure, 2009 V1: 18bushels, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38

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Index 257

bushings, 2009 V1: 18, 2010 V2: 92businesses, numbers o xtures or, 2012 V4: 20butadiene (BR), 2009 V1: 32butadiene and acrylonitrile (Buna-N). See Buna-Nbutane, 2010 V2: 114, 135. See also uel-gas piping systemsbutt caps on re hydrants, 2011 V3: 3butt-end welding, 2012 V4: 79butt-welded standard weight pipe, 2012 V4: 37

butt welding butt-weld end connections, 2009 V1: 22butt weld joints, 2009 V1: 19butt weld pipes, 2009 V1: 19dened, 2012 V4: 61radioactive drainage systems, 2010 V2: 239

butterfy valves (BFV), 2009 V1: 9, 14, 18, 2010 V2: 92compressed-air service, 2012 V4: 84dened, 2012 V4: 76, 89high-rise service, 2012 V4: 88hot and cold water supply service, 2012 V4: 83–84low-pressure steam systems, 2012 V4: 85medium-pressure steam service, 2008V4: 88swimming pool use, 2011 V3: 125, 131vacuum service, 2012 V4: 84–85

butylene, 2010 V2: 114BV (ball valves), 2009 V1: 9, 14, 18, 2010 V2: 230bypass systems or water-pressure regulators, 2012 V4: 80bypass valves, 2009 V1: 19, 2012 V4: 18, 74bypasses, 2009 V1: 19, 2012 V4: 200

CC, °C (Celsius), 2009 V1: 14, 30, 34c (centi) prex, 2009 V1: 34C (coulombs), 2009 V1: 34, 129c (curies), 2010 V2: 237C (specic heat). See specic heatC clamps, 2012 V4: 119, 120, 126, 128

C/m3 (coulombs per cubic meter), 2009 V1: 34CA. See compressed air (A, CA, X#, X#A)CA (cellulose acetate), 2009 V1: 32CAAA (Clean Air Act Amendments), 2011 V3: 137CAB (cellulose acetate butyrate), 2009 V1: 32cable sway braces, 2012 V4: 126, 128cables

dened, 2012 V4: 128earthquake protection and, 2009 V1: 158

cadmium, 2009 V1: 132, 2010 V2: 27caeteria-type water coolers, 2012 V4: 217calcined natural pozzolan, 2012 V4: 230calcium

dened, 2010 V2: 190, 2012 V4: 200

in hardness, 2012 V4: 183laboratory grade water, 2012 V4: 198metal (Ca2+), 2012 V4: 173nanoltration, 2012 V4: 199scale ormation and corrosion, 2010 V2: 196in water, 2010 V2: 160, 189water hardness and, 2012 V4: 176

calcium 45, 2010 V2: 238calcium bicarbonate, 2010 V2: 189, 2012 V4: 173calcium carbonate (lime), 2010 V2: 189, 190, 191, 196,

2012 V4: 173calcium chloride, 2010 V2: 190

calcium hardness, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 127–131calcium hydroxide, 2010 V2: 190calcium hypochlorite, 2010 V2: 160, 2012 V4: 173calcium phosphate, 2010 V2: 190calcium salts, 2012 V4: 176calcium silicates, 2010 V2: 190, 2012 V4: 107calcium sulate, 2010 V2: 189, 2012 V4: 173calculations. See equations

calendars or irrigation controllers, 2011 V3: 95calibration gases, 2011 V3: 266calibrations, 2009 V1: 19Caliornia Code o Regulations, 2009 V1: 174, 185Caliornia Oce o Statewide Health Planning and

Development (OSHPD), 2012 V4: 132calories, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38caloric values in re loads, 2011 V3: 2calsil, 2012 V4: 107Cameron Hydraulic Data, 2010 V2: 96, 2011 V3: 214camps, septic tank systems or, 2010 V2: 151–152can pumps, 2009 V1: 23Canadian Mortgage and Housing Corporation

Research Report: Water Reuse Standards and

Verifcation Protocol, 2010 V2: 29wastewater issues o concern, 2010 V2: 22, 24

The Canadian Renewable Energy Guide, 2011 V3: 204Canadian Solar Industries Association web site, 2011

V3: 203Canadian Standards Association (CSA), 2009 V1: 14

consensus process, 2009 V1: 41list o standards, 2009 V1: 52publications (discussed)medical compressed air standards, 2011 V3: 61pipe and ttings standards, 2012 V4: 68–71water closet standards, 2012 V4: 4publications (listed)

CSA Z-305.1: Non-ammable Medical Gas Piping

Systems, 2011 V3: 78web site, 2011 V3: 78

candelas (cd), 2009 V1: 33candelas per meter squared (cd/m2), 2009 V1: 33canisters (pumps), 2012 V4: 93canopies, 2009 V1: 19cantilevered drinking ountains, 2009 V1: 104cantilevers, 2012 V4: 128CAP (cellulose acetate propionate), 2009 V1: 32CAP (College o American Pathologists), 2010 V2: 187,

219, 2012 V4: 197, 200capacitance

measurements, 2009 V1: 34tank gauging, 2011 V3: 142

capacity

air, dened, 2011 V3: 183dened, 2009 V1: 19gas cylinders, 2011 V3: 268swimming pools, 2011 V3: 106–107, 111–112water conditioners, 2012 V4: 200water coolers, 2012 V4: 215water soteners, 2012 V4: 186–188

capacity (fow). See fow ratescapacity coecient, dened, 2012 V4: 95, 101capillaries, 2009 V1: 19capillary tubes (water coolers), 2012 V4: 220

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Capitol Dome, Washington, D.C., 2012 V4: 117caps on ends o pipes, 2009 V1: 11caps on valves, 2012 V4: 89capture-type vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 169capturing rainwater, 2012 V4: 237–238car trac, 2010 V2: 11carbohydrazide, 2010 V2: 216carbon

adsorption o oil spills, 2010 V2: 245as contaminant in air, 2011 V3: 265corrosion, 2009 V1: 129, 134storm water, 2010 V2: 27total organic carbon, 2010 V2: 194in water, 2010 V2: 189, 2012 V4: 173

carbon 14, 2010 V2: 238carbon dioxide (CO2)

as contaminant in air, 2011 V3: 265biolms and, 2012 V4: 229color coding, 2011 V3: 55decarbonation, 2010 V2: 199dened, 2012 V4: 200distillation and, 2012 V4: 191extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 26eed system, 2011 V3: 130ormula, 2012 V4: 173rom cation exchange, 2012 V4: 184medical gas supply systems, 2011 V3: 60medical gas system tests, 2011 V3: 76portable re extinguishers, 2011 V3: 28–29reductions rom solar energy use, 2011 V3: 189symbols or, 2009 V1: 9in water, 2010 V2: 189, 190, 199, 2012 V4: 176

Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems (NFPA 12), 2011 V3: 26

carbon ltration (absorphan). See activated carbonltration (absorphan)

carbon ootprints, 2011 V3: 189carbon monoxide, 2010 V2: 114, 2011 V3: 76, 189carbon steel, 2009 V1: 132, 2011 V3: 84, 85, 2012 V4: 123carbon steel gas cylinders, 2011 V3: 268carbon steel piping, 2010 V2: 122carbonate lms, 2009 V1: 140carbonate ions, 2012 V4: 173carbonate salts, 2012 V4: 183carbonates, 2010 V2: 189, 196, 2012 V4: 177, 198carbonic acid (H2CO3), 2010 V2: 189, 2012 V4: 176, 191carboxymethyl cellulose, 2009 V1: 32carburetted water gas, 2010 V2: 114carcinogens, diatomaceous earth as, 2011 V3: 119carpets, vacuum calculations or, 2010 V2: 180carrier-grade gases, 2011 V3: 266, 267

carrier support system noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 197cartridge ltration, 2010 V2: 201, 208, 214, 221, 2012

V4: 200Cartwright, Peter, 2010 V2: 224cascade waterall aerators, 2010 V2: 198casein, 2009 V1: 32casings

driven wells, 2010 V2: 157 jetted wells, 2010 V2: 157pumps, 2012 V4: 91well casings, 2010 V2: 156

Cassidy, Victor M., 2009 V1: 128cast-lled acrylic xtures, 2012 V4: 1cast-lled berglass xtures, 2012 V4: 1cast glands, 2011 V3: 221cast-in-place anchor bolts, 2009 V1: 154cast iron (CI)

in electromotive series, 2009 V1: 132xtures. See cast-iron xtures

in galvanic series, 2009 V1: 132graphitization, 2009 V1: 132hanging rolls, 2012 V4: 119noise mitigation and, 2009 V1: 189–190, 192pipe sleeves, 2012 V4: 67piping. See cast-iron soil pipepumps, 2011 V3: 122–123stanchions, 2012 V4: 119stress and strain gures, 2012 V4: 206supporting rolls, 2012 V4: 119thermal expansion or contraction, 2012 V4: 207

cast-iron boiler supports, 2009 V1: 152cast-iron xtures

enameled, 2012 V4: 1in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 35standards, 2012 V4: 2

cast-iron foor drains, 2010 V2: 15cast-iron piping

bracing, 2009 V1: 170corrosion and, 2009 V1: 140gas systems and, 2010 V2: 122laboratories, 2011 V3: 42Manning ormula and, 2011 V3: 242natural gas, 2011 V3: 257radioactive materials systems and, 2010 V2: 239roughness, 2010 V2: 75, 78sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 12–13

cast-iron soil pipedimensions o hubs, spigots and barrels, 2012 V4: 27–29gaskets, 2012 V4: 57hangers, 2012 V4: 122lead and oakum joints, 2012 V4: 57shielded hubless coupling, 2012 V4: 57standards, 2012 V4: 68telescoping and laying lengths, 2012 V4: 27–28types, 2012 V4: 25–26

Cast-iron Soil Pipe and Fittings Engineering Manual,2010 V2: 55

Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute (CISPI), 2009 V1: 32, 51,2010 V2: 55

hub and spigot cast iron soil pipe standards, 2012 V4: 25hubless coupling standards, 2012 V4: 57

cast-iron tank legs, 2009 V1: 154

catch basins, 2009 V1: 19, 2010 V2: 48Category I-IV gas venting, 2010 V2: 119Category II, III, or IV vent systems, 2009 V1: 43cathodes

dened, 2009 V1: 129, 141galvanic series o metals, 2009 V1: 132

cathodic, dened, 2009 V1: 141cathodic corrosion, 2009 V1: 141cathodic inhibitors, 2009 V1: 141cathodic potential (electropositive potential), 2009 V1: 14cathodic protection

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Index 259

criteria, 2009 V1: 140dened, 2009 V1: 19, 141introduction, 2009 V1: 129liquid uel tanks, 2011 V3: 136methods, 2009 V1: 137–140wells, 2010 V2: 164

cation exchangersdened, 2012 V4: 183

hydrogen-sodium ion exchange plants, 2012 V4: 184cationscation resins, 2010 V2: 191, 206dened, 2009 V1: 141, 2010 V2: 187, 2012 V4: 200in ion exchange, 2010 V2: 205, 2012 V4: 182in pH values, 2010 V2: 229

caulked joints, dened, 2012 V4: 57caulking

caulked joints on foor drains, 2010 V2: 15dened, 2009 V1: 19drains, 2010 V2: 13pipe sleeves, 2012 V4: 67

causes and eectsin creativity checklist, 2009 V1: 227o earthquakes, 2009 V1: 148–149

caustic embrittlement, 2009 V1: 141caustic soda, 2010 V2: 235, 2011 V3: 85. See also sodium

hydroxide (lye or caustic soda)caustic waste rom regeneration cycle, 2010 V2: 206cavitation

cavitation corrosion, 2009 V1: 142dened, 2009 V1: 19, 142preventing, 2012 V4: 93pump pressure and, 2012 V4: 100

CCS (Certied Construction Specier), 2009 V1: 65CD. See construction contract documents (CD)cd (candelas), 2009 V1: 33CD (condensate drains), 2009 V1: 8CDA (Copper Development Association), 2009 V1: 32CDC (Centers or Disease Control and Prevention), 2009

V1: 14, 2010 V2: 108–109CDI (continuous deionization), 2010 V2: 209–210CE (coecient o expansion), 2012 V4: 67ceiling-mounted medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 55–56ceiling plates, 2012 V4: 126ceiling-with-gas-stacks systems, 2011 V3: 55–56ceilings, piping in, 2009 V1: 202cell pairs, 2010 V2: 209cells, dened, 2009 V1: 142cellular glass insulation, 2012 V4: 106, 107cellular urethane, 2012 V4: 107cellulose acetate, 2009 V1: 32cellulose acetate butyrate (Celcon), 2009 V1: 32

cellulose acetate membranes, 2010 V2: 213, 2012 V4: 196cellulose acetate propionate, 2009 V1: 32cellulose gas lters, 2011 V3: 252cellulose nitrate, 2009 V1: 32cellulose propionate, 2009 V1: 32cellulose tricetate membranes, 2010 V2: 213cellulose water lters, 2011 V3: 122Celsius (°C), 2009 V1: 14, 30cement grout, 2010 V2: 157cement joints, 2009 V1: 19cement-lined piping

Manning ormula and, 2011 V3: 242pressure classes, 2012 V4: 30roughness, 2010 V2: 75in sprinkler hydraulic calculations, 2011 V3: 13water pipes, 2012 V4: 29

cement plaster joints, 2012 V4: 29center beam clamps, 2012 V4: 128Center, J.C., 2010 V2: 29

centerline spacing o gas outlets, 2011 V3: 51Centers or Disease Control and Prevention, 2009 V1: 14,2010 V2: 108–109

centersets or aucets, 2012 V4: 10centi prex, 2009 V1: 34Centigrade conversion actors, 2009 V1: 37. See also

Celsiuscentipoise, 2009 V1: 38, 2011 V3: 137central heating boilers, 2011 V3: 127central maniold gas system congurations, 2010 V2: 122central-supply rooms, 2011 V3: 47central-water purication equipment, 2010 V2: 223–234centralized distillation, 2012 V4: 192centralized drinking-water cooler systems

chillers, 2012 V4: 221circulating pumps, 2012 V4: 222codes and standard, 2012 V4: 224–225design layout and example, 2012 V4: 223–224ountains, 2012 V4: 222overview, 2012 V4: 222pipes and piping, 2012 V4: 222, 222–223rerigeration, 2012 V4: 222storage tanks, 2012 V4: 222

centrally-located vacuum cleaning systems. See vacuumcleaning systems

centriugal air compressors, 2011 V3: 62, 175–176, 176, 177centriugal drum traps, 2011 V3: 46centriugal pumps

acid wastes and, 2010 V2: 231dened, 2009 V1: 23end-suction, 2011 V3: 122–123fow, 2012 V4: 94pump pressure and, 2010 V2: 62shallow well discharge, 2010 V2: 162types, 2012 V4: 91vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 169

centriugal separatorscentriugal-type vacuum separators, 2010 V2: 178or oil spills, 2010 V2: 246

centriugal vacuum cleaning systems, 186, 2010 V2: 184centriugation in FOG separation, 2012 V4: 228centriugation o oil, 2010 V2: 245ceramic lters, 2011 V3: 273

ceramic xturesstandards, 2012 V4: 2types o, 2012 V4: 1

CERCLA (Comprehensive Environmental ResponseCompensation and Liability Act), 2011 V3: 82, 83

certicates o insurance, 2009 V1: 56certication

certication o perormance, 2010 V2: 91LEED program, 2012 V4: 233–234medical gas systems, 74–76, 2011 V3: 69medical gas zones, 2011 V3: 67

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storage tanks, 2011 V3: 152Certied Construction Specier (CCS), 2009 V1: 65Certied Plumbing Designer (CPD), 2009 V1: 65cesspools

dened, 2009 V1: 19irrigation systems and, 2010 V2: 25

CFCs (chlorofuorocarbons), 2011 V3: 26ch (cubic eet per hour), 2011 V3: 172, 251

cm (cubic eet per minute). See cubic eet per minuteCFR (Code o Federal Regulations), 2011 V3: 82cus (colony orming units), 2010 V2: 188CGA. See Compressed Gas Association, Inc.cGMP (current good manuacturing practices), 2009 V1:

14, 2010 V2: 224, 227CGPM (General Conerence o Weights and Measures),

2009 V1: 32, 33chain hangers, 2012 V4: 65chainwheel-operated valves, 2009 V1: 19chalk, 2012 V4: 173chambers (air chambers). See air chambers (AC)Chan, Wen-Yung W., 2009 V1: 39change orders, 2009 V1: 57, 254changed standpipes, 2009 V1: 13changeover gas maniolds, 2011 V3: 270–271Changes in LEED 2009 or Plumbing Fixtures and Process

Water, 2010 V2: 29channel clamps, 2012 V4: 128channels, 2009 V1: 19character in creativity checklist, 2009 V1: 227characteristic curves or pumps, 2012 V4: 95–97Characteristics and Sae Handling o Medical Gases (CGA

P-2), 2011 V3: 78Characteristics o Rural Household Waste Water, 2010

V2: 29chases, 2009 V1: 19, 2012 V4: 6, 7, 9, 10check valves (CV)

compressed-air service, 2012 V4: 84dened, 2009 V1: 19, 2012 V4: 89dry-pipe systems, 2011 V3: 7fow data, 2010 V2: 95high-pressure steam service, 2012 V4: 87high-rise service, 2012 V4: 88hot and cold water supply service, 2012 V4: 84irrigation systems, 2011 V3: 94laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 274low-pressure steam systems, 2012 V4: 86medium-pressure steam service, 2012 V4: 86swing check and lit check valves, 2012 V4: 76symbols or, 2009 V1: 9, 14thermal expansion compensation and, 2010 V2: 106types o, 2012 V4: 73

vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 179checklists and orms

creativity worksheets, 2009 V1: 226, 228designs and drawings, 2009 V1: 92–94detail/product/material specication checklist, 2009

V1: 215evaluation checklists, 2009 V1: 230–231eld checklists, 2000 V1: 95–96nal checklist, 2009 V1: 96orms o agreement, 2009 V1: 56uel systems, 2011 V3: 154

unction denitions, 2009 V1: 219–224unctional evaluation worksheets, 2009 V1: 236–247general checklists or jobs, 2009 V1: 91–92health care acility medical gas and vacuum systems,

2011 V3: 50idea development and estimated cost orms, 2009 V1: 234idea evaluation worksheet, 2009 V1: 245project inormation checklists, 2009 V1: 211–216

project inormation sources checklists, 2009 V1: 216recommendations worksheets, 2009 V1: 249, 250storage tanks, 2011 V3: 155–156surveying existing buildings, 2009 V1: 265–266value engineering checklists, 2009 V1: 209

Chemical and Petroleum Industry, 2009 V1: 14chemical cleaning connections, 2011 V3: 48chemical coagulants

in ltration, 2012 V4: 179unctions o, 2012 V4: 175mechanical clariers, 2012 V4: 178

chemical descaling, 2012 V4: 56chemical eed pumps, 2011 V3: 129chemical eeders, 2012 V4: 161chemical umes, 2012 V4: 117chemical oxygen demand (COD), 2012 V4: 200chemical plants, 2011 V3: 81chemical pre-treatment

oils, 2011 V3: 88sand lters, 2012 V4: 180

chemical reactions, hangers and supports and, 2012 V4: 117chemical regeneration in demineralizers, 2011 V3: 48chemical-resistance testing, 2012 V4: 1chemical spill emergency xtures, 2012 V4: 17–18chemical-waste drains

glass pipe, 2012 V4: 35plastic pipes, 2012 V4: 39

chemical-waste systemsair admittance valves, 2010 V2: 39codes and standards, 2010 V2: 242dened, 2009 V1: 19design considerations, 2010 V2: 243pipe and joint selection, 2010 V2: 242–243

chemically-stabilized emulsions, 2010 V2: 244chemicals. See also names o specic chemicals

air contamination, 2011 V3: 265chemical characteristics o drinking water, 2010 V2: 217chemical control o microbes in water, 2010 V2: 213chemical treatment o oil spills, 2010 V2: 245emulsions, 2011 V3: 88laboratory vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 171material saety data sheets, 2011 V3: 83names and ormulas, 2012 V4: 173

in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 147in special-waste efuent, 2010 V2: 228swimming pools, 2011 V3: 115, 127–131water soteners, 2012 V4: 173, 174

chemistry o water, 2010 V2: 187–189Chicago

city building code, 2010 V2: 108–109children, xtures and

xture heights, 2009 V1: 99in hot water demand classications, 2010 V2: 99water closets, 2012 V4: 4

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Index 261

water coolers, 2012 V4: 13chilled centralized drinking-water systems, 2012 V4:

221–224chilled drinking water recirculating (DWR), 2009 V1: 8chilled drinking water supply (DWS), 2009 V1: 8, 2011

V3: 37chilled water returns (CWR), 2009 V1: 8chilled water supply (CWS), 2009 V1: 8, 191, 2012 V4: 52

chimney liners, 2009 V1: 43chimneyscodes, 2009 V1: 43dened, 2010 V2: 135

china xtures, 2012 V4: 1. See also ceramic xtureschips in acid-neutralization tanks, 2011 V3: 44, 45chloramine, 2010 V2: 201, 2012 V4: 177chloride (Cl)

dened, 2012 V4: 200laboratory grade water, 2012 V4: 198nanoltration, 2012 V4: 199water hardness and, 2012 V4: 176

chloride o lime, 2012 V4: 173chlorides, 2009 V1: 136, 2010 V2: 189, 190, 206

acid-proo steel and, 2012 V4: 56storm water, 2010 V2: 27

chlorinated isobutene isoprene, 2009 V1: 32chlorinated polyethylene, 2009 V1: 32chlorinated polyethylene sheet shower pans, 2012 V4: 16chlorinated polyvinyl-chloride (CPVC), 2009 V1: 32

corrosion, 2009 V1: 141dened, 2010 V2: 94distilled water piping, 2012 V4: 193expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 208industrial waste usage, 2011 V3: 85pipe characteristics, 2011 V3: 49, 2012 V4: 39, 50pipes, 2010 V2: 190, 2012 V4: 51standards, 2012 V4: 70thermal expansion or contraction, 2012 V4: 207velocity and, 2010 V2: 78 VOCs and, 2010 V2: 190

chlorinationautomatic chlorinators, 2012 V4: 177dened, 2012 V4: 177, 177–178direct connection hazards, 2012 V4: 161domestic water systems, 2010 V2: 91drinking water, 2010 V2: 160economic concerns, 2012 V4: 178eed water, 2010 V2: 220gray water, 2010 V2: 22manual control chlorinators, 2012 V4: 178wells, 2010 V2: 158

chlorine

as biocides, 2010 V2: 109bleaches, 2010 V2: 147chlorine-resistant grates, 2010 V2: 13cyanide and, 2011 V3: 87ormula, 2012 V4: 173hyperchlorination, 2010 V2: 110hypochlorous and hydrochlorous acids, 2012 V4: 177microbial control, 2010 V2: 213pure water systems, 2010 V2: 221refecting pools and ountains, 2011 V3: 98removing, 2010 V2: 201

reverse osmosis and, 2011 V3: 48small drinking water systems, 2010 V2: 218swimming pools, 2011 V3: 127–131in water chemistry, 2010 V2: 189, 190

chlorine dioxide gas injection, 2010 V2: 109chlorine dioxide treatment, 2010 V2: 110chlorine sulphonyl polyethylene, 2009 V1: 32chlorofuorocarbons (CFCs), 2011 V3: 26

chloroorm, 2011 V3: 66chloroprene rubber (Neoprene), 2009 V1: 32Chlorox bleach, 2009 V1: 141cholera, 2012 V4: 177chromium III, 2011 V3: 87chromium-iron, 2009 V1: 132chromium VI, 2011 V3: 87Church, James, 2010 V2: 55churn, dened, 2012 V4: 101CI. See cast iron (CI)cigarette burn testing, 2012 V4: 1CIIR (chlorinated isobutene isoprene), 2009 V1: 32CIP (cleaned in place), 2011 V3: 277circles, calculating area, 2009 V1: 5circuit venting, 2009 V1: 19, 2010 V2: 32–33circuits (ckt, CKT), 2009 V1: 19circular concrete piping, 2012 V4: 30circular lavatories, 2012 V4: 9circulating pumps

centralized drinking-water coolers, 2012 V4: 222, 224chilled drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 221controls, 2012 V4: 99–100swimming pools, 2011 V3: 113–116, 122–123

circulating water systemsin geothermal energy systems, 2009 V1: 123hot water systems, 2010 V2: 105standby losses in, 2009 V1: 119

circulation loops (water systems), 2011 V3: 48CISPI (Cast Iron Soil Pipe Institute)

abbreviation, 2009 V1: 32Cast Iron Soil Pipe and Fittings Engineering Manual,

2010 V2: 55hub and spigot soil pipe standards, 2012 V4: 25publications, 2009 V1: 51

cisterns, 2009 V1: 19, 2010 V2: 162, 2012 V4: 238citing codes and standards, 2009 V1: 61citric acid, 2009 V1: 136, 141City o Chicago Building Code, 2010 V2: 108–109city rainall rate table, 2010 V2: 57city water. See municipal water supplyckt, CKT (circuits), 2009 V1: 19CL, C/L (critical level), 2009 V1: 20clad steel tanks, 2011 V3: 136, 147, 155

Claes, 2009 V1: 144clamp joints, 2012 V4: 26clamping tools, 2012 V4: 57clamps

beam clamps, 2012 V4: 120dened, 2012 V4: 128hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 119noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 193pipe clamps, 2012 V4: 120types o, 2012 V4: 64

clams, 2010 V2: 188

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clappers, 2011 V3: 8, 2012 V4: 89clarication treatments or water, 2010 V2: 198–199, 215,

2012 V4: 178–179clariers

dened, 2012 V4: 200turbidity and, 2012 V4: 175

clariying tanks, 2011 V3: 43classes, biosolids, 2012 V4: 239

classes o service, standpipe systems, 2009 V1: 30, 2011 V3: 20classications

bedding, 2011 V3: 225–226, 227disabilities, 2009 V1: 99res, 2011 V3: 2liquid uel, 2011 V3: 136–137

claw-type pumps, 2010 V2: 169clay loams, 2011 V3: 91, 239clay piping

industrial discharge piping, 2010 V2: 243noise insulation, 2010 V2: 13–14surace roughness, 2010 V2: 75vitried clay pipe, 2012 V4: 53, 54

clay soils, 2010 V2: 25clays

in eed water, 2010 V2: 195in soil texture, 141, 2010 V2: 140

Claytor, Richard A., 2010 V2: 55Clean Agent Extinguishing Systems (NFPA 2001), 2011

V3: 27, 28clean agent re suppression systems, 2011 V3: 26–28Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA), 2011 V3: 137clean extinguishing agents, 2011 V3: 26–28clean rooms, 2009 V1: 19Clean Water Act, 2010 V2: 41, 242, 2011 V3: 82cleaned in place (CIP), 2011 V3: 277cleaning

cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 90–94xtures, 2012 V4: 1insulation, 2012 V4: 104, 107laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 277medical gas pipes, 2011 V3: 69pipes and piping, 2012 V4: 25pure-water systems, 2011 V3: 48radioactive waste piping, 2010 V2: 239section in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 72septic tanks, 2010 V2: 148

cleaning liquids, 2012 V4: 117cleanout deck plates (codp), 2009 V1: 14cleanout plugs (CO), 2009 V1: 11cleanouts (CO)

chemical-waste systems, 2010 V2: 243

cleaning drains, 2010 V2: 15dened, 2009 V1: 14, 19manholes, 2011 V3: 234radioactive waste systems, 2010 V2: 240sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 9–10storm drainage, 2010 V2: 48–49vacuum cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 186

cleanouts to grade (CO), 2009 V1: 11cleanup/utility rooms, 2011 V3: 36clear foor space

bathtub accessibility, 2009 V1: 109

drinking ountains and water coolers, 2009 V1: 104,2012 V4: 217–218

insulation in conned spaces, 2012 V4: 113laundry equipment, 2009 V1: 115lavatories and sinks, 2009 V1: 108urinal design, 2009 V1: 108water closet and toilet accessibility, 2009 V1: 105–108water soteners and, 2012 V4: 188

or wheelchairs, 2009 V1: 99–101, 102, 2012 V4: 217–218clear space in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 146clear-water waste, 2009 V1: 19clear water waste branches, 2010 V2: 50clearance

clean agent gas re containers, 2011 V3: 27xtures in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 35piping and, 2012 V4: 25

clevis devices and clevis hangersdened, 2012 V4: 128unctions, 2012 V4: 65illustrated, 2012 V4: 120insulating, 2012 V4: 110insulation or, 2012 V4: 105selecting, 2012 V4: 119

clevis plates, 2012 V4: 125climate. See weather conditionsclinic sinks, 2011 V3: 36clinics, 2011 V3: 76clips, 2012 V4: 119, 120clo, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38clogging in grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 154, 155, 158close-coupled water closets, 2012 V4: 3close nipples, 2009 V1: 19closed-circuit cooling systems, 2009 V1: 140closed proprietary specications, 2009 V1: 62closed solar systems, 2011 V3: 192closed systems, dangerous pressures in, 2012 V4: 209closed-type sprinklers, 2011 V3: 6cloth lagging, 2012 V4: 109clothes washers. See laundry systems and washersclubs, hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose), 2009 V1: 32CMPR (compressors). See compressorsCN (cellulose nitrate), 2009 V1: 32cndct, CNDCT (conductivity), 2009 V1: 34CO (cleanout plugs), 2009 V1: 11CO (yard cleanouts or cleanouts to grade). See cleanouts;

cleanouts to gradeCO2 (carbon dioxide). See carbon dioxidecoagulation

coagulants in clarication, 2010 V2: 198–199, 2012 V4:178, 200

in ltration, 2012 V4: 179fow rates and, 2012 V4: 179FOG separation, 2012 V4: 228in gray-water treatment, 2010 V2: 25–26turbidity and, 2012 V4: 175

coal tar epoxy, 2011 V3: 139coalescence

bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 230coalescing, dened, 2009 V1: 19, 2012 V4: 200ltration o oil spills, 2010 V2: 245FOG separation, 2012 V4: 228

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Index 263

coalescing lters in vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 171coalescing media, 2011 V3: 88coarse sands, 2010 V2: 25, 2011 V3: 91coarse vacuum, 2010 V2: 165coat hooks

accessibility in toilet and bathing rooms, 2009 V1: 105ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 2009 V1: 107

coated metal

cathodic protection, 2009 V1: 140corrosion protection, 2009 V1: 136–137passivation, 2009 V1: 136sprinkler head ratings, 2011 V3: 13storage tanks, 2011 V3: 155

coaxial ll hoses (tanks), 2011 V3: 140coaxial vapor recovery, 2011 V3: 145, 148cocks, 2009 V1: 19COD (chemical oxygen demand), 2012 V4: 200Code or Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair

Garages (NFPA 30A), 2011 V3: 137, 156Code o Federal Regulations (CFR), 2010 V2: 218, 2011 V3:

82, 89, 137PVDF standard, 2012 V4: 70

codes and standardsalterations to existing buildings, 2009 V1: 266bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 229–230building sound isolation, 2009 V1: 188centralized drinking-water cooler systems, 2012 V4:

224–225chemical-waste systems, 2010 V2: 242citing, 2009 V1: 61codes, dened, 2009 V1: 19cold water systems, 2010 V2: 59compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 171cross-connections, 2012 V4: 169domestic water supply, 2011 V3: 206re protection, 2011 V3: 1, 218xtures, 2012 V4: 2ountains, 2011 V3: 100–101gasoline and diesel-oil systems, 2011 V3: 137gray-water systems, 2010 V2: 22grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 154, 156–157health care acilities, 2011 V3: 33, 35hot-water systems, 2010 V2: 112industrial wastewater treatment, 2011 V3: 82–83inectious and biological waste systems, 2010 V2: 241laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 263medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 76natural gas services, 2011 V3: 251natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 115NFPA standards, 2011 V3: 1plumbing codes, dened, 2012 V4: 170

plumbing materials and equipment, 2009 V1: 41–54plumbing standards or people with disabilities, 2009

V1: 97–98pools, 2011 V3: 100–101preventing Legionella growth, 2010 V2: 108–109private water systems, 2010 V2: 155reerence-based standards, 2009 V1: 61refecting pools, 2011 V3: 100–101sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 1seismic protection, 2009 V1: 147, 155, 161, 174site utilities, 2011 V3: 205

special-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 227standards, dened, 2009 V1: 29storm-drainage systems, 2010 V2: 41–42storm sewers, 2011 V3: 238sustainable design, 2012 V4: 233–234swimming pools, 2011 V3: 104–106vacuum-cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 178vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 172

valves, 2012 V4: 73water analysis, treatment and purication, 219, 2010 V2: 187, 218

water heaters, 2009 V1: 121, 155codp (cleanout deck plates), 2009 V1: 14coecient, runo, 2010 V2: 43coecients o expansion (CE), 2009 V1: 19, 2012 V4: 67,

207, 211coecients o hydrant discharge, 2011 V3: 3–4coecients o permeability (K actor), 2010 V2: 158coecients o volumetric expansion, 2012 V4: 211coee sinks. See sinks and wash basinscoee urns, 2012 V4: 161cogeneration systems, waste heat usage, 2009 V1: 123coherent unit systems, 2009 V1: 33coke oven gas, 2010 V2: 114cold elevation, 2012 V4: 128. See also ater cold pull

elevation; design elevationscold fow, 2009 V1: 19cold fuids

hangers and supports or systems, 2012 V4: 119piping or, 2012 V4: 118

cold hanger location, 2012 V4: 128cold loads, 2012 V4: 129cold settings, 2012 V4: 129cold shoes, 2012 V4: 129cold spring, 2012 V4: 129cold water (CW), 2009 V1: 8, 14cold-water systems

backfow prevention, 2010 V2: 60booster pump systems, 2010 V2: 61–68chilled drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 222codes and standards, 2010 V2: 59constant pressure in, 2010 V2: 63cross connection controls, 2010 V2: 60–61domestic water meters, 2010 V2: 59–60examples or pipe sizing, 2010 V2: 87–89excess water pressure, 2010 V2: 68–70glossaries, 2010 V2: 94–95heat loss, 2012 V4: 110introduction, 2010 V2: 59noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 191pipe codes, 2009 V1: 45

pipe sizing, 2010 V2: 75–84potable water systems, 2011 V3: 47reerences, 2010 V2: 95–96sizing, 2010 V2: 84–89testing, cleaning, and disinection, 2010 V2: 90–94valves or, 2012 V4: 83–84water fow tests, 2010 V2: 84–87water hammer, 2010 V2: 70–73water line sizing, 2010 V2: 73–90water pressure, 2012 V4: 83water supply graph, 2011 V3: 212

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cold working pressure (CWP), 2012 V4: 83Colebrook ormula, 2010 V2: 74–75coliorm, 2009 V1: 19coliorm group o bacteria, 2009 V1: 19coliorm organism tests, 2010 V2: 91collective bargaining agreements, cost estimates and, 2009

V1: 90collectors (dug wells), 2010 V2: 156

collectors (solar)concentrating, 2011 V3: 190, 193cover, dened, 2011 V3: 191dened, 2011 V3: 190eciency, dened, 2011 V3: 191evacuated tube (vacuum tube), 2011 V3: 190fat-plate, 2011 V3: 190, 193–195subsystem, dened, 2011 V3: 191tilt, dened, 2011 V3: 191transpired, dened, 2011 V3: 190trickle, dened, 2011 V3: 191vacuum tube, 2011 V3: 190, 193

College o American Pathologists (CAP), 2010 V2: 187,219, 2012 V4: 197, 200

Collentro, W.V., 2010 V2: 224colloidal particles

laboratory grade water, 2012 V4: 198removing, 2010 V2: 198–199, 2011 V3: 88

colloidal silica, 2010 V2: 190colony orming units (cus), 2010 V2: 188color

o drinking water, 2010 V2: 217o eed water, 2010 V2: 188, 193o gray water, 2010 V2: 27o soils, 141, 2010 V2: 140

color codescopper drainage tube, 2012 V4: 30copper pipes, 2012 V4: 32medical gas codes, 2011 V3: 51, 55medical gas tube, 2012 V4: 34seamless copper water tube, 2012 V4: 29

colored nishes, 2012 V4: 129columns in ion exchange systems, 2010 V2: 205combination building water supplies, 2011 V3: 218–220combination drain and vent, 2010 V2: 33combination dry-pipe and pre-action systems, 2009 V1: 28,

2011 V3: 10–11combination xtures, 2009 V1: 19combination storm-drainage and sanitary sewers, 2010 V2:

12, 2011 V3: 249combination temperature and pressure relie valves, 2010

V2: 106combination thermostatic and pressure balancing valves,

2012 V4: 16combination vacuum-cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 178combination waste and vent systems, 2009 V1: 19combined residuals, 2012 V4: 177combustibles

dened, 2011 V3: 76, 136re loads, 2011 V3: 2metal res, 2011 V3: 24

combustion eciency, 2009 V1: 19combustion products, 2011 V3: 76combustion properties o gases, 2010 V2: 114

The Coming Plague, 2010 V2: 49, 55Commercial Energy Conservation Manual, 2009 V1: 128commercial acilities

commercial/industrial gas service, 2011 V3: 252estimating sewage quantities, 2010 V2: 150–152reghting demand fow rates, 2011 V3: 224gray-water systems, 2010 V2: 23–24grease interceptors, 2010 V2: 12

oil interceptors in drains, 2010 V2: 12radioactive waste drainage and vents, 2010 V2: 235commercial kitchen sinks, 2012 V4: 11–12commercial land use, runo, 2010 V2: 42commercial laundries. See laundry systems and washerscommercial piping systems, 2012 V4: 129commercial service gas, 2010 V2: 114commercial sites, runo volume calculation, 2010 V2: 56Commercial Standards (CS), 2009 V1: 32Commercial Water Use Research Project, 2010 V2: 29commissioning section in specications, 2009 V1: 64–65, 72Commodity Specifcation or Air (CGA G-7.1/ANSI ZE

86.1), 2011 V3: 61, 76, 78Commodity Specifcation or Nitrogen (CGA G-10.1), 2011

V3: 78commodity standards, gases, 2011 V3: 263common vents (dual vents), 2010 V2: 32–33

dened, 2009 V1: 19community bathhouses, 2010 V2: 151compacted ll, building sewers and, 2010 V2: 14comparing unctions in value engineering, 2009 V1: 235compartment coolers, 2012 V4: 216, 220compartmentalization in bioremediation systems, 2012

V4: 228, 230compartments in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 147competition swimming pools, 2011 V3: 107components

dened, 2012 V4: 129section in specications, 2009 V1: 71

composite land use, runo, 2010 V2: 42composite tanks, 2011 V3: 138–139composition disc valves

angle valves, 2012 V4: 75globe valves, 2012 V4: 74

composting biosolids, 2012 V4: 239, 240composting toilets, 2009 V1: 127compound magnetic drive meters, 2010 V2: 88Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) system, 2011

V3: 196compound water meters, 2010 V2: 59–60, 59–61compounds in water, 2010 V2: 189Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation

and Liability Act (CERCLA), 2011 V3: 82, 83

compressed air (A, CA, X#, X#A). See also compressed airsystems

compared to ree air, 2011 V3: 171dened, 2011 V3: 183fow rates, 2011 V3: 172generating, 2011 V3: 270 joints, 2011 V3: 176laboratory or medical compressed air, 2009 V1: 8, 2011

V3: 41, 61–64, 70, 75–76overview, 2011 V3: 171–172supplies to water tanks, 2010 V2: 162

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Index 265

symbols or, 2009 V1: 8, 16tools and equipment, 2011 V3: 180use actors, 2011 V3: 174uses, 2011 V3: 171water vapor in, 2011 V3: 172–173, 265–266

Compressed Air and Gas Data, 2010 V2: 136Compressed Air or Human Respiration (CGA G-7.0), 2011

V3: 78

compressed air systemsaccessories, 2011 V3: 177–182air dryers, 2011 V3: 178–179air receivers, 2011 V3: 177–178alarms, 2011 V3: 182codes and standards, 2011 V3: 171compressors, 2011 V3: 174–176contaminants, 2011 V3: 173–174denitions, 2011 V3: 183–187fow meters, 2011 V3: 177fushing and testing, 2011 V3: 183riction loss table, 2011 V3: 181glossary, 2011 V3: 183–187gravity lters, 2012 V4: 180hoses and ttings, 2011 V3: 181–182inlet piping, 2011 V3: 182measurement units, 2011 V3: 172overview, 2011 V3: 171piping system design

air-consuming devices, 2011 V3: 182–183air dryers, 2011 V3: 178–179design sequence, 2011 V3: 182–183duty cycles, 2011 V3: 182earthquake bracing, 2009 V1: 158uture expansion, 2011 V3: 182leakage, 2011 V3: 183materials, 2011 V3: 176sizing piping, 2011 V3: 69, 72–73, 183use actors, 2011 V3: 183

pressure drops, 2011 V3: 177, 181regulation methods, 2011 V3: 179–180relie valves, 2011 V3: 180–181tool requirements, 2011 V3: 180tools and equipment, 2011 V3: 180valves, 2011 V3: 176, 2012 V4: 84vibration isolation, 2011 V3: 182water vapor in air, 2011 V3: 172–173

compressed cork, 2012 V4: 139compressed gas. See natural gas systemsCompressed Gas Association, Inc. (CGA), 2009 V1: 14

color coding system, 2011 V3: 55list o standards, 2009 V1: 52publications (discussed)

purity standards, 2011 V3: 263publications (listed)

CGA C-9: Standard or Color-marking o Compressed Gas Cylinders Intended or

Medical Use, 2011 V3: 78CGA G-7.0: Compressed Air or Human

Respiration, 2011 V3: 78CGA G-7.1/ANSI ZE 86.1: Commodity

Specifcation or Air, 2011 V3: 76, 78CGA G-8.1: Standard or the Installation o

Nitrous Oxide Systems at Consumer Sites,

2011 V3: 78CGA G-10.1: Commodity Specifcation or

Nitrogen, 2011 V3: 78CGA P-2: Characteristics and Sae Handling o

Medical Gases, 2011 V3: 78CGA P-9: Inert Gases: Argon, Nitrogen and

Helium, 2011 V3: 74, 78CGA V-5: Diameter-Index Saety System, 2011 V3:

76, 78web site, 2011 V3: 78Compressed Gases and Cryogenic Fluids Code (NFPA 55),

2011 V3: 263compressibility, 2011 V3: 183compressibility actor (Z), 2011 V3: 183compression couplings

clay pipe, 2012 V4: 53fexible couplings, 2012 V4: 63glass pipe, 2012 V4: 36mechanical joints, 2012 V4: 57

compression eciency, 2011 V3: 183compression ttings

cast iron, 2012 V4: 26dened, 2009 V1: 23

compression ratio, 2011 V3: 183–184compressive strength o plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 50compressive stresses

piping, 2012 V4: 67stacks, 2012 V4: 207–208with temperature change, 2012 V4: 206

compressors (cprsr, CMPR)centralized drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 221dened, 2009 V1: 19earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 157vibration and noise problems, 2012 V4: 138water coolers, 2012 V4: 219

computer-controlled grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 151–152computer processing o specications, 2009 V1: 65computer programs

3E Plus, 2009 V1: 118abbreviations in, 2009 V1: 14–15computer analysis o piping systems, 2009 V1: 180plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85, 89specications programs, 2009 V1: 65

computer room waste heat usage, 2009 V1: 123computerization o specications programs, 2009 V1: 65concealed piping, 2011 V3: 68concealed sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29concentrates, cross fow ltration and, 2012 V4: 200concentrating collectors, 2011 V3: 190, 193, 195–196concentrating ratio, dened, 2011 V3: 191concentration cells

attack corrosion, 2009 V1: 129, 131–132dened, 2009 V1: 142

concentration gradients, 2010 V2: 211concentration polarization, 2009 V1: 142, 2012 V4: 196concentration, rainall, 2010 V2: 44–46concentration tests, 2011 V3: 75concentrators, dened, 2011 V3: 191concentric reducers, 2009 V1: 10concrete

anchoring to, 2012 V4: 123bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 230

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noise mitigation and, 2009 V1: 201concrete aggregates, 2012 V4: 230concrete anchors

anchoring pipes to, 2012 V4: 123concrete block anchors, 2012 V4: 59–60foor-mounted equipment, 2009 V1: 154problems in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 182

concrete ballast pads, 2011 V3: 155

concrete barriers around tanks, 2011 V3: 149concrete block anchors, 2012 V4: 59–60concrete embedments, 2009 V1: 184concrete asteners, 2012 V4: 129concrete foors, leveling around, 2010 V2: 16concrete grease interceptors, eld-ormed, 2012 V4: 153concrete gutters, 2011 V3: 114concrete insert boxes, 2012 V4: 129concrete inserts, 2012 V4: 120, 124, 125, 129concrete pavement, runo, 2010 V2: 42Concrete Pipe Handbook, 2010 V2: 54concrete piping

circular, 2012 V4: 30fow rate, 2011 V3: 242noise insulation, 2010 V2: 13–14roughness, 2010 V2: 78standards, 2012 V4: 68surace roughness, 2010 V2: 75underground piping, 2012 V4: 29

concrete restraints, 2011 V3: 221concrete shielding rom radiation, 2010 V2: 238concrete slab hangers, 2012 V4: 65concrete-tank saddles, 2009 V1: 154concrete tanks, 2011 V3: 84, 147–148concurrent regeneration, 2012 V4: 200cond, COND (condensers, condensation). See

condensation; condenserscondensate drains (CD), 2009 V1: 8

as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 188poor examples o, 2009 V1: 255, 257

condensate trapsair-handling units, 2011 V3: 167shell and tube heat exchangers, 2011 V3: 167space-heating equipment, 2011 V3: 166–167unit heaters, 2011 V3: 167

condensates. See also steam and condensate systemsas eed water or distillation, 2012 V4: 194corrosion inhibitors, 2009 V1: 141dened, 2009 V1: 19, 2010 V2: 135, 2011 V3: 157–159drainage, 2011 V3: 163–166high-pressure piping, 2011 V3: 166removal, 2011 V3: 161–162

condensation (cond, COND)

air drying, 2011 V3: 178corrosion and, 2009 V1: 136dew points, 2011 V3: 173earthquakes and, 2009 V1: 160ormation o, 2012 V4: 109, 110–112insulation and, 2009 V1: 118, 2012 V4: 103protecting against, 2010 V2: 16regional requirements or plumbing installations, 2009

V1: 262swimming pools, 2011 V3: 108vacuum piping, 2010 V2: 174

condensed steamcondensate removal, 2011 V3: 161–162dened, 2011 V3: 157–159

condenserscentralized drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 221condenser system water treatments, 2010 V2: 216distilled water systems, 2011 V3: 48noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 191

scale deposits, 2010 V2: 195waste heat reclamation, 2009 V1: 124, 125condensing gas water heaters, 2009 V1: 121conditioning compressed air, 2011 V3: 178conditioning water. See water treatmentconditions in creativity checklist, 2009 V1: 227conditions o existing buildings, 2009 V1: 267–270conductance (C), 2012 V4: 103conductance (S), 2009 V1: 34conduction, dened, 2011 V3: 191conductivity (cndct, CNDCT, K). See also thermal

conductivity (k, K)dened, 2009 V1: 20, 2012 V4: 103, 200hangers and supports and, 2012 V4: 117–118insulation, 2012 V4: 103laboratory grade water, 2012 V4: 197measurements, 2009 V1: 34mho (specic conductivity), 2010 V2: 193

conductivity cells, 2012 V4: 183, 193conductivity/resistivity meters, 2012 V4: 183, 191, 196conductors, 2009 V1: 20conduits

dened, 2009 V1: 20seismic protection, 2009 V1: 145

conescalculating volume, 2009 V1: 4o depression, 2010 V2: 157

Conerence Generale de Poids et Measures, 2009 V1: 33confuent vents, 2009 V1: 20connected loads, 2009 V1: 20, 2010 V2: 136connected standbys, 2011 V3: 27connection strainers, 2011 V3: 124connections section in specications, 2009 V1: 72connectors, fexible gas hose, 2010 V2: 124–125Connectors or Gas Appliances, 2010 V2: 124Connectors or Movable Gas Appliances, 2010 V2: 124conserving energy. See also green building and plumbing

alternate energy sources, 2009 V1: 121–126Bernoulli’s equation, 2009 V1: 5–6domestic water temperatures, 2009 V1: 117–120glossary, 2009 V1: 128hot water system improvements, 2009 V1: 118insulation thickness and, 2012 V4: 106, 107, 110

introduction, 2009 V1: 117o-peak power, 2009 V1: 119reduced water fow rates, 2009 V1: 118reerences, 2009 V1: 128saving utility costs, 2009 V1: 119standby losses in circulating systems, 2009 V1: 119thermal insulation thickness, 2009 V1: 118waste heat usage, 2009 V1: 123–126

conserving water. See also green building and plumbing design techniques, 2009 V1: 126domestic water supply, 2011 V3: 46

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Index 267

institutional wastewater systems, 2010 V2: 149introduction, 2009 V1: 117rain shuto devices, 2011 V3: 96urinals, 2012 V4: 8water closet xtures, 2012 V4: 2

constant-pressure pumps, 2010 V2: 63constant support hangers and indicators, 2012 V4: 129constant velocity method, 2010 V2: 87, 94

Constructed Science Research Foundation Spectext, 2009 V1: 65construction change directives, 2009 V1: 57construction contract documents (CD)

checklists or existing buildings, 2009 V1: 270contract documents dened, 2009 V1: 55dened, 2009 V1: 20, 55overview, 2009 V1: 55project manuals, 2009 V1: 56–57value engineering clauses in, 2009 V1: 251

construction costs in value engineering, 2009 V1: 207–208Construction Specications Canada (CSC) Uniormat,

2009 V1: 57–58Construction Specications Institute (CSI)

classes, 2009 V1: 65Constructed Science Research Foundation, 2009 V1: 65general conditions documents, 2009 V1: 56 Manual o Practice, 2009 V1: 55MasterFormat, 2009 V1: 57MasterFormat 2004, 2009 V1: 58–59, 72–83MasterFormat Level Four (1995), 2009 V1: 68–69MasterFormat Level One (1995), 2009 V1: 66MasterFormat Level Three (1995), 2009 V1: 68MasterFormat Level Two (1995), 2009 V1: 66–68section shell outline, 2009 V1: 68–72Sectionormat, 2009 V1: 59solar energy specications, 2011 V3: 199Uniormat, 2009 V1: 57–58, 64–65web site, 2009 V1: 58

Consumer Product Saety Commission (CPSC), 2011 V3:106, 112

consumption. See demandcontact corrosion, dened, 2009 V1: 142contact sheets, 2011 V3: 205contact time or microbial control, 2010 V2: 213containment

biological wastes, 2010 V2: 240dened, 2012 V4: 169gas piping, 2010 V2: 135

Containment Control in Biotechnology Environments, 2010 V2: 246

containment foors or dikes, 2011 V3: 84containment sumps, 2011 V3: 139, 145, 148

contaminantsconcentration, storm water, 2010 V2: 27dened, 2012 V4: 169removing rom gas, 2011 V3: 273urban storm water, 2010 V2: 43–44

contamination issuesbackfow prevention, 2010 V2: 60bored wells, 2010 V2: 157compressed air, 2011 V3: 173–174contaminant classication, 2011 V3: 215contaminators, dened, 2009 V1: 20

dug wells, 2010 V2: 156gray-water irrigation systems and, 2010 V2: 27–28well protection, 2010 V2: 158–159

contingencyplans or industrial wastes, 2011 V3: 83in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 86

continuing education, 2009 V1: 65continuous acid-waste treatment systems, 2010 V2: 236

continuous deionization (CDI), 2010 V2: 209–210continuous duty pumps, 2011 V3: 22continuous fow. See steady fowcontinuous inserts, 2012 V4: 129continuous vents, dened, 2009 V1: 20continuous waste, 2009 V1: 20continuous wastewater treatment, 2011 V3: 87continuous welding technique, 2012 V4: 37contract documents. See construction contract documentscontraction o materials, 2009 V1: 189, 2012 V4: 208contraction o pipes

aboveground piping, 2012 V4: 207–208anchors, 2012 V4: 62calculating, 2009 V1: 3hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 116noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 189overview, 2012 V4: 67protecting against, 2010 V2: 16underground piping, 2012 V4: 208–209

contractorsmakeshit installations, 2009 V1: 254–257quality requirements and, 2009 V1: 262

Control o Pipeline Corrosion, 2009 V1: 144control panels

clean gas systems, 2011 V3: 28re alarm, 2009 V1: 12vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 171

control systems in geothermal energy systems, 2009 V1: 123control valves

dened, 2012 V4: 200medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 66–67

controlled-fow storm-drainage systems, 2010 V2: 52–53controlled-substance spills, 2010 V2: 186controllers

chemical, 2011 V3: 127–131dened, 2009 V1: 20dierential-pressure, 2011 V3: 132or irrigation systems, 2011 V3: 95–96

controlsin accessible shower compartments, 2009 V1: 112in bathtubs, 2009 V1: 109dened, 2009 V1: 20on gas boosters, 2010 V2: 125

on water heaters, 2010 V2: 104–105or pumps, 2012 V4: 99–100or vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 171, 179, 2011 V3: 64water level, ountains, 2011 V3: 102

convection, 2011 V3: 191, 2012 V4: 103conventional angle valves, 2012 V4: 75conventional ball valves, 2012 V4: 75conventional disc globe valves, 2012 V4: 74converging seismic plates, 2009 V1: 148conversion actors and converting

Fahrenheit and Centigrade, 2009 V1: 37

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eet o head to pounds per square inch, 2009 V1: 2gas pressure to destinations, 2010 V2: 127, 130IP and SI, 2009 V1: 38–39, 2010 V2: 170, 2011 V3: 30measurements, 2009 V1: 33meters o head to pressure in kilopascals, 2009 V1: 2parts per million to grains per gallon, 2012 V4: 201vacuum acm and scm, 2010 V2: 166–167vacuum pressures, 2010 V2: 166

water impurity measurements, 2010 V2: 191conveyance, storm water, 2010 V2: 46–47cooling compressors, 2011 V3: 174cooling re areas, 2011 V3: 25cooling grease, 2012 V4: 154cooling loads (clg load, CLG LOAD, CLOAD), 2012 V4: 222cooling systems

direct connection hazards, 2012 V4: 161solar, 2011 V3: 191

cooling tower process wastewater, 2012 V4: 175cooling-tower water

corrosion inhibitors, 2009 V1: 140exclusion rom gray-water systems, 2010 V2: 21Legionella pneumophila, 2010 V2: 108monitoring, 2012 V4: 175submerged inlet hazards, 2012 V4: 161use o gray water in, 2010 V2: 21waste heat usage, 2009 V1: 123water treatments, 2010 V2: 216–217

cooling vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 171coordination disabilities, 2009 V1: 99coordination with other designers, 2010 V2: 50, 54COP (coecient o perormance), 2009 V1: 128copper

coecient o linear expansion, 2012 V4: 211corrosion, 2009 V1: 129in electromotive series, 2009 V1: 132in galvanic series, 2009 V1: 132storm water, 2010 V2: 27stress and strain gures, 2012 V4: 206thermal expansion or contraction, 2012 V4: 207

copper alloy piping, 2010 V2: 12–13copper-copper sulte hal-cells, 2009 V1: 132Copper Development Association, 2010 V2: 96Copper Development Association (CDA), 2009 V1: 32

Copper Tube Handbook, 2012 V4: 58, 59copper drainage tube, 2012 V4: 33–34, 40copper-nickel alloys, 2009 V1: 132copper-phosphorous-silver brazing (BCuP), 2012 V4: 34copper-phosphorus brazing, 2012 V4: 34copper piping

aboveground piping, 2010 V2: 12bending, 2012 V4: 61

conserving energy, 2009 V1: 120copper K piping, 2010 V2: 173copper L piping, 2010 V2: 173hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 65laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 276Legionella control and, 2010 V2: 111mechanical joints, 2012 V4: 58–59natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 122pure-water system, 2011 V3: 49radioactive waste systems, 2010 V2: 239roughness, 2010 V2: 75

sprinkler systems, 2011 V3: 13standards, 2012 V4: 68–69tape wrapping, 2012 V4: 66types, 2012 V4: 29–40, 32velocity and, 2010 V2: 78

copper plating, 2012 V4: 129copper-silver ionization, 2010 V2: 110, 111, 2012 V4: 199copper-sulate electrodes, 2009 V1: 140

Copper Tube Handbook, 2012 V4: 58, 59copper tube size (CTS), 2012 V4: 42copper tubing, 2010 V2: 122, 2011 V3: 276copper water tube, 2012 V4: 29–40, 58, 122Copson, H.R., 2009 V1: 144cork

elastomer-cork mountings, 2012 V4: 142speed and vibration control, 2012 V4: 138, 139

corona-discharge generators, 2010 V2: 214corona-discharge ozone system, 2011 V3: 133corporation cocks, 2009 V1: 20corroded end o galvanic series, 2009 V1: 132corrosion

boilers, 2010 V2: 215calcium carbonate and, 2010 V2: 196cathodic protection, 2009 V1: 137–140causes, 2010 V2: 195–196coatings, 2009 V1: 136–137control o, 2009 V1: 135–141, 2010 V2: 16, 160cooling towers, 2010 V2: 217corrosion cells, 2009 V1: 129, 130, 137corrosion mitigation, 2009 V1: 142corrosion potential, 2009 V1: 142corrosion-resistant materials, 2009 V1: 135, 2010 V2: 14corrosion-resistant sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29corrosive wastes, 2010 V2: 13deaeration and, 2010 V2: 199dened, 2009 V1: 129, 142, 2012 V4: 129, 200electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 134actors in rate o, 2009 V1: 134–135atigue and atigue limits, 2009 V1: 142glossary, 2009 V1: 141–143hot-water relie valves, 2010 V2: 106impure water and, 2012 V4: 174inhibitors, 2009 V1: 141insulation and, 2012 V4: 107introduction, 2009 V1: 129oxygen and carbon dioxide, 2012 V4: 176passivation, 2009 V1: 136plastic, 2009 V1: 141plastic water pipes, 2010 V2: 164predicting water deposits and corrosion, 2010 V2:

196–197

prevention, 2009 V1: 142protection, 2011 V3: 148reerences, 2009 V1: 144sacricial anodes, 2009 V1: 137specications to prevent, 2009 V1: 256–258storage tanks, 2011 V3: 84, 138, 148total organic carbon and, 2010 V2: 193types o, 2009 V1: 129–132water mains, 2011 V3: 6

Corrosion, 2009 V1: 144Corrosion and Resistance o Metals and Alloys, 2009 V1: 144

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Index 269

Corrosion Causes and Prevention, 2009 V1: 144Corrosion Control, 2009 V1: 144Corrosion Engineering, 2009 V1: 144corrosion atigue, 2009 V1: 142Corrosion Handbook, 2009 V1: 144corrosion mitigation, 2009 V1: 142corrosion potential, 2009 V1: 142corrosion prevention, 2009 V1: 142

Corrosion Prevention or Practicing Engineers, 2009 V1: 144corrosion-resistant materials, 2009 V1: 135, 2010 V2: 14Corrosion Resistant Materials Handbook, 2011 V3: 89corrosion-resistant sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29corrosive atmospheres, insulation and, 2012 V4: 113corrosive gases, 2011 V3: 267corrosive wastes, 2010 V2: 13

double containment, 2012 V4: 56–57drainage systems, 2011 V3: 42–43high silicon pipe, 2012 V4: 53stainless steel valves, 2012 V4: 77

corrosives, 2009 V1: 20corrugated bends in pipes, 2012 V4: 61corrugated stainless steel tubing (CSST), 2012 V4: 56corrugated steel piping, 2010 V2: 75, 122–123, 2011 V3: 242cosmic radiation, 2010 V2: 237Cost Analysis phase in value engineering, 2009 V1: 229

costs and economic concernsadministrative and operation costs, 2009 V1: 208collecting data on, 2009 V1: 217–218construction costs, 2009 V1: 208cost tting, dened, 2009 V1: 249cost inormation in value engineering, 2009 V1: 217–218cost o goods, 2009 V1: 217cost-to-unction relationship, 2009 V1: 219dened, 2009 V1: 209, 210, 217–218development costs, 2009 V1: 208economic values, 2009 V1: 209engineering and design costs, 2009 V1: 208estimating costs, 2009 V1: 85–90idea development and estimated cost orms, 2009 V1: 234labor costs, 2009 V1: 208lie-cycle costs, 2009 V1: 128material costs, 2009 V1: 208overhead, 2009 V1: 208Pareto principle, 2009 V1: 218quality engineering and, 2009 V1: 253relationships, 2009 V1: 217specic applications

air dryers, 2011 V3: 178break tanks, 2012 V4: 166cathodic protection costs, 2009 V1: 140centralized or decentralized stills, 2012 V4: 192

chlorination, 2012 V4: 178corrosion resistant materials, 2009 V1: 135diatomaceous earth lters, 2012 V4: 182double containment, 2012 V4: 56–57eed water disinection, 2010 V2: 222fexible gas piping, 2010 V2: 122uel product dispensing systems, 2011 V3: 146gas booster location, 2010 V2: 126gas pressure, 2010 V2: 119green plumbing benets, 2012 V4: 234hardness treatments, 2012 V4: 176

horizontal pressure sand lters, 2012 V4: 180hot-water systems, 2010 V2: 97–98insulation, 2012 V4: 106, 107, 110, 112ion-exchange cartridges, 2010 V2: 208ion-exchange resins, 2010 V2: 206, 207iron and bronze valves, 2012 V4: 77laboratory acid-waste drainage, 2010 V2: 232noise mitigation products, 2009 V1: 203

plumbing noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 188pure water piping systems, 2010 V2: 224pure water storage systems, 2010 V2: 223sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 1seismic protection costs, 2009 V1: 147solar energy, 2011 V3: 189, 192, 193special-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 228utility costs, 2009 V1: 119vacuum system piping, 2010 V2: 173–174vibration control, 2012 V4: 143water distillers, 2010 V2: 200water soteners, 2012 V4: 188water treatments, 2012 V4: 174well construction, 2010 V2: 157, 164

in specications, 2009 V1: 63supporting details or, 2009 V1: 249true costs o makeshit installations, 2009 V1: 263–264types o, 2009 V1: 210, 217–218value engineering process and, 2009 V1: 207vs. prices, 2009 V1: 210

cotton gin, creativity and, 2009 V1: 225coulombs (C)

corrosion, 2009 V1: 129SI units, 2009 V1: 34

coulombs per cubic meter (C/m3), 2009 V1: 34countdown timer delays, 2011 V3: 28counter-mounted kitchen sinks, 2012 V4: 11counter-mounted lavatories, 2012 V4: 10counter sinks, 2011 V3: 36counter zoning, 2011 V3: 28countercurrent regeneration, 2012 V4: 201couple action. See galvanic corrosioncouples, dened, 2009 V1: 142couplings. See jointscoverings. See jacketing covers, collector, dened, 2011 V3: 191CP (cellulose propionate), 2009 V1: 32CPC (Compound Parabolic Concentrator) system, 2011

V3: 196CPD (Certied Plumbing Designer), 2009 V1: 65CPE (chlorinated polyethylene), 2009 V1: 32CPI (Chemical and Petroleum Industry), 2009 V1: 14cprsr (compressors). See compressors

CPSC (Consumer Product Saety Commission), 2011 V3:106, 112

CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride). See chlorinatedpolyvinyl-chloride (CPVC)

CR (chloroprene rubber), 2009 V1: 32cracking, dened, 2009 V1: 142Craytor, J., 2010 V2: 29creativity

assisted and unassisted, 2009 V1: 227creativity worksheets, 2009 V1: 226, 228rst phase in value engineering, 2009 V1: 209, 223–229

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questions or, 2009 V1: 227creep, 2009 V1: 20, 2010 V2: 12crevice-attack corrosion

crud traps in radioactive-waste piping, 2010 V2: 239, 240dened, 2009 V1: 131, 142, 2010 V2: 196reducing, 2009 V1: 136

crimping tools, 2012 V4: 30critical air gaps, 2012 V4: 169

critical care areas, 2011 V3: 36, 55critical fows, dened, 2009 V1: 2critical level, dened, 2009 V1: 20critical path unctions, 2009 V1: 221critical points, 2009 V1: 20critical pressure, dened, 2011 V3: 184critical temperature, dened, 2011 V3: 184cross connections. See also back-siphonage; backfow

active control, 2012 V4: 164–166air gaps, 2012 V4: 162–164authorities having jurisdiction, 2012 V4: 168–169backfow prevention, 2010 V2: 60barometric loops, 2012 V4: 164break tanks, 2012 V4: 166, 168cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 60–61control installation, 2012 V4: 166–168control paradox, 2012 V4: 162cross connection control programs, 2012 V4: 169cross connection controls, dened, 2012 V4: 169dened, 2009 V1: 20, 2012 V4: 169eld testing, 2012 V4: 168food hazard, 2012 V4: 167glossary, 2012 V4: 169–171health care acilities, 2011 V3: 46medical gas pipe tests, 2011 V3: 74overview, 2012 V4: 159passive control techniques, 2012 V4: 162–164product standards, 2012 V4: 168quality control, 2012 V4: 168–169reverse fow, causes, 2012 V4: 160–162splashing, 2012 V4: 167taking precautions against, 2010 V2: 27types o prevention devices, 2010 V2: 60–61vacuum breakers, 2012 V4: 164, 166, 167water distribution hazards, 2012 V4: 161, 162

cross-country pipe lines, 2009 V1: 139cross-fow lter media, 2010 V2: 191, 201cross-fow membrane ltration, 2012 V4: 201cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), 2009 V1: 32, 2012 V4:

48–49cross-linked polyethylene/aluminum/cross-linked

polyethylene (PEX-AL-PEX), 2012 V4: 49cross-sections

ditches, 2011 V3: 242, 250drains, 2010 V2: 2, 3

cross valves, 2009 V1: 20crosses, dened, 2009 V1: 20crossovers, 2009 V1: 20crown vents, 2009 V1: 20crowns, 2009 V1: 20crud traps, 2010 V2: 196, 239, 240crutches, 2009 V1: 99cryogenic, dened, 2009 V1: 20cryogenic gases, 2011 V3: 267, 271

cryogenic systems, 2012 V4: 54, 106cryogenic tanks, 2011 V3: 57CS (casein), 2009 V1: 32CS (Commercial Standards), 2009 V1: 32CSA. See Canadian Standards Association (CSA)CSC (Construction Specications Canada) Uniormat,

2009 V1: 57–58CSI and CSI ormat. See Construction Specications

Institute (CSI)CSP (chlorine sulphonyl polyethylene), 2009 V1: 32CSST. See corrugated steel piping CSST (corrugated stainless steel tubing), 2012 V4: 56CTS (copper tube size), 2012 V4: 42CU FT (cubic eet), 2009 V1: 14, 2011 V3: 30cubes, calculating volume, 2009 V1: 4cubic eet (t3, CU FT, CUFT, CFT), 2009 V1: 14, 2011

V3: 30cubic eet o minerals, 2012 V4: 201cubic eet per hour (ch), 2011 V3: 172, 251cubic eet per minute (cm, CFM), 2011 V3: 187. See also

scm, SCFM (standard cubic eet per minute)compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 181condensate estimates, 2011 V3: 167converting to metric units, 2011 V3: 30dened, 2010 V2: 135medical vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 64symbols or, 2009 V1: 14vacuum measurements, 2010 V2: 166

cubic eet per second, standard (scs, SCFS), 2009 V1: 14cubic oot meters (cms)

dened, 2010 V2: 135vacuum measurements, 2010 V2: 166

cubic meters, 2009 V1: 34cubic meters per kilogram, 2009 V1: 34cubic meters per minute, 2011 V3: 172cubic meters per second, 2009 V1: 34CUFT (cubic eet), 2011 V3: 30cUL (Underwriters Laboratories o Canada), 2009 V1:

41–42cultivated eld, runo, 2010 V2: 42cultured marble acrylic xtures, 2012 V4: 1cultured marble xtures, 2012 V4: 1cup service or drinking water, 2012 V4: 223cup sinks, 2011 V3: 36, 40, 41curb boxes, 2009 V1: 20curb inlets, 2009 V1: 20curb valves, 2009 V1: 20curies (c), 2010 V2: 237current

cathodic protection, 2009 V1: 137in corrosion, 2009 V1: 129, 134

electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 134large anode current requirements, 2009 V1: 139measurements, 2009 V1: 33

current good manuacturing practices (cGMP), 2009 V1:14, 2010 V2: 224, 227

cuspidors, dental, 2011 V3: 40, 2012 V4: 161custom-made grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 153cut-in sleeves, 2012 V4: 67cutting oils, 2010 V2: 12, 2012 V4: 61cutting short, 2012 V4: 129cutting threads, 2012 V4: 61

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Index 271

CV (check valves). See check valvesCVOL (specic volume). See specic volumecw (cold water). See cold water (CW)CWA. See Clean Water ActCWP (cold working pressure), 2012 V4: 83CWR (chilled water return), 2009 V1: 8CWS (chilled water supply), 2009 V1: 8cyanide, 2011 V3: 87

cycle o concentration in cooling towers, 2010 V2: 216cycles and cycle operation in water soteners, 2012 V4: 201cyclopropane, 2011 V3: 55cylinder banks, gas, 2011 V3: 267–268cylinder-maniold-supply systems, 2011 V3: 57–61, 64, 65cylinder snubbers, 2009 V1: 155cylinders

calculating volume, 2009 V1: 4carbon dioxide extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 26clean agent gas re suppression, 2011 V3: 27laboratory gas storage, 2011 V3: 267–268regulators, 2011 V3: 271–272

cystoscopic roomsxtures, 2011 V3: 38health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 52, 56

Dd (deci) prex, 2009 V1: 34D (dierence or delta), 2009 V1: 14D (drains). See drainsD (indirect drains), 2009 V1: 8da (deka) prex, 2009 V1: 34Dalton’s law, 2010 V2: 72damage. See bedding and settlement; corrosion; creep;

hazards; scale and scale ormation; seismicprotection; water damage

dampen, dened, 2009 V1: 20

damping dened, 2012 V4: 137in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 150, 177, 180

Darcy’s law, 2009 V1: 2, 3, 2010 V2: 6, 74, 157–158data storage or specications programs, 2009 V1: 65Database o State Incentives or Renewables and

Eciency, 2011 V3: 190databases o plumbing costs, 2009 V1: 85, 89Daugherty, Robert L., 2010 V2: 19Dawson, F.M., 2010 V2: 3, 19, 72DB (dry-bulb temperature), 2009 V1: 21dbt, DBT (dry-bulb temperature), 2009 V1: 21DC (double containment systems), 2012 V4: 56–57dc, DC (direct current), 2009 V1: 14, 137, 2010 V2: 209

DCV (double-check valves), 2009 V1: 14, 2011 V3: 215DD (design development phase), 2009 V1: 58DE (deionized water), 2009 V1: 8DE (diatomaceous earth). See diatomaceous earthDE/Perlite Perormance Test Data, 2011 V3: 135De Renzo, D.J., 2011 V3: 89deactivation, dened, 2009 V1: 142dead-end pressure, 2011 V3: 184dead-end service in pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 94dead ends

centralized drinking-water cooler systems, 2012 V4: 223dened, 2009 V1: 20

valves in, 2012 V4: 83dead legs in pure water systems, 2010 V2: 224dead loads on roo, 2010 V2: 51dead-man abort stations, 2011 V3: 28deadman installation, 2011 V3: 155deadweight loads, 2012 V4: 129deaeration, 2012 V4: 176deaerators

boiler eed water, 2010 V2: 216deaeration, dened, 2012 V4: 176deaeration water treatment, 2010 V2: 199pressure and vacuum, 2012 V4: 176Provent deaerators, 2010 V2: 17–18Sovent deaerators, 2010 V2: 17–18

dealkalizing treatment, 2010 V2: 199dealloying, dened, 2009 V1: 142decarbonation, 2010 V2: 199decentralized distillation, 2012 V4: 192deci prex, 2009 V1: 34decomposition potential, 2009 V1: 142decontaminating radioactive waste piping, 2010 V2: 239decontamination areas, 2011 V3: 39–41, 52decorative pools, wastewater and, 2010 V2: 21deep (dp, DP, DPTH). See depthdeep-bed sand ltration, 2010 V2: 201deep ends o swimming pools, 2011 V3: 107deep ll, building sewers and, 2010 V2: 14deep seal traps, 2009 V1: 20deep wells, 2010 V2: 155, 156, 161deciency reports, 2009 V1: 267–269denitions. See glossariesdenitions section in specications, 2009 V1: 63, 69defection

joints, 2012 V4: 57natural requencies and, 2012 V4: 138steel spring isolators, 2012 V4: 139–142thermal expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 205

deormation, joints resistant to, 2012 V4: 57deg., °, DEG (degrees), 2009 V1: 14degasication, 2010 V2: 199, 2012 V4: 176, 184degradation o pure water, 2010 V2: 223degree o saturation, dened, 2011 V3: 187degrees (deg., °, DEG), 2009 V1: 14degrees Celsius, 2009 V1: 34, 2012 V4: 103degrees Fahrenheit, 2012 V4: 103degrees Kelvin (°K), dened, 2011 V3: 184degrees Rankine (°R), dened, 2011 V3: 184DEHA (diethylhydroxylamine), 2010 V2: 216dehumidication, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 127deionization, 2010 V2: 201. See also demineralizer

systems; service deionization

deionized water (DE), 2009 V1: 8, 2012 V4: 175deka prex, 2009 V1: 34delay relays, 2011 V3: 28delays in clean gas extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 28deliquescent dryers, 2011 V3: 178deliquescent materials, 2009 V1: 20delivery rooms. See birthing roomsdelivery section in specications, 2009 V1: 63–64, 70Dell’Isola, Alphonse J., 2009 V1: 252Delphia method o evaluation, 2009 V1: 248delta (di., ), DIFF, D, DELTA), 2009 V1: 14

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delta t (temperature dierential), 2009 V1: 128DELTP (pressure drops or dierences). See pressure drops

or dierencesdeluge systems, 2009 V1: 28, 2011 V3: 9–10deluge valves, 2009 V1: 13, 2011 V3: 9–10demand

average fow rates or xtures, 2012 V4: 186centralized chilled water systems, 2012 V4: 222, 223

cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 73dened, 2009 V1: 20, 2010 V2: 135drinking ountains, 2012 V4: 222, 223drinking water, 2010 V2: 159estimating, 2010 V2: 83estimation guide, 2012 V4: 187re demand, 2011 V3: 2re hydrant water demand, 2011 V3: 4fow rates, 2011 V3: 222–225gas appliances, 2010 V2: 116hot water, 2009 V1: 128, 2010 V2: 97hydropneumatic-tank systems, 2010 V2: 62, 64–65medical air systems, 2011 V3: 62medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 50, 51, 53, 57medical school-laboratory water demand, 2011 V3: 46natural gas, 2010 V2: 124, 130, 2011 V3: 256natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 123, 129pipe sizing and, 2010 V2: 75–76, 78sizing water heaters, 2010 V2: 98–99sprinkler systems, 2011 V3: 2–6, 13vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 54, 65water conservation and paybacks, 2009 V1: 118water heater types and, 2010 V2: 101–104water soteners and, 2012 V4: 185, 186water treatment methods and, 2010 V2: 210

demineralizer systems, 2010 V2: 199, 201activated carbon, mixed bed deionization, 2012 V4: 199cation and anion tanks, 2012 V4: 183compared to distillation, 2012 V4: 176compared to reverse osmosis, 2012 V4: 195dened, 2012 V4: 182or distillation, 2012 V4: 194pure water systems, 2011 V3: 48using with distillation, 2012 V4: 192water sotening pretreatment, 2012 V4: 187

demographics in hot water demand classications, 2010 V2: 99

demolition work, in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85Denoncourt, 2010 V2: 224dens, DENS (density). See densitydensity (dens, DENS, RHO)

dened, 2009 V1: 20gas, dened, 2011 V3: 184

grease particles, 2012 V4: 146–148measurements, 2009 V1: 34o natural gas, 2010 V2: 126puried water, 2010 V2: 72–74settling velocity and, 2012 V4: 178

dental equipment, 2011 V3: 42, 52department connections, 2009 V1: 12departments having jurisdiction, 2009 V1: 20dependent unctionality

dened, 2009 V1: 219in FAST approach, 2009 V1: 221–223

depolarization, dened, 2009 V1: 142depolarizing cathodes, 2009 V1: 134deposit attacks, 2009 V1: 142deposition corrosion, dened, 2009 V1: 142deposits rom eed water, 2010 V2: 196. See also scale and

scale ormation; sediment; slime; sludgedepth (dp, DP, DPTH)

grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 149

o liquids in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 146o refecting pools, 2011 V3: 100o septic tanks, 2010 V2: 146o soils, 2010 V2: 141o wells, 2010 V2: 156

depth lters, 2010 V2: 206, 2012 V4: 180derived units o measurement, 2009 V1: 34descriptive specications, 2009 V1: 60–61desiccant air dryers, 2011 V3: 179desiccants, 2009 V1: 20design

alterations to buildings, 2009 V1: 265–266ensuring good quality during, 2009 V1: 255LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental

Design), 2012 V4: 2noise mitigation and, 2009 V1: 201–202or people with disabilities, 2009 V1: 99reducing corrosion, 2009 V1: 135–136seismic, 2009 V1: 151, 180–182sustainable, 2012 V4: 233value engineering and, 2009 V1: 208

design areas or sprinkler systems, 2011 V3: 12design (built-in) compression ratio, 2011 V3: 185design density, 2011 V3: 11–12design development phase (DD), 2009 V1: 58design elevations, 2012 V4: 129Design Inormation or Large Tur Irrigation Systems,

2011 V3: 96design loads, 2012 V4: 129Design o Homan Industrial Vacuum Cleaning Systems,

2010 V2: 186Design o Stormwater Filtering Systems, 2010 V2: 55design points, 2009 V1: 20design standards, 2009 V1: 61design storms, 2011 V3: 239design working head, 2012 V4: 101desolver tanks, 2010 V2: 210destruction phase in ozonation, 2010 V2: 214destructive orces in pipes. See water hammerdetails in projects, checklists, 2009 V1: 215detector-check water meters, 2010 V2: 60detectors, smoke, 2009 V1: 20detention periods

grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 149treated water, 2010 V2: 198

detention, storm drainage, 2010 V2: 47–48detergents

dened, 2009 V1: 141actors in trap seal loss, 2010 V2: 37high-expansion oam, 2011 V3: 25in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 147

deterioration, 2009 V1: 267–270Deutsches Institut ur Normung (DIN), 2009 V1: 14developed length, 2009 V1: 20

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Index 273

developersperception o engineering, 2009 V1: 251value engineering and, 2009 V1: 208

development costsdened, 2009 V1: 210in value engineering, 2009 V1: 208

Development phase in value engineering activities, 2009 V1: 235–248

idea development and estimated cost orms, 2009 V1: 234in process, 2009 V1: 209sketches, 2009 V1: 246

Development Presentation phase in value engineering,2009 V1: 209

deviations in measurements, 2009 V1: 33, 2012 V4: 129dew points

corrosion in pipes and, 2011 V3: 265dened, 2009 V1: 20, 2011 V3: 173, 185, 265–266, 2012

V4: 109lowering, 2011 V3: 178–179medical gas system tests, 2011 V3: 76monitors, 2011 V3: 63pressure dew points, 2011 V3: 266rerigerated air dryers, 2011 V3: 178table, 2012 V4: 109

dewatering pumps, 2012 V4: 98dewers, dened, 2011 V3: 268dezincication o brass, 2009 V1: 132, 2012 V4: 77DF. See drinking ountains (DF)du (drainage xture units), 2009 V1: 14, 21DHEC (Department o Health and Environmental

Control), 2010 V2: 112DI (deionization), 2010 V2: 201DI (distilled water), 2009 V1: 8DI (drainage inlets), 2009 V1: 14dia., DIA (diameters). See diametersdiagnostic acilities, 2010 V2: 238dialogue in FAST approach, 2009 V1: 223dialysis machines, 2011 V3: 42, 2012 V4: 199dialysis rooms, 2011 V3: 39 Diameter-Index Saety System (CGA V-5), 2011 V3: 76, 78diameters (dia., DIA)

dened, 2009 V1: 20inside (ID), 2009 V1: 14outside (OD), 2009 V1: 14symbols or, 2009 V1: 14

diaper changing stations, 2012 V4: 19diaphragm-actuated valves, 2011 V3: 125diaphragm gas meters, 2010 V2: 116–117diaphragm gauges, 2010 V2: 171diaphragm pumps, 2010 V2: 169, 2011 V3: 130diaphragm reciprocating compressors, 2011 V3: 174

diaphragm tanks, 2011 V3: 26, 2012 V4: 209diaphragm valves, 2010 V2: 230, 2012 V4: 82diaphragms

dened, 2009 V1: 21water-pressure regulators, 2012 V4: 80

diatomaceous earth ltration. See also silica advantages and disadvantages, 2010 V2: 218diatomaceous earth lters, 2011 V3: 114, 119–122, 2012

V4: 181–182regenerative alternative media lters, 2011 V3: 122swimming pool usage, 2011 V3: 110

diatoms, 2012 V4: 201dichlor, 2011 V3: 128die-cast metals, 2011 V3: 35dielectric ttings, 2009 V1: 21dielectric insulation, 2009 V1: 136, 140dielectric unions, 2011 V3: 139, 2012 V4: 62diesel drivers, 2011 V3: 22diesel engines, 2011 V3: 22

diesel uel, 2010 V2: 12diesel-oil systemsaboveground tank systems, 2011 V3: 147–149

connections and access, 2011 V3: 148construction, 2011 V3: 147–148corrosion protection, 2011 V3: 148lling and spills, 2011 V3: 148leak prevention and monitoring, 2011 V3: 148–149materials, 2011 V3: 147–148overll prevention, 2011 V3: 148product dispensing systems, 2011 V3: 149tank protection, 2011 V3: 149vapor recovery, 2011 V3: 149venting, 2011 V3: 148

codes and standards, 2011 V3: 137components, 2011 V3: 138denitions and classications, 2011 V3: 136–137designing

installation considerations, 2011 V3: 154–156piping materials, 2011 V3: 149–151piping sizing, 2011 V3: 150–151submersible pump sizing, 2011 V3: 151–152testing, 2011 V3: 152–154

overview, 2011 V3: 136reerences, 2011 V3: 156resources, 2011 V3: 156tank abandonment and removal, 2011 V3: 154underground tank systems, 2011 V3: 139–140

leak detection and system monitoring, 2011 V3:141–145

product dispensing systems, 2011 V3: 146–147storage tanks, 2011 V3: 139–140vapor recovery systems, 2011 V3: 145–146

dietary services in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36diethylhydroxylamine, 2010 V2: 216di., DIFF (dierence or delta), 2009 V1: 14dierence (di., (, DIFF, D, DELTA), 2009 V1: 14dierential aeration cells, 2009 V1: 142dierential changeover maniolds, 2011 V3: 271dierential environmental conditions, corrosion by, 2009

V1: 132dierential fow sensors, 2011 V3: 124dierential gas regulators, 2010 V2: 117

dierential movement in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 152dierential pressure

controllers, 2011 V3: 132water-pressure regulators, 2012 V4: 80

dierential regulators, 2011 V3: 255dierentials, dened, 2009 V1: 21diculties in value engineering presentations, 2009 V1: 249diusers, 2012 V4: 101diusion aerators, 2010 V2: 198, 218diusion-resistant valves, 2011 V3: 273digester gas, 2010 V2: 114

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digesting biosolids, 2012 V4: 240digestion, 2009 V1: 21digits, 2009 V1: 33dikes

or aboveground storage tanks, 2011 V3: 148–149or hazardous waste areas, 2011 V3: 84

dilution air, dened, 2010 V2: 135dilution, pollution and, 2011 V3: 81

dimensionsin creativity checklist, 2009 V1: 227dened, 2009 V1: 33nominal, 2009 V1: 14wheelchairs, 2009 V1: 100

dimple/depth stops, 2012 V4: 58DIN (Deutsches Institut ur Normung), 2009 V1: 14direct-acting, balanced-piston valves, 2012 V4: 82direct-acting, diaphragm-actuated valves, 2012 V4: 82direct-acting gas regulators, 2011 V3: 254direct-circulation solar systems, 2009 V1: 122direct connections, 2012 V4: 161direct-count epifuorescent microscopy, 2010 V2: 188direct current (dc, DC)

cathodic protection, 2009 V1: 137in deionization, 2010 V2: 209symbols or, 2009 V1: 14

direct discharge o efuent, 2012 V4: 227direct ll ports, 2011 V3: 139–140direct-ltration package plants, 2010 V2: 218direct-red gas water heaters, 2009 V1: 121, 2011 V3: 126direct-red propane vaporizers, 2010 V2: 134direct-operated pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 69–70direct-operated propane regulators, 2010 V2: 133direct pump water supplies, 2011 V3: 6directly-heated, automatic storage water heaters, 2010

V2: 101dirt cans or vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 179dirt in eed water, 2010 V2: 195dirty gas, 2011 V3: 252disabled individuals. See people with disabilitiesdisc-type positive displacement meters, 2010 V2: 88disc water meters, 2010 V2: 59discharge characteristic xture curves, 2010 V2: 3discharge coecients, 2009 V1: 5discharge curves, 2011 V3: 211discharge permits, 2011 V3: 83discharge piping or vacuum cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 184discharge pressure, dened, 2011 V3: 185discharge rates in sizing bioremediation systems, 2012

V4: 229discharge temperature, dened, 2011 V3: 185discharge times in re suppression, 2011 V3: 27

discsdened, 2009 V1: 21, 2012 V4: 89globe valves, 2012 V4: 74–75

discussions in FAST approach, 2009 V1: 223dished ends on tanks, 2011 V3: 139dishwashers

dened, 2009 V1: 21direct connection hazards, 2012 V4: 161xture pipe sizes and demand, 2010 V2: 86xture-unit loads, 2010 V2: 3grades o water or, 2012 V4: 199

graywater, 2012 V4: 238grease interceptors and, 2012 V4: 154health care acilities, 2011 V3: 39hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99water xture unit values, 2011 V3: 206water temperatures, 2011 V3: 47

disinecting. See also sterilizationcodes or, 2009 V1: 43

cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 90–94decontaminating inectious wastes, 2010 V2: 241–242drinking water, 2010 V2: 160eed water, 2010 V2: 195, 213gray water, 2010 V2: 22, 27–28septic tanks, 2010 V2: 148small drinking water systems, 2010 V2: 218wastewater, 2012 V4: 237water systems, 2010 V2: 164

Disinection o Escherichia Coli by Using Water Dissociation Eect on Ion Exchange Membranes,2010 V2: 225

disintegrations per second (dps), 2010 V2: 237dispenser pans, 2011 V3: 146dispensers

aboveground tanks, 2011 V3: 149high-rate dispensers, 2011 V3: 151multiple dispenser fow rates, 2011 V3: 151

dispersed oil, 2010 V2: 244displacement

dened, 2009 V1: 21, 2011 V3: 185in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 150water meters, 2010 V2: 61

disposal elds (sewage). See soil-absorption sewagesystems

disposal o greaseapproved methods, 2012 V4: 157–158bioremediation systems, 2012 V4: 228, 228–229

disposal wells in geothermal energy, 2009 V1: 123disposals, 2009 V1: 21disposers. See ood waste grindersDISS connectors, 2011 V3: 76dissociation, 2009 V1: 21dissolved air fotation, 2012 V4: 228dissolved elements and materials in water

dissolved gases, 2010 V2: 190, 199, 215dissolved inorganics, 2010 V2: 193dissolved iron, 2012 V4: 201dissolved metals, 2011 V3: 87dissolved minerals, 2010 V2: 215dissolved oil, 2010 V2: 244dissolved organics, 2010 V2: 201dissolved oxygen, 2011 V3: 88

dissolved solids, 2010 V2: 193, 2012 V4: 201laboratory grade water, 2012 V4: 197, 198removing, 2012 V4: 176

dissolved gases, 2009 V1: 21, 2010 V2: 190, 199, 215distances in standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 20–21distilled water (DI, DW)

applications, 2012 V4: 192–194corrosion, 2009 V1: 141decentralized or centralized, 2012 V4: 192dened, 2012 V4: 175

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distillation compared to demineralizer systems, 2012 V4: 176

distillation compared to reverse osmosis, 2012 V4: 199distillation treatment, 2010 V2: 199–201, 202–204distribution systems or water, 2012 V4: 193, 194eed water, 2012 V4: 194eedback puriers, 2012 V4: 194health care acility stills, 2011 V3: 42

laboratory grade water comparison, 2012 V4: 197overview, 2012 V4: 189producing, 2011 V3: 47–48purity monitors, 2012 V4: 193–194sizing equipment, 2012 V4: 192, 193storage reservoirs, 2012 V4: 193symbols or, 2009 V1: 8, 14types o equipment, 2012 V4: 192–194ultraviolet light, 2012 V4: 193

distribution o wealth, 2009 V1: 218distribution piping, steam, 2011 V3: 159–161distribution subsystems, solar, dened, 2011 V3: 191distributors in water soteners, 2012 V4: 201disturbing orces, 2012 V4: 137disturbing requency (d), dened, 2012 V4: 137ditches, 2011 V3: 250divergent thinking in creativity, 2009 V1: 225diversity actor

compressed air tools, 2011 V3: 182dened, 2009 V1: 21, 2010 V2: 135health care acility systems, 2011 V3: 46medical gas, 2011 V3: 51, 70medical vacuum, 2011 V3: 51, 70natural gas systems, 2011 V3: 252, 256nitrogen systems, 2011 V3: 69, 70nitrous oxide, 2011 V3: 70oxygen, 2011 V3: 70vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 176

diverter plate, ountains, 2011 V3: 103diverters, spray accessories on sinks, 2012 V4: 13diving pools, 2011 V3: 107divinyl benzene, 2010 V2: 206division in SI units, 2009 V1: 35Divisions in MasterFormat 2004, 2009 V1: 58–60, 72–83DL. See distilled waterDMH (drop manholes), 2009 V1: 14DN (dimensional, nominal), 2009 V1: 14DN (down), 2009 V1: 14DN (nominal diameter), 2010 V2: 165DNA materials, 2010 V2: 241, 2012 V4: 194dolomite limestone chips, 2010 V2: 235dome grates in shower rooms, 2010 V2: 11dome roo drains, 2010 V2: 52

domestic booster pumps, 2012 V4: 97domestic sewage, 2009 V1: 21domestic systems. See domestic water supply; residential

systemsDomestic Water Heating Design Manual, 2010 V2: 96, 99,

2011 V3: 47domestic water meters, 2010 V2: 59–60domestic water supply

as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 189codes and standards, 2011 V3: 206combined with re-protection supply, 2011 V3: 218–220

dened, 2009 V1: 21xtures, usage reduction, 2012 V4: 236health care acilities, 2011 V3: 46–49irrigation, usage reduction, 2012 V4: 234noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 190–193overview, 2011 V3: 205–206preliminary inormation, 2011 V3: 205service components and design, 2011 V3: 208–217

backfow prevention, 2011 V3: 214–216elevation dierences, 2011 V3: 216piping runs, 2011 V3: 214strainer losses, 2011 V3: 216taps, 2011 V3: 210–214valves and ttings, 2011 V3: 214water meters, 2011 V3: 216water pressure, 2011 V3: 210

service connection, 2011 V3: 213, 214system requirements, 2011 V3: 206–208valves or, 2012 V4: 83–84water xture unit values, 2011 V3: 206water mains, 2011 V3: 206water utility letters, 2011 V3: 208, 259

doors, accessibility and, 2009 V1: 104, 106dope, pipe, 2010 V2: 191dormant water reezing points (p, FP), 2012 V4: 111doses o radiation, 2010 V2: 237dosimeters, 2010 V2: 237dosing tanks, 2009 V1: 21dot products, dened, 2009 V1: 85DOTn. See U.S. Department o Transportation (DOTn)double. See also entries beginning with dual-, multiple-,

or two-double-acting altitude valves, 2010 V2: 164double-acting cylinders in compressors, 2011 V3: 174double-acting devices, 2012 V4: 129double-bolt pipe clamps, 2012 V4: 135double-check valves (DCV)

assemblies, 2012 V4: 165, 169dened, 2009 V1: 14with intermediate atmospheric vents, 2012 V4: 169–170water mains and, 2011 V3: 215

double-compartment sinks, 2012 V4: 11double-contained piping systems, 2010 V2: 242, 2011 V3:

43, 145double-contained tanks, 2011 V3: 139double-containment systems, 2012 V4: 51, 56–57double-disc check valves, 2012 V4: 77double discs

dened, 2009 V1: 21gate valves, 2012 V4: 74

double extra-strong steel pipe, 2012 V4: 37

double osets, 2009 V1: 21double-ported valves, 2009 V1: 21double-seated pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 69–70double-stage gas regulators, 2011 V3: 272double-sweep tees, 2009 V1: 21double tees, 2012 V4: 5double-wall piping, 2010 V2: 227double-wall tanks, 2011 V3: 139Dow Chemical Corp., 2010 V2: 224down

dened, 2009 V1: 21

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symbol, 2009 V1: 14down fow, dened, 2012 V4: 201downeed risers, 2012 V4: 221downspouts and leaders (l). See also vertical stacks

calculating fows, 2010 V2: 53dened, 2009 V1: 21, 25roo drainage systems, 2010 V2: 49roo expansion and, 2010 V2: 49

roo leaders, 2010 V2: 49downstream, dened, 2009 V1: 21dp, DP (depth). See depthdps (disintegrations per second), 2010 V2: 237DPTH (depth). See depthdrat hoods, 2010 V2: 135–136drag coecients, 2012 V4: 146drag orce, 2012 V4: 129drag, rictional, 2012 V4: 146drain bodies. See sumps and sump pumpsdrain cleaners in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 147drain elds. See soil-absorption sewage systemsdrain line carry tests, 2012 V4: 5drain tiles, 2010 V2: 143drain valves, 2011 V3: 95, 2012 V4: 201drain, waste, and vent pipes (DWV)

combination drain and vent, 2010 V2: 33copper drainage tube, 2012 V4: 33–34copper pipe, 2012 V4: 32dened, 2009 V1: 22, 32, 2012 V4: 129dimensions, 2012 V4: 38DWV pattern schedule 40 plastic piping, 2010 V2: 13glass pipe, 2012 V4: 35plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 39polypropylene, 2012 V4: 51Provent systems, 2010 V2: 17–18PVC pipe, 2012 V4: 49Sovent systems, 2010 V2: 17–18thermal expansion or contraction, 2012 V4: 205,

207–208drain, waste, and vent stacks (DWV)

copper, 2012 V4: 29Provent systems, 2010 V2: 17–18Sovent systems, 2010 V2: 17–18

drainage (corrosion), dened, 2009 V1: 142drainage channels, irrigation systems and, 2010 V2: 24drainage ttings, 2009 V1: 21drainage xture units (du), 2009 V1: 14, 21, 23. See also

xture units and unit valuesdrainage inlets (DI), 2009 V1: 14drainage piping

copper pipe, 2012 V4: 29double containment, 2012 V4: 56–57

glass pipe, 2012 V4: 35nonreinorced concrete pipe, 2012 V4: 29

drainage pumps, 2012 V4: 98–99drainage systems. See also specic types o drainage

systemsair compressor systems, 2011 V3: 178as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 188–189condensate, 2011 V3: 163–166dened, 2009 V1: 21, 2010 V2: 1drainage structures, dened, 2011 V3: 226health care acilities, 2011 V3: 42–46

laboratoriesacid-waste drainage, 2011 V3: 42–46acid-waste metering, 2011 V3: 45acid-waste solids interceptors, 2011 V3: 45acidic-waste neutralization, 2011 V3: 43–44corrosive-waste piping materials, 2011 V3: 46discharge to sewers, 2011 V3: 43–44sink traps, 2011 V3: 45–46

waste and vent piping, 2011 V3: 46manholes, 2011 V3: 226–228mitigating noise, 2009 V1: 189–190pumps, 2012 V4: 98–99storm water, 2011 V3: 249

drainage, waste, and vents (DWV). See drain, waste, andvent

drainback solar systems, 2009 V1: 122drainless water coolers, 2012 V4: 217drainline heat reclamation, 2009 V1: 123–126drains (D). See also building drains; horizontal drains;

specic types o drainsbutterfy valves, foat-operated main, 2011 V3: 131dened, 2009 V1: 21grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 145secondary containment areas, 2011 V3: 84swimming pools, 2011 V3: 104–106, 112, 131–132symbols or, 2009 V1: 11water soteners, 2012 V4: 188

drawdowns (wells), 2010 V2: 158, 161, 164drawings, plumbing. See plumbing drawingsdrawn temper (hard), 2012 V4: 29, 33drawo installations. See specic kinds o interceptorsdrench equipment or emergencies, 2010 V2: 229drench showers, 2011 V3: 36, 41. See also emergency

xturesdressing acilities, 2011 V3: 110drit

dened, 2009 V1: 21problems in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 184

drilled anchor bolts, 2009 V1: 154, 184drilling wells, 2010 V2: 164drinking ountains (DF)

access to, 2009 V1: 101–105centralized systems, 2012 V4: 222–224estimating water usage, 2012 V4: 223–224xture pipe sizes and demand, 2010 V2: 86graywater systems, 2009 V1: 126health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36, 37, 40minimum numbers o, 2012 V4: 20–23oce building usage, 2012 V4: 221stand-alone water coolers, 2012 V4: 216standards, 2012 V4: 2

submerged inlet hazards, 2012 V4: 161swimming pool acilities, 2011 V3: 109, 110symbols, 2009 V1: 14types, 2012 V4: 13water xture unit values, 2011 V3: 206wheelchair approaches, 2009 V1: 104

drinking watercross connections to nonpotable water, 2012 V4: 160drinking water supply (DWS), 2009 V1: 8drinking water supply recirculating (DWR), 2009 V1: 8drinking water systems. See private water systems

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Index 277

ountains vs. cup service, 2012 V4: 223health care acilities, 2011 V3: 46, 47material codes, 2009 V1: 43potable water, 2009 V1: 27, 2012 V4: 170, 174–175supply as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 189system noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 190–193treatments or, 2010 V2: 218typical usage in oces, 2012 V4: 222, 223

drinking-water coolersaccess to, 2009 V1: 101–105accessories, 2012 V4: 218–219bottle llers, 2012 V4: 219centralized systems, 2012 V4: 222–224compared to water chillers, 2012 V4: 215dened, 2012 V4: 215eatures, 2012 V4: 218–219health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36heating unctions, 2012 V4: 218installing, 2012 V4: 224invention o, 2012 V4: 215options, 2012 V4: 218–219public areas in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 37ratings, 2012 V4: 215–216rerigeration systems, 2012 V4: 219–220standards, 2012 V4: 2stream regulators, 2012 V4: 219types, 2012 V4: 13, 216–218water conditioning or, 2012 V4: 220–221wheelchair space around, 2009 V1: 104

drip legs, condensate drainage, 2011 V3: 164drip pots, 2011 V3: 255drive points, 2010 V2: 157driven wells, 2010 V2: 157drives, variable-requency (VFD), 2011 V3: 125–126droop, 2009 V1: 21, 2012 V4: 80drop elbows, 2009 V1: 21drop manholes (DMH), 2009 V1: 14, 21, 2011 V3: 228, 232drop nipples on pendant sprinklers, 2009 V1: 13drop tees, 2009 V1: 21drop tubes, 2011 V3: 140, 145drops, 2009 V1: 11, 21, 2011 V3: 139drops in pressure. See pressure drops or dierences (PD,

DELTP)drug rooms, 2011 V3: 38drum traps, 2011 V3: 46dry air

composition o, 2011 V3: 172, 264properties, 2011 V3: 263water vapor in, 2011 V3: 265

dry-bulb temperature (dbt, DBT, DB), 2009 V1: 21, 2011 V3: 185, 2012 V4: 109, 112

dry-chemical extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 24–25,28–29

dry gas, 2011 V3: 185, 257dry hose stations, 2009 V1: 13dry ice, 2011 V3: 26dry nitrogen, 2011 V3: 257dry pendent sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29dry-pipe systems

accelerators, 2011 V3: 9air compressors, 2011 V3: 8

combined dry-pipe and pre-action systems, 2011 V3:10–11

dened, 2009 V1: 28normal conditions, 2011 V3: 8riser diagram, 2011 V3: 8sprinklers, 2011 V3: 6–8water delivery time rames, 2011 V3: 9

dry-pipe valves, 2009 V1: 13, 21

dry-pit pumps, 2012 V4: 98dry-powder extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 24dry pumps, 2010 V2: 173dry standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 20dry standpipes, 2009 V1: 13, 30dry-storage water soteners, 2010 V2: 210dry units, dened, 2011 V3: 185dry upright sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29dry-vacuum cleaning systems (DVC), 2009 V1: 9, 2010 V2:

178, 186dry-weather fows, 2009 V1: 21dry wells (leaching wells), 2011 V3: 249–250dryers in laundry acilities, 2011 V3: 39du Moulin, G.C., 2010 V2: 224dual. See also entries beginning with double-, multiple-, or

two-dual-bed deionization (two-step), 2010 V2: 206, 207dual check valve assemblies, 2012 V4: 163, 166, 169dual check valves with atmospheric vents, 2012 V4: 163dual-fush water closets, 2009 V1: 127, 2010 V2: 2dual uel devices, 2009 V1: 21dual-gas booster systems, 2010 V2: 120dual-height water coolers, 2012 V4: 217dual vents (common vents), 2009 V1: 19. See also common

ventsdual water-supply systems, 2011 V3: 46ductile action o building systems, 2009 V1: 174ductile iron grates, 2010 V2: 13ductile iron piping

characteristics, 2012 V4: 26, 29hangers, 2012 V4: 122pressure classes, 2012 V4: 28, 29radioactive waste and, 2010 V2: 239sizing, 2011 V3: 242standards, 2012 V4: 68

ducts. See vents and venting systemsDue, J.A., 2011 V3: 203dug wells, 2010 V2: 156Dumries Triangle and Occoquan-Woodbridge Sanitary

District, 2010 V2: 29dump loads, 2011 V3: 47Dunleavy, M., 2010 V2: 224duplex. See also entries beginning with double-, dual-, or

two-duplex air compressors, 2011 V3: 63duplex bed pressure swing dryers, 2011 V3: 179duplex maniolds, 2011 V3: 60, 61duplex sump pump systems, 2010 V2: 8duplex vacuum pump arrangements, 2010 V2: 173, 178duration

dened, 2009 V1: 22rainall, 2010 V2: 53, 2011 V3: 241–242rainall charts, 2011 V3: 244–248

Durham systems, 2009 V1: 22

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durion, 2009 V1: 22duriron pipe (high silicon), 2012 V4: 53dust, as air contaminant, 2011 V3: 265duty cycles, 2009 V1: 22, 2011 V3: 182, 183duty-cycling controls, 2011 V3: 62, 65DVC (dry vacuum cleaning), 2009 V1: 9, 2010 V2: 178, 186DW. See distilled water (DI, DW)dwellings. See buildings

DWG (drawings), 2009 V1: 14. See also plumbing drawingsDWR (drinking water supply recirculating), 2009 V1: 8DWS (drinking water supply), 2009 V1: 8DWV. See drain, waste, and vent pipes (DWV); drain,

waste, and vent stacks (DWV)dye tests, 2012 V4: 5, 8dyes in gray water, 2010 V2: 27dynamic air compressors, 2011 V3: 62, 174dynamic orce (dynamic loading), 2012 V4: 129dynamic head, 2010 V2: 161dynamic loads, 2012 V4: 129dynamic properties o piping, dened, 2009 V1: 185dynamic response (K) to ground shaking, 2009 V1: 149,

152dynamic viscosity

converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38measurements, 2009 V1: 34

dyne, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38dysentery, 2012 V4: 200

EE (roughness). See roughness o pipesE (volts). See voltse. coli bacteria, 2010 V2: 27, 43E (exa) prex, 2009 V1: 34early fame knockdown, 2011 V3: 23earth loads

bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 230

dened, 2009 V1: 22protecting against, 2010 V2: 16earthquake protection o plumbing equipment. See seismic

protection Earthquake Resistance o Buildings, 2009 V1: 185 Earthquake Resistant Design Requirements Handbook,

2009 V1: 185Eaton, Herbert N., 2010 V2: 4eccentric ttings, 2009 V1: 22eccentric plug valves, 2012 V4: 77eccentric reducers, 2009 V1: 10economic concerns. See costs and economic concernseconomic values, 2009 V1: 209economizers

drinking water coolers, 2012 V4: 220gas systems, 2011 V3: 272ECTFE (ethylenechlorotrifuoroethylene), 2009 V1: 32Eddy, 2010 V2: 154edge distances, problems in seismic protection, 2009 V1:

184edr, EDR (equivalent direct radiation), 2009 V1: 38educating public on graywater systems, 2010 V2: 27–28educational acilities. See schoolse, EFF (eciency). See eciencyeective openings, 2009 V1: 22, 2012 V4: 170eective pressure, 2010 V2: 94

eects in multi-eect distillation, 2010 V2: 200eects o earthquakes, 2009 V1: 148–149eciency (e, EFF)

energy, 2012 V4: 241grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 150heat transer, 2011 V3: 162pumps, 2012 V4: 93–94thermal, 2009 V1: 128

water soteners, 2012 V4: 188eciency quotient (Eq), dened, 2012 V4: 137efuent. See also private onsite wastewater treatment

systems (POWTS)bioremediation pretreatment. See bioremediation

pretreatment systemschemicals in special-waste efuent, 2010 V2: 228dened, 2009 V1: 22, 2012 V4: 201estimating sewage quantities, 2010 V2: 150–152layers o in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 145pumps, 2012 V4: 98samples o radioactive waste efuent, 2010 V2: 240special-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 227temperature o special-waste efuent, 2010 V2: 228treatment o sewage efuent, 2010 V2: 145

Efuent Guideline program, 2011 V3: 82–83Egozy, 2010 V2: 224EJ (expansion joints). See expansion jointsEJCDC (Engineers Joint Contract Documents

Committee), 2009 V1: 57ejector pumps and pits, 2009 V1: 22, 2011 V3: 228–229ejectors

dened, 2010 V2: 8in sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 8–9

EL (elevation). See elevationelastic limits, 2009 V1: 22elastic rebound theory, 2009 V1: 148elastic vibration in pipes, 2009 V1: 6elasticity

fexural modulus o, 2012 V4: 205plastic pipes, 2006 V4: 50

elastomeric insulationdened, 2012 V4: 105elastomer-cork mountings, 2012 V4: 142heat loss, 2012 V4: 107vibration insulation, 2012 V4: 139

elastomeric seals or gasketsreinorced concrete pipe, 2012 V4: 29slip expansion joints, 2012 V4: 207water closets, 2012 V4: 5

elastomers, 2009 V1: 22, 32elbow lugs, 2012 V4: 129elbow osets, 2012 V4: 206

elbowsangle valves and, 2012 V4: 75ells, 2009 V1: 22risers up or down, 2009 V1: 10–11

elderlyaging disabilities, 2009 V1: 99xtures and, 2009 V1: 99in hot water demand classications, 2010 V2: 99

electric arc welding, 2012 V4: 61electric capacitance measurements, 2009 V1: 34electric charge density measurements, 2009 V1: 34

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Index 279

electric re pumps, 2011 V3: 22electric hot-water heaters, 2009 V1: 120electric inductance, 2009 V1: 34electric irrigation valves, 2011 V3: 94electric permeability measurements, 2009 V1: 34electric permitivity measurements, 2009 V1: 34electric resistance, 2009 V1: 34electric-resistance welding (ERW), 2012 V4: 37

electric resistivity measurements, 2009 V1: 34electric solenoid level-sensing systems, 2011 V3: 132electric vaporizers, 2011 V3: 57electric water heaters, 2010 V2: 100–101electrical bonding, 2010 V2: 125electrical components in gas boosters, 2010 V2: 125electrical engineers, 2011 V3: 29electrical equipment

res, 2011 V3: 25installation o pipe and, 2012 V4: 25

electrical leakage, 2012 V4: 117electricity

conversion actors, 2009 V1: 35electric current, 2012 V4: 62measurements, 2009 V1: 34o-peak power savings, 2009 V1: 119

electrochemical equivalents in corrosion, 2009 V1: 129Electrochemical Society, 2009 V1: 142electrodeionization, 2010 V2: 209–210electrodes

in conductivity meters, 2012 V4: 183dened, 2009 V1: 142

electrousion joining, 2012 V4: 61electrogalvanization, 2012 V4: 130electrolysis. See also galvanic action

dened, 2009 V1: 22, 2012 V4: 130dezincication o brass, 2012 V4: 77

electrolytesdened, 2009 V1: 22, 129, 142, 2010 V2: 187specic resistance, 2010 V2: 192

electromagnetic radiation, 2010 V2: 237, 2012 V4: 195electrometric compression liners, 2012 V4: 36electromotive orce (em, EMF)

electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 134measurements, 2009 V1: 34

electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 134, 142electron microscopes, 2011 V3: 40, 42, 47, 52electronegative potential, 2009 V1: 142electronic grade water, 2012 V4: 39, 52electronic pressure dierential switches, 2012 V4: 181electronic product level gauges, 2011 V3: 149electronic tank gauging, 2011 V3: 142electronics-grade water, 220, 2010 V2: 219

electroplating dened, 2012 V4: 130wastewater treatment, 2011 V3: 86

electropositive potential, 2009 V1: 142electroregeneration, 2010 V2: 210elemental bromine, 2011 V3: 131elements in water, 2010 V2: 189elev., ELEV (elevation). See elevationelevated water storage tanks, 2010 V2: 162elevated water supplies, 2010 V2: 65–66, 2011 V3: 6elevation (elev., EL, ELEV)

adjustments or vacuum, 2010 V2: 166–167, 185air compressors and, 2011 V3: 63air pressure corrections, 2011 V3: 264altitude valves, 2010 V2: 163–164compressed air and, 2011 V3: 171dened, 2012 V4: 130medical vacuum systems and, 2011 V3: 64natural gas and, 121, 2010 V2: 117

pressure drops and, 2010 V2: 84pressure losses and, 2011 V3: 216regional requirements or plumbing installations, 2009

V1: 262in sprinkler hydraulic calculations, 2011 V3: 13symbols or, 2009 V1: 14

elevation pressure, 2010 V2: 94elevator shats

medical gas piping and, 2011 V3: 68protection systems, 2011 V3: 29

ellipses, calculating area, 2009 V1: 4ells (elbows), 2009 V1: 22. See also elbowselongated bowls on water closets, 2012 V4: 3elutriation, 2009 V1: 22embedding, dened, 2012 V4: 130embedments, problems in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 184emergency equipment or acid spills, 2010 V2: 229, 231emergency xtures

emergency eyewashes, 2012 V4: 17–18emergency showers, 2012 V4: 17–18standards, 2012 V4: 2

emergency gas shutos, 2010 V2: 121Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act

(EPCRA) (SARA Title III), 2011 V3: 137emergency power or re pumps, 2011 V3: 22emergency rooms

xtures, 2011 V3: 36, 38medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 52, 56medical vacuum, 2011 V3: 54water demand, 2011 V3: 46

emergency showers, 2011 V3: 36, 41emergency shutos or uel dispensers, 2011 V3: 146emergency tank vents, 2011 V3: 148e.m.. series, 2009 V1: 134, 142emissivity, dened, 2011 V3: 191emittance, dened, 2011 V3: 191emitters in irrigation systems, 2010 V2: 25Empire State Building, 2012 V4: 117emulsions, 2010 V2: 244enameled cast iron xtures

dened, 2012 V4: 1health care acilities, 2011 V3: 35standards, 2012 V4: 2

enameled foor drains, 2010 V2: 15enameled sediment buckets, 2010 V2: 13encephalitis, 2010 V2: 49enclosed impellers, 2012 V4: 93, 98enclosures or showers, 2009 V1: 112encoder remote-readout gas meters, 2010 V2: 116end connections, 2009 V1: 22end-head fows, 2011 V3: 13end-suction pumps, 2009 V1: 23, 2011 V3: 21, 122–123end-use water restrictions, 2009 V1: 118endotoxins, 2010 V2: 188, 194, 2012 V4: 201

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energyalternate energy sources, 2009 V1: 121–126conservation. See conserving energyconversion actors, 2009 V1: 35dened, 2009 V1: 128, 2011 V3: 185eciency, green plumbing, 2012 V4: 52, 241measurements, 2009 V1: 34non-SI units, 2009 V1: 34

nondepletable, 2009 V1: 128recovered, 2009 V1: 128requirements, wastewater management, 2012 V4: 241solar. See solar energyuse, 2011 V3: 188

energy code list o agencies, 2009 V1: 42energy conservation. See conserving energyenergy eciency. See conserving energyEnergy Eciency and Renewable Energy web site, 2011

V3: 203Energy Policy Act (EPACT), 2009 V1: 117, 127, 2012 V4:

2, 8, 9, 11Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA), 2009 V1: 117 Energy Saving and the Plumbing System, 2009 V1: 128Energy Star web site, 2011 V3: 203energy transport subsystem, dened, 2011 V3: 191enfurane, 2011 V3: 66Engineered Controls International, Inc., 2010 V2: 137engineered drawings, 2012 V4: 130engineered dry-chemical systems, 2011 V3: 24engineered hanger assemblies, 2012 V4: 130 Engineered Plumbing Design, 2009 V1: 39, 2010 V2: 55 Engineered Plumbing Design II , 2010 V2: 96engineered plumbing systems, 2009 V1: 22engineering and design costs, 2009 V1: 208 Engineering Manual o the War Department, 2010 V2: 55 Engineering Resource Binder, 2009 V1: 206Engineers Joint Contract Documents Committee

(EJCDC), 2009 V1: 57engineers o record, 2009 V1: 253engines, earthquake protection or, 2009 V1: 157enthalpy (H), 2011 V3: 185entrainment ratios, 2011 V3: 185entropy (S), 2009 V1: 34, 2011 V3: 186environmental concerns. See green building and plumbing environmental conditions

corrosion by, 2009 V1: 132hangers and supports and, 2012 V4: 115, 117

environmental impactspropane, 2010 V2: 131solar energy, 2011 V3: 189

Environmental Protection Agency. See U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency

environs (acilities with radiation), 2010 V2: 237EP (epoxy, epoxides), 2009 V1: 32EPA. See U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyThe EPA Euent Guidelines Series (EPA 440), 2011 V3: 89EPA protocol gases, 2011 V3: 266EPACT (Energy Policy Act), 2009 V1: 117, 127EPCA (Energy Policy and Conservation Act), 2009 V1: 117EPCRA (Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-

Know Act) (SARA Title III), 2011 V3: 137EPDM (ethylene-propylene diene monomer), 2009 V1: 32,

2012 V4: 30, 83, 84

epicenters o earthquakes, 2009 V1: 147epm (equivalents per million), 2010 V2: 191EPM (ethylene propylene terpolyment), 2009 V1: 32epoxy, 2009 V1: 32

as thermoset, 2012 V4: 39coatings, 2009 V1: 136, 2011 V3: 150berglass pipe and, 2012 V4: 53valve coatings, 2012 V4: 83

epsom salt, 2012 V4: 173. See also magnesium sulateequationsabsolute, atmospheric, and gauge pressure, 2012 V4: 159acm to scm, 2011 V3: 62air receiver sizing, 2011 V3: 177–178anode expected lie, 2009 V1: 138areas and volumes, 2009 V1: 3–5Bernoulli’s equation, 2009 V1: 5–6bioremediation system size, 2012 V4: 229Boyle’s law, 2010 V2: 65, 2012 V4: 211–213calculating seismic orces, 2009 V1: 179–180chemical ormulas, 2012 V4: 173clean agent weight, 2011 V3: 27coecients o expansion, 2012 V4: 211Colebrook ormula, 2010 V2: 74–75condensate estimates, 2011 V3: 167corrosion rates, 2009 V1: 134CPC solar system, 2011 V3: 196Darcy’s Law, 2009 V1: 2, 3, 2010 V2: 6, 74drinking ountain requirements, 2012 V4: 223–224drinking water usage and rerigeration loads, 2012

V4: 222Faraday’s Law, 2009 V1: 134xture fow rates and water soteners, 2012 V4: 187xture vent design, 2010 V2: 38fash steam, 2011 V3: 157–159fow at outlets, 2009 V1: 3, 5fow capacity in vertical stacks, 2010 V2: 3fow rom outlets, velocity o, 2009 V1: 6fow rates, 2009 V1: 1reezing in pipes, 2012 V4: 112–113riction head, 2009 V1: 6, 2010 V2: 61–63riction head loss, 2009 V1: 2gas cylinder capacity, 2011 V3: 268gas expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 211–213gas laws, 2010 V2: 126gas pressures, 2011 V3: 279gas temperatures, 2011 V3: 279gravity circulation, 2009 V1: 5grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 146–148, 155–156Hazen-Williams ormula, 2009 V1: 2, 2010 V2: 6, 73hot-water systems, 2010 V2: 100–101hydrant fow tests, 2011 V3: 4

hydraulic shock, 2009 V1: 6insulation and heat loss, 2012 V4: 112–113International System o Units (SI), 2009 V1: 1 Joukowsky’s ormula, 2010 V2: 70–71kinetic energy, 2009 V1: 2Manning ormula

alternative sewage-disposal systems, 2010 V2: 144open-channel fow, 2009 V1: 1, 2010 V2: 6sloping drains, 2010 V2: 7

maximum allowable strain, 2012 V4: 205medical gas pipe sizing, 2011 V3: 68–69

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Index 281

mixing fows o water, 2009 V1: 118natural gas pipe sizing, 2010 V2: 130Newton’s equation, 2012 V4: 146Ohm’s Law, 2009 V1: 134pipe expansion and contraction, 2009 V1: 3, 2012 V4:

205–206plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85–90potential energy, 2009 V1: 2

pump anity laws, 2009 V1: 6pump eciency, 2009 V1: 6–7pump head, 2010 V2: 61–63pump head/capacity curves, 2012 V4: 95–97rainall concentration and intensity, 2010 V2: 44Rational Method, 2010 V2: 43Rational Method ormulas, 2009 V1: 7, 2011 V3:

238–239reerences, 2009 V1: 39Reynold’s number, 2009 V1: 2, 2012 V4: 146sizing conveyance piping, 2010 V2: 47soil resistivity, 2009 V1: 138solar energy, 2011 V3: 193Spitzglass ormula, 2009 V1: 7, 2010 V2: 130sprinkler demand, 2011 V3: 13sprinkler design density, 2011 V3: 12sprinkler end-head pressures, 2011 V3: 13SRTA absorbers, 2011 V3: 195–196stack terminal velocity and length, 2009 V1: 3steady-state heat balance equations, 2010 V2: 100steam velocity, 2011 V3: 159Stoke’s law, 2012 V4: 146, 178storm drainage, 2009 V1: 7storm drainage collection inlets and outlets, 2010 V2: 46tank volume, 2012 V4: 147terminal velocity and terminal length, 2010 V2: 1–2thermal eciency, 2011 V3: 194–195thermal expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 205–206vacuum system demand, 2011 V3: 65value, worth and cost, 2009 V1: 208velocity head, 2009 V1: 5vent piping length, 2009 V1: 3vent stack sizing, 2010 V2: 36–37vibration transmission, 2012 V4: 138–139water balance, 2010 V2: 21–22water expansion, 2012 V4: 209–211water fow in pipes, 2009 V1: 2water heating, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 126water mass and volume, 2010 V2: 67–68water vapor transmission, 2012 V4: 104well equilibrium equations, 2010 V2: 157–158 Weymouth ormula, 2009 V1: 7, 2010 V2: 130

equilibrium equations or wells, 2010 V2: 157–158

equipmentas source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 189dened, 2009 V1: 185noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 194–201quality support systems or, 2009 V1: 258section in specications, 2009 V1: 71seismic protection, 2009 V1: 153–158suspended, 2009 V1: 259

Equipment or Swimming Pools, Spas, Hot Tubs, and

Other Recreational Water Facilities (NSF/ANSI

50), 2011 V3: 111, 122

Equipment Handbook, ASHRAE, 2011 V3: 204equivalent air, dened, 2011 V3: 186equivalent direct radiation (edr, EDR)

EDR hot water, 2009 V1: 38EDR steam, 2009 V1: 38

equivalent lengthcompressed air piping, 2011 V3: 182dened, 2010 V2: 136

medical gas piping, 2011 V3: 68natural gas piping, 2010 V2: 129equivalent run, 2009 V1: 22equivalent static orce, calculating, 2009 V1: 174equivalent weight, 2010 V2: 188, 189equivalents per million, 2010 V2: 191erected elevations, 2012 V4: 130erosion, 2009 V1: 22, 2011 V3: 49, 91, 161, 2012 V4: 173erosion corrosion, 2010 V2: 195erosion eeders, 2011 V3: 130ERW (electric-resistance welding), 2012 V4: 37essential acilities, dened, 2009 V1: 185estates, septic tank systems or, 2010 V2: 149estimating calculations, solar energy, 2011 V3: 193estimating costs. See also costs and economic concerns

actors in estimates, 2009 V1: 89–90idea development and estimated cost orms, 2009

V1: 234overestimating, 2009 V1: 218per-area costs, 2009 V1: 89per-xture or per-accessory estimates, 2009 V1: 88plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85–90sotware or cost estimation, 2009 V1: 89in value engineering, 2009 V1: 235

estimating medical gas and vacuum stations, 2011 V3:50–51, 52–53

Estimating wastewater loading rates using soilmorphological descriptions, 2010 V2: 55

Estimation o Soil Water Properties, Transactions o the American Society o Agricultural Engineers, 2010 V2: 55

ethane, 2010 V2: 114ethylene glycol, 2009 V1: 141ethylene-propylene diene monomer (EPDM), 2009 V1: 32,

2012 V4: 30, 84ethylene propylene terpolymet, 2009 V1: 32ethylenechlorotrifuoroethylene, 2009 V1: 32EVAC stations, 2011 V3: 52–53Evaluation phase in value engineering

activities, 2009 V1: 229–235checklists, 2009 V1: 230–231comparing unctions, 2009 V1: 235unctional evaluation worksheets, 2009 V1: 236–247

idea evaluation checklist, 2009 V1: 245in process, 2009 V1: 209second creativity, cost, and evaluation analysis, 2009

V1: 235evaporation (evap, EVAP)

staged, 2010 V2: 200storage tanks, 2011 V3: 154

evaporative coolers. See cooling-tower waterevaporative cooling, dened, 2011 V3: 186evaporators (evap, EVAP)

centralized chilled water systems, 2012 V4: 221

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distillation, 2011 V3: 48drinking water coolers, 2012 V4: 220fushing in stills, 2012 V4: 193

evapotranspirationdened, 2009 V1: 22irrigation, 2011 V3: 96sewage treatment, 2010 V2: 145

events, storm, 2010 V2: 42

exa prex, 2009 V1: 34exact conversions, 2009 V1: 33exam/treatment rooms

xtures, 2011 V3: 38health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 52medical vacuum, 2011 V3: 54

examination section in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 71excavation

labor productivity rates, 2009 V1: 87–88plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85

excess air, dened, 2010 V2: 136excess fow gas valves, 2010 V2: 118excess pressure pumps, 2009 V1: 23excess water pressure, 2010 V2: 68–70excessive costs, value engineering and, 2009 V1: 208exchange capacity o resins, 2010 V2: 206exchangers in distillers, 2010 V2: 200Execution section in specications, 2009 V1: 63, 71exltration, 2009 V1: 22exhaust

lters on vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 172rom vacuum, 2010 V2: 174gas cabinets, 2011 V3: 270gas venting systems, 2010 V2: 118pressure loss in vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 184vacuum exhaust pipe sizing, 2010 V2: 178vacuum system piping, 2010 V2: 169, 2011 V3: 65vacuum system stacks, 2011 V3: 65

exhausted cartridges in ion exchange, 2010 V2: 208exhausters (dry-pipe systems), 2011 V3: 8exhausters (vacuum)

air-bleed controls, 2010 V2: 179dened, 2010 V2: 179locating, 2010 V2: 181sizing, 2010 V2: 184

exhaustion, dened, 2012 V4: 201existing work

dened, 2009 V1: 22surveying existing buildings, 2009 V1: 265–270

exp, EXP (expansion). See expansionexpanded air in vacuums, 2010 V2: 168expanded perlite, 2012 V4: 107

expanded system volumes, 2012 V4: 209expansion (exp, EXP, XPAN)

aboveground piping, 2012 V4: 207–208 ABS pipes, 2012 V4: 51anchors, 2012 V4: 62as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 189backfow prevention and, 2010 V2: 61buildings, 2011 V3: 50calculating pipe expansion, 2009 V1: 3Capitol Dome, Washington, D.C., 2012 V4: 117converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38

copper, 2012 V4: 211dened, 2012 V4: 205expansion tanks, 2012 V4: 209–213berglass pipe, 2012 V4: 53oam extinguishing agents, 2011 V3: 25uture expansion o compressed air systems, 2011

V3: 182glass pipe, 2012 V4: 35

hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 116HDPE pipe, 2012 V4: 48hot-water systems and, 2010 V2: 106–107insulation, 2012 V4: 113linear expansion in PVC pipe, 2012 V4: 49materials expansion, 2012 V4: 211pipes, 2012 V4: 67plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 50PP-R pipe, 2012 V4: 52protecting against pipe expansion, 2010 V2: 16PVDF pipe, 2012 V4: 52sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 16stainless steel, 2012 V4: 56storage tanks and piping, 2011 V3: 153thermal expansion loops, 2009 V1: 152thermal expansion tanks, 2010 V2: 106water expansion ormulas, 2012 V4: 209–211water-pressure regulators, 2012 V4: 80

expansion bends, 2010 V2: 16expansion hook plates, 2012 V4: 65expansion joints (EJ)

anchoring, 2012 V4: 62dened, 2009 V1: 22DWV pipes, 2012 V4: 207–208roos, 2010 V2: 49spacing, 2012 V4: 207symbols or, 2009 V1: 10thermal expansion and, 2010 V2: 16, 2012 V4: 206–207types o, 2012 V4: 63, 207use o, 2012 V4: 67

expansion loopsbracing and, 2009 V1: 161dened, 2009 V1: 22loops and osets, 2012 V4: 206protecting against thermal expansion, 2010 V2: 16use o, 2012 V4: 67

expansion tanks, 2010 V2: 67–68air cushion expansion and contraction, 2012 V4:

211–213eects o, 2012 V4: 210materials expansion, 2012 V4: 211overview, 2012 V4: 209sizing, 2012 V4: 209, 212

expert costs, 2009 V1: 218explosion-proo water coolers, 2012 V4: 217explosions

explosion-proo (XP) construction, 2010 V2: 125explosion-relie devices or vacuums, 2010 V2: 179re-protection systems, 2011 V3: 24hot-water heaters, 2010 V2: 97nitric acid, 2010 V2: 232

exposed ends o piping, 2012 V4: 25extended-coverage sidewall sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29extended handles, 2012 V4: 85

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Index 283

extension riser clamps, 2012 V4: 130external energy, dened, 2011 V3: 185external water treatments, 2012 V4: 174extinguishing systems, 2009 V1: 12extra-hazard occupancies

dened, 2009 V1: 28–29, 2011 V3: 2deluge systems, 2011 V3: 9–10reghting hose streams, 2011 V3: 225

portable re extinguishers, 2011 V3: 29extra-heavy cast-iron soil pipe (XH), 2012 V4: 25–26extra-heavy gaskets, 2012 V4: 57extra-heavy piping, 2009 V1: 22extra materials section in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 71extra-strong steel pipe, 2012 V4: 37extractors in laundry acilities, 2011 V3: 39extruded steel piping, 2012 V4: 37eye nuts, 2012 V4: 120eye rods, 2012 V4: 130eye sockets, 2012 V4: 124, 130eyeball ttings, ountains, 2011 V3: 102eyewashes or emergencies, 2010 V2: 229, 2011 V3: 36, 41,

2012 V4: 17–18

F°F, F (Fahrenheit), 2009 V1: 14, 30, 37F (arads), 2009 V1: 34 (emto) prex, 2009 V1: 34F (re-protection water supply). See re-protection

systems to , F TO F (ace to ace), 2009 V1: 22-chart sizing method, solar energy, 2011 V3: 196F/m (arads per meter), 2009 V1: 34abricated steel parts, 2012 V4: 130abrication, dened, 2012 V4: 130abrication section in specications, 2009 V1: 71abricators, 2012 V4: 130

ace-to-ace dimensions, dened, 2009 V1: 22ace washes, 2011 V3: 36, 41Facility Piping System Handbook, 2010 V2: 96, 137, 186,

224, 246, 2011 V3: 156 Facility Piping Systems Handbook, 2010 V2: 55actories

numbers o xtures or, 2012 V4: 20water consumption, 2012 V4: 187

actory-beaded pipe, 2012 V4: 61Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FM)

abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 32FM Global, 2010 V2: 115publications (discussed)

air compressors in dry-pipe systems, 2011 V3: 8

design density requirements, 2011 V3: 11seismic protection recommendations, 2009 V1: 177valve standards, 2012 V4: 73, 87

publications (listed) Factory Mutual (FM) Loss Prevention Data Sheets,

2011 V3: 218Global Loss Prevention Data Sheet 6-4: Oil and

Gas-fred Single-burner Boilers, 2010 V2:117–118

Fahrenheit (°F, F)conversion actors, 2009 V1: 37dened, 2009 V1: 30

symbols or, 2009 V1: 14ail-sae mixing valves, 2012 V4: 18 Failsae Neutralization o Wastewater Euent, 2010 V2: 246ailure values o anchors, 2009 V1: 184 Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines, 2009 V1: 98airly-rough piping, 2010 V2: 81airly-smooth piping, 2010 V2: 80all-o pressure, 2012 V4: 80

allo pressure, 2010 V2: 94Fallon, Carlos, 2009 V1: 252alse alarms or sprinkler systems, 2011 V3: 6amilies, in hot water demand classications, 2010 V2: 99an pressurization tests, 2011 V3: 28Faraday’s Law, 2009 V1: 129, 134arads, 2009 V1: 34arads per meter, 2009 V1: 34arm animal water consumption, 2012 V4: 187FAST approach to unction analysis, 2009 V1: 219–223ats, oils, and grease (FOG). See also grease interceptors

bioremediation systems, 2012 V4: 227disposal systems, 2012 V4: 145, 152exclusion rom wastewater systems, 2010 V2: 21ats in kitchens, 2011 V3: 39grease traps, dened, 2009 V1: 24grease waste drains, 2012 V4: 227interceptors. See grease interceptorsrecombined FOG (ats, oil, and grease), 2012 V4: 227removing grease, 2012 V4: 157–158

aucetsaccessible shower compartments, 2009 V1: 112as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 189backfow prevention, 2012 V4: 12–13centersets, 2012 V4: 10dened, 2009 V1: 22fow rates, 2012 V4: 9, 12health care acilities, 2011 V3: 35leakage, 2009 V1: 126LEED 2009 baselines, 2010 V2: 25low fow, 2009 V1: 127–128noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 193–194patient rooms, 2011 V3: 37reduced water usage, 2009 V1: 118reducing fow rates, 2009 V1: 126residential kitchen sinks, 2012 V4: 11sel-metering, 2012 V4: 12sinks, 2009 V1: 109standards, 2012 V4: 2types o, 2012 V4: 12–13wasted water, 2009 V1: 128water usage reduction, 2012 V4: 236

aults and ault zones, 2009 V1: 148

FC (fexible connectors). See fexible connectorsFCO (foor cleanouts), 2009 V1: 11FD (foor drains with p-traps), 2009 V1: 11. See also foor

drains (FD)FDA (Food and Drug Administration), 2010 V2: 220, 224, 227FDS (FOG disposal systems), 2012 V4: 145FE (re extinguishers), 2009 V1: 14. See also under re-

protection systemseatures, dened, 2009 V1: 33ecal coliorm bacteria

storm water, 2010 V2: 27

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ecal matter. See black-water systems; efuentederal agencies. See specic agencies under “US”Federal Energy Management Improvement Act (FEMIA),

2009 V1: 117Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act, 2010 V2: 218 Federal Register (FR), 2011 V3: 82ederal specications (FS), 2009 V1: 32, 2012 V4: 225Fédération Internationale de Natatíon Amateur (FINA),

2011 V3: 104eed-gas treatment units in ozone generators, 2010 V2: 214eed systems, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 127–131eed water

condensate as, 2012 V4: 194dened, 2010 V2: 187distillation, 2012 V4: 194pure-water systems, 2010 V2: 219raw water, dened, 2012 V4: 174raw water as cooling water or stills, 2012 V4: 194

eedback puriers, 2012 V4: 194eet (t, FT)

converting to metric units, 2011 V3: 30converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38eet per minute (pm, FPM), 2009 V1: 14, 2011 V3: 30eet per second (ps, FPS), 2009 V1: 14oot-pounds (t-lb, FT LB), 2009 V1: 14o head, converting, 2009 V1: 2symbols or, 2009 V1: 14

emale threads, 2009 V1: 22FEMIA (Federal Energy Management Improvement Act),

2009 V1: 117emto prex, 2009 V1: 34Ferguson, Bruce K., 2010 V2: 55erric chloride, 2012 V4: 178erric hydroxide, 2010 V2: 189erric iron, 2010 V2: 189, 2012 V4: 201erric oxide, 2012 V4: 173erric sulate, 2012 V4: 175, 178erritic stainless steel, 2012 V4: 54errous bicarbonate, 2010 V2: 189errous carbonate, 2012 V4: 173errous iron, 2010 V2: 189, 2012 V4: 201errous oxide, 2012 V4: 173errous pipes, 2011 V3: 101FF (ull-fow conditions), 2009 V1: 1FHR (re hose racks), 2009 V1: 14FHV (re hose valves), 2009 V1: 14ber piping, 2010 V2: 75ber stress in bending, 2012 V4: 205berglass cloth, skrim, and krat paper (FSK), 2012 V4: 108berglass lters, 2011 V3: 273berglass xtures, 2012 V4: 1

berglass insulationchilled drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 222reezing points and, 2012 V4: 112–113heat loss, 2012 V4: 106, 107piping, 2012 V4: 105tank insulation, 2012 V4: 110

berglass lagging, 2012 V4: 109berglass pipe hangers, 2012 V4: 122berglass-reinorced plastic (FRP)

cold water systems, 2010 V2: 94exposed piping on storage tanks, 2011 V3: 148

xtures, 2012 V4: 1uel product dispensing, 2011 V3: 150liquid uel tanks, 2011 V3: 138plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 53storage tanks, 2011 V3: 147, 155suluric acid and, 2011 V3: 85velocity, 2011 V3: 151 VOCs and, 2010 V2: 190

berglass-reinorced polyester, 2012 V4: 230berglass-reinorced storage tanksaboveground storage tanks, 2011 V3: 147hazardous wastes, 2011 V3: 84high-purity water, 2010 V2: 223liquid uel tanks, 2011 V3: 138storage tanks, 2011 V3: 155

eld-beaded pipe, 2012 V4: 61eld checklists, 2009 V1: 95–96eld-devised installations, 2009 V1: 254–257eld-ormed concrete grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 153eld orders, 2009 V1: 57eld quality control section in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 72eld testing cross-connection controls, 2012 V4: 168ll

sewers, 2010 V2: 14–15types o, around building sewers, 2010 V2: 14–15

ll hoses, 2011 V3: 140ll port assemblies (tanks), 2011 V3: 140ll ports, 2011 V3: 148ll valves, propane tanks, 2010 V2: 133lling

aboveground tank systems, 2011 V3: 148underground liquid uel tanks, 2011 V3: 139–140

Filling in the Missing Rainall Data, 2010 V2: 55lm-orming fouroprotein oams, 2011 V3: 25lm-processing areas, 2011 V3: 42, 47lms

carbonate, 2009 V1: 140lm ormation in rate o corrosion, 2009 V1: 135sodium hexametaphosphate, 2009 V1: 140sodium silicate, 2009 V1: 140

lter-ag, 2012 V4: 201lter alum, 2010 V2: 199lter beds

dened, 2012 V4: 179problems, 2012 V4: 181

lter cloths, 2012 V4: 181lter intakes, 2011 V3: 62lters and ltration

air compressors, 2011 V3: 180air lters, 2012 V4: 193backsplash cycles, 2012 V4: 180

backwashing, 2012 V4: 180, 181chilled drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 222compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 180dened, 2009 V1: 22, 2012 V4: 175, 179–182, 201diatomaceous earth lters, 2012 V4: 181–182lter elements or media, 2009 V1: 22ltration water systems, 2011 V3: 48uel dispensers, 2011 V3: 146gas line lters, 2011 V3: 252gravity lters, 2012 V4: 179–180gray water, 2010 V2: 25–27

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Index 285

inectious waste systems, 2010 V2: 241iron lters, 2012 V4: 186laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 273Legionella control, 2010 V2: 110–111membrane ltration and separation, 2010 V2: 211–213microorganisms, 2010 V2: 214nanoltration, 2012 V4: 199oil spills, 2010 V2: 245, 246

organic removal lters, 2012 V4: 194pressure lters, 2012 V4: 180pure water systems, 2010 V2: 221rainwater, 2012 V4: 237–238regenerative alternative media lters, 2011 V3: 122small drinking water systems, 2010 V2: 218storm drainage treatment, 2010 V2: 48swimming pools

diatomaceous earth lters, 2011 V3: 119–122lter media rate, 2011 V3: 111high-rate sand lters, 2011 V3: 117–118return piping, 2011 V3: 113types, 2011 V3: 114vacuum sand lters, 2011 V3: 118–119

turbidity and, 2012 V4: 175, 178utility water, 2010 V2: 215vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 172, 179water quality and, 2010 V2: 159–160water treatment, 2010 V2: 201–204, 2012 V4: 179–182

FINA (Fédération Internationale de Natatíon Amateur),2011 V3: 104

nal checklists, 2009 V1: 96ne sands

graywater irrigation systems and, 2010 V2: 25irrigating, 2011 V3: 91

ne vacuum, 2010 V2: 165nger entrapment in swimming pools, 2011 V3: 105nish coats, 2009 V1: 136Finnemore, E. John, 2010 V2: 19re departments, 2011 V3: 205re extinguishers (FE), 2009 V1: 14. See also under re-

protection systemsre hose racks (FHR), 2009 V1: 14re hose valves (FHV), 2009 V1: 14re hydrants. See hydrantsre loads, 2011 V3: 2re marshals, 2011 V3: 137, 205 Fire Protection Handbook, 2011 V3: 30re-protection systems. See also sprinkler systems (re

protection)alarms

electric gongs, 2011 V3: 7re alarm control panels, 2009 V1: 12, 2011 V3: 28

re alarm systems, 2009 V1: 22codes and standards, 2009 V1: 42–43detection, 2011 V3: 9, 27extinguishers, 2009 V1: 13re department connections, 2009 V1: 12, 22re extinguishers, 2011 V3: 28–29re hazards

dened, 2009 V1: 22evaluation, 2011 V3: 2re loads and resistance ratings, 2011 V3: 2fammable or volatile liquids, 2010 V2: 12, 244–246

oxygen storage areas, 2011 V3: 59re lines

dened, 2009 V1: 23re-line water meters, 2010 V2: 60

re mains, 2011 V3: 6re-protection engineers, 2011 V3: 29re pumps, 2009 V1: 12, 23, 2011 V3: 21–22, 217reghting equipment, 2009 V1: 13

reghting water drainage, 2010 V2: 243–244fow tests, 2011 V3: 3–4hydrants, 2009 V1: 12, 23, 2011 V3: 220–221other trades and, 2011 V3: 29overview, 2011 V3: 1reerences, 2011 V3: 30sanitary systems and, 2010 V2: 16seismic protection, 2009 V1: 177special extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 22–29

carbon-dioxide systems, 2011 V3: 26clean agent re-suppression systems, 2011 V3:

26–28dry-chemical extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 23–24dry-powder extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 24elevator shat protection systems, 2011 V3: 29oam extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 25–26overview, 2011 V3: 22–23water mist extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 24–25water spray xed extinguishing systems, 2011 V3:

24wet chemical extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 24

sprinkler systems. See sprinkler systems (reprotection)

standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 18, 20–21symbols, 2009 V1: 12–13terminology, 2009 V1: 16–21water lines, 2012 V4: 32water supply or

building water supply, 2011 V3: 218–220codes and standards, 2011 V3: 218re risers, 2011 V3: 12fow rates, 2011 V3: 222–225graphs, 2011 V3: 5guard posts, 2011 V3: 220hydrants, 2011 V3: 220–221hydraulic calculations, 2011 V3: 13 joint restrainers, 2011 V3: 221overview, 2011 V3: 218piping system layout, 2011 V3: 6post indicator valves, 2011 V3: 220–221preliminary inormation, 2011 V3: 205quantity and availability, 2011 V3: 2–6reliability, 2011 V3: 6

sizing system, 2011 V3: 221–225standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 21, 2012 V4: 161symbols or water supply (F), 2009 V1: 8tank capacity, 2011 V3: 225valves, 2012 V4: 87–88water demands, 2010 V2: 159, 162

re resistance, insulation and, 2012 V4: 104–105, 106 Fire Resistant Tanks or Flammable and Combustible

Liquids (UL 2080), 2011 V3: 147re-retardant jackets or pipes, 2012 V4: 56

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Fire Saety Standard or Powered Industrial Trucks Including Type Designations, Areas o Use,

Conversions, Maintenance, and Operation, 2010 V2: 137

re sprinklers. See sprinkler systems (re protection)re suppression pumps, 2012 V4: 98, 100re suppression, underground tank systems, 2011 V3:

146–147

re triangle, 2011 V3: 22–23resclasses o, 2011 V3: 2re triangle, 2011 V3: 22–23growth rate, 2011 V3: 2

rm gas services, 2011 V3: 251rst aid kits, 2011 V3: 135rst-degree burns, 2010 V2: 111rst-stage propane regulators, 2010 V2: 132rst-stage relie valves, 2011 V3: 274ssures in lter beds, 2012 V4: 181ttings. See also specifc types o fttings

ABS pipe, 2012 V4: 51codes and standards, 2009 V1: 44compressed air, 2011 V3: 181–182compression, 2009 V1: 23copper and bronze, 2012 V4: 30, 39–40copper drainage tubes, 2012 V4: 33, 40copper pipe, 2012 V4: 39–40cross-linked polyethylene, 2012 V4: 49dened, 2009 V1: 23dielectric unions or fanges, 2012 V4: 62domestic pressure drops and, 2011 V3: 214ductile iron water and sewer pipe, 2012 V4: 31earthquake damage, 2009 V1: 152earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 158equivalent lengths or natural gas, 2010 V2: 123erosion, 2011 V3: 161fanged, 2009 V1: 23ountain and pool saety, 2011 V3: 101riction loss and, 2010 V2: 90–91glass pipe, 2012 V4: 36, 41–43grab bars, 2009 V1: 112–114high silicon (duriron) pipe, 2012 V4: 53hub and spigot, 2012 V4: 25–26hubless pipe and ttings, 2012 V4: 26installing insulation, 2012 V4: 110medical gas tube, 2012 V4: 34natural gas pipes, 2011 V3: 256plastic pipes, 2012 V4: 48polypropylene pipe, 2012 V4: 51–52PVC piping, 2012 V4: 49, 52PVDF pipe, 2012 V4: 52

radioactive waste systems, 2010 V2: 240screwed ttings, 2009 V1: 152seamless copper water tube, 2012 V4: 30, 39–40stainless steel pipe, 2012 V4: 56standards, 2012 V4: 2tank manways, 2011 V3: 139thermal contraction and expansion ailures, 2012 V4: 206types o, 2012 V4: 1vacuum cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 179weight o, 2012 V4: 115welded, 2012 V4: 61

Fitzgerald, 2009 V1: 144xed compression ratio, dened, 2011 V3: 186xed costs, in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85xed foor-mounted equipment, 2009 V1: 153–157xed liquid level gauges, propane tanks, 2010 V2: 133xed shower heads, 2009 V1: 112xed suspended equipment, 2009 V1: 157xture branches, 2009 V1: 23

xture carriers, 2009 V1: 23xture drainsdened, 2009 V1: 23discharge characteristics, 2010 V2: 3fow in, 2010 V2: 2fow rate in, 2009 V1: 3simultaneous use o xtures, 2010 V2: 3, 4

xture supplies, 2009 V1: 23xture supply, dened, 2010 V2: 94xture traps, distance rom vent connections, 2010 V2:

32–34xture units and unit values

abbreviations or, 2009 V1: 14cold-water system demand, 2010 V2: 75–76conversion to gpm, 2010 V2: 85, 2011 V3: 209, 226drainage xture units (du), 2009 V1: 23orms or charting, 2010 V2: 86governing xtures, 2010 V2: 84–89maximum or vertical stacks, 2010 V2: 4minimum sizes o pipes or xtures, 2010 V2: 86pipe sizing and, 2010 V2: 83sanitary drainage system loads, 2010 V2: 3sizing bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012

V4: 229slope o drains, 2010 V2: 6–7, 7–8steady fow in horizontal drains, 2010 V2: 8–9water xture units (wu), 2009 V1: 23water hammer and, 2010 V2: 72–73

xture vent design, 2010 V2: 38–39xture vents, types, 2010 V2: 32–34xtures and xture outlets. See also specic types o

xtures (water closets, showers, etc.)accessibility standards, 2012 V4: 2as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 189batteries o xtures, 2009 V1: 18building requirement tables, 2012 V4: 20–23codes and standards, 2009 V1: 43–44cold-water system demand, 2010 V2: 75–76dened, 2012 V4: 1domestic water supply and, 2011 V3: 208xture inventories, 2012 V4: 229xture isolation, 2012 V4: 170fow rates or water soteners, 2012 V4: 186

health care acilities, 2011 V3: 35–42installation productivity rates, 2009 V1: 88laboratory acid-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 235LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental

Design), 2010 V2: 25, 2012 V4: 2materials, 2012 V4: 1–2minimum numbers o, 2012 V4: 20–23noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 193–194per-xture cost estimation, 2009 V1: 88plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85plumbing xtures, dened, 2009 V1: 26

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Index 287

reduced water usage, 2009 V1: 118reducing fow rates, 2009 V1: 126sizing vents, 2010 V2: 35–37sot water or, 2012 V4: 185standards, 2012 V4: 2swimming pools and water attractions, 2011 V3: 109types o, 2012 V4: 1water xture unit values, 2011 V3: 206

water-saving xtures, 2009 V1: 118fame arresters, 2011 V3: 141fame-retardant pipe (FRPP), 2012 V4: 51fammability o gases, 2011 V3: 267 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code (NFPA 30),

2010 V2: 115, 2011 V3: 88, 136, 148, 149, 156fammable, dened, 2009 V1: 23fammable gases

dened, 2011 V3: 76, 266fash arresters, 2011 V3: 273monitoring, 2011 V3: 275–276table, 2011 V3: 267

fammable or volatile liquids, 2010 V2: 12, 244–246, 2011 V3: 136

fanged ells, 2010 V2: 93fanged end connections, 2009 V1: 23fanged tees, 2010 V2: 93fanges

assembling fanged joints, 2012 V4: 60dened, 2009 V1: 23dielectric unions or fanges, 2012 V4: 62fange ends, 2009 V1: 23fange aces, 2009 V1: 23fanged bonnets, 2012 V4: 88fanged connections, 2012 V4: 66fanged end connections, 2012 V4: 79–80gaskets, 2012 V4: 63problems in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 184

fared ends on valves, 2012 V4: 79fared ttings, 2012 V4: 39fash arresters, laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 273fash attacks, 2009 V1: 136, 143fash res, 2011 V3: 10fash food runo patterns, 2010 V2: 43fash points

dened, 2009 V1: 23, 2011 V3: 76, 136oam extinguishing systems and, 2011 V3: 25liquid uels, 2011 V3: 136

fash steam, 2011 V3: 157–159, 166fash tanks, 2011 V3: 166fashing, 2009 V1: 23fashing fanges, 2010 V2: 16fashing L fanges, 2010 V2: 16

fashing rings, 2010 V2: 11, 16, 52fat head curves, 2012 V4: 101fat-plate collectors, 2011 V3: 190, 193–195fat-plate solar collectors, 2009 V1: 121fat roo drains, 2010 V2: 52fat-spray irrigation sprinklers, 2011 V3: 94fexibility

couplings, 2012 V4: 63hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 116vibration control and, 2012 V4: 143

fexible bubblers, 2012 V4: 218–219

fexible connectors (FC)noise mitigation and, 2009 V1: 201, 205symbols or, 2009 V1: 10vibration control devices, 2009 V1: 205

fexible gas piping, 2010 V2: 122fexible hose connections, 2010 V2: 124–125, 2012 V4: 13fexible plastic piping, 2011 V3: 150, 2012 V4: 208fexural modulus o elasticity, 2012 V4: 205

fexural osets or loops, 2012 V4: 205, 206fexural strength o plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 50foat gauges

propane tanks, 2010 V2: 133foat-operated main drain butterfy valves, 2011 V3: 131foat traps, 2011 V3: 162foat-type level controls, 2010 V2: 163foat valves, 2009 V1: 23, 2010 V2: 64, 2012 V4: 194foatation, 2009 V1: 24

devices or oil spills, 2010 V2: 246o oil in spills, 2010 V2: 246sumps or wet wells, 2011 V3: 236

foatation vibration isolation, 2009 V1: 157foating ball devices in tanks, 2011 V3: 141foating velocity, 2012 V4: 146foc, 2010 V2: 198, 2012 V4: 201focculation, 2010 V2: 198, 2012 V4: 149food hazard cross-connection controls, 2012 V4: 167food level rims, 2009 V1: 23, 2012 V4: 170fooded, dened, 2009 V1: 23fooding

mosquitoes, 2010 V2: 49runo patterns, 2010 V2: 43

fooding actorsclean agent gas re suppression, 2011 V3: 28rainall, 2011 V3: 240–241underground storage tanks and, 2011 V3: 138

foor cleanouts (FCO), 2009 V1: 11foor drains (FD)

acid-resistant foor drains, 2010 V2: 15blood-type, 2011 V3: 38chemical-waste systems, 2010 V2: 243components, 2010 V2: 10re-suppression drainage and, 2010 V2: 243–244xture-unit loads, 2010 V2: 3foor leveling around, 2010 V2: 16ood-preparation areas, 2011 V3: 39grate open areas, 2010 V2: 10grease interceptors and, 2012 V4: 154health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36, 40inectious and biological waste systems, 2010 V2: 242kitchen areas, 2010 V2: 15–16with p-traps, 2009 V1: 11

public areas in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 37radioactive waste systems, 2010 V2: 240rated discharge, 2012 V4: 229sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 10–11standards, 2012 V4: 2submerged inlet hazards, 2012 V4: 161swimming pool bathhouses, 2011 V3: 110types, 2012 V4: 17waterproong, 2010 V2: 15–16

foor inlets, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 135foor-mounted back-outlet water closets, 2012 V4: 3

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foor-mounted bidets, 2012 V4: 17foor-mounted urinals, 2012 V4: 9foor-mounted vibration-isolated equipment, 2009 V1:

157–158foor-mounted water closets, 2012 V4: 3, 5foor sinks, 2010 V2: 10–11, 15, 2012 V4: 229foors

bathhouses, 2011 V3: 110

design considerations in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 180leveling, 2010 V2: 16motions in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 151noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 190, 191noise mitigation design, 2009 V1: 202shaking in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 152

fotationcustom-made grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 153density and particle size, 2012 V4: 148actors in, 2012 V4: 147–148grease separation, 2012 V4: 147–148grease skimming devices, 2012 V4: 151turbulence and, 2012 V4: 150

fotation basins, 2012 V4: 147–148fow. See also fow rates

at outlet, 2009 V1: 3building drains, 2010 V2: 2critical fows, dened, 2009 V1: 2equalization in graywater treatment, 2010 V2: 25xture drains, 2009 V1: 3, 2010 V2: 2fow pressure, 2009 V1: 23, 2010 V2: 94fow pressure drop, 2010 V2: 94hydraulic jumps in, 2010 V2: 2, 6, 2010 V2:35open-channel fow, 2009 V1: 1, 2010 V2: 6outlet velocity, 2009 V1: 6rate o fow, calculating, 2009 V1: 1Rational Method, 2010 V2: 43stacks, 2010 V2: 1–2steady fow, 2010 V2: 6surging fows, 2010 V2: 5symbols or, 2009 V1: 11velocity o uniorm fow, 2009 V1: 1water fow in pipes, calculating, 2009 V1: 2

fow controlbioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 229grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 154–155swimming pools, 2011 V3: 114–115, 125–126

fow diversity actors (gas systems), 2010 V2: 121fow hydrants, 2011 V3: 3fow meters

compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 177laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 275

fow rates

air fow in vacuum pressure, 2010 V2: 165altitude and, 2010 V2: 167at outlets, 2009 V1: 5capacity, 2009 V1: 19, 34coagulation and, 2012 V4: 179cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 69–70, 73compressed air systems

air compressors, 2011 V3: 179air-consuming devices, 2011 V3: 180measurements, 2011 V3: 172, 187tools and equipment, 2011 V3: 180

conserving energy, 2009 V1: 118conversion actors, 2009 V1: 36dened, 2012 V4: 201domestic water supply, 2011 V3: 206drinking ountains, 2012 V4: 221emergency showers and eyewashes, 2012 V4: 18aucets, 2012 V4: 12ltration and, 2012 V4: 179, 180

re-protection demand, 2011 V3: 222–225xture drains, 2009 V1: 3xture rate averages, 2012 V4: 186fuctuating fows in horizontal drains, 2010 V2: 5ountain systems, 2011 V3: 100reezing points and, 2012 V4: 112–113uel product dispensers, 2011 V3: 146gas boosters, 2010 V2: 125, 127gas meters, 2010 V2: 116–117grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 149, 155high-rate dispensers, 2011 V3: 151hydrants, 2011 V3: 210kitchen sinks, 2012 V4: 11laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 279lavatories, 2012 V4: 9liquid uel piping, 2011 V3: 150–151measurements, 2009 V1: 34, 2010 V2: 166medical air, 2011 V3: 69medical gas, 2011 V3: 51medical oxygen, 2011 V3: 68–69medical vacuum, 2011 V3: 69, 73natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 127–128, 2011 V3: 256nitrogen, 2011 V3: 64, 69nitrous oxide, 2011 V3: 69pump capacity, 2009 V1: 6pump head/capacity curves, 2012 V4: 95–97rate o fow, calculating, 2009 V1: 1reducing or xtures, 2009 V1: 126resin bead regeneration, 2010 V2: 207retention periods and, 2012 V4: 147RPZ discharge, 2010 V2: 60–61sand lters, 2012 V4: 180sewage lie stations, 2011 V3: 236showers, 2012 V4: 13sizing gas systems, 2011 V3: 278special-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 228sprinkler hydraulic calculations, 2011 V3: 12steam, 2011 V3: 159–161submersible uel pumps, 2011 V3: 151–152swimming pools, 2011 V3: 111, 112tables, 2011 V3: 14–17urinals, 2012 V4: 8vacuum cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 181

vacuum exhauster sizing, 2010 V2: 184vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 166, 174valves and ttings, 2010 V2: 95water closets, 2012 V4: 6water coolers, 2012 V4: 215–216water ountains, 2009 V1: 101water heater types and, 2010 V2: 101–104water-pressure regulators, 2012 V4: 80water soteners, 2012 V4: 185–186, 186weirs and wateralls, 2011 V3: 100wells, 2010 V2: 164

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Index 289

fow regulators, 2012 V4: 201fow restrictors, 2009 V1: 118fow sensors, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 114–115, 124–125fow switches (FS), 2009 V1: 10fow tests

equations, 2011 V3: 4re-protection systems, 2011 V3: 3–4hydrants, 2011 V3: 210

medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 74fow-through periods or grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 147FlowGuard Gold Connection, 2009 V1: 206fowing pressure. See residual pressureFlowserve, 2010 V2: 96fuctuating fows in horizontal drains, 2010 V2: 5fue gases, 2010 V2: 119, 136

venting, 2010 V2: 118–119fues, 2009 V1: 24 Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications, 2010

V2: 19fumes, 2011 V3: 134fuoride, 2010 V2: 160, 190fuorine, 2010 V2: 189fuorine rubber, 2009 V1: 32fuoroprotein-mixed chemical concentrates, 2011 V3: 25furine rubber, 2009 V1: 32fush controls

urinals, 2009 V1: 108water closet and toilet accessibility, 2009 V1: 106water closet requirements, 2009 V1: 108

fush sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29fush tanks, 2010 V2: 75–76fush valves. See also fushometer valves

dened, 2009 V1: 24xture units and, 2010 V2: 75–76noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 198vacuum breakers, 2012 V4: 166wasted water and, 2009 V1: 127

fushing cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 90–91compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 183laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 280perormance testing, 2012 V4: 4–5resin beds, 2010 V2: 208in reverse osmosis, 2012 V4: 196urinal tests, 2012 V4: 8water closet system types, 2012 V4: 6–8water conservation and toilets, 2012 V4: 2water systems, 2010 V2: 164

fushing rim sinks, 2010 V2: 86fushing rims, 2010 V2: 15fushing-type foor drains, 2009 V1: 24

fushometer tanks, 2012 V4: 3, 6–7fushometer valves

dened, 2009 V1: 24, 2012 V4: 3, 7–8, 170sanitation and, 2010 V2: 15urinals, 2012 V4: 8–9

fushometer water closets, 2012 V4: 3, 6–8fux (ltration)

dened, 2012 V4: 201membrane productivity, 2010 V2: 221natural osmosis, 2010 V2: 211reverse osmosis, 2012 V4: 196

fux (soldering), 2012 V4: 59dened, 2009 V1: 24laboratory gas joints, 2011 V3: 277standards, 2012 V4: 30

fy ash, 2012 V4: 230FM. See Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FM)FMRC (Factory Mutual). See Factory Mutual Research

Corporation (FM)

oam extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 25–26, 29oam noise isolation, 2009 V1: 194 Foam-water Sprinkler Systems and Foam-water Spray

Systems (NFPA 16), 2011 V3: 30oam-water sprinklers, 2011 V3: 25oamed elastomer insulation, 2012 V4: 107oamed plastic insulation, 2012 V4: 106, 111FOG (ats, oil, and grease). See ats, oils, and grease (FOG)FOG disposal systems (FDS), 2012 V4: 145og nozzles, 2010 V2: 230ogging in swimming pools, 2011 V3: 108Follow-up phase in value engineering, 2009 V1: 209Fontana, Mars G., 2009 V1: 144Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 2010 V2: 220, 224,

227, 2012 V4: 70ood dyes in gray water, 2010 V2: 27ood-processing areas and kitchens

drains, 2010 V2: 15–16xture pipe sizes and demand, 2010 V2: 86fexible gas connections, 2010 V2: 124gas demands or appliances, 2010 V2: 116gas eciency, 2010 V2: 115health care acility xtures, 2011 V3: 39medical gas piping and, 2011 V3: 68numbers o xtures or, 2012 V4: 20rates o sewage fows, 2010 V2: 151sanitation, 2010 V2: 15sewage estimates, 2010 V2: 151typical graywater demand, 2010 V2: 24water xture-unit values, 2011 V3: 206water temperatures, 2011 V3: 47

ood-processing plants, 2010 V2: 218ood solids removal in bioremediation systems, 2012 V4: 228ood waste grinders (disposals), 2010 V2: 152

bioremediation systems and, 2012 V4: 228dened, 2009 V1: 21xture-unit loads, 2010 V2: 3grease interceptors and, 2012 V4: 154, 157sink outlets and, 2012 V4: 11

oot (FT), 2009 V1: 14. See also eet (t, FT)oot basins, 2010 V2: 99oot controls on aucets, 2011 V3: 35oot head (t.hd), 2009 V1: 14

oot pedalsnitrogen systems, 2011 V3: 64water coolers, 2012 V4: 218

oot-pounds (t-lb, FT LB), 2009 V1: 14oot valves, 2009 V1: 24, 2010 V2: 92ooting drains (subsoil drains, SSD), 2009 V1: 8, 24, 30ootings o buildings

dened, 2009 V1: 24FOR (uel oil return), 2009 V1: 8orce

conversion actors, 2009 V1: 35

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actors in seismic orce calculations, 2009 V1: 174–177measurements, 2009 V1: 34in seismic design, 2009 V1: 182in vibration transmission, 2012 V4: 137

orce mains, 2009 V1: 24dened, 2011 V3: 229illustrated, 2011 V3: 234–235manholes, 2011 V3: 226

sanitary sewer systems, 2011 V3: 225sewage lie stations, 2011 V3: 236orced-air-cooled compressors, 2012 V4: 220orced-air vaporizers, 2011 V3: 57orced convection, dened, 2011 V3: 191orced distortions o piping, 2009 V1: 152orced drainage (corrosion), dened, 2009 V1: 143orcing unctions in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 150orcing pipes, 2012 V4: 25orest, runo, 2010 V2: 42orged clevises, 2012 V4: 130ormazin turbidity unit, 2010 V2: 193orms. See checklists and ormsormula rooms, 2011 V3: 36ormulas. See equationsorward approaches and reaches

approaches or wheelchairs, 2009 V1: 102drinking ountains and water coolers, 2009 V1: 99reach or wheelchairs, 2009 V1: 99–101, 103

FOS (uel oil supply), 2009 V1: 8ossil uel use, 2011 V3: 188ouling actor, 2009 V1: 24ouling o water, 2010 V2: 195, 217, 2011 V3: 162Foundation or Cross-Connection Control and Hydraulic

Research, 2011 V3: 216oundations o pumps, 2010 V2: 158, 161ountains

codes and standards, 2011 V3: 100–101direct connections, 2012 V4: 161drinking. See drinking ountainsequipment location, 2011 V3: 98–99interactive, 2011 V3: 100overview, 2011 V3: 98pool design, 2011 V3: 98pumps, 2011 V3: 99saety, 2011 V3: 100sump pumps, 2011 V3: 100–102surace skimmer, 2011 V3: 102wastewater in, 2010 V2: 21

our-way braces, 2012 V4: 130FOV (uel oil vents), 2009 V1: 8FPM (fuorine rubber), 2009 V1: 32pm, FPM (eet per minute), 2009 V1: 14, 2011 V3: 30

ps, FPS (eet per second), 2009 V1: 14FR (Federal Register), 2011 V3: 82racture rooms, 2011 V3: 36, 39raming drawings or acilities, 2011 V3: 35raming steel, 2012 V4: 130Francis ormula, 2011 V3: 100Frankel, Michael, 2010 V2: 55, 96, 137, 186, 224, 246, 2011

V3: 156Franzini, Joseph B., 2010 V2: 19Frederick, Ralph H., 2010 V2: 55ree air

dened, 2011 V3: 186properties, 2011 V3: 171, 263, 264water vapor in, 2011 V3: 172–173

ree board, 2012 V4: 201ree convection, dened, 2011 V3: 191ree-foating oils, 2011 V3: 88ree oil, 2010 V2: 244ree residuals, 2012 V4: 177

ree-standing surge vessels, 2011 V3: 116ree-standing water coolers, 2012 V4: 216, 218ree vibration, 2009 V1: 150ree water surace, 2012 V4: 170reeboard in ditches, 2011 V3: 250reestanding siamese re-department connections, 2009

V1: 12reestanding sprinklers in irrigation, 2011 V3: 93reezing points (p, FP)

insulation and, 2012 V4: 112–113plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 48prevention calculations, 2012 V4: 112–113regional requirements or plumbing installations, 2009

V1: 262reezing, preventing in cleanouts, 2010 V2: 9reezing temperatures

calculations or, 2012 V4: 112–113chilled drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 221dry-pipe sprinkler systems and, 2011 V3: 6, 7rost lines, 2011 V3: 218, 220ice and oxygen storage, 2011 V3: 57ice as part o total load, 2012 V4: 115ice inside water storage tanks, 2010 V2: 162insulation and, 2012 V4: 112–113irrigation system valves and, 2011 V3: 95testing o cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 90water meters and, 2010 V2: 59well heads and, 2010 V2: 158–159

Freije, M., 2010 V2: 108–109rench drains, 2009 V1: 24requencies (Hz, HZ)

dened, 2012 V4: 137disturbing vibrations, 2012 V4: 137requency ratios in vibration control, 2012 V4: 138–139measurements, 2009 V1: 34natural requency o resilient mounted systems, 2012

V4: 137requency o ion regeneration cycles, 2010 V2: 208resh-air inlets, 2009 V1: 24resh water makeup, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 116,

132–133riction clamps, 2011 V3: 221riction actor, 2009 V1: 24

riction headcalculating, 2009 V1: 6centralized drinking-water cooler systems, 2012 V4: 223dened, 2012 V4: 101

riction loads, 2012 V4: 130riction losses in fow

bends in pipe and, 2012 V4: 61calculating riction head loss, 2009 V1: 2compressed air, 2011 V3: 72–73, 181compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 181examples or pipe sizing, 2010 V2: 87–89

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Index 291

uel dispensers, 2011 V3: 151Hazen-Williams ormula, 2009 V1: 2, 2010 V2: 73liquid uel piping, 2011 V3: 151medical air, 2011 V3: 63, 69, 72–73medical gas piping, 2011 V3: 68medical vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 69, 73natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 127–128, 2011 V3: 256nitrogen systems, 2011 V3: 69, 71

nitrous oxide, 2011 V3: 69, 71oxygen, 2011 V3: 68–69, 71pipe pressure and, 2010 V2: 78–84pressure and, 2010 V2: 87reduced pressure zones, 2010 V2: 61–63sizing pipes and, 2010 V2: 78–84submersible uel pumps, 2011 V3: 151vacuum cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 181–184, 184vacuum exhauster sizing, 2010 V2: 184valves and threaded ttings, 2010 V2: 90–91vent systems, 2010 V2: 35water in pipes, tables, 2012 V4: 225water mains, 2011 V3: 6well pumps, 2010 V2: 161

ront-end documents, 2009 V1: 57, 58rost. See reezing temperaturesrost lines, 2011 V3: 218, 220rostproo devices, 2009 V1: 24FRP. See berglass-reinorced plasticFRPP (fame-retardant pipe), 2012 V4: 51FS (ederal specications), 2009 V1: 32FS (fow switches), 2009 V1: 10FSK (berglass cloth, skrim and krat paper), 2012 V4: 108t, FT (eet). See eett-lb, FT LB (oot-pounds), 2009 V1: 14FT3 (cubic eet), 2009 V1: 14t.hd (oot head), 2009 V1: 14FTUs (ormazin turbidity units), 2010 V2: 193u values. See xture units and unit valuesuel double containment systems, 2012 V4: 39uel gas codes, list o agencies, 2009 V1: 42 Fuel Gas Piping, 2010 V2: 136uel-gas piping systems. See also diesel-oil systems;

gasoline systemsuel gas, dened, 2010 V2: 136glossary, 2010 V2: 135–136liqueed petroleum gas, 2010 V2: 131–135, 135methane, 2009 V1: 122natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 113–131, 2012 V4: 32, 34

uel, in re triangle, 2011 V3: 22–23uel islands, 2011 V3: 146uel loads (re hazards), 2011 V3: 2uel oil

calculation, solar energy and, 2011 V3: 190copper pipe, 2012 V4: 32uel oil return (FOR), 2009 V1: 8uel oil supply (FOS), 2009 V1: 8uel oil vents (FOV), 2009 V1: 8pipe bracing, 2009 V1: 158, 159

uel-storage tanks, 2011 V3: 154ull-fow conditions (FF), 2009 V1: 1ull port (100% area), 2012 V4: 89ull-port ball valves, 2011 V3: 67, 2012 V4: 75ully recessed water coolers, 2012 V4: 217–218, 218

ully-sprinklered spaces, 2009 V1: 12ume hoods, 2010 V2: 240umes, hazardous. See also gases

acid-waste drainage systems, 2011 V3: 42acids, 2010 V2: 229, 231in soil proles, 2011 V3: 144vent piping, 2011 V3: 46 VOCs, 2010 V2: 190

uming grade suluric acid, 2010 V2: 230Function Analysis phase in value engineering dened, 2009 V1: 218–223FAST approach, 2009 V1: 219–223unction denitions orms, 2009 V1: 219–224, 222in process, 2009 V1: 209rules, 2009 V1: 218–223

Function phase in value engineering, 2009 V1: 209Functional Analysis System Technique (FAST), 2009 V1:

219–223unctions

basic or secondary, 2009 V1: 219comparing in evaluation phase, 2009 V1: 235cost-to-unction relationship, 2009 V1: 219dened, 2009 V1: 218evaluation checklists, 2009 V1: 230–231in evaluation phase, 2009 V1: 229in FAST approach, 2009 V1: 223interrelationships, 2009 V1: 219levels o importance, 2009 V1: 218ranking and comparing, 2009 V1: 235sketches o, 2009 V1: 232–233specic and dependent, 2009 V1: 219two-word expressions, 2009 V1: 218

undamental corrosion cells, dened, 2009 V1: 129 Fundamentals Handbook, 2011 V3: 169, 204 Fundamentals o Underground Corrosion Control, 2009

V1: 144ungi, 2010 V2: 188, 195unnel-type drains, 2010 V2: 243, 2011 V3: 42urring-out requirements or roos, 2010 V2: 51usible link sprinklers, 2011 V3: 6usion-joint plastic piping systems, 2011 V3: 46uture expansion o compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 182

GG (giga) prex, 2009 V1: 34G (low-pressure gas), 2009 V1: 8G pipes, 2012 V4: 32, 34ga, GA (gauges). See gaugesGACs (granulated carbon lters), 2010 V2: 218, 221. See

also activated carbon ltration

gages (ga, GA, GAGE). See gaugesgal, GAL (gallons). See gallons (gal, GAL)gallons (gal, GAL)

converting to metric units, 2011 V3: 30converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38gallons per day (gpd, GPD), 2009 V1: 14gallons per hour (gph, GPH), 2009 V1: 14, 38, 2010 V2:

98–99gallons per minute (gpm), 2009 V1: 14, 2010 V2: 85, 156

converting to xture units, 2011 V3: 209, 226converting to metric units, 2011 V3: 30estimating demand, 2010 V2: 76

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pressure and, 2010 V2: 73, 74grains per gallon (gpg), 2010 V2: 191symbols or, 2009 V1: 14

galvanic action, 2009 V1: 24, 2012 V4: 66. See also electrolysis

galvanic anodes, 2009 V1: 137–139galvanic cells, dened, 2009 V1: 143galvanic corrosion, 2009 V1: 130, 143, 256, 2010 V2: 195

galvanic series o metalsdened, 2009 V1: 143dielectric insulation and, 2009 V1: 136listing, 2009 V1: 132

galvanized coatings, 2009 V1: 136galvanized-iron piping, 2010 V2: 13, 78galvanized-steel piping, 2010 V2: 122

aboveground piping, 2010 V2: 12uel product dispensing and, 2011 V3: 150vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 173

galvanizing, dened, 2009 V1: 24, 2012 V4: 130galvomag alloy, 2009 V1: 132gamma ray radiation, 2010 V2: 236–237, 237gang hangers, 2012 V4: 130garages, sediment buckets and, 2010 V2: 11garbage can washers, 2012 V4: 161garbage disposers. See ood waste grindersgarnet in lters, 2010 V2: 201Garrett, Laurie, 2010 V2: 55gas. See gases; medical gas systems; natural gas systems;

specic types o gasesgas boosters, 2010 V2: 119, 125–128gas cabinets, 2011 V3: 268–270gas chlorinators, 2012 V4: 177gas contamination in air, 2011 V3: 265gas expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 211–213gas-red water heaters

conserving energy, 2009 V1: 121dened, 2009 V1: 120eciency, 2010 V2: 97–98net eciency o, 2009 V1: 121

gas horsepower, dened, 2011 V3: 186gas laws, 2010 V2: 126gas logs, dened, 2010 V2: 136gas meters, 2010 V2: 115–117gas mixers, laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 276gas piping codes, 2009 V1: 42gas piping systems. See also uel-gas piping systems;

gasoline systems; liqueed petroleum gas; naturalgas systems

bracing, 2009 V1: 159dened, 2009 V1: 185gas cocks, 2009 V1: 9

gas line earthquake-sensitive valves, 2009 V1: 153gas main inspection checklist, 2009 V1: 95gas pressure regulators, 2010 V2: 136, 2011 V3: 254–255gas stops (gas cocks), 2009 V1: 9gas trains, 2010 V2: 136, 2011 V3: 255gas vents (GV), 2009 V1: 8high-pressure (HG), 2009 V1: 8line lters, 2011 V3: 252–254low-pressure (G), 2009 V1: 8medium-pressure (MG), 2009 V1: 8operating pressure, 2010 V2: 115

plastic pipes, 2012 V4: 42services at laboratory outlets, 2011 V3: 41–42Spitzglass ormula, 2009 V1: 7, 2010 V2: 130 Weymouth ormula, 2010 V2: 130

gas regulator relie vents, 2010 V2: 117–118gas regulators, 2010 V2: 119–121gas-shielded welding, 2012 V4: 61gas stations, 2011 V3: 147

gas stripping, 2010 V2: 194gas systemsmedical gas levels, 2011 V3: 34–35tank abandonment and removal, 2011 V3: 154

gas-train vents, 2010 V2: 117–118gas-transer vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 169Gas Utilization Equipment or Large Boilers, 2010 V2: 115gas venting, 2010 V2: 118–119, 136gas warmers, 2011 V3: 275gas water heating, 2011 V3: 126gaseous (clean agent) re suppression systems, 2011 V3:

26–28gases. See also uel-gas piping systems; liqueed petroleum

gas; natural gas systemsas fuids, 2011 V3: 171combustion properties, 2010 V2: 114contamination in compressed air, 2011 V3: 174dissolved gases in water, 2010 V2: 190grades o, 2011 V3: 267hazardous, 2010 V2: 229heavier-than-air, 2010 V2: 134–135laboratory gas systems. See laboratory gas systemsnitrous umes, 2010 V2: 232suluric acid, 2010 V2: 232volatile organic compounds, 2010 V2: 190

gasketsdened, 2012 V4: 63re-protection water supply, 2011 V3: 221uel piping, 2011 V3: 150special-waste systems, 2010 V2: 228

gasoline, 2010 V2: 12, 2011 V3: 136, 149gasoline blends, 2011 V3: 136, 149gasoline systems

aboveground tank systems, 2011 V3: 147–149connections and access, 2011 V3: 148construction, 2011 V3: 147–148corrosion protection, 2011 V3: 148lling and spills, 2011 V3: 148leak prevention and monitoring, 2011 V3: 148–149materials, 2011 V3: 147–148overll prevention, 2011 V3: 148product dispensing systems, 2011 V3: 149tank protection, 2011 V3: 149

vapor recovery, 2011 V3: 149venting, 2011 V3: 148

codes and standards, 2011 V3: 137components, 2011 V3: 138denitions and classications, 2011 V3: 136–137designing

installation considerations, 2011 V3: 154–156piping materials, 2011 V3: 149–151piping sizing, 2011 V3: 150–151submersible pump sizing, 2011 V3: 151–152testing, 2011 V3: 152–154

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Index 293

overview, 2011 V3: 136reerences, 2011 V3: 156resources, 2011 V3: 156underground tank systems, 2011 V3: 139–140

leak detection and system monitoring, 2011 V3:141–145

product dispensing systems, 2011 V3: 146–147storage tanks, 2011 V3: 139–140

vapor recovery systems, 2011 V3: 145–146valves, 2012 V4: 87gate valves (GV), 2009 V1: 9, 2010 V2: 92, 95, 230

dened, 2012 V4: 89re-protection systems, 2012 V4: 87–88high-pressure steam service, 2012 V4: 86–87high-rise service, 2012 V4: 88hot and cold water supply service, 2012 V4: 83illustrated, 2012 V4: 73low-pressure steam systems, 2012 V4: 85medium-pressure steam service, 2012 V4: 86noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 194stems, 2012 V4: 79

gauges (ga, GA, GAGE)Boyle’s law, 2012 V4: 211–213uel product level gauging, 2011 V3: 148, 149gauge pressure, 2010 V2: 165, 2011 V3: 186hazardous materials, 2011 V3: 84laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 273medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 67pressure, 2011 V3: 172propane tanks, 2010 V2: 133

gear pumps, 2010 V2: 162Geiger-Mueller counters, 2010 V2: 237gel-coated plastic xtures, 2012 V4: 1general conditions in contract documents, 2009 V1: 56General Conditions o the Contract or Construction, 2009

V1: 56General Conerence o Weights and Measures (CGPM),

2009 V1: 32, 33general corrosion, 2009 V1: 143, 2010 V2: 195General Electric Company, 2009 V1: 207general laboratory-grade water, 2010 V2: 218General phase in value engineering, 2009 V1: 209General section in specications, 2009 V1: 62–63general service system valves, 2012 V4: 85–86generalized total costs, 2009 V1: 217generally-accepted standards, dened, 2009 V1: 24Geogehegan, R.F., 2010 V2: 246geography

cost estimates and, 2009 V1: 90in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 86

geological stability o sites, 2010 V2: 24

geothermal energy, 2009 V1: 122–123Get Your Process Water to Come Clean, 2010 V2: 225GFCI (government urnished, contractor installed), 2009

V1: 64giga prex, 2009 V1: 34gland bushing, 2012 V4: 89glass borosilicate piping, 2010 V2: 13, 14, 75glass-bulb sprinklers, 2011 V3: 6glass-ber pads, 2009 V1: 198glass xtures, 2012 V4: 1glass-oam insulation, 2012 V4: 106

glass-lined pipes, 2011 V3: 49glass piping

characteristics, 2012 V4: 34–35expansion, 2012 V4: 35ttings, 2012 V4: 36, 41–43hangers, 2012 V4: 122 joints, 2012 V4: 61roughness, 2010 V2: 78

special wastes, 2010 V2: 234, 239standards, 2012 V4: 68–69glass washers

demineralized water, 2011 V3: 48health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36, 39laboratory rooms, 2011 V3: 41pure water systems or, 2011 V3: 48

glauber’s soda, 2012 V4: 173glazed xture suraces, 2012 V4: 1Glidden, R., 2010 V2: 186Global Loss Prevention Data Sheet 6-4: Oil and Gas-fred

Single-burner Boilers, 2010 V2: 117–118globe-style lit check valves, 2012 V4: 76–77globe valves (GLV), 2009 V1: 9, 2010 V2: 92, 95

dened, 2012 V4: 74–75, 89high-pressure steam service, 2012 V4: 87hot and cold water supply service, 2012 V4: 83–84low-pressure steam systems, 2012 V4: 85–86medium-pressure steam service, 2012 V4: 86stems, 2012 V4: 79

glossariescold water systems, 2010 V2: 94–95compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 183–187conserving energy, 2009 V1: 128corrosion, 2009 V1: 141–143cross connections, 2012 V4: 169–171uel-gas systems, 2010 V2: 135–136hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 125–136health care acilities, 2011 V3: 76–78industrial wastewater, 2011 V3: 81–82insulation, 2012 V4: 103measurement units, 2009 V1: 33plumbing terminology, 2009 V1: 16–21pumps, 2012 V4: 100–102reerences or, 2009 V1: 39seismic protection, 2009 V1: 185solar energy, 2011 V3: 190–193valve terminology, 2012 V4: 88–90vibration and vibration isolation, 2012 V4: 137water conditioning, 2012 V4: 199–203

glove boxes, 2010 V2: 240GLSP (good large-scale production), 2010 V2: 241glues, 2010 V2: 191, 2012 V4: 51

GLV (globe valves). See globe valves (GLV)GMP (good manuacturing practice), 2009 V1: 14gold, 2009 V1: 132good engineering practice, 2010 V2: 228good large-scale production (GLSP), 2010 V2: 241good manuacturing practice (GMP), 2009 V1: 14good value, dened, 2009 V1: 209goods, costs o, 2009 V1: 217gooseneck spouts, 2012 V4: 13Gorry, M., 2010 V2: 224governing xtures, 2010 V2: 84–89

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government urnished, contractor installed (GFCI), 2009 V1: 64

gpd, GPD (gallons per day), 2009 V1: 14gpg (grains per gallon). See grains per gallon (gpg)gph, GPH (gallons per hour), 2009 V1: 14gpm (gallons per minute)

converting to xture units, 2010 V2: 85, 2011 V3:209, 226

converting to metric units, 2011 V3: 30orice size and, 2011 V3: 5symbols or, 2009 V1: 14wells, 2010 V2: 156

gr, GR (grains). See grainsgrab bars

ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 2009 V1: 107bathtub accessibility, 2009 V1: 109clearance, 2009 V1: 114health care acilities, 2011 V3: 37shower stalls, 2009 V1: 112–114standards or, 2009 V1: 106water closet and toilet accessibility, 2009 V1: 106

grab rings, 2012 V4: 57grades

dened, 2009 V1: 24maintaining or piping, 2012 V4: 25

grains (gr, GR)converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38grains per gallon, 2010 V2: 191

grains capacitydened, 2012 V4: 201water soteners, 2012 V4: 187

grains per gallon (gpg), 2010 V2: 191converting parts per million to, 2012 V4: 201dened, 2012 V4: 201water sotener capacity, 2012 V4: 187

granulated carbon lters, 2010 V2: 221. See also activatedcarbon ltration

granulated carbon lters (GAC), 2010 V2: 218granule tests, 2012 V4: 5graphic conventions in plumbing drawings, 2009 V1: 100graphite, 2009 V1: 132, 2012 V4: 60, 67, 173graphite anodes, 2009 V1: 139graphitic corrosion, 2009 V1: 143graphitization

cast iron, 2009 V1: 132dened, 2009 V1: 143

graphs, water supply, 2011 V3: 5grass lter strips, 2010 V2: 48grassed area, runo, 2010 V2: 42grates

grate open areas or foor drains, 2010 V2: 11

materials or, 2010 V2: 13sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 11swimming pools, 2011 V3: 104–106, 112

grating, 2009 V1: 24gravel, 2009 V1: 24, 2010 V2: 25, 42gravel upheaval, 2012 V4: 181gravimetric measurement o solids, 2010 V2: 193gravitational acceleration units, 2009 V1: 1gravitational constants (g, G), 2009 V1: 1, 2012 V4: 146gravity

acceleration o water, 2010 V2: 1–2

orces in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 180loads, 2009 V1: 145

gravity circulation, 2009 V1: 5gravity drainage, 2010 V2: 228gravity drops, 2011 V3: 139gravity lters, 2012 V4: 179–180gravity fotation, 2012 V4: 228gravity-fow systems, 2012 V4: 53, 194

gravity fushes, 2012 V4: 6gravity grease interceptors (GGIs), 2012 V4: 145, 153gravity separators in oil spills, 2010 V2: 245–246gravity sewers, 2010 V2: 144gravity tank systems

re-protection connections, 2011 V3: 217, 219re-protection water supply, 2011 V3: 225operation o, 2010 V2: 65–66suction piping and, 2010 V2: 163

gravity water lters, 2010 V2: 159Gray, G.D., 2010 V2: 29graywater. See also storm water; wastewater

dened, 2010 V2: 21horizontal distances, 2010 V2: 26LEED certication, 2010 V2: 21water balance, 2010 V2: 21–23

graywater systemsamount o generated gray water, 2010 V2: 21benets o water reuse, 2009 V1: 126codes and standards, 2010 V2: 22contents, 2012 V4: 239cross connections, 2012 V4: 159designing or supply and consumption, 2010 V2: 24–45economic analysis o, 2010 V2: 26–27health care acilities, 2011 V3: 46, 47introduction, 2010 V2: 21precautions, 2010 V2: 27public concerns and acceptance, 2010 V2: 27–28reasons or using, 2010 V2: 21reclaimed water, 2009 V1: 126reerences, 2010 V2: 29sources o, 2012 V4: 238system description and components, 2010 V2: 22treatment systems, 2010 V2: 25–27, 2012 V4: 236–237

GRDs (grease/oil recovery devices), 2012 V4: 145, 151–152grease. See ats, oils, and grease (FOG)grease-extracting hoods, 2012 V4: 154grease interceptors

bioremediation, 2012 V4: 152bioremediation systems and, 2012 V4: 227codes and standards, 2009 V1: 43, 2012 V4: 154, 156–157commercial kitchen sinks and, 2012 V4: 11–12custom-made, 2012 V4: 153

dened, 2009 V1: 24design characteristics

fotation actors, 2012 V4: 147–148fow-through periods, 2012 V4: 147practical design, 2012 V4: 150retention periods, 2012 V4: 147

design example, 2012 V4: 148–149eld-ormed concrete, 2012 V4: 153fow control, 2012 V4: 154–155FOG disposal systems, 2012 V4: 152ormulas or operation, 2012 V4: 146–148, 155–156

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Index 295

gravity (GGIs), 2012 V4: 145, 153hydromechanical (HGIs), 2012 V4: 145, 150–151, 157operation and maintenance, 2012 V4: 157–158overview, 2012 V4: 145removing grease, 2012 V4: 157–158sanitary drainage systems, 2011 V3: 226separators, 2012 V4: 151sizing, 2012 V4: 155–156

types o automatic computer-controlled units, 2012 V4:151–152

automatic power-operated units, 2012 V4: 151–152custom-made units, 2012 V4: 153manually operated units, 2012 V4: 150–151semiautomatic units, 2012 V4: 151

grease/oil removal devices (GRDs), 2012 V4: 145, 151–152grease separators, 2012 V4: 151grease traps

bioremediation systems and, 2012 V4: 227codes, 2009 V1: 43commercial kitchen sinks and, 2012 V4: 11–12dened, 2009 V1: 24

green building and plumbing biosolids, 2012 V4: 238–240economic benets, 2012 V4: 234economic growth, 2012 V4: 233energy eciency, 2012 V4: 241irrigation, 2012 V4: 234LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental

Design), 2012 V4: 2, 233, 233–234, 241pumps, 2012 V4: 99quality perceptions and, 2009 V1: 263sustainable design, 2012 V4: 233vacuum-operated waste transport system, 2012 V4: 236wastewater management, 2012 V4: 236–237

green sands, 2010 V2: 205Greene, Norbert D., 2009 V1: 144Greening Federal Facilities Guide, 2009 V1: 126Gribbin, PE, John. E., 2010 V2: 55gridded systems, re mains, 2011 V3: 6grinder pumps

dened, 2009 V1: 24drainage pumps, 2012 V4: 98in sewage tanks, 2010 V2: 144

grooved butterfy valves, 2012 V4: 76grooved wheel and bar benders, 2012 V4: 61Grossel, S.F., 2010 V2: 246ground ailure, 2009 V1: 149ground foor space. See clear foor spaceground-motion time history, 2009 V1: 150ground-mounted water storage tanks, 2010 V2: 162

ground ruptures, 2009 V1: 149ground shaking, 2009 V1: 149–150, 152ground water

carbon dioxide in, 2012 V4: 176eed water or pure water systems, 2010 V2: 220graywater irrigation systems and, 2010 V2: 21monitoring, 2011 V3: 143–144need or treatment, 2012 V4: 173–174private water systems, 2010 V2: 155storage tanks and, 2011 V3: 154storm drainage detention, 2010 V2: 47

swimming pool locations and, 2011 V3: 107underground tanks and, 2011 V3: 138

grounding gas systems, 2010 V2: 125groundspace or wheelchairs. See clear foor spacegroundwater, 2009 V1: 24Groundwater Contamination rom Stormwater Infltration,

2010 V2: 55groundwater, 2010 V2: 188

group washups, 2012 V4: 10grouts in wells, 2010 V2: 158growth rate o res, 2011 V3: 2guaranty bonds, 2009 V1: 56guard posts or hydrants, 2011 V3: 220Guide to Federal Tax Incentives or Solar Energy, 2011

V3: 190Guidelines or Seismic Restraints o Mechanical Systems,

2009 V1: 180, 185guides (pipe), 2009 V1: 24, 2012 V4: 130Gut Feel Index, 2009 V1: 235–248gutters (pools), 2011 V3: 113–114, 116–117gutters (roos), 2009 V1: 24GV (gas vents), 2009 V1: 8GV (gate valves), 2009 V1: 9, 2010 V2: 230gymnasiums, 2010 V2: 99gypsum, 2012 V4: 173gypsum board, lining with lead, 2010 V2: 238

Hh (hecto) prex, 2009 V1: 34H (henrys), 2009 V1: 34h (hours), 2009 V1: 34h (velocity head), 2009 V1: 5H-I alloy, 2009 V1: 132H/m (henrys per meter), 2009 V1: 34ha (hectares), 2009 V1: 34hair entanglement in drains, 2011 V3: 104, 112

hair strainers, 2011 V3: 114, 124Halar, 2009 V1: 32, 2011 V3: 49hal-circle rotary sprinklers, 2011 V3: 94hal-dome ends on tanks, 2011 V3: 139hal-ull conditions (HF), 2009 V1: 1hal lives, dened, 2010 V2: 238Hall grades o gases, 2011 V3: 267halogenated agents, 2011 V3: 26, 29, 66, 76halogens, 2010 V2: 109–110halon 1211, 2011 V3: 26halon 1301, 2009 V1: 24, 2011 V3: 26halothane, 2011 V3: 66hammer. See water hammerhand-held extinguishers, 2011 V3: 23

hand-held shower heads, 2009 V1: 112hand tools or vacuum cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 180hand trenching, labor productivity rates, 2009 V1: 87–88hand wheels, 2012 V4: 89 Handbook or Mechanical Engineers, 2009 V1: 2, 3, 5, 39 Handbook o Applied Hydrology, 2010 V2: 55 Handbook o Corrosion Resistant Pipeline, 2011 V3: 89 Handbook o Fundamentals, 2009 V1: 2, 5, 6, 39handicapped individuals. See people with disabilitieshandle extensions (ball valves), 2012 V4: 75, 85handling section in specications, 2009 V1: 63–64, 70hands-ree controls on sinks, 2011 V3: 35, 37

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hands-ree water coolers, 2012 V4: 218hands-o automatic (HOA), 2009 V1: 14handwashing lavatories, 2011 V3: 36, 39, 47hanger assemblies, 2012 V4: 130hanger drawings, 2012 V4: 128hanger loads. See pipe loads; support and hanger loadshanger rod xtures, 2012 V4: 119hanger rods, 2012 V4: 130

hangers. See supports and hangershanging rolls, 2012 V4: 119hard conversions, 2009 V1: 33hard-temper tubing, 2010 V2: 13, 2011 V3: 68hardness ions, 2012 V4: 176hardness o water

boiler eed water, 2010 V2: 216dened, 2012 V4: 201degrees o hardness, 2010 V2: 189grains exchange capacity, 2012 V4: 187hardness leakage, 2012 V4: 188, 201–202ion exchange treatment, 205–211, 2010 V2: 201maximum levels o, 2012 V4: 185pH and alkalinity, 2010 V2: 196private water systems, 2010 V2: 160scaling and, 2012 V4: 173–174temporary and permanent hardness, 2012 V4: 176water sotener treatments, 2010 V2: 210, 2012 V4: 176

Harris, Nigel, 2010 V2: 186Hastelloy B, 2010 V2: 232Hastelloy C, 2009 V1: 132haunches, 2009 V1: 24Haws, Luther, 2012 V4: 215 Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments o 1984 (Public

Law 98), 2011 V3: 137hazardous materials, emergency xtures and, 2012 V4: 17hazardous wastes

dened, 2011 V3: 81permits, 2011 V3: 83

hazardsaccidental acid spills, 2010 V2: 229chemical material saety data sheets, 2011 V3: 83classes o hazard occupancies, 2009 V1: 28–29, 2011

V3: 13closed hot-water systems, 2012 V4: 209cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 59controlled substance spills, 2010 V2: 186direct connections, 2012 V4: 161exposed piping and accessibility, 2009 V1: 109re hazards, 2009 V1: 22, 2011 V3: 2fammable and volatile liquids, 2010 V2: 244–246gas boosters, 2010 V2: 125gases in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 148

graywater systems, 2010 V2: 27–28hazardous gases, 2010 V2: 229hazardous materials, dened, 2011 V3: 81–82

hazardous substances, dened, 2011 V3: 81hazardous wastes, dened, 2011 V3: 81hot-water systems, 2010 V2: 97, 108–111insulation, 2012 V4: 112propane, 2010 V2: 131propane tanks, 2010 V2: 133–134radiation, 2010 V2: 237radioactive waste-drainage systems, 2010 V2: 239

sanitary precautions or wells, 2010 V2: 159types o acids, 2010 V2: 230–232vacuum cleaning system issues, 2010 V2: 186water distribution, cross-connections, 2012 V4: 161, 162

Hazen-Williams ormula dened, 2009 V1: 2, 2010 V2: 6pipe sizing and, 2010 V2: 73

HB (hose bibbs), 2009 V1: 10, 14

HCFCs (hydrochlorofuorocarbons), 2011 V3: 27hd, HD (head). See pressure (PRESS, PRES, P)HDPE (high density polyethylene), 2009 V1: 32, 2011 V3:

256, 2012 V4: 42, 48head (hd, HD), 2009 V1: 24, 2012 V4: 101. See also

pressure (PRESS, PRES, P)head coecient, 2012 V4: 101head loss, 2009 V1: 24. See also pressure drops or

dierences (PD, DELTP)headers, 2009 V1: 24headroom around pipes, 2012 V4: 25headwall gas systems, 2011 V3: 51, 55health care acilities

dened, 2011 V3: 33–34, 76drainage systems, 2011 V3: 42–46xtures and equipment, 2011 V3: 35–42glossary, 2011 V3: 76–78Legionella control in, 2010 V2: 108–111medical gas and vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 50–76plumbing overview, 2011 V3: 35reerences, 2011 V3: 78resources, 2011 V3: 78selection process, 2011 V3: 35water-supply systems, 2011 V3: 46–49

Health-Care Facilities (NFPA 99), 2011 V3: 63, 64, 69health codes, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 106health hazards. See hazardshearing disabilities, 2009 V1: 99heart-and-lung machines, 2011 V3: 42heat (HT)

compression, 2011 V3: 179conversion actors, 2009 V1: 35dened, 2011 V3: 186, 2012 V4: 103distillation and, 2012 V4: 192in re triangle, 2011 V3: 22–23grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 154heat detectors, 2011 V3: 29latent, 2009 V1: 128, 2011 V3: 157, 162measurements, 2009 V1: 34plastic corrosion, 2009 V1: 141protecting against, 2010 V2: 16sensible, 2009 V1: 128, 2011 V3: 157, 162thermal, dened, 2011 V3: 188–189

water-heater heat recovery, 2010 V2: 100–101heat-activated air dryers, 2011 V3: 179heat and fush method, 2010 V2: 109–110heat distortion o plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 50heat drying biosolids, 2012 V4: 240Heat Exchange Institute, 2010 V2: 178heat exchangers and exchange systems

air dryers, 2011 V3: 176, 178condensate estimates, 2011 V3: 167–169corrosion inhibitors, 2009 V1: 141dened, 2009 V1: 24

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geothermal energy, 2009 V1: 122–123heat exchanger loop gas booster systems, 2010 V2:

120, 127solar systems, 2009 V1: 122, 2011 V3: 191, 201or vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 171waste heat usage, 2009 V1: 123–126

heat expansion. See expansionheat usion joints

dened, 2012 V4: 61heat-used socket joints, 2010 V2: 232PEX piping, 2012 V4: 49special wastes and, 2011 V3: 42

heat gain (HG, HEATG)storage tanks, 2012 V4: 224water systems, 2012 V4: 222

heat loss (HL, HEATL)calculating, 2012 V4: 112–113berglass insulation and, 2012 V4: 105insulation thickness, 2012 V4: 106, 107, 110water heater location and, 2009 V1: 120

heat pumpssolar, dened, 2011 V3: 191solar energy systems, 2011 V3: 203waste heat usage, 2009 V1: 123

heat recovery systems, 2009 V1: 123–126, 2011 V3: 127heat-trace systems, 2009 V1: 24, 2010 V2: 105–106heat transer (Q)

coecients, 2012 V4: 104dened, 2009 V1: 24eciency, 2011 V3: 162medium, 2011 V3: 191scaling and, 2012 V4: 174

heat-up method, condensate drainage, 2011 V3: 163–164heated water. See hot-water systemsheaters (HTR), 2009 V1: 14. See also water heatersHEATG (heat gain). See heat gainheating engineers, 2011 V3: 29heating eed water

or microbial control, 2010 V2: 214or pure water systems, 2010 V2: 221

heating hot water return (HHWR), 2009 V1: 9heating hot water supply (HHWS), 2009 V1: 9heating systems

HVAC. See HVAC systemssolar, dened, 2011 V3: 191

heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning systems. See HVAC systems

heating water. See water heatersheavier-than-air gases, 2010 V2: 134–135heavy brackets, 2012 V4: 130heavy clay loams, 2011 V3: 91

heavy equipment earthquake recommendations, 2009 V1:153–157

heavy metals, 2011 V3: 87, 2012 V4: 198. See also nameso specic metals

heavy process gas service, 2011 V3: 251–252heavy process service gas, 2010 V2: 114hectares, 2009 V1: 34hecto prex, 2009 V1: 34heel inlets on traps, 2010 V2: 15heel-proo grates, 2010 V2: 11heel-proo strainers, 2010 V2: 52

height (hgt, HGT, HT)grab bars or accessibility, 2009 V1: 106laundry equipment, 2009 V1: 115sinks, 2009 V1: 109toilet seats, 2009 V1: 106

helium, 2011 V3: 55, 270hemodialysis. See dialysis machinesHenriques, F.C., Jr., 2010 V2: 111

henrys, 2009 V1: 34Henry’s law, 2010 V2: 72henrys per meter, 2009 V1: 34HEPA lters, 2010 V2: 172, 179, 242herbicides, 2010 V2: 27, 147Hersey Meters Co., 2010 V2: 96hertz, 2009 V1: 14, 34Hesser, Henry H., 2010 V2: 186HET (high-eciency toilets), 2009 V1: 127hexametaphosphate, 2010 V2: 160HF (hal-ull conditions), 2009 V1: 1HFCs (hydrochlorofuorocarbons), 2011 V3: 27HG (heat gain). See heat gainHG (high-pressure gas), 2009 V1: 8hgt, HGT (height). See heightHHWR (heating hot water return), 2009 V1: 9HHWS (heating hot water supply), 2009 V1: 9high-backfow hazard, 2011 V3: 215high-capacity resins, 2012 V4: 202high-capacity wells, 2010 V2: 156high-demand classications, 2010 V2: 99, 100high-density polyethylene (HDPE), 2009 V1: 32, 2011

V3: 256high-eciency toilets (HET), 2009 V1: 127high-energy beta radiation, 2010 V2: 237high-expansion oam extinguishers, 2011 V3: 25high-grade water, 2012 V4: 176high-hazard res, 2011 V3: 2high-hose retrievers, 2011 V3: 146high-level water tank alarms, 2011 V3: 84high-piled storage, 2011 V3: 225high-pressure carbon dioxide systems, 2011 V3: 26high pressure compressed air (HPCA), 2009 V1: 9high-pressure condensate (HPC), 2009 V1: 9high-pressure cutouts, 2012 V4: 221high-pressure cylinders, 2011 V3: 50high-pressure gas (HG), 2009 V1: 8high-pressure gas systems, 2011 V3: 271–272, 276high-pressure nitrogen systems, 2011 V3: 63–64high-pressure propane regulators, 2010 V2: 132high-pressure relie devices, 2012 V4: 196high-pressure steam (hps, HPS), 2009 V1: 9, 2012 V4: 86–87high-pressurization air drying, 2011 V3: 178

high purity, dened, 2012 V4: 202high-purity gas, 2011 V3: 270–276high-purity water. See water puricationhigh-radiation areas, 2010 V2: 237, 239high-rate dispensers, 2011 V3: 151high-rate sand lters, 2011 V3: 117–118high-rise buildings. See large buildingshigh-silicon cast iron piping, 2010 V2: 13, 14, 2011 V3:

42, 46high-silicon iron anodes, 2009 V1: 139high-silicon iron piping, 2012 V4: 53, 68, 71

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high-suds detergents, 2010 V2: 37high-temperature hot water (hthw, HTHW), 2012 V4: 87high-to-low pressure loss in vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 174high vacuum, 2010 V2: 172, 176high-velocity jetted well digging, 2010 V2: 157high-volume sprinklers in irrigation, 2011 V3: 92high winds, 2012 V4: 117highest order unctions, 2009 V1: 221

Hillman, 2009 V1: 185hinge pins, 2012 V4: 89hinged pipe clamps, 2012 V4: 130hip baths, 2011 V3: 38history

o drinking ountains, 2012 V4: 215o earthquake damage, 2009 V1: 152–153o re-protection systems, 2011 V3: 1

HOA (hands-o automatic), 2009 V1: 14Hodnott, Robert M., 2009 V1: 185Homan Industries, 2010 V2: 186hoists or immersion baths, 2011 V3: 38hold-down straps on storage tanks, 2011 V3: 155holding rooms, 2011 V3: 56holes

in coatings, 2009 V1: 136or perc tests, 2010 V2: 141

holidaysin coatings, 2009 V1: 136, 2011 V3: 153, 155in labor costs, 2009 V1: 86

hollow-ber modulesin cross-fow ltration, 2010 V2: 212in reverse osmosis, 2010 V2: 194, 211–212

Holtan, H.N., 2010 V2: 55homogeneity in rate o corrosion, 2009 V1: 134horizontal branch hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 65horizontal distances or graywater system elements, 2010

V2: 26horizontal drains

cross-sections o, 2010 V2: 2xture loads, 2010 V2: 6, 8–9fow in, 2010 V2: 2hydraulic jumps in, 2010 V2: 6minimum slope o piping, 2010 V2: 7–8sloping drains in sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2:

5–8steady fow in, 2010 V2: 6

horizontal end-suction centriugal pumps, 2011 V3:122–123

horizontal high-rate sand lters, 2011 V3: 118horizontal loads o piping, 2009 V1: 177, 178–179horizontal movement o pipes, 2012 V4: 118horizontal natural requencies, 2012 V4: 138

horizontal pipe attachments, 2012 V4: 119horizontal pipes or ttings, 2009 V1: 24horizontal pressure-media lters, 2010 V2: 201, 2012

V4: 180horizontal pumps

dened, 2009 V1: 23split-case pumps, 2009 V1: 23, 2011 V3: 21

horizontal travelers, 2012 V4: 121, 130horizontal turbine meters, 2010 V2: 88horizontal velocity, 2012 V4: 147horsepower (hp, HP)

brake horsepower (bhp, BHP), 2009 V1: 6converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38dened, 2011 V3: 186, 2012 V4: 101symbols or, 2009 V1: 14

hose bibb vacuum breakers, 2012 V4: 163, 170hose bibbs (HB), 2009 V1: 10, 14, 24, 2011 V3: 39hose connection vacuum breakers, 2012 V4: 166hose demand, 2011 V3: 13

hose outlets, 2009 V1: 12hose stations, dry, 2009 V1: 13hose streams in reghting, 2011 V3: 225hose thread outlets, 2012 V4: 13hose valves, 2011 V3: 20hoses

bed pans, 2011 V3: 40compressed air pipe sizing, 2011 V3: 181–182compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 181–182uel dispensers, 2011 V3: 146uel storage tanks, 2011 V3: 140medical gas tubing, 2011 V3: 69retrievers, 2011 V3: 146vacuum cleaning hose capacity, 2010 V2: 180vacuum cleaning systems. See tubing

hospitals, 2010 V2: 15, 99, 109. See also health careacilities

dened, 2011 V3: 33distilled water use, 2012 V4: 189, 192drinking ountain usage, 2012 V4: 223xtures, 2012 V4: 20, 22water consumption, 2012 V4: 187

hot dip galvanization, 2012 V4: 130hot elevations, 2012 V4: 130hot fuids

glass piping and, 2012 V4: 35hangers and supports or, 2012 V4: 119piping or, 2012 V4: 118

hot hanger locations, 2012 V4: 130hot loads, 2012 V4: 131hot settings, 2012 V4: 131hot shoes, 2012 V4: 131hot tubs, 2011 V3: 111hot-vapor atmospheric vents, 2009 V1: 9hot water, dened, 2009 V1: 25hot water recirculating (HWR), 2009 V1: 8hot-water returns, 2009 V1: 8, 14hot-water supply (HW)

heating hot water supply, 2009 V1: 8high-temperature hot-water service, 2012 V4: 87piping, 2012 V4: 52potable water, 2011 V3: 47symbols or, 2009 V1: 8, 14

temperature ranges or expansion or contraction, 2012 V4: 205

hot-water systemsavoiding standby losses, 2009 V1: 119circulation systems, 2010 V2: 105codes and standards, 2010 V2: 112conserving energy, 2009 V1: 117–120, 119, 120corrosion rates, 2009 V1: 134earthquake damage, 2009 V1: 152equations, 2010 V2: 100–101exposed piping and accessibility, 2009 V1: 109

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Index 299

heat loss, 2012 V4: 110high-temperature systems, 2012 V4: 87hot-water properties, 2010 V2: 107hot-water temperatures, 2009 V1: 112, 2010 V2: 101,

102–104, 2011 V3: 39, 47introduction, 2010 V2: 97–98Legionella pneumophila, 2010 V2: 108–111maintaining temperatures, 2010 V2: 105–106

mixed-water temperatures, 2010 V2: 101noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 191pipe codes, 2009 V1: 45relie valves, 2010 V2: 106saety and health concerns, 2010 V2: 108–111scalding water, 2010 V2: 111sizing water heaters, 2010 V2: 98–99solar, 2011 V3: 196–199temperature ranges or expansion or contraction, 2012

V4: 205thermal eciency, 2010 V2: 107–108thermal expansion, 2010 V2: 106–107, 2012 V4: 205types o domestic systems, 2009 V1: 120valves or, 2012 V4: 83–84, 87waste heat usage, 2009 V1: 123–126water heater heat recovery, 2010 V2: 100–101water heaters, 2010 V2: 101–105

hot-water temperaturesaccessible shower compartments, 2009 V1: 112charts, 2010 V2: 102–104health care acilities, 2011 V3: 39, 47high-temperature hot water, 2012 V4: 87maintaining temperatures, 2010 V2: 105–106mixed-water temperatures, 2010 V2: 101ranges or expansion or contraction, 2012 V4: 205scalding water, 2010 V2: 111

hotelsdrinking ountain usage, 2012 V4: 223grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 145hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99numbers o xtures or, 2012 V4: 21septic tanks, 150, 2010 V2: 149vacuum calculations or, 2010 V2: 180water consumption, 2012 V4: 187

hourly data in sizing water heaters, 2010 V2: 99hours (h, HR), 2009 V1: 34house drains. See building drainshouse pumps, 2010 V2: 66house tanks, 2010 V2: 65–66, 68house traps. See building trapshouses. See buildingshousing project sewers, 150, 2010 V2: 149housings

or gas boosters, 2010 V2: 125or gas lters, 2011 V3: 252

HOW logic path, 2009 V1: 223, 224 How to Design Spencer Central Vacuum Cleaners, 2010

V2: 186hp, HP (horsepower). See horsepowerHPC (high-pressure condensate), 2009 V1: 9HPCA (high pressure compressed air), 2009 V1: 9hps, HPS (high-pressure steam), 2009 V1: 9HR (hours), 2009 V1: 34HT (heat). See heat

HT (height). See heighththw, HTHW (high-temperature hot water). See hot-water

temperaturesHTR (heaters), 2009 V1: 14. See also water heatershub-and-spigot piping and joints. See also bell-and-spigot

joints and piping acid wastes and, 2011 V3: 46as compression joints, 2012 V4: 57

cast-iron soil pipe, 2012 V4: 25–27, 27–29dened, 2009 V1: 25sanitary piping, 2010 V2: 12

hub ends on valves, 2012 V4: 80Hubbard baths, 2010 V2: 99Hubbard Enterprises-HOLDRITE, 2009 V1: 206hubless outlet drain body, 2010 V2: 14hubless piping

bracing cast-iron pipe, 2009 V1: 170cast-iron soil pipe, 2012 V4: 26, 29hubless, dened, 2009 V1: 25riser bracing or hubless pipes, 2009 V1: 171sanitary piping, 2010 V2: 12shielded hubless coupling, 2012 V4: 57

HUD (Housing and Urban Development), 2009 V1: 97, 99Hu, Winston, 2010 V2: 29human body, need or water, 2012 V4: 215humidity, 2009 V1: 25, 2011 V3: 186hungry water. See distilled waterHunter, Roy B., 2010 V2: 3, 95–96Hunter’s Curve, 2010 V2: 76Hurricane lters, 2010 V2: 201hurricanes, 2009 V1: 262, 2012 V4: 117hutene, 2010 V2: 114HVAC engineers, 2011 V3: 29HVAC systems

copper pipes, 2012 V4: 32dened, 2012 V4: 131exhaust ducts, 2010 V2: 184glass pipes, 2012 V4: 35piping, 2012 V4: 52steel pipe, 2012 V4: 36symbols or, 2009 V1: 14

HW. See hot-water supply (HW)HWR (hot water recirculating), 2009 V1: 8, 14hybrid cross connection break tanks, 2012 V4: 166hybrid gas system congurations, 2010 V2: 122hybrid pressure gas pipe sizing method, 2010 V2: 130hybrid vaporizers, 2011 V3: 57hydrant wrenches, 2011 V3: 3hydrants

butt caps, 2011 V3: 3, 210coecients o discharge, 2011 V3: 3–4

dened, 2009 V1: 23, 25re-protection water supply, 2011 V3: 220–221fow tests, 2011 V3: 3–4, 210guards, 2011 V3: 220outlets, 2011 V3: 4public hydrants, 2009 V1: 12wall hydrants, 2009 V1: 10, 12

hydraulic design o sprinkler systems, 2011 V3: 11–13hydraulic equipment direct connection hazards, 2012

V4: 161Hydraulic Institute, 2010 V2: 96

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Hydraulic Institute Standards or Centriugal, Rotary, and Reciprocating Pumps, 2011 V3: 123, 135

hydraulic irrigation valves, 2011 V3: 94hydraulic jumps in fow, 2010 V2: 2, 6, 35 Hydraulic loading rates or soil absorption systems based

on wastewater quality, 2010 V2: 55hydraulic mean depth o fow, 2009 V1: 1hydraulic pipe benders, 2012 V4: 61

hydraulic pressure dierential switches, 2012 V4: 181hydraulic radii (R), 2009 V1: 1hydraulic shock. See water hammerhydraulic snubbers, 2012 V4: 131hydraulic sway braces, 2012 V4: 131hydraulically remote, 2009 V1: 25 Hydraulics and Hydrology or Stormwater Management,

2010 V2: 55hydraulics o wells, 2010 V2: 157–158hydrazine, 2010 V2: 216 Hydro 35 (National Weather Service), 2011 V3: 239hydrobromic acid, 2010 V2: 232hydrocarbons

classications, 2011 V3: 136–137contamination in compressed air, 2011 V3: 174medical gas system tests, 2011 V3: 76

hydrochloric acidcation regenerants, 2012 V4: 183ormation and removal, 2012 V4: 177ormula, 2012 V4: 173rom cation exchange, 2012 V4: 184in laboratory wastes, 2010 V2: 232in regeneration, 2010 V2: 199, 207in water chemistry, 2010 V2: 189

hydrochlorofuorocarbons (HCFCs), 2011 V3: 27hydrodynamics, 2012 V4: 159hydrogen, 2010 V2: 114, 189, 205, 229

ormula, 2012 V4: 173generating, 2011 V3: 270in pH balance, 2011 V3: 85removing, 2011 V3: 273

hydrogen embrittlement, 2009 V1: 143hydrogen lm buildup, 2009 V1: 129hydrogen fuoride, 2011 V3: 27hydrogen ions, 2012 V4: 173hydrogen overvoltage, 2009 V1: 143hydrogen peroxide, 2010 V2: 213, 2011 V3: 49hydrogen-sodium ion exchange plants, 2012 V4: 184hydrogen sulde, 2010 V2: 122, 190, 198, 199

dened, 2012 V4: 202ormula, 2012 V4: 173

hydrographs, storm drainage, 2010 V2: 43hydromechanical grease interceptors (HGIs), 2012 V4:

145, 150–151, 157Hydronics Institute, 2011 V3: 169hydrophilic air lters, 2012 V4: 193hydrophobic air lters, 2012 V4: 193hydropneumatic-tank systems, 2010 V2: 62, 64–65, 162hydroquinone, 2010 V2: 216hydrostatic undamentals, 2012 V4: 159–160hydrostatic loads, 2012 V4: 131hydrostatic locks, 2012 V4: 131hydrostatic monitoring systems, 2011 V3: 143hydrostatic pressure, 2010 V2: 4

hydrostatic relie valves, 2011 V3: 112–113hydrostatic test loads, 2012 V4: 131hydrostatic tests, 2011 V3: 153, 2012 V4: 131hydrotherapeutic showers, 2010 V2: 99hydrotherapy immersion baths, 2011 V3: 38hydroxide salts, 2012 V4: 183hydroxides, 2010 V2: 189, 2011 V3: 85hydroxyl, 2010 V2: 205, 214, 229

hygienic insulation jackets, 2012 V4: 108Hypalon, 2009 V1: 32hyperbaric pressures, 2011 V3: 76, 77hyperchlorination, 2010 V2: 110hypobaric pressures, 2011 V3: 76hypochlorite solutions, 2012 V4: 178hypochlorous acid, 2012 V4: 177Hz (hertz), 2009 V1: 14, 34Hz, HZ (requencies), 2009 V1: 34

II-beams, 2012 V4: 64IAPMO. See International Association o Plumbing and

Mechanical Ocials (IAPMO)

IBBM (iron body bronze mounted), 2009 V1: 14IBC (International Building Code), 2011 V3: 137ICBO (International Conerence o Building Ocials),

2009 V1: 185ICC (International Code Council), 2009 V1: 52ice. See reezing temperaturesice dispensers, 2012 V4: 218ice makers, 2009 V1: 199, 2011 V3: 36, 2012 V4: 161icm (inlet cubic eet per minute)

dynamic air compressors, 2011 V3: 62medical air compressors, 2011 V3: 62vacuum piping systems, 2010 V2: 166

ID (inside diameters), 2009 V1: 14idea evaluation checklists, 2009 V1: 230–231

idea generators, 2009 V1: 227ideal gas law, 2010 V2: 64identiying parts o graywater systems, 2010 V2: 22, 27IE (invert elevations), 2009 V1: 14i.e. (that is), 2009 V1: 15ignition (torch) testing, 2012 V4: 1IIC (Impact Isolation Class), 2009 V1: 188IIR (isobutene isoprene rubber), 2009 V1: 32illegal connections to water meters, 2010 V2: 59Illinois Plumbing Code, 2010 V2: 108–109illuminance

conversion actors, 2009 V1: 36measurements, 2009 V1: 34

Illustrated National Plumbing Code Design Manual, 2010

V2: 50, 55imaginary costs, 2009 V1: 218imaging-science acilities, 2010 V2: 238immersion baths, 2011 V3: 36, 38, 40immersion heaters, 2012 V4: 151immersion-type vacuum separators, 2010 V2: 179immiscible liquids, 2009 V1: 25, 2010 V2: 187impact applications, neoprene and, 2012 V4: 139impact heads in sprinkler systems, 2011 V3: 93Impact Isolation Class (IIC), 2009 V1: 188impact noise (structure-borne sound), 2009 V1: 187impact type fow sensors, 2011 V3: 124

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Index 301

impaired individuals. See people with disabilitiesimpellers

dened, 2009 V1: 25diameters, 2009 V1: 6in equations, 2012 V4: 94–95pumps, 2012 V4: 91

imperviousness actor, 2011 V3: 239impingement attack corrosion, 2009 V1: 131, 143

Implementation Follow-up phase in value engineering,2009 V1: 209Implementation Presentation phase in value engineering,

2009 V1: 209importance

assigning in unction analysis, 2009 V1: 218o equipment or systems in seismic orce calculations,

2009 V1: 177impoundment basins, 2011 V3: 149impressed current systems, 2009 V1: 137, 139impurities

dened, 2009 V1: 25in water. See water impurities

in. See inchesin. Hg (inches o mercury), 2010 V2: 165, 167in-line lters, 2011 V3: 63in-line pumps, 2009 V1: 23in.hr (inches per hour), 2009 V1: 14inch-pound units (IP)

converting, 2010 V2: 170, 2011 V3: 30fow rates and pressure measurements, 2011 V3: 172symbols or, 2009 V1: 14use o, 2010 V2: 165

inchesconverting to metric units, 2011 V3: 30converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38o mercury (in. Hg), 2009 V1: 38, 2010 V2: 165, 167per hour (in./h), 2009 V1: 14, 2011 V3: 91symbols or, 2009 V1: 14

incineration systems, 2009 V1: 122income, in hot water demand classications, 2010 V2: 99inconel, 2009 V1: 132, 2012 V4: 108independent unctions in FAST approach, 2009 V1: 223independent head, 2012 V4: 101indicated horsepower, dened, 2011 V3: 186indirect-circulation solar systems, 2009 V1: 122indirect discharges, 2011 V3: 83, 2012 V4: 227indirect drains (D), 2009 V1: 8indirect-red propane vaporizers, 2010 V2: 134indirect-red water heaters, 2010 V2: 104indirect waste pipes, 2009 V1: 25, 2012 V4: 12, 170indirect waste receptors, 2010 V2: 15–16, 2012 V4: 17. See

also foor sinks

indirect water heating, 2011 V3: 126–127individual aerobic waste treatment plants, 2010 V2: 150Individual Home Wastewater Characterization and

Treatment, 2010 V2: 154individual vents, 2009 V1: 25. See also revent pipesindoor gas boosters, 2010 V2: 126indoor swimming pools, 2011 V3: 108. See also swimming

poolsinduced siphonage, 2009 V1: 25industrial acid-waste drainage systems

acid-waste treatment, 2010 V2: 235

continuous acid-waste treatment systems, 2010 V2: 236dened, 2010 V2: 229health and saety concerns, 2010 V2: 229–230large acilities, 2010 V2: 235types o acids, 2010 V2: 230–232

industrial chemical-waste systems, 2010 V2: 243industrial acilities

distilled water use, 2012 V4: 189

reghting demand fow rates, 2011 V3: 224reghting water drainage, 2010 V2: 243–244hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99numbers o xtures or, 2012 V4: 20, 22piping systems, 2012 V4: 131propane tanks, 2010 V2: 133–134radiation in, 2010 V2: 238water content in wastes, 2011 V3: 91

industrial laundries, 2012 V4: 185Industrial Plumbing Code (IPC), 2009 V1: 14Industrial Risk Insurers (IRI), 2009 V1: 14, 2010 V2: 115,

117, 2011 V3: 11industrial service gas, 2010 V2: 114industrial waste

dened, 2009 V1: 25pretreatment o, 2012 V4: 227

industrial wastewater treatmentcodes and standards, 2011 V3: 88denitions, 2011 V3: 81–82designing systems, 2011 V3: 83–84government publications, 2011 V3: 89industry and technical handbooks, 2011 V3: 89overview, 2011 V3: 81permits, 2011 V3: 82–83reerences, 2011 V3: 88regulatory ramework, 2011 V3: 82–83resources, 2011 V3: 89system elements, 2011 V3: 85–88

inert gases, 2009 V1: 25, 2011 V3: 27, 266 Inert Gases: Argon, Nitrogen and Helium (CGA P-9), 2011

V3: 74, 78inert materials, 2011 V3: 48inertia


inerting atmospheres, 2011 V3: 26inant bathtubs, 2011 V3: 36, 38inectious and biological waste systems. See also

disinecting; microorganismsbiosaety levels, 2010 V2: 241codes and standards, 2010 V2: 241components, 2010 V2: 242introduction, 2010 V2: 240–241

liquid-waste decontamination systems, 2010 V2:241–242

inectious disease rooms, 2011 V3: 47inltration, 2009 V1: 25

storm drainage, 2010 V2: 48infexibility, creativity and, 2009 V1: 225infow, dened, 2009 V1: 25infuents, 2012 V4: 202Inormation phase in value engineering, 2009 V1: 209–218inormation sources in value engineering, 2009 V1: 209–

210, 216

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inrared butt usion joints, 2012 V4: 61–62inrared controls on aucets and xtures, 2009 V1: 128inrared radiation, dened, 2011 V3: 191Ingersoll-Rand Company, 2010 V2: 136inhibitors (corrosion), 2009 V1: 141, 143initial pressure in water-pressure regulators, 2012 V4: 80initial system volumes, 2012 V4: 209initial vacuum pressure, 2010 V2: 183

injectable pharmaceuticals, 2012 V4: 199ink tests, 2012 V4: 5, 8inlet cubic eet per minute (icm), 2010 V2: 166, 2011 V3: 62inlet lters, 2009 V1: 25inlet piping, compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 182inlet pressure, dened, 2011 V3: 186inlet temperature, dened, 2011 V3: 186inlet times, 2011 V3: 242inlet valves, 2012 V4: 202inlets. See also outlets; stations

gas or vacuum. See stationsinlet lters on vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 171inlet inverts on septic tanks, 2010 V2: 146inlet pressure in cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 69inlet pressure in gas boosters, 2010 V2: 128inlet times, 2011 V3: 242, 249number o in vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 174or storage tanks, 2010 V2: 163storm drainage collection systems, 2010 V2: 46submerged, 2012 V4: 161swimming pools, 2011 V3: 135or vacuum cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 179, 180, 183, 184in vacuum sizing calculations, 2010 V2: 174, 176

inline lit check valves, 2012 V4: 76–77inline shuto valves, 2011 V3: 67innovations, 2009 V1: 262inorganic salts, 2012 V4: 199inorganic substances, 2009 V1: 25input motion o earthquakes, 2009 V1: 150inputs, 2009 V1: 25insecticides, storm water, 2010 V2: 27insert boxes, 2012 V4: 131insert nuts, 2012 V4: 131inserts, 2012 V4: 59–60, 119, 131inside-caulk drains, 2010 V2: 13inside-caulk outlets, 2010 V2: 13inside diameters (ID), 2009 V1: 14, 2011 V3: 139insolation, dened, 2011 V3: 191inspecting. See also cleanouts

conditions o existing buildings, 2009 V1: 267–270hazardous waste systems, 2011 V3: 84sewage-disposal systems, 2010 V2: 153

installation

anchor bolts, seismic problems, 2009 V1: 184appearance o, 2009 V1: 262–263bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 231cross-connection controls, 2012 V4: 166–168ensuring high quality with detailed specs, 2009 V1:

253–254estimating productivity rates, 2009 V1: 88fow sensors, 2011 V3: 124–125gas meters, 2010 V2: 115–116grab bars, 2009 V1: 113installation costs, 2009 V1: 217

insulation on valves and ttings, 2012 V4: 110lavatories, 2012 V4: 10liquid uel storage systems, 2011 V3: 154–156makeshit or substandard, 2009 V1: 254–257medical gas piping, 2011 V3: 67–68pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 69–70pumps, 2012 V4: 100section in specications, 2009 V1: 71

showers, 2012 V4: 13storage tank checklist, 2011 V3: 155–156tank insulation, 2012 V4: 110urinals, 2012 V4: 9water closets, 2012 V4: 5–6water coolers, 2012 V4: 224water-pressure regulators, 2012 V4: 82water treatment, 2012 V4: 202

Installation/Maintenance o Private Fire Mains (FM 3-10),2011 V3: 218

Installation o Centriugal Fire Pumps (NFPA 20), 2011 V3: 21

Installation o Closed-head Foam-water Sprinkler Systems

(NFPA 16A), 2011 V3: 30 Installation o Private Fire Service Mains and Their

Appurtenances (NFPA 24), 2011 V3: 30, 218 Installation o Sprinkler Systems (NFPA 13), 2011 V3: 2,

11, 225 Installation o Standpipe and Hose Systems (NFPA 14),

2011 V3: 18 Installation o Underground Gasoline Tanks and Piping at

Service Stations (API 1615), 2011 V3: 156instantaneous water heaters, 2009 V1: 25, 2010 V2:

101–104institutional acilities

estimating sewage quantities, 2010 V2: 151grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 145numbers o xtures or, 2012 V4: 20, 22–23piping systems, 2012 V4: 131septic tank systems or, 150, 2010 V2: 149

instructions to bidders, 2009 V1: 56instrument sterilizers, 2011 V3: 39, 40instruments, nitrogen-pressure-driven, 2011 V3: 64 Insulated Aboveground Tanks or Flammable and

Combustible Liquids (UL 2085), 2011 V3: 137insulated pipe supports, 2012 V4: 131insulating cement, 2012 V4: 106insulation

chilled drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 222conned spaces, 2012 V4: 113dielectric insulation, 2009 V1: 136economic issues, 2012 V4: 112–113in geothermal energy systems, 2009 V1: 123

hangers and supports and, 2012 V4: 118, 119hot-water systems, 2009 V1: 118insulation protection saddles, 2012 V4: 131noise insulation, 2010 V2: 13–14pipe. See pipe insulationpure water systems, 2010 V2: 223short-circuiting installations, 2009 V1: 140solar energy systems, 2011 V3: 203storage and handling, 2012 V4: 113tanks, 2012 V4: 110thickness and energy conservation, 2009 V1: 118

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Index 303

valves and ttings, 2012 V4: 110insurance

carriers, 2011 V3: 1, 27, 205certicates, 2009 V1: 56in labor costs, 2009 V1: 86

intake silencers on compressors, 2011 V3: 175integral attachments, 2012 V4: 131integral two-stage propane regulators, 2010 V2: 133

intensity (luminous), 2009 V1: 34intensity-duration-requency curves, 2011 V3: 239, 244–248intensity, rainall, 2010 V2: 44–46intensive-care rooms

xtures, 2011 V3: 38health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 52, 56

interactive ountains, 2011 V3: 100interceptors, 2009 V1: 25. See also specic kinds o

interceptorsintercooling, dened, 2011 V3: 186interace controls or medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 67intergranular corrosion, 2010 V2: 195interlocking, gas boosters and, 2010 V2: 127interlocks or gas shutos, 2010 V2: 118intermediate chambers in dry-pipe systems, 2011 V3: 8intermediate coats, 2009 V1: 136intermediate gas regulators, 2011 V3: 255intermediate hangers, 2012 V4: 64intermediate-level sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29intermittent fow in xtures, 2012 V4: 186intermittent sand lters, 2010 V2: 150internal energy, dened, 2011 V3: 185Internal Revenue Service (IRS) web site, 2011 V3: 203internal water treatments, 2012 V4: 174International Agency or Research on Cancer (IARC), 2011

V3: 119International Amateur Swimming Federation (FINA),

2011 V3: 104International Association o Plumbing and Mechanical

Ocials (IAPMO), 2009 V1: 52, 2010 V2: 29manhole standards, 2012 V4: 230preabricated grease interceptor standards, 2012 V4: 145Uniorm Plumbing Code. See Uniorm Plumbing Code

International Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 2011 V3: 88 International Building Code (IBC), 2009 V1: 174, 2011

V3: 137International Code Council (ICC), 2009 V1: 52, 2010 V2:

29, 96 International Fuel Gas Code, 2010 V2: 115International Conerence o Building Ocials (ICBO),

2009 V1: 185 International Fuel Gas Code, 2010 V2: 115, 118, 121, 125

International Plumbing Code, 2009 V1: 206, 2010 V2: 29graywater, 2010 V2: 22hydromechanical grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 157required plumbing xtures, 2012 V4: 18single occupant toiler rooms, 2012 V4: 19vent sizing, 2010 V2: 39–40

International Saety Equipment Association (ISEA), 2009 V1: 52

International Standards Organization

Laboratory Tests on Noise Emission rom Appliancesand Equipment Used in Water Supply

Installations, 2009 V1: 193, 206international swimming meets, 2011 V3: 107International System o Units (SI)

conversion actors, 2009 V1: 38–39converting, 2009 V1: 38, 2010 V2: 170, 2011 V3: 30equations, 2009 V1: 1

listing, 2009 V1: 33–39non-SI units, 2009 V1: 34prexes and symbols, 2009 V1: 34pressure and fow rate measurements, 2011 V3: 187style and use, 2009 V1: 34–35, 2010 V2: 165

interrelationships o unctions, 2009 V1: 219, 223interruptible uel-gas service, 2010 V2: 114interruptible gas services, 2011 V3: 251interstage relie valves, 2011 V3: 274interstitial monitoring, 2011 V3: 143interstitial spaces in tanks, 2011 V3: 139, 148intravenous injections, 2012 V4: 192Introduction to Storm Water, 2010 V2: 46, 55inventory control in storage tanks, 2011 V3: 142–143invert elevations, 2009 V1: 14invertebrates, 2010 V2: 188inverted, dened, 2012 V4: 131inverted bucket traps, 2011 V3: 162–163inverts

dened, 2009 V1: 25on septic tanks, 2010 V2: 146

Investigation phase in value engineering, 2009 V1: 209,235–248

inward projecting pipes, 2010 V2: 93iodine, 2010 V2: 110iodine 131, 2010 V2: 238ion-exchange and removal systems, 2010 V2: 201–211

cartridges, 2012 V4: 194continuous deionization, 2010 V2: 209–210dened, 2012 V4: 202design considerations, 2010 V2: 210–211internal structure, 2012 V4: 183–184ion exchange with acid addition, 2012 V4: 184ion exchange with chloride dealkalizer, 2012 V4: 184regenerable ion exchange, 2010 V2: 205regeneration cycle, 2010 V2: 206–208resins, 2010 V2: 205–206, 2012 V4: 183service deionization, 2010 V2: 208–209small drinking water systems, 2010 V2: 218sodium cycle, 2012 V4: 176total dissolved solids and, 2010 V2: 194trace metal removal, 2011 V3: 87water sotening, 2010 V2: 210, 2012 V4: 182–189, 184

ionization, copper-silver, 2010 V2: 11, 110, 2012 V4: 199ionized salts (NaCI), 2011 V3: 47, 2012 V4: 175ions

dened, 2009 V1: 25, 143, 2012 V4: 182, 202in electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 134in pH values, 2010 V2: 229

Iowa Institute o Hydraulic Research, 2010 V2: 72IP units, 2009 V1: 14, 2010 V2: 165, 170, 2011 V3: 30, 172IPC. See International Plumbing CodeIPC vent sizing, 2010 V2: 39–40IPS. See iron pipe size (IPS)

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IPS outlet drain body, 2010 V2: 14IPS outlets, 2010 V2: 13IR (polyisopryne), 2009 V1: 32IRI. See Industrial Risk Insurers (IRI)iron

corrosion, 2009 V1: 129, 2012 V4: 176dened, 2012 V4: 202in electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 132

erric ion ormula, 2012 V4: 173errous oxide ormula, 2012 V4: 173in galvanic series, 2009 V1: 132removing, 2010 V2: 198sludge and, 2010 V2: 195in soils, 2010 V2: 141in water, 2010 V2: 160, 189

iron bacteria, 2010 V2: 188iron body bronze mounted (IBBM), 2009 V1: 14iron coagulants, 2010 V2: 199iron lters, 2012 V4: 186iron oxide, 2009 V1: 129iron oxide lms, 2009 V1: 134iron pipe size (IPS), 2009 V1: 14, 2012 V4: 42, 51iron piping

corrosion, 2009 V1: 129, 2012 V4: 176ductile iron water and sewer pipe, 2012 V4: 26, 29

iron valves, 2012 V4: 77irradiation (insolation), instantaneous, 2011 V3: 191irradiation treatment o water, 2010 V2: 160, 213, 218,

222, 223irregularity o shapes in velocity, 2012 V4: 146irrigation

graywater, 2010 V2: 22Irrigation Association, 2011 V3: 96irrigation systems

design inormation, 2011 V3: 96graywater systems and, 2010 V2: 24–25, 27green plumbing, 2012 V4: 234lawn sprinkler submerged inlet hazards, 2012 V4: 161methods, 2011 V3: 92overview, 2011 V3: 91rain shuto devices, 2011 V3: 96rainwater harvesting, 2009 V1: 126reerences, 2011 V3: 96resources, 2011 V3: 96–97sample inormation sheet, 2011 V3: 97soil considerations, 2011 V3: 91system components, 2011 V3: 92–96water metering and, 2011 V3: 95–96water quality and requirements, 2011 V3: 91water supply, 2011 V3: 96

ISEA (International Saety Equipment Association), 2009

V1: 52island venting, 2011 V3: 46island vents, 2010 V2: 34isoascorbic acid, 2010 V2: 216isobaric processes, 2009 V1: 25isobutene isoprene rubber, 2009 V1: 32isochoric processes, 2009 V1: 25isolating copper pipes, 2009 V1: 256, 258isolating medical gas zones, 2011 V3: 66isolating noise

drainage system components, 2009 V1: 190

pipes and piping, 2009 V1: 190–193quality and, 2009 V1: 263

isolation rooms, 2011 V3: 36, 47, 52isolation valves, 2011 V3: 50isolation, vibration

isolation springs, 2009 V1: 158isolators within hangers, 2009 V1: 158

isolators, 2009 V1: 194, 2012 V4: 139–142

isosceles triangles, calculating area, 2009 V1: 4isothermal processes, 2009 V1: 25isotopes, 2010 V2: 236–237, 238Izod impact, 2012 V4: 50

J J (joules), 2009 V1: 34 J/K (joules per kelvin), 2009 V1: 34 J/kg K (joules per kg per kelvin), 2009 V1: 34 jacketing

coverings or insulation, 2012 V4: 106–109dened, 2012 V4: 131insulation, 2012 V4: 104pipe insulation, 2012 V4: 104, 106–109

preormed plastic jackets or valves and ttings, 2012 V4: 110

types o all-service jackets, 2012 V4: 108aluminum jackets, 2012 V4: 108stainless steel, 2012 V4: 108

vapor barriers, 2012 V4: 112 Jackson turbidity units (JTUs), 2010 V2: 193 jam packing, 2012 V4: 89 janitors’ closets, 2011 V3: 36, 2012 V4: 12 Janoschek, R., 2010 V2: 224 Jayawardena, N., 2010 V2: 224 JCAHO (Joint Commission or the Accreditation o

Hospitals Organization), 2010 V2: 108–109, 111,

2011 V3: 35, 51 jet pumps, 2010 V2: 157 jetted wells, 2010 V2: 157 job preparation checklists, 2009 V1: 91–92 jockey pumps, 2009 V1: 23, 2011 V3: 22 Joint Commission or the Accreditation o Hospitals

Organization (JCAHO), 2010 V2: 108–109, 111,2011 V3: 35, 51

joint responsibilities or drinking water purity, 2012 V4: 170 joints

acid-waste systems, 2010 V2: 232chemical-waste systems, 2010 V2: 242compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 176couplings, 2009 V1: 20

defection, 2012 V4: 57earthquake damage to, 2009 V1: 152earthquake protection and, 2009 V1: 160inspection, 2011 V3: 69, 74labor productivity rates, 2009 V1: 87, 88laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 277materials

ABS pipe, 2012 V4: 51aluminum pipe, 2012 V4: 54bronze joints and ttings, 2012 V4: 30, 39–40cast-iron hubless pipes, 2012 V4: 26cast-iron soil pipes, 2012 V4: 25–26

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Index 305

codes and standards, 2009 V1: 43copper drainage tubes, 2012 V4: 33, 40copper joints, 2012 V4: 30, 39–40copper water tube, 2012 V4: 30, 58CPVC piping, 2012 V4: 51cross-linked polyethylene, 2012 V4: 49cross-linked polyethylene/aluminum/cross-linked

polyethylene (PEX-AL-PEX), 2012 V4: 49

ductile iron water and sewer pipe, 2012 V4: 31berglass pipe, 2012 V4: 53glass pipe, 2012 V4: 36, 41–43, 61glass pipe joints, 2012 V4: 61high silicon (duriron) pipe, 2012 V4: 53lead and oakum joints, 2012 V4: 57plastic joints, 2012 V4: 59–60plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 48polypropylene pipe, 2012 V4: 51–52polypropylene-random pipe, 2012 V4: 52PVC pipe, 2012 V4: 52PVC piping, 2012 V4: 49PVDF pipe, 2012 V4: 52reinorced concrete pipe, 2012 V4: 29seamless copper pipe, 2012 V4: 39–40stainless steel pipe, 2012 V4: 56steel pipe, 2012 V4: 37

medical gas tubing, 2011 V3: 69, 2012 V4: 34natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 124, 2011 V3: 257pure-water systems, 2011 V3: 48–49radioactive waste systems, 2010 V2: 239resistance coecients, 2010 V2: 92restrainers, 2011 V3: 221sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 13–14special-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 228specications to prevent ailures, 2009 V1: 256–258thermal expansion and, 2012 V4: 206–207types o

ball joints, 2012 V4: 63beadless butt usion, 2012 V4: 62bonded joints and cathodic protection, 2009 V1: 140brazing, 2012 V4: 58caulked joints, 2010 V2: 15, 2012 V4: 57compression joints, 2012 V4: 57dielectric unions or fanges, 2012 V4: 62electrousion joining, 2012 V4: 61expansion joints, 2010 V2: 16, 49, 2012 V4: 62,

206–207ll and pipe joints, 2010 V2: 13fanged joints, 2012 V4: 60, 66fexible couplings, 2012 V4: 63heat-used socket joints, 2010 V2: 232inrared butt usion, 2012 V4: 61–62

lead and oakum joints, 2012 V4: 57mechanical couplings, 2012 V4: 63mechanical joints, 2012 V4: 57, 58–59nonrigid couplings, 2009 V1: 180plastic pipe joints, 2012 V4: 59–60press or push connect, 2012 V4: 58roll groove, 2012 V4: 58sanitary, 2011 V3: 48–49screwed mechanical joints, 2010 V2: 232shielded hubless coupling, 2012 V4: 57socket usion, 2012 V4: 61

soldered, 2012 V4: 58thread cutting, 2012 V4: 61threaded, 2012 V4: 60–61welded, 2012 V4: 61

welded joints, 2012 V4: 58welded joints in radioactive waste systems, 2010 V2:

239 joist hangers, 2012 V4: 126

Joukowsky’s ormula, 2010 V2: 70–71 joules, 2009 V1: 34 joules per kelvin, 2009 V1: 34 joules per kg per kelvin, 2009 V1: 34 JTUs (Jackson turbidity units), 2010 V2: 193 Judgment phase in value engineering, 2009 V1: 209 judgmentalism, 2009 V1: 227 juveniles. See children, xtures and

K k, K (conductivity), 2009 V1: 33, 2012 V4: 103K (dynamic response to ground shaking), 2009 V1: 149, 152K (Kelvin), 2009 V1: 14, 30k (kilo) prex, 2009 V1: 34

K actor (coecient o permeability), 2010 V2: 158K actor (conductivity), 2012 V4: 103K actor (sprinkler heads), 2011 V3: 13K piping. See Type K copperKalinske, A.A., 2010 V2: 19, 72Kaminsky, G., 2010 V2: 246Kauman, Jerry J., 2009 V1: 252kcal (kilocalories), 2012 V4: 103KE (kinetic energy), 2009 V1: 2, 5Kelvin (K), 2009 V1: 14, 30, 33, 2011 V3: 184kerosene, 2010 V2: 12, 2011 V3: 136keyboards, infexible thinking and, 2009 V1: 225kg (kilograms). See kilogramskg/m (kilograms per meter), 2009 V1: 34

kg/m2 (kilograms per meter squared), 2009 V1: 34kg/m3 (kilograms per meter cubed), 2009 V1: 34kg/ms (kilogram-meters per second), 2009 V1: 34kg/s (kilograms per second), 2009 V1: 34kidney dialysis. See dialysis machineskill tanks, 2010 V2: 241–242kilo prex, 2009 V1: 34kilocalories

converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38dened, 2012 V4: 103

kilograms (kg)dened, 2009 V1: 33kilograms per cubic meter, 2009 V1: 34kilograms per meter, 2009 V1: 34

kilograms per meter squared, 2009 V1: 34kilograms per second, 2009 V1: 34kilometers (km)

converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39kilometers per hour, 2009 V1: 34

kilopascals (kPa)converting meters o head loss to, 2009 V1: 2converting to psi, 2011 V3: 30in SI units, 2011 V3: 187vacuum pump ratings, 2010 V2: 167vacuum work orces, 2010 V2: 166

kiloponds, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38

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kilowatt hours (kWh, KWH), 2009 V1: 15, 34kilowatts (kW, KW), 2009 V1: 14kinematic viscosity

converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38measurements, 2009 V1: 34water temperature variations, 2010 V2: 73, 74, 77

Kinematic Viscosity Centistokes, 2011 V3: 137kinetic energy (KE)

calculating, 2009 V1: 2dened, 2011 V3: 185velocity head and, 2009 V1: 5

kinetically-operated aerobic bioremediation systems, 2012 V4: 228

King, Thomas R., 2009 V1: 252kip, KIP (thousand pounds), 2009 V1: 15 Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia o Chemical Technology, 2011

V3: 89kitchen aucets, 2010 V2: 25kitchen sinks

aucets, 2012 V4: 12xture-unit loads, 2010 V2: 3grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 145hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99symbols, 2009 V1: 15types, 2012 V4: 10–12

kitchens. See ood-processing areas and kitchensKlein, S.A., 2011 V3: 204km/h (kilometers per hour), 2009 V1: 34knee braces, 2012 V4: 131knee space or wheelchairs, 2009 V1: 99–101knockout pots in vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 171Konen, Thomas K., 2010 V2: 29Kortright Centre or Conservation web site, 2011 V3: 203kPa (kilopascals). See kilopascalsKreider, J.F., 2011 V3: 204Kreith, J., 2011 V3: 203KS. See kitchen sinksKullen, Howard P., 2009 V1: 144kW, KW (kilowatts), 2009 V1: 14kWh, KWH (kilowatt hours), 2009 V1: 15, 34, 2011 V3: 193KYNAR piping, 2011 V3: 49

Ll (leader). See downspouts and leadersL (length). See lengthL (liters). See litersL/min (liters per minute), 2011 V3: 187L piping. See Type L copperL/s (liters per second), 2011 V3: 187L-shaped bath seats, 2009 V1: 114

LA (laboratory compressed air), 2009 V1: 8labelslabeled, dened, 2009 V1: 25labeled re pumps, 2011 V3: 21medical gas tubing, 2011 V3: 69, 74medical gas valves, 2011 V3: 67parts o graywater systems, 2010 V2: 27

labor and materials payment bonds, 2009 V1: 56labor costs

dened, 2009 V1: 210actors in, 2009 V1: 86ongoing and one-time, 2009 V1: 217

overtime, 2009 V1: 86in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85productivity rates, 2009 V1: 87–88in take-o estimating method, 2009 V1: 86true costs o makeshit installations, 2009 V1: 263–264in value engineering, 2009 V1: 208

labor roomsxtures, 2011 V3: 39

health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 52, 56laboratories

acid-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 229, 2011 V3:42–46

acid-waste treatment, 2010 V2: 235, 2011 V3:43–44

continuous acid-waste treatment systems, 2010 V2: 236

discharge to sewers, 2011 V3: 43–44health and saety concerns, 2010 V2: 229–230large acilities, 2010 V2: 235metering, 2011 V3: 45piping and joint material, 2010 V2: 232–234sink traps, 2011 V3: 45–46solids interceptors, 2011 V3: 45system design considerations, 2010 V2: 234–235types o acids, 2010 V2: 230–232waste and vent piping, 2011 V3: 46

classroom water demand, 2011 V3: 46compressed air use actors, 2011 V3: 182dened, 2011 V3: 76direct connection hazards, 2012 V4: 161distilled water use, 2012 V4: 189emergency eyewash and showers, 2011 V3: 36, 41xtures and pipe sizing, 2010 V2: 228gas service outlets, 2011 V3: 41–42gas systems. See laboratory gas systemsgrades o water or, 2012 V4: 197–199in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36, 41–42inectious waste systems, 2010 V2: 240–241lab animals, 2010 V2: 241medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 52natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 121plastic pipes, 2012 V4: 39pure water systems or, 2010 V2: 218–219, 2011 V3: 48radioactive isotopes in, 2010 V2: 235sinks as submerged inlet hazards, 2012 V4: 161vacuum systems

codes and standards, 2010 V2: 172diversity actor calculations or vacuums, 2010

V2: 176leakage, 2010 V2: 177, 178

piping, 2010 V2: 173pump assemblies, 2010 V2: 173sizing, 2010 V2: 174–176vacuum-pump systems, 2011 V3: 65

water systems ltration, 2010 V2: 201laboratory compressed air (LA), 2009 V1: 8laboratory gas systems

cleaning and sterilizing pipes, 2011 V3: 277codes and standards, 2011 V3: 263components

alarms, 2011 V3: 275

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Index 307

compressor inlet piping, 2011 V3: 280cylinders, 2011 V3: 267–268dewers, 2011 V3: 268distribution system components, 2011 V3: 270–276lters and puriers, 2011 V3: 273fash arresters, 2011 V3: 273fow meters, 2011 V3: 275gas cabinets, 2011 V3: 268–270

gas mixers, 2011 V3: 276gas warmers, 2011 V3: 275gauges, 2011 V3: 273 joints, 2011 V3: 277pipes and piping, 2011 V3: 276–280purge devices, 2011 V3: 275shuto valves, 2011 V3: 274valves, 2011 V3: 273–274

generating gases, 2011 V3: 270grades o gases, 2011 V3: 267overview, 2011 V3: 263pipe sizing, 2011 V3: 277–280pressure, 2011 V3: 276sizing, 2011 V3: 275–276specialty gas classications, 2011 V3: 266–267storage and generation, 2011 V3: 267–270testing and purging, 2011 V3: 280toxic and fammable gas monitoring, 2011 V3: 275–276

laboratory grade water, 2012 V4: 197–199laboratory outlets, 2009 V1: 25laboratory service panels, 2010 V2: 121 Laboratory Testing on the Noise Emitted by Valves,

Fittings, and Appliances Used in Water Supply

Installations, 2009 V1: 206 Laboratory Tests on Noise Emission by Appliances and

Equipment Used in Water Supply Installations,

2009 V1: 193laboratory vacuum (LV), 2009 V1: 9, 2010 V2: 170LaCrosse encephalitis, 2010 V2: 49ladders

aboveground storage tanks, 2011 V3: 148swimming pools, 2011 V3: 134–135

lagging (pipe wrappings), 2012 V4: 109lagoons, 2010 V2: 150lakes, 2010 V2: 24LAL test, 2010 V2: 188laminar fow devices, 2011 V3: 35laminar fow in pipes, 2009 V1: 2, 2010 V2: 74landscaping irrigation. See irrigation systemslandslides, 2009 V1: 149lanes in swimming pools, 2011 V3: 107Langelier saturation index (LSI), 2010 V2: 196, 2011

V3: 128

Langelier, W.F., 2010 V2: 196lap joint welds, 2012 V4: 58Laque, F.L., 2009 V1: 144large buildings

acid-waste systems, 2010 V2: 235xture drainage loads, 2010 V2: 3high-rise buildings, 2010 V2: 126large private sewage-disposal systems, 150, 2010 V2: 149pipe expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 207Provent single-stack plumbing systems, 2010 V2: 17–18Sovent single-stack plumbing systems, 2010 V2: 17–18

valves in systems, 2012 V4: 88large-drop sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29large-scale biohazard acilities, 2010 V2: 241latent heat (LH, LHEAT), 2009 V1: 128, 2011 V3: 157, 162lateral and longitudinal motion, 2012 V4: 116–117, 118lateral and longitudinal sway bracing, 2009 V1: 175–176,

178–179, 2012 V4: 131lateral orce

calculating or seismic protection, 2009 V1: 174dened, 2009 V1: 185lateral lines, 2011 V3: 78lateral sewers, 2009 V1: 25lateral stability

dened, 2012 V4: 131o suspended equipment, 2009 V1: 157

laundry machines. See laundry systems and washerslaundry sinks or trays, 2009 V1: 15, 2012 V4: 12laundry systems and washers

accessibility, 2009 V1: 115clothes washer xture-unit loads, 2010 V2: 3xture pipe sizes and demand, 2010 V2: 86gray water use, 2009 V1: 126, 2010 V2: 21health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36, 39hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99laundry sinks and clothes washers, 2012 V4: 12laundry tray xture-unit loads, 2010 V2: 3noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 199, 200rates o sewage fows, 2010 V2: 152submerged inlet hazards, 2012 V4: 161suds problems, 2010 V2: 37–38waste heat usage, 2009 V1: 123water xture unit values, 2011 V3: 206water sotening, 2012 V4: 185water temperatures, 2011 V3: 47

lavatories (lav). See also sinks and wash basinsabbreviations or, 2009 V1: 15accessibility, 2009 V1: 108–109chase size, 2012 V4: 10aucets and overfows, 2012 V4: 10, 12xture pipe sizes and demand, 2010 V2: 86xture-unit loads, 2010 V2: 3fow rates, 2012 V4: 9graywater systems, 2009 V1: 126, 2010 V2: 23health care acilities, 2011 V3: 35, 36, 40hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99installation requirements, 2012 V4: 10LEED 2009 baselines, 2010 V2: 25minimum numbers o, 2012 V4: 20–23noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 198patient rooms, 2011 V3: 37poor installations o, 2009 V1: 259

recovery rooms, 2011 V3: 39reduced water usage, 2009 V1: 118shapes and sizes, 2012 V4: 9–10standards, 2012 V4: 2submerged inlet hazards, 2012 V4: 161swimming pool acilities, 2011 V3: 109temperatures, 2011 V3: 47typical graywater supply, 2010 V2: 23–24typical use, 2010 V2: 23

Law o Inverse Proportions, 2009 V1: 218lawn imperviousness actors, 2011 V3: 239

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lawn sprinkler supply (LS), 2009 V1: 8lawn sprinklers. See irrigation systems; sprinkler systems

(irrigation)lawsuits

moisture problems, 2009 V1: 263noise-related, 2009 V1: 263plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 187

layer-type dezincication, 2009 V1: 131

layers o efuent in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 145layers o ll, 2010 V2: 14lb, LBS (pounds). See poundsleaching trenches. See soil-absorption sewage systemsleaching wells (dry wells), 2011 V3: 249–250lead

corrosion, 2009 V1: 129in electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 132in galvanic series, 2009 V1: 132 joint seals, 2012 V4: 26in older plumbing system solder, 2012 V4: 220storm water, 2010 V2: 27

lead-absorbant lters, 2012 V4: 221lead and oakum joints, 2012 V4: 57lead-ree legislation, 2012 V4: 225lead-ree solders, 2012 V4: 59lead-lined concrete blocks, 2010 V2: 238lead-lined lath or plaster, 2010 V2: 238lead piping, 2010 V2: 75lead shielding on radioactive drainage systems, 2010 V2: 238lead-tin solders, 2009 V1: 132leaders. See downspouts and leaders; vertical stacksLeadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED),

2009 V1: 32lea design lters, 2012 V4: 181–182leakage

clean agent gas re suppression, 2011 V3: 27compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 183electrical leakage, 2012 V4: 117eliminating, 2009 V1: 126gas cabinets, 2011 V3: 268leaking oil into water, 2010 V2: 244–246propane tanks, 2010 V2: 133–134waste anesthetic gas management, 2011 V3: 66water conservation and, 2009 V1: 117

leakage detectionaboveground tank systems, 2011 V3: 148–149chemical wastes, 2010 V2: 243connectors, 2011 V3: 148–149industrial waste, 2011 V3: 84inectious waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 241ion exchange systems, 2010 V2: 210special-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 227

underground liquid uel storage tanks, 2011 V3: 141–145leakage detection cables, 2012 V4: 56leakage tests

cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 90private water systems, 2010 V2: 164storage tanks, 2011 V3: 152–154vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 177, 178

LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design),2009 V1: 32, 263

LEED 2009 baselines, plumbing xtures, 2010 V2: 25overview, 2012 V4: 2

rating system, 2012 V4: 233–234solar energy credits, 2011 V3: 190wastewater reuse certication, 2010 V2: 21water savings credits, 2012 V4: 241

leg baths, 2010 V2: 99, 2011 V3: 36, 38, 40leg clearances

drinking ountains and water coolers, 2009 V1: 104toilet and bathing rooms, 2009 V1: 105

Legionella pneumophila, 2010 V2: 97, 108–111, 2011 V3:196, 2012 V4: 199 Legionellae Control in Health Care Facilities, 2010 V2:

108–109legislation regarding people with disabilities, 2009 V1:

98–99legs in piping systems, 2011 V3: 48legs on tanks

cast-iron tank legs, 2009 V1: 154problems in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 182, 183

Lehr, Valentine A., 2010 V2: 29LEL gases (lower explosive level), 2011 V3: 266length (lg, LG, L)

conversion actors, 2009 V1: 35in measurements, 2009 V1: 33o stacks, 2009 V1: 3total developed length in pipes, 2012 V4: 206, 207o vent piping, 2009 V1: 3

letters o service requests (gas), 2010 V2: 114Level 1, 2, and 3 gas and vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 34–35level control systems, 2011 V3: 131–133level control valves, 2012 V4: 82Level I vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 78Level III alarm systems, 2011 V3: 76Level III vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 78level-sensing systems, 2011 V3: 131–133level sensors

hazardous materials, 2011 V3: 84tank gauges, 2011 V3: 141

leveling bolts, 2012 V4: 142levels in water tanks, 2010 V2: 163levels o radiation, 2010 V2: 237Lewis, G.N., 2009 V1: 142LF (linear eet), 2009 V1: 15lg, LG (length). See lengthLH (latent heat), 2009 V1: 128LHEAT (latent heat), 2009 V1: 128lie-cycle costs, 2009 V1: 128lie hooks, 2011 V3: 135lie rings, 2011 V3: 135lie saety in re protection, 2011 V3: 1lit check valves, 2012 V4: 76, 89lit station pumps, 2012 V4: 98

lits o ll, 2010 V2: 14light brackets, 2012 V4: 131light conversion actors, 2009 V1: 36light energy, dened, 2011 V3: 188–189light hazard occupancies

dened, 2009 V1: 29, 2011 V3: 2reghting hose streams, 2011 V3: 225portable re extinguishers, 2011 V3: 29

light heating oil, 2011 V3: 136light process gas service, 2011 V3: 251–252light service gas, 2010 V2: 114

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Index 309

light wall pipe (Schedule 10), 2012 V4: 37lighting protection, 2010 V2: 125lights, underwater, 2011 V3: 135lightwall pipes, 2011 V3: 13lime (calcium carbonate). See scale and scale ormationlime-soda method o water sotening, 2010 V2: 160, 210lime stabilization, biosolids, 2012 V4: 240limestone

calcium carbonate, 2012 V4: 173dened, 2012 V4: 202limestone chips, 2010 V2: 235limit stops, 2012 V4: 131limited-care acilities, 2011 V3: 34, 76limited-discharge roo drains, 2011 V3: 250limiting conditions in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 183, 184limulus amoebocyte lysate test, 2010 V2: 188Lin, S.H., 2010 V2: 225Linaweaver, F.P., 2010 V2: 29line-pressure sensors, 2011 V3: 67line regulators, 2011 V3: 254linear acceleration


linear expansionin ABS pipe, 2012 V4: 51in berglass pipe, 2012 V4: 53linear coecients o thermal expansion, 2012 V4: 207o materials, 2012 V4: 211in PVC pipe, 2012 V4: 49

linear eet (lin t, LF), 2009 V1: 15linear velocity measurements, 2009 V1: 34lined steel

storage tanks and hazardous wastes, 2011 V3: 84suluric acid and, 2011 V3: 85

linen holding areas, 2011 V3: 36liners, dened, 2012 V4: 131lining materials or dug wells, 2010 V2: 156Linstedt, K.C., 2010 V2: 154lint interceptors, 2011 V3: 39lint strainers, 2011 V3: 114, 124liqueaction, 2009 V1: 149liqueed petroleum gas (LPG). See also uel-gas piping

systemsabbreviations or, 2009 V1: 15codes and standards, 2009 V1: 43dened, 2010 V2: 136design considerations, 2010 V2: 134–135environmental impacts, 2010 V2: 131gas boosters, 2010 V2: 125–128glossary, 2010 V2: 135–136overview, 2010 V2: 131

physical properties, 2010 V2: 113piping, 2012 V4: 32, 34pressures, 2010 V2: 115propane regulators, 2010 V2: 132–133sizing systems, 2010 V2: 135snier systems, 2010 V2: 135specic gravity, 2010 V2: 131storage, 2010 V2: 131–134valves or systems, 2012 V4: 87vaporization requirements, 2010 V2: 134

Liquefed Petroleum Gas Code (NFPA 58), 2010 V2: 115,132–133, 137

liquid contamination in compressed air, 2011 V3: 173,264–265

liquid uel systems. See diesel-oil systems; gasoline systemsliquid monitoring, 2011 V3: 143liquid oxygen (LO2, LOX)

dened, 2011 V3: 77

re hazards, 2011 V3: 57medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 58symbol, 2009 V1: 8

liquid petroleum, 2011 V3: 136liquid piston compressors, 2011 V3: 175liquid ring compressors, 2011 V3: 62, 175liquid ring pumps, 171, 2010 V2: 169, 170, 173liquid solar systems, 2011 V3: 192liquid waste

decontamination systems, 2010 V2: 241–242dened, 2009 V1: 25levels in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 146

liquid withdrawal valvespropane tanks, 2010 V2: 133

liquids, vacuuming, 2010 V2: 178listed, dened, 2009 V1: 25listing agencies, 2009 V1: 25listings, product, cross-connection control, 2012 V4: 168liters

converting to gallons units, 2011 V3: 30converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38liters per minute (L/min, Lpm), 2010 V2: 166, 2011

V3: 187liters per second (L/s), 2011 V3: 187non-SI units, 2009 V1: 34

live loads on roos, 2010 V2: 51lm (lumens), 2009 V1: 34LO (lubricating oil), 2009 V1: 8, 2010 V2: 12LO2 (liquid oxygen). See liquid oxygenload adjustment scales, 2012 V4: 131load bolts or pins, 2012 V4: 131load couplings, 2012 V4: 131load indicators, 2012 V4: 131load rates, storm water inltration, 2010 V2: 48load ratings

carbon steel threaded hanger rods, 2012 V4: 122concrete inserts, 2012 V4: 129dened, 2012 V4: 131hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 124suspended equipment supports, 2009 V1: 258

load scales, 2012 V4: 132load variations, 2012 V4: 132loading infuences or bioremediation, 2012 V4: 229

loading tablesxture-unit values in drainage systems, 2010 V2: 3vertical stacks, 2010 V2: 4

loads. See also pipe loads; support and hanger loadscomputer analysis o loads, 2009 V1: 180connected loads, dened, 2010 V2: 136design considerations in seismic protection, 2009 V1:

180–182horizontal loads o piping, 2009 V1: 177live loads on roo, 2010 V2: 51load actors, dened, 2009 V1: 25

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pipe supports, 2012 V4: 115–116settlement loads, 2009 V1: 180sway bracing, 2009 V1: 178–179vertical seismic load, 2009 V1: 177

loams, 2011 V3: 91local alarms, 2011 V3: 76. See also area alarmslocal application systems (carbon dioxide), 2011 V3: 26local authorities, 2010 V2: 24, 227

local barometric pressure in vacuums, 2010 V2: 166local rainall rate tables, 2010 V2: 57localized corrosion, 2010 V2: 195location o piping, earthquake protection and, 2009 V1: 159locations o hangers. See cold hanger location; hot hanger

locationslock-out regulators, 2011 V3: 255lock-up periods, 2012 V4: 132locker rooms, 2011 V3: 36Loevenguth, 2009 V1: 185long runs in vacuum cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 185long-turn tee-wyes, 2010 V2: 4longest length gas pipe sizing method, 2010 V2: 130longitudinal bracing

dened, 2009 V1: 185, 2012 V4: 132longitudinal and transverse bracing, 2009 V1: 173longitudinal brace points, 2009 V1: 160longitudinal-only bracing, 2009 V1: 173seismic protection, 2009 V1: 165sway bracing, 2009 V1: 178

longitudinal orces, 2009 V1: 185longitudinal motion

expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 207hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 116–117, 118

Looking to Treat Wastewater? Try Ozone, 2010 V2: 225loop systems

expansion loops, 2012 V4: 206re mains, 2011 V3: 6

loop vents, 2009 V1: 26, 31, 2010 V2: 32, 33, 2011 V3: 46LOV (lubricating oil vents), 2009 V1: 8low-alkalinity water, 2012 V4: 184low backfow hazard, 2011 V3: 215low-demand classications, 2010 V2: 100low-expansion borosilicate glass, 2012 V4: 35low-expansion oams, 2011 V3: 25low-extractable PVC piping, 2012 V4: 52–53low-fow xtures

low-fow control valves, 2011 V3: 95low-fush toilets and water closets, 2009 V1: 126water conservation estimates, 2009 V1: 117

low-fow shutdown systems, 2010 V2: 63low-fow toilets

xture drain fow, 2010 V2: 2

low-fush toilets and water closets, 2009 V1: 126low-pressure carbon dioxide systems, 2011 V3: 26low-pressure condensate (LPC), 2009 V1: 9low-pressure cutouts, 2012 V4: 221low-pressure gas (G), 2009 V1: 8low-pressure gas cutos, 2010 V2: 118low-pressure natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 113–125low-pressure steam (lps, LPS), 2009 V1: 9, 2012 V4: 85–86low-pressure tanks, 2011 V3: 136low-suction-pressure switches, 2010 V2: 63low-temperature oam, 2011 V3: 25

lower explosive level gases (LEL), 2011 V3: 266lower order unctions, 2009 V1: 221Lowther plate units, 2010 V2: 214 LP-Gas Serviceman’s Manual, 2010 V2: 137LPC (low-pressure condensate), 2009 V1: 9lpg. See liqueed petroleum gasLpm (liters per minute). See literslps, LPS (low-pressure steam), 2009 V1: 9, 2012 V4: 85–86

LS (lawn sprinkler supply), 2009 V1: 8LSI (Langelier saturation index), 2010 V2: 196LT. See laundry sinks or trayslubricated plug valves, 2012 V4: 77lubricating oil (LO), 2009 V1: 8, 2010 V2: 12, 2012 V4: 60lubricating oil vents (LOV), 2009 V1: 8lubrication, direct connection hazards and, 2012 V4: 161lubricators in compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 184lug plates, 2012 V4: 125lug style valves, 2012 V4: 76lugs, 2012 V4: 125, 132lumens, 2009 V1: 34luminance measurements, 2009 V1: 34luminous fux, 2009 V1: 34luminous measurements, 2009 V1: 34lux, 2009 V1: 34LV (laboratory vacuum), 2009 V1: 9LWDS (liquid-waste decontamination systems), 2010 V2:

241–242lx (lux), 2009 V1: 34lye. See sodium hydroxide (lye or caustic soda)

Mm (meters). See meters (measurements)M alkalinity, 2010 V2: 189M piping. See Type M copperM (mega) prex, 2009 V1: 34m (milli) prex, 2009 V1: 34

m/s (meters per second), 2009 V1: 34m/s2 (meters per second squared), 2009 V1: 34m2 (meters squared), 2009 V1: 34m2/s (meters squared per second), 2009 V1: 34m3 (cubic meters), 2009 V1: 34m3/kg (cubic meters per kilogram), 2009 V1: 34m3/min (cubic meters per minute), 2011 V3: 172m3/s (cubic meters per second), 2009 V1: 34MΩ (mega ohms), 2012 V4: 191MA. See medical compressed airmacadam pavement runo, 2010 V2: 42MacHatton, J.G., 2010 V2: 154machine trenching, labor productivity rates, 2009 V1:

87–88

magnesia, 2012 V4: 173magnesite, 2012 V4: 173magnesium

corrosion, 2009 V1: 129dened, 2012 V4: 202dry-power extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 24in electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 132in galvanic series, 2009 V1: 132in hardness, 2012 V4: 183laboratory grade water, 2012 V4: 198liespan o anodes, 2009 V1: 138nanoltration, 2012 V4: 199

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Index 311

sacricial anodes, 2009 V1: 137in water, 2010 V2: 189, 190water hardness and, 2012 V4: 176zeolite process and, 2010 V2: 160

magnesium alloys, 2009 V1: 132magnesium bicarbonate, 2010 V2: 190, 2012 V4: 173magnesium carbonate, 2010 V2: 189, 190, 196, 2012 V4: 173magnesium chloride, 2010 V2: 190

magnesium hydroxide, 2010 V2: 189magnesium oxide, 2012 V4: 173magnesium salts, 2012 V4: 176magnesium sulate, 2010 V2: 189, 2012 V4: 173magnetic drive meters, 2010 V2: 88magnetic eld strength measurements, 2009 V1: 34magnetic fux density, 2009 V1: 34magnetic fux measurements, 2009 V1: 34magnetism, conversion actors, 2009 V1: 35magnetostrictive tank gauging, 2011 V3: 142main drain piping, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 112, 132main relie valves, 2011 V3: 22main shut-o valves, 2011 V3: 66main vents, 2009 V1: 26, 2010 V2: 37mains. See also water mains

dened, 2009 V1: 26, 2011 V3: 78re mains, 2011 V3: 6orce mains, 2011 V3: 225, 229, 234–235natural gas mains, 2011 V3: 256pipe, 2009 V1: 12thermal expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 206

maintenancecosts, 2009 V1: 217ountains and pools, 2011 V3: 98grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 157–158pumps, 2012 V4: 99section in specications, 2009 V1: 63–64, 71stills, 2012 V4: 191, 198storm drainage, 2010 V2: 48–49

maintenance hot-water temperatures, 2010 V2: 105–106major or prime costs, 2009 V1: 217makeshit installations, 2009 V1: 254–257, 263–264makeup, 2009 V1: 128makeup water systems, 2012 V4: 224malleable (mall), dened, 2009 V1: 26malleable iron rings, 2012 V4: 119malleable iron valves, 2012 V4: 77malls, 2010 V2: 24 Management o Small Waste Flows, 2010 V2: 29Manas, Vincent T., 2010 V2: 55manganese, 2010 V2: 160, 198, 2012 V4: 173manholes

acid manholes, 2011 V3: 231

acid-waste systems, 2010 V2: 233, 235bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 230chemical-waste systems, 2010 V2: 243cleanouts, 2011 V3: 234dened, 2009 V1: 26drop manholes, 2011 V3: 228, 232grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 153MH abbreviation, 2009 V1: 15precast manholes, 2011 V3: 226, 230sampling manholes, 2011 V3: 45sanitary sewer systems, 2011 V3: 226–228, 230

shallow manholes, 2011 V3: 228, 232spacing, 2011 V3: 233steps and covers, 2011 V3: 228storm drainage, 2010 V2: 48–49venting, 2011 V3: 228, 233waterproo manholes, 2011 V3: 228, 233

manioldscompressed air, 2011 V3: 61

laboratory high-purity gas systems, 2011 V3: 270–271nitrogen systems, 2011 V3: 64, 65nitrous oxide systems, 2011 V3: 59–60, 61oxygen, 2011 V3: 57, 59, 60purging, 2011 V3: 275

manmade environmental conditions, 2012 V4: 118Manning ormula

alternative sewage-disposal systems, 2010 V2: 144circular pipes, 2011 V3: 226ditches, 2011 V3: 250grease fow control devices, 2012 V4: 155open-channel fow, 2009 V1: 1, 2010 V2: 6, 7sloping drains, 2010 V2: 7, 2011 V3: 224storm-drainage pipes, 2011 V3: 242

manual butterfy valves, 2011 V3: 125manual chlorinators, 2012 V4: 178manual-control irrigation valves, 2011 V3: 94manual controls on ion exchangers, 2012 V4: 183manual dry standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 20manual fushometer valves, 2012 V4: 7manual grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 151 Manual o Practice

introduction, 2009 V1: 55section shell outline, 2009 V1: 68–72Uniormat, 2009 V1: 58

Manual o Septic Tank Practice, 2010 V2: 152 Manual on the Design and Construction o Sanitary and

Storm Sewers, 2010 V2: 55manual overll prevention, 2011 V3: 148manual overrides, 2011 V3: 94manual pull stations, 2011 V3: 24manual release stations, 2011 V3: 28manual tank gauging, 2011 V3: 142manual trap primers, 2010 V2: 11manual wet standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 20manuacturers

noise mitigation eatures o products, 2009 V1: 202–203, 205–206

in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 71Manuacturers Standardization Society o the Valve and

Fittings Industry, Inc. (MSS)ball valve standards, 2012 V4: 84, 85, 88bronze valve standards, 2012 V4: 83, 84, 85, 86

butterfy valve standards, 2012 V4: 84, 85, 88cast iron check valve standards, 2012 V4: 84cast iron valve standards, 2012 V4: 83, 86, 88check valve standards, 2012 V4: 87gate valve standards, 2012 V4: 83, 85, 86globe valve standards, 2012 V4: 86, 87medical gas tube standards, 2012 V4: 34MSS abbreviation, 2009 V1: 32, 52swing check valve standards, 2012 V4: 88valve standards, 2012 V4: 73

manuacturing acilities, 2011 V3: 81, 2012 V4: 223

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manways in tanks, 2011 V3: 139, 145, 150, 2012 V4: 230maps

rost lines, 2011 V3: 218seismic risk maps, 2009 V1: 145–146soils, 2010 V2: 140

marble acrylic xtures, 2012 V4: 1marble as calcium carbonate, 2012 V4: 173marble xtures, 2012 V4: 1

mark-ups, in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85–86, 86marketsin creativity checklist, 2009 V1: 227sanitation in, 2010 V2: 15

markings, corrosion and, 2009 V1: 136Marks, Lionel S., 2009 V1: 1, 2, 3, 5, 39marsh gas, 2012 V4: 173martensitic stainless steel, 2012 V4: 54Maryland Department o the Environment, 2010 V2: 55Maryland Stormwater Design Manual, 2010 V2: 55mass

conversion actors, 2009 V1: 36mass per unit area measurements, 2009 V1: 34mass per unit length measurements, 2009 V1: 34in measurements, 2009 V1: 33non-SI units, 2009 V1: 34

mass fow, 2010 V2: 166mass fow meters, 2011 V3: 177, 275mass fow rates (mr, MFR), 2009 V1: 34massive soil structure, 141, 2010 V2: 140master alarms

dened, 2011 V3: 76medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 50, 67, 75

master plumbers, 2009 V1: 26MasterFormat

comparisons and changes in 2004, 2009 V1: 59–60dened, 2009 V1: 58specications sections, 2009 V1: 62–65

MasterFormat 2004, 2009 V1: 58–60, 72–83MasterFormat expansion task team (MFETT), 2009 V1: 58MasterFormat Level Four (1995), 2009 V1: 68–69MasterFormat Level One (1995), 2009 V1: 66MasterFormat Level Three (1995), 2009 V1: 68MasterFormat Level Two (1995), 2009 V1: 66–68Masterspec, 2009 V1: 65mastic, 2012 V4: 106mat zones in grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 147material costs

dened, 2009 V1: 210in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85in take-o estimating method, 2009 V1: 86in value engineering, 2009 V1: 208

material saety data sheets, 2009 V1: 15

industrial wastes, 2011 V3: 83laboratory gas, 2011 V3: 263

materials. See also specic materials or system xturesdetail/product/material specication checklist, 2009

V1: 215xtures, 2012 V4: 1–2materials section in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 71ongoing and one-time costs, 2009 V1: 217in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85quality choices, 2009 V1: 254sprinkler system piping (re protection), 2011 V3: 20

storm-drainage systems, 2011 V3: 238value engineering questions, 2009 V1: 209

materials expansion, 2012 V4: 211materials section in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 71maximum allowable stress and strain, 2012 V4: 205–206maximum considered earthquake motion, 2009 V1: 147maximum design fow, 2010 V2: 127maximum discharge pressure, dened, 2011 V3: 186

maximum discharge rates, 2009 V1: 5maximum fow rates or xtures, 2012 V4: 186maximum outlet pressure in gas boosters, 2010 V2: 128maximum probably demand, 2009 V1: 26maximum resistance values, 2010 V2: 192–193mbars (millibars), 2010 V2: 166mc (millicuries), 2010 V2: 237McAlister, Roy, 2011 V3: 203McClelland, Nina I., 2010 V2: 154MCE (maximum considered earthquake motion), 2009

V1: 147Mc, MCF (thousand cubic eet), 2009 V1: 15McSweeney, D.P., 2010 V2: 186MDPE (medium density) 2406 pipe, 2012 V4: 42MEA (New York City Materials and Equipment

Acceptance Division), 2012 V4: 88meadow, runo, 2010 V2: 42measurable nouns in unction analysis, 2009 V1: 218, 219measurement units

compressed air, 2011 V3: 187converting, 2011 V3: 30fow rates, 2010 V2: 166International System o Units, 2009 V1: 33–39microorganisms, 2010 V2: 188non-SI units, 2009 V1: 34pressure, 2011 V3: 187pure water, 2011 V3: 47radiation, 2010 V2: 237types o conversions, 2009 V1: 33units and symbols, 2009 V1: 33usage o, 2010 V2: 165–166vacuum pressure, 2010 V2: 166water impurities, 2010 V2: 191

measuring tank leakage, 2011 V3: 141–145 Measuring Water Purity by Specifc Resistance, 2010 V2: 225mechanical aerators, 2010 V2: 198mechanical areas

ountain equipment location, 2011 V3: 98–99sediment buckets, 2010 V2: 11trap primers in drains, 2010 V2: 12

mechanical clariers, 2012 V4: 179mechanical code agencies, 2009 V1: 42mechanical couplings, 2012 V4: 63

mechanical eciency, 2011 V3: 186, 2012 V4: 101mechanical emulsions, 2011 V3: 88 Mechanical Engineering Reerence Manual, 2010 V2: 136mechanical equipment rooms (MER), 2009 V1: 15mechanical oam extinguishers, 2011 V3: 25–26mechanical joints, 2009 V1: 160, 2011 V3: 42, 221, 2012

V4: 57, 58–59mechanical pump seals, 2012 V4: 92mechanical rooms

as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 188earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 158

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Index 313

mechanical rotary-type vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 169mechanical snubbers, 2012 V4: 132mechanical steam traps, 2011 V3: 162mechanical sway bracing, 2012 V4: 132mechanical tank gauging, 2011 V3: 142mechanically-dispersed oil, 2010 V2: 244Meckler, Milton, 2009 V1: 39media (biolms), 2012 V4: 229

media rate, lter, 2011 V3: 111medical air systems. See also medical compressed air (MA)color coding, 2011 V3: 55concentrations, 2011 V3: 76dened, 2011 V3: 76–77medical compressed air (MA)

altitude and, 2011 V3: 63compressors, 2011 V3: 50, 77storage, 2011 V3: 61–64surgical use, 2011 V3: 56symbol, 2009 V1: 8system description, 2011 V3: 61–62

peak demand, 2011 V3: 53pipe sizing, 2011 V3: 68–69stations, 2011 V3: 51, 52–53testing, 2011 V3: 75–76

medical cabinets, 2009 V1: 105medical compressed air (MA)

altitude and, 2011 V3: 63compressors, 2011 V3: 50, 77storage, 2011 V3: 61–64surgical use, 2011 V3: 56symbol, 2009 V1: 8system description, 2011 V3: 61–62

medical gas systemscertication, 74–76, 2011 V3: 69codes and standards, 2011 V3: 76color coding, 2011 V3: 51, 55design checklist, 2011 V3: 50dispensing equipment, 2011 V3: 51–54diversity actors, 2011 V3: 70earthquake bracing or, 2009 V1: 158gas fow rates, 2011 V3: 51gas storage, 2011 V3: 57–61health care acilities, 2011 V3: 50–76levels, 2011 V3: 34–35number o stations, 2011 V3: 51piping, 2011 V3: 68–76system control valves, 2011 V3: 66–67typical storage layout, 2011 V3: 58valves or, 2012 V4: 85warning systems, 2011 V3: 67waste anesthetic gas management, 2011 V3: 65–66

medical-gas tube, 2011 V3: 69, 74, 2012 V4: 33–34medical-grade water, 2012 V4: 52medical laboratories. See health care acilities; laboratoriesmedical schools. See health care acilitiesmedical vacuum (MV), 2009 V1: 9medical waste systems. See inectious and biological waste

systemsMedicare taxes, in labor costs, 2009 V1: 86medicine sinks, 2011 V3: 38medium-backfow hazard, 2011 V3: 215medium brackets, 2012 V4: 132

medium-demand classications, 2010 V2: 99, 100medium-expansion oams, 2011 V3: 25medium-pressure condensate (MPC), 2009 V1: 9medium-pressure gas (MG), 2009 V1: 8, 2010 V2: 113–125medium-pressure steam (mps, MPS), 2009 V1: 9, 2012

V4: 86medium vacuum, 2010 V2: 165mega-ohm-cm, 2010 V2: 193, 2012 V4: 175

mega-ohms (MΩ

), 2012 V4: 191mega prex, 2009 V1: 34membrane ltration

cross-fow lters, 2010 V2: 201, 213graywater systems, 2010 V2: 25in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 48membrane fux, 2010 V2: 211membrane productivity, 2010 V2: 221membrane selection in reverse osmosis, 2010 V2: 213nanoltration, 2012 V4: 199overview, 2010 V2: 211–213pure water systems, 2010 V2: 221reverse osmosis, 2010 V2: 211–213, 2012 V4: 195–197tangential-fow lters, 2010 V2: 201total dissolved solids and, 2010 V2: 194types o membranes, 2012 V4: 199

membrane fux, 2010 V2: 211membrane productivity, 2010 V2: 221 Membrane Technologies in the Power Industry, 2010 V2: 224membranes in waterproong, 2010 V2: 16memory metal couplings, 2011 V3: 69MER (mechanical equipment rooms), 2009 V1: 15mercantile acilities, 2012 V4: 21mercury vapor lamps, 2010 V2: 213, 2012 V4: 195Mermel, H., 2010 V2: 246Meslar, H.W., 2010 V2: 246metal fashing on roo drains, 2010 V2: 49metal isolation, 2009 V1: 258metal-to-metal valve seating, 2012 V4: 74metallic hose, 2012 V4: 143metallic inert gas (MIG), 2012 V4: 61metallic pipes. See also specic metals

bedding, 2011 V3: 225–226, 227pure-water systems, 2011 V3: 49

metals. See also specic metalscorrosion losses, 2009 V1: 129galvanic series table, 2009 V1: 132metallic coatings, 2009 V1: 136removing in efuent, 2012 V4: 227

Metcal, 2010 V2: 154meter-reading equipment, 2010 V2: 116meter set assemblies, 2010 V2: 136meters (gas)

installation, 2010 V2: 115–116meter-reading equipment, 2010 V2: 116outlet pressures, 2010 V2: 115

meters (general devices)acid wastes, 2011 V3: 45uel dispensers, 2011 V3: 146natural gas, 2010 V2: 115–177, 2011 V3: 252, 254

meters (measurements)converting units, 2011 V3: 30meters, 2009 V1: 34meters o head, 2009 V1: 2

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meters per second, 2009 V1: 34meters per second squared, 2009 V1: 34meters squared, 2009 V1: 34meters squared per second, 2009 V1: 34

meters (water)domestic cold water systems, 2010 V2: 59–60fow pressure loss tables, 2010 V2: 61irrigation, 2011 V3: 95–96

irrigation systems and, 2011 V3: 95–96meter readings, 2012 V4: 186pressure and, 2010 V2: 84pressure losses, 2011 V3: 216

methane, 2010 V2: 114, 2012 V4: 173. See also uel-gaspiping systems

Method or Measuring the Minimum Oxygen

Concentration to Support Candle-like Combustion o Plastics (ASTM D2863), 2011 V3: 77

Methods o Estimating Loads in Plumbing Systems, 2010 V2: 95–96

methoxyfurane, 2011 V3: 66methyl orange alkalinity, 2010 V2: 189Metric Conversion Act, 2009 V1: 33metric hangers, 2012 V4: 132metric tons, 2009 V1: 34metric units. See International System o UnitsMeyers, Vance A., 2010 V2: 55Meyrick, C.E., 2010 V2: 225MFETT (MasterFormat expansion task team), 2009 V1: 58mr, MFR (mass fow rates), 2009 V1: 34MG (medium-pressure gas), 2009 V1: 8mg/L (milligrams per liter), 2010 V2: 191MGD (million gallons per day), 2009 V1: 15MH (manholes). See manholesmho (specic conductivity), 2010 V2: 193micro prex, 2009 V1: 34microbial growth and control. See also bacteria;

microorganisms; virusescooling towers, 2010 V2: 217drinking water, 2010 V2: 217eed water, 2010 V2: 220pure water systems, 2010 V2: 222utility water, 2010 V2: 215water soteners, 2010 V2: 210, 211water treatments, 2010 V2: 213–214

microbiological ouling o water, 2010 V2: 195, 217microbiological laboratories, 2010 V2: 241. See also

laboratoriesmicrometers, vacuum units, 2010 V2: 166micromhos, 2010 V2: 193microns, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39microorganisms. See also bacteria; microbial growth and

control; virusesbiolms, 2012 V4: 228bioremediation systems, 2012 V4: 228chlorination systems, 2012 V4: 177–178inectious waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 240–241laboratory grade water, 2012 V4: 198pure water systems, 2010 V2: 222, 2011 V3: 49ultraviolet light and, 2012 V4: 194water analysis o, 2010 V2: 188water treatments, 2010 V2: 213–214, 218

microscopes, electron, 2011 V3: 40, 42, 47, 52

microsiemens (µS), 2012 V4: 191MIG (metallic inert gas), 2012 V4: 61miles

converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39miles per hour (mph, MPH), 2009 V1: 15

Miles, Lawrence D., 2009 V1: 252mill galvanization, 2012 V4: 132Millepore lters, 2010 V2: 194

milli prex, 2009 V1: 34millibars (mbar)converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39vacuum units, 2010 V2: 166

millicuries (mc), 2010 V2: 237milligrams per liter (mg/L), 2010 V2: 191millimeters

converting to inches, 2011 V3: 30converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39

million gallons per day (MGD), 2009 V1: 15millirems (mrem), 2010 V2: 237Mills, Lawrence E., 2009 V1: 209min (minutes), 2009 V1: 34min., MIN (minimum), 2009 V1: 15mineral ber blankets, 2012 V4: 107mineral salts, 2010 V2: 194, 196, 2012 V4: 176, 182mineral solids, 2010 V2: 195minerals

removing rom water, 2012 V4: 182in water, 2012 V4: 176, 182

minimum (min., MIN), 2009 V1: 15minimum design fow, 2010 V2: 127 Minimum Design Loads or Buildings and Other

Structures, 2009 V1: 147, 174, 185minimum outlet pressure in gas boosters, 2010 V2: 128Minimum Property Standards (HUD), 2009 V1: 99 Minnesota Urban Small Sites Best Management Practice

Manual, 2010 V2: 42, 55minor backfow hazards, 2011 V3: 215minutes, 2009 V1: 34mirrors, 2009 V1: 105misaligned wells, pumps or, 2010 V2: 161miscellaneous gases, 2011 V3: 77mist, 2009 V1: 26mist eliminators, 2010 V2: 200mitigating noise

drainage systems, 2009 V1: 189–190xtures and xture outlets, 2009 V1: 193–194valves, pumps and equipment, 2009 V1: 194–201water distribution system noise mitigation, 2009 V1:

190–193 MIUS Technology Evaluation: Collection, Treatment and

Disposal o Liquid Wastes, 2010 V2: 154

mixed-bed deionization (single-step), 2010 V2: 206, 208,2011 V3: 48

mixed fow, 2012 V4: 101mixed-fow pumps, 2012 V4: 91mixes in specications, 2009 V1: 71mixing aucets, 2011 V3: 37mixing fows o water

conserving energy, 2009 V1: 118mixed-water temperatures, 2010 V2: 101

mixing stations, 2011 V3: 39mock-ups, 2009 V1: 264

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Index 315

moderate backfow hazard, 2011 V3: 215 Modern Vacuum Practice, 2010 V2: 186modications section in project manual, 2009 V1: 57modulating valves, pneumatically operated main drain,

2011 V3: 131–132Moat, R., 2010 V2: 186moisture problems, 2009 V1: 263molded elastomer mounting, 2012 V4: 142

mole (mol), 2009 V1: 33molecular sieve lters, 2011 V3: 273molecular weights o elements, 2010 V2: 189molybdenum-alloyed chromium-nickel steels, 2012 V4: 56moments o inertia

calculating, 2012 V4: 205conversion actors, 2009 V1: 36measurements, 2009 V1: 34

momentum measurements, 2009 V1: 34Monel, 2009 V1: 132, 2012 V4: 108monitor-type intermediate gas regulators, 2011 V3: 255monitoring

aboveground tank systems, 2011 V3: 148–149dened, 2009 V1: 26ground water, 2011 V3: 143–144underground liquid uel storage tanks, 2011 V3: 141–145

monobed demineralizers, 2012 V4: 183monovalent ions

laboratory grade water, 2012 V4: 198nanoltration, 2012 V4: 199

Montgomery, R.H., 2011 V3: 203monthly inventory tank tightness testing, 2011 V3: 143Montreal Protocol, 2011 V3: 26Moody, L.F., 2010 V2: 74mop basins or sinks, 2009 V1: 199, 2010 V2: 23, 2011 V3:

36, 37, 2012 V4: 12morgues and mortuaries, 2010 V2: 15Moritz, A.R., 2010 V2: 111mosquitoes, 2010 V2: 49motels. See hotelsmotion

in creativity checklist, 2009 V1: 227in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 149–150

motor compressors, 2012 V4: 219 Motor Fuel Dispensing Facilities and Repair Garages Code

(NFPA 30A), 2011 V3: 137motor lubrication oil, 2011 V3: 136motor-operated lter bag shakers, 2010 V2: 179motor-operated valves, 2009 V1: 9motors

earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 157pump motor controls, 2010 V2: 63–64

mounting. See also installation

elastomer-cork mountings, 2012 V4: 142re extinguishers, 2011 V3: 29natural requency and, 2012 V4: 138resilient mounts. See resilient mountswater closets, 2012 V4: 3

movable gas appliances, 2010 V2: 124–125MPC (medium-pressure condensate), 2009 V1: 9mph, MPH (miles per hour), 2009 V1: 15MPS (medium-pressure steam supply), 2009 V1: 9mrem (millerems), 2010 V2: 237

MSDS (material saety data sheets), 2009 V1: 15, 2011 V3: 83

MSS. See Manuacturers Standardization Society o the Valve and Fittings Industry, Inc. (MSS)

MU (viscosity), 2009 V1: 2, 34, 2011 V3: 136–137mudballing in lters, 2012 V4: 181Mudge, Arthur E., 2009 V1: 252muds in eed water, 2010 V2: 195

mufers on vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 64multi-cell vertical high-rate sand lters, 2011 V3: 118multi-eect distillation, 2010 V2: 200, 204, 2012 V4: 192multi-amily buildings. See apartment buildingsmulti-graded sand ltration, 2010 V2: 201multi-stage pumps, 2012 V4: 101multi-turn valves, 2012 V4: 73multimedia depth lters, 2012 V4: 180multimedia ltration, 2010 V2: 201, 221multiple. See also entries beginning with double-, multi-,

or two-multiple-compartment septic tanks, 2010 V2: 147multiple-degree-o-reedom systems, 2009 V1: 150, 151multiple-amily dwellings. See apartment buildingsmultiple-gang-service outlets, 2011 V3: 51multiple pressure-regulated valve installation, 2010 V2:

69–70multiple-pump systems, 2010 V2: 63multiple supports, 2012 V4: 132multiple-tray waterall aerators, 2010 V2: 198multiplication in SI units, 2009 V1: 35multipurpose dry chemicals, 2011 V3: 23, 29multistage pumps, 2012 V4: 97multistory buildings. See large buildingsmultivalent ions, 2012 V4: 198municipal sewers. See public sewersmunicipal water supply

city water, 2009 V1: 19cross connections and, 2012 V4: 160re-protection connections, 2011 V3: 217irrigation usage, 2011 V3: 96sprinkler systems, 2011 V3: 2–3types o, 2011 V3: 6water mains and pressure, 2011 V3: 206

municipalities, rainall, 2010 V2: 57muriatic acid, 2010 V2: 207, 232, 2012 V4: 173. See also

hydrochloric acidMusgrave, G.W., 2010 V2: 55mussels, 2010 V2: 188MV (medical vacuum), 2009 V1: 9

N

n (nano) prex, 2009 V1: 34N (newtons), 2009 V1: 34n c, N C (normally closed), 2009 V1: 15n i c, N I C (not in contract), 2009 V1: 15N m (newton-meters), 2009 V1: 34n o, N O (normally open), 2009 V1: 15N2 (nitrogen). See nitrogen (N2)N2O (nitrous oxide), 2009 V1: 9NACE (National Association o Corrosion Engineers),

2009 V1: 140, 144NACE Basic Corrosion Course, 2009 V1: 144NACE Standard RP-01, 2009 V1: 140

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NaCI (ionized salts), 2011 V3: 47nails, protecting against, 2010 V2: 16NAIMA (North American Insulation Manuacturers

Association), 2009 V1: 118Nalco Chemical Co., 2010 V2: 225Nalco Water Handbook, 2010 V2: 225nameplates (propane tanks), 2010 V2: 132nano prex, 2009 V1: 34

nanolter membranes, 2010 V2: 191, 201, 211, 213nanoltration (NF), 2012 V4: 199naphtha, 2010 V2: 12National Association o Corrosion Engineers (NACE),

2009 V1: 140, 144National Association o Plumbing-Heating-Cooling

Contractors. See Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors–National Association (PHCC-NA)

National Board o Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors(NBBPVI), 2010 V2: 106

National Bureau o Standards, 2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2:18–19

electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 142publications, 2010 V2: 95–96stack capacities study, 2010 V2: 4

National Committee or Clinical Laboratory Standards,Inc. (NCCLS), 2010 V2: 220

National Easter Seal Society, 2009 V1: 97 National Electrical Code, 2010 V2: 125National Electrical Code (NEC), 2010 V2: 112National Electrical Manuacturers Association (NEMA),

2009 V1: 15NEMA 4 listing, 2010 V2: 125NEMA 4X listing, 2010 V2: 106NEMA 12 listing, 2010 V2: 125NEMA Class 1, Division 1, Group D listing, 2010 V2: 125

National Energy Conservation Policy Act, 2009 V1: 117 National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code (NFPA 72), 2011

V3: 28, 30National Fire Protection Association, Inc.

designing systems and, 2011 V3: 1gas approvals, 2010 V2: 114list o standards, 2009 V1: 53NFPA abbreviation, 2009 V1: 15, 32publications (discussed)

air compressors in dry-pipe systems, 2011 V3: 8design density requirements, 2011 V3: 11reghting water tanks, 2010 V2: 162fame testing standards, 2012 V4: 105hot-water system standards, 2010 V2: 112liqueed petroleum pipe sizing, 2010 V2: 135medical gas station guidelines, 2011 V3: 51pipe and ttings standards, 2012 V4: 68–71

propane tank specications, 2010 V2: 132sprinkler piping, 2009 V1: 177stationary re pump standards, 2012 V4: 98

publications (listed), 2009 V1: 39 NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 2011 V3: 30 NFPA Standard no. 10: Standard or Portable Fire

Extinguishers, 2011 V3: 28, 30 NFPA Standard no. 11: Standard or Low-,

Medium-, and High-Expansion Foam, 2011 V3: 25, 30

NFPA Standard no. 12: Carbon Dioxide

Extinguishing Systems, 2011 V3: 26, 30 NFPA Standard no. 12A: Halon 1301 Fire

Extinguishing Systems, 2011 V3: 27, 28, 30 NFPA Standard no. 13: Installation o Sprinkler

Systems, 2009 V1: 185, 2011 V3: 2, 11,30, 225

NFPA Standard no. 13D: Standard or the

Installation o Sprinkler Systems in

One-and Two-Family Dwellings and Manuactured Homes, 2011 V3: 18 NFPA Standard no. 13R: Standard or the

Installation o Sprinkler Systems in

Residential Occupancies up to and Including Four Stories in Height, 2011 V3: 18

NFPA Standard no. 14: Installation o Standpipe

and Hose Systems, 2011 V3: 18, 30 NFPA Standard no. 15: Water Spray Fixed Systems

or Fire Protection, 2011 V3: 24, 30 NFPA Standard no. 16: Installation o Foam-water

Sprinkler and Foam-water Spray Systems,2011 V3: 30

NFPA Standard no. 16A: Installation o Closed-

head Foam-water Sprinkler Systems, 2011 V3: 30

NFPA Standard no. 17: Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems, 2011 V3: 23, 30

NFPA Standard no. 17A: Standard or Wet Chemical

Extinguishing Agents, 2011 V3: 24 NFPA Standard no. 20: Installation o Stationary

Fire Pumps or Fire Protection, 2011 V3:21, 30

NFPA Standard no. 24: Installation o Private Fire

Service Mains and Their Appurtenances, 2011 V3: 30, 218

NFPA Standard no. 30: Flammable andCombustible Liquids Code, 2011 V3: 88,136, 148, 149, 156

NFPA Standard no. 30A: Motor Fuel Dispensing

Facilities and Repair Garages, 2011 V3:137, 156

NFPA Standard no. 50: Standard or Bulk Oxygen

Systems at Consumer Sites, 2011 V3: 57, 78 NFPA Standard no. 51: Standard or the Design

and Installation o Oxygen-uel Gas

Systems or Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes, 2010 V2: 137

NFPA Standard no. 51B: Standard or Fire Prevention During Welding, Cutting, and

Other Hot Work, 2010 V2: 136 NFPA Standard no. 54: National Fuel Gas Code,

117, 118, 121, 137, 2010 V2: 115 , 2011 V3:

251, 256 NFPA Standard no. 55: Compressed Gases and

Cryogenic Fluids Code, 2011 V3: 263 NFPA Standard no. 58: Liquefed Petroleum Gas

Code, 2010 V2: 115, 132–133, 137 NFPA Standard no. 59: Utility LP-Gas Plant Code,

2010 V2: 137 NFPA Standard no. 70: National Electrical Code,

2010 V2: 125 NFPA Standard no. 72: National Fire Alarm and

Signaling Code, 2011 V3: 28, 30

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Index 317

NFPA Standard no. 88A: Standard or ParkingStructures, 2010 V2: 115

NFPA Standard no. 99: Standard or Health-care Facilities, 2011 V3: 51, 63, 64, 69, 76, 78,263

NFPA Standard no. 255: Standard Method o Test o Surace Burning Characteristics o

Building Materials, 2011 V3: 69

NFPA Standard no. 291: Recommended Practice or Fire Flow Testing and Marking o

Hydrants, 2011 V3: 3, 30 NFPA Standard no. 329: Recommended Practice

or Handling Releases o Flammable andCombustible Liquids and Gases, 2011 V3:137

NFPA Standard no. 385: Standard or TankVehicles or Flammable and Combustible

Liquids, 2011 V3: 137 NFPA Standard no. 484: Combustible Metals, 2011

V3: 30 NFPA Standard no. 505: Fire Saety Standard or

Powered Industrial Trucks Including Type

Designations, Areas o Use, Conversions, Maintenance, and Operation, 2010 V2: 137

NFPA Standard no. 750: Water Mist Fire Protection Systems, 2011 V3: 25, 30

NFPA Standard no. 2001: Clean Agent

Extinguishing Systems, 2011 V3: 27, 28, 30web site, 2011 V3: 78, 89

National Formulary (NF) USP nomographs, 2010 V2: 218 National Fuel Gas Code (NFPA 54), 117, 118, 121, 137,

2010 V2: 115natural gas system design, 2011 V3: 251pipe materials, 2011 V3: 256

National Ground Water Association (NGWA), 2010 V2: 164National Institutes o Health, 2010 V2: 172, 241National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),

2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2: 42, 55, 2011 V3: 239national pipe thread (NPT), 2009 V1: 15 National Plumbing Code, 2009 V1: 15 National Plumbing Code, Illustrated, 2010 V2: 55National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System

(NPDES), 2011 V3: 81, 82National Sanitation Foundation (NSF)

abbreviation, 2009 V1: 32domestic water piping and ttings, 2012 V4: 25drinking water standard, 2012 V4: 53 Equipment or Swimming Pools, Spas, Hot Tubs, and

Other Recreational Water Facilities (NSF/ANSI

50), 2011 V3: 111, 122hot-water system requirements, 2010 V2: 112

list o standards, 2009 V1: 53potable water standard, 2012 V4: 53

National Society o Proessional Engineers (NSPE), 2009 V1: 56, 57

National Standard Plumbing Code, 2010 V2: 115National Swimming Pool Foundation (NSPF), 2011 V3:

104, 122National Technical Inormation Service (NTIS), 2011

V3: 89National Water Research Institute, 2012 V4: 195National Weather Service (NWS), 2010 V2: 42

Hydro 35 , 2011 V3: 239natural drainage (corrosion), 2009 V1: 143natural requency (n), dened, 2012 V4: 138natural requency o vibration control materials, 2012 V4:

138, 140–141natural gas. See uel-gas piping systems; natural gas

systemsnatural gas systems

altitude actors, 2010 V2: 117, 121appliance demand table, 2010 V2: 116appliances, 118, 2010 V2: 116approvals, 2010 V2: 114codes and standards, 2010 V2: 115, 2011 V3: 251compressed gas res, 2011 V3: 25compressed gases, dened, 2011 V3: 171dened, 2011 V3: 263demand in multiple amily dwellings, 2010 V2: 123,

124, 130design considerations, 2010 V2: 126–127eciency, 2010 V2: 115equivalent lengths or valves and ttings, 2010 V2: 123gas expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 211–213glossary, 2010 V2: 135–136grounding, 2010 V2: 125high-rise buildings and, 2010 V2: 126laboratory usage, 2010 V2: 121liqueed petroleum gas, 2010 V2: 131–135low and medium pressure systems, 2010 V2: 113–125NG abbreviation, 2009 V1: 15operating pressures, 2010 V2: 115overview, 2011 V3: 251physical properties o gas and propane, 2010 V2: 113pipe sizing, 2010 V2: 123, 128–131, 2011 V3: 256preliminary inormation, 2011 V3: 205pressure, 2010 V2: 119–121sample gas utility letter, 2011 V3: 252, 261site utility planning, 2011 V3: 251–257sizing methods, 2010 V2: 130–131specic gravity, 2010 V2: 126, 131system components, 2011 V3: 252–255

control valves, 2010 V2: 118drip pots, 2011 V3: 255ttings and joints, 2010 V2: 124fexible hose connections, 2010 V2: 124–125gas boosters, 2010 V2: 125–128gas line lters, 2011 V3: 252–254gas meters, 2011 V3: 254gas pressure regulators, 2011 V3: 254–255gas regulator relie vents, 2010 V2: 117–118materials, 2010 V2: 121–125meters, 2010 V2: 115–117, 2011 V3: 254

natural gas pipes, 2012 V4: 32, 34piping, 2010 V2: 122pressure control valves, 2010 V2: 117–118pressure regulating valves, 2010 V2: 118regulator relie vents, 2010 V2: 121storage tanks, 2010 V2: 131–134tubing, 2010 V2: 122–124

testing and purging, 2011 V3: 257types o, 2010 V2: 113–114types o services, 2011 V3: 251–252venting systems, 2010 V2: 118–119

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natural gas water heaters. See gas-red water heatersnatural osmosis, 2010 V2: 211natural period o vibration, 2009 V1: 150Natural Resources Canada, 2011 V3: 204Natural Resources Deense Council, 2011 V3: 81natural soil, building sewers and, 2010 V2: 14natural water, 2010 V2: 187, 2012 V4: 202. See also eed

water

Naturally Occurring Arsenic in Well Water in Wisconsin,2010 V2: 29naturally-vented multiple tray aerators, 2010 V2: 198naval rolled brass, 2009 V1: 132NBBPVI (National Board o Boiler and Pressure Vessel

Inspectors), 2010 V2: 106NBR (acrylonitrile butadiene rubber), 2011 V3: 150NBS (National Bureau o Standards). See National Bureau

o StandardsNC (noise criteria), 2012 V4: 137NCCLS (National Committee or Clinical Laboratory

Standards, Inc.), 2010 V2: 220NEC (National Electrical Code), 2010 V2: 112negative gauge pressure, 2010 V2: 166negative pressure. See vacuumnegativity in value engineering presentations, 2009 V1: 249negligent acts, 2012 V4: 170negligible movement, 2012 V4: 132NEMA (National Electrical Manuacturers Association),

2009 V1: 15NEMA 4 listing, 2010 V2: 125NEMA 4X listing, 2010 V2: 106NEMA 12 listing, 2010 V2: 125NEMA Class 1, Division 1, Group D listing, 2010 V2: 125neoprene, 2009 V1: 32

compression gaskets, 2012 V4: 26gaskets, 2011 V3: 46, 2012 V4: 57hanger isolators, 2009 V1: 203noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 190pad isolators, 2009 V1: 204vibration control, 2012 V4: 138, 139

nephelometric test, 2010 V2: 193nephelometric turbidity units (NTUs), 2010 V2: 193, 2012

V4: 175net positive suction head (NPSH), 2010 V2: 162, 2012 V4:

96, 101neutralizing acid, 2012 V4: 176neutralizing acid in waste water

discharge rom laboratories, 2011 V3: 42–44health care acility systems, 2011 V3: 42–44laboratories, 2011 V3: 43–44methods o treatment, 2010 V2: 235sizing tanks, 2011 V3: 44

solids interceptors, 2011 V3: 45tank and pipe materials, 2011 V3: 85–87types o acids, 2010 V2: 230–232

neutralizing tanks, 2011 V3: 43–44neutrons, 2010 V2: 236–237New York City, ultra-low-fow toilets in, 2009 V1: 127New York City Materials and Equipment Acceptance

Division (MEA), 2012 V4: 88New York State Department o Environmental

Conservation

Technology or the Storage o Hazardous Liquids, 2011 V3: 89

web site, 2011 V3: 89newer buildings, 2012 V4: 137newton-meters, 2009 V1: 34newtons, 2009 V1: 34Newton’s equation, 2012 V4: 146NF (nanoltration), 2012 V4: 199

NF nomographs, 2010 V2: 218NFPA. See National Fire Protection Association, Inc.NFPP (nonfame pipe), 2012 V4: 51NG. See natural gas systemsNGWA (National Ground Water Association), 2010 V2: 164ni-resist cast iron, 2009 V1: 132ni-resist irons, 2009 V1: 132Nibco Inc., 2010 V2: 96niche lights, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 135nickel

corrosion, 2009 V1: 129electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 132galvanic series, 2009 V1: 132plastic corrosion and, 2009 V1: 141in stainless steel, 2012 V4: 1

nickel-bronze grates, 2010 V2: 13, 15Nine Dots exercise, 2009 V1: 225, 252nippled-up sprinklers, 2009 V1: 13nitrates, 2010 V2: 189, 190

dened, 2012 V4: 202water hardness and, 2012 V4: 176

nitric acid, 2009 V1: 136, 2010 V2: 232nitriying bacteria, 2010 V2: 188nitrile butadiene (Buna-N), 2011 V3: 150, 2012 V4: 75, 84nitrile rubber. See nitrile butadienenitrogen (N2)

as contaminant in air, 2011 V3: 265color coding outlets, 2011 V3: 55control cabinets, 2011 V3: 56cylinder supplies, 2011 V3: 58, 65dened, 2011 V3: 77dry nitrogen, 2011 V3: 257ormula, 2012 V4: 173gas blankets in water tanks, 2010 V2: 223generating, 2011 V3: 270high-pressure dispensing equipment, 2011 V3: 56–57laboratory outlets, 2011 V3: 41–42medical gas pipe sizing, 2011 V3: 69, 70, 71medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 52–53medical gas storage, 2011 V3: 63–64, 65oil-ree, 2012 V4: 34purging vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 171in raw water, 2010 V2: 190

storm water, 2010 V2: 27surgical use, 2011 V3: 56symbol, 2009 V1: 9testing concentrations, 2011 V3: 75testing laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 280in water chemistry, 2010 V2: 189

nitrogen NF, 2011 V3: 61, 77nitrous umes, 2010 V2: 232nitrous oxide (N2O)

color coding outlets, 2011 V3: 55cylinder supplies, 2011 V3: 58

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Index 319

dened, 2011 V3: 77medical gas pipe sizing, 2011 V3: 69, 71medical gas storage, 2011 V3: 59–60, 61reductions rom solar energy use, 2011 V3: 189surgical use, 2011 V3: 57symbol, 2009 V1: 9testing concentrations, 2011 V3: 75waste anesthetic gas management, 2011 V3: 66

nL/min (normal liters per minute), 2011 V3: 187nm3/min (normal cubic meters per minute), 2011 V3: 172no-fow pressure in pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 94no-hub joints, earthquake protection and, 2009 V1: 160no-hub outlet drain body, 2010 V2: 14no-hub outlets, 2010 V2: 13no., NO (numbers), 2009 V1: 15no observed adverse eect level, 2011 V3: 27NOAA (National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration), 2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2: 42 NOAA, National Weather Service 5-60 Minute

Precipitation Frequency or the Eastern andCentral United States, 2010 V2: 55

rainall records, 2011 V3: 239NOAEL (no observed adverse eect level), 2011 V3: 27Noble, Duncan, 2011 V3: 204noble potential, dened, 2009 V1: 143noise. See acoustics in plumbing systemsnoise criteria (NC), 2012 V4: 137nominal diameter (DN), 2010 V2: 165nominal pipe size (NPS), 2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2: 165, 2012

V4: 49nominal size, dened, 2012 V4: 132nominal values, 2009 V1: 33nominal volume o piping, 2012 V4: 211non-agreement states, 2010 V2: 238non-ambulatory disabilities, 2009 V1: 99non-aqueous liquid wastes, 2011 V3: 81non-carbonic salts, 2012 V4: 176non-circular grab bars, 2009 V1: 112non-clog pumps, 2012 V4: 98non-continuous joints, 2009 V1: 140non-depletable energy sources, 2009 V1: 128 Nondiscrimination on the Basis o Disability by Public

Accommodations and in Commercial Facilities,2009 V1: 98

non-electrolytes, 2010 V2: 187non-errous metals, 2012 V4: 61non-fammable medical gas, 2011 V3: 50 Non-ammable Medical Gas Piping Systems (CSA

Z305.1), 2011 V3: 78non-fammable pipe, 2012 V4: 51, 56non-impact applications, 2012 V4: 139

non-integral attachment, 2012 V4: 132non-looped piping systems, 2011 V3: 12non-lubricated plug valves, 2012 V4: 77, 87non-measurable nouns in unction analysis, 2009 V1: 218non-metallic coatings, 2009 V1: 136non-oxidizing chemicals in microbial control, 2010 V2: 213non-oxidizing piping, 2010 V2: 239non-pathogenic organisms, 2012 V4: 177non-porous piping, 2010 V2: 239non-porous soils, 2011 V3: 96non-potable cold water (NPCW), 2009 V1: 9

non-potable hot water (NPHW), 2009 V1: 9non-potable hot water return (NPHWR), 2009 V1: 9non-potable water systems. See graywater systemsnon-pumping wells, 2010 V2: 157–158non-puncturing membrane fashing, 2010 V2: 16non-reactive silica, 2010 V2: 190non-reinorced concrete pipe, 2012 V4: 29non-rigid couplings, 2009 V1: 180

non-rising stems on valves (NRS), 2012 V4: 79non-SI units, 2009 V1: 34non-sprinklered spaces, 2009 V1: 12Non-structural Damage to Buildings, 2009 V1: 185non-tilting grates, 2010 V2: 11non-vitreous china xtures

dened, 2012 V4: 1standards, 2012 V4: 2

non-volatile substances, 2012 V4: 191normal air, dened, 2011 V3: 186normal, compared to standard, 2011 V3: 187normal cubic meters per minute (nm3/min), 2011 V3: 172normal liters per minute (nL/min), 2011 V3: 187normal pressure, 2009 V1: 26normally closed (n c, N C), 2009 V1: 15normally open (n o, N O), 2009 V1: 15North American Insulation Manuacturers Association

(NAIMA), 2009 V1: 118not in contract (n i c, N I C), 2009 V1: 15not to scale (NTS), 2009 V1: 15nouns in unction analysis, 2009 V1: 218, 219, 225nourishment stations in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36nozzles

dened, 2009 V1: 29dry-chemical systems, 2011 V3: 23ountains, 2011 V3: 100uel dispensers, 2011 V3: 146irrigation sprinklers, 2011 V3: 93pressure, 2011 V3: 210pressure fow tables, 2011 V3: 3, 5sprinklers, 2011 V3: 6

NPC. See National Plumbing CodeNPCW (non-potable cold water), 2009 V1: 9NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination

System), 2011 V3: 81, 82NPHW (non-potable hot water), 2009 V1: 9NPHWR (non-potable hot water return), 2009 V1: 9NPS (nominal pipe size), 2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2: 165NPSH (net positive suction head), 2010 V2: 63, 162, 2012

V4: 96, 101NPT (national pipe thread), 2009 V1: 15NRC (Nuclear Regulatory Commission), 2010 V2: 237, 238NSF. See National Sanitation Foundation (NSF)

NSPE (National Society o Proessional Engineers), 2009 V1: 56, 57

NSPF (National Swimming Pool Foundation), 2011 V3: 122NTIS (National Technical Inormation Service), 2011

V3: 89NTS (not to scale), 2009 V1: 15NTUs (nephelometric turbidity units), 2010 V2: 193, 2012

V4: 175nuclear power plants

regulatory requirements, 2010 V2: 235seismic protection, 2009 V1: 148

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Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 2010 V2: 237, 238numbers (no., NO, N)

in CSI ormat, 2009 V1: 59in measurements, 2009 V1: 33o swimmers, 2011 V3: 106symbol, 2009 V1: 15

numerical weights in value engineering, 2009 V1: 235nurse stations, 2011 V3: 36

nurseriesxtures or, 2011 V3: 37–38health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 52, 56sinks, 2011 V3: 40

nursing homes, 2011 V3: 33–34. See also health careacilities

Nussbaum, O.J., 2010 V2: 225nuts, 2012 V4: 131NWS (National Weather Service), 2010 V2: 42

OO-rings, 2012 V4: 30O2. See oxygen (O2, OX)

oakum seals, 2012 V4: 26, 57objectives in FAST approach, 2009 V1: 221obstructions to wheelchairs, 2009 V1: 103, 104OC (on center), 2009 V1: 15occupancy, dened, 2009 V1: 26occupancy classication (sprinkler systems), 2009 V1:

28–29, 2011 V3: 2, 13occupancy o pools, 2011 V3: 106–107occupants

in hot water demand classications, 2010 V2: 99loads o buildings, 2012 V4: 20–23perception o quality and, 2009 V1: 263

Occupational Saety and Health Administration (OSHA),2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2: 232, 2011 V3: 136

ocean water, irrigation systems and, 2010 V2: 25OD (outside diameters), 2009 V1: 15odor

gas pressure regulators and, 2010 V2: 118odor control in drinking water, 2010 V2: 160, 217

OEM (original equipment manuacturers), 2009 V1: 15OFCI (owner urnished, contractor installed), 2009 V1: 64o-peak power usage, 2009 V1: 119oce buildings

drinking ountain usage, 2012 V4: 222, 223hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99numbers o xtures or, 2012 V4: 20, 22

Oce o Statewide Health Planning and Development(OSHPD), 2009 V1: 185

oset connection strainers, 2011 V3: 124oset stack thermal expansion or contraction, 2012 V4:207–208

oset stacks, 2010 V2: 5, 37osets

dened, 2009 V1: 26, 2012 V4: 132expansion osets, 2012 V4: 206use o, 2012 V4: 67

oshore acilities, 2009 V1: 139ohm-centimeter units (Ω-cm), 2011 V3: 47, 2012 V4: 175ohm-meters, 2009 V1: 34OHMS (resistance or resistors), 2009 V1: 34, 2012 V4: 202

Ohm's Law, 2009 V1: 134oil. See also ats, oils, and grease (FOG)

as seal liquid in liquid ring pumps, 2010 V2: 171contamination in compressed air, 2011 V3: 173intercepting in acid-waste systems, 2010 V2: 235intercepting in sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 12neoprene and, 2012 V4: 139oil-water separation, 2011 V3: 88

removing rom gases, 2011 V3: 273separating with ultraltration, 2012 V4: 199skimming, 2011 V3: 88spills and containment, 2010 V2: 244–246vegetable oil, 2010 V2: 10

oil contamination in air, 2011 V3: 265oil-ree compressors, 2011 V3: 61, 174oil interceptors, 2010 V2: 12, 244oil-mist lters in vacuums, 2010 V2: 171oil o vitriol. See suluric acidOil Pollution Prevention (40 CFR 112) (SCCC), 2011 V3: 137oil-removal lters, 2011 V3: 180oil systems. See diesel-oil systems; gasoline systemsoil-wet solids, 2010 V2: 244oilless compressors, 2011 V3: 61oilless pumps, 2010 V2: 169older buildings, 2012 V4: 137oleums, 2010 V2: 230on center (OC), 2009 V1: 15on-site acility treatment systems. See special-waste

drainage systemsOn-Site Renewables Tax Incentives, 2011 V3: 190On Site Wastewater Facilities or Small Communities and

Subdivisions, 2010 V2: 154on-site water reclamation. See graywater systemsonce-thru-oil pumps, 2010 V2: 171one-compartment sinks, 2012 V4: 11one-occupant toilet rooms, 2012 V4: 21one-piece water closets, 2012 V4: 3one-stage distillation, 2010 V2: 200one-time costs, 2009 V1: 217one-wall tanks, 2011 V3: 139ongoing costs, 2009 V1: 217oocysts, 2011 V3: 122open air, 2009 V1: 26open-channel fow, 2009 V1: 1, 2010 V2: 6open-circuit potential, dened, 2009 V1: 143open proprietary specications, 2009 V1: 62open solar systems, 2011 V3: 192open sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29open-type base pumps, 2010 V2: 158open-web steel joists in pipe bracing, 2009 V1: 169openings or tool access. See access; cleanouts

operating costs, 2009 V1: 217operating eciency o water soteners, 2012 V4: 188operating loads on pipes, 2012 V4: 132operating rooms

articulated ceiling medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 56xtures, 2011 V3: 38–39medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 52, 56medical vacuum, 2011 V3: 54water demand, 2011 V3: 46

operational pressure tests, 2011 V3: 75operators o vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 180

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Index 321

oral surgery equipment, 2011 V3: 42, 52orbital welding, 2011 V3: 277orbital welding process, 2010 V2: 239orders in creativity checklist, 2009 V1: 227ordinary hazard occupancies

dened, 2009 V1: 29, 2011 V3: 2reghting hose streams, 2011 V3: 225portable re extinguishers, 2011 V3: 29

ordinary lobe pumps, 2010 V2: 169organic chemicalslaboratory grade water, 2012 V4: 198removal in efuent, 2012 V4: 227

organic ree water, 2010 V2: 219organic material vibration control, 2012 V4: 138organic materials in water, 2011 V3: 47, 2012 V4: 177organic polyelectrolytes, 2010 V2: 199organic removal lters, 2012 V4: 194organisms in water, 2010 V2: 188–189, 2012 V4: 199. See

also microorganismsorices

on hydrants, 2011 V3: 5on nozzles, 2011 V3: 5

original equipment manuacturers (OEM), 2009 V1: 15ornamental sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29orthotolidin tests, 2010 V2: 91OSHA (Occupational Saety and Health Administration),

2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2: 232, 2011 V3: 136OSHPD (Oce o Statewide Health Planning and

Development), 2009 V1: 185, 2012 V4: 132osmosis, dened, 2010 V2: 211osmotic pressure, 2010 V2: 211, 2012 V4: 196OS&Y (outside screw and yoke), 2012 V4: 83, 89Otis, Richard J., 2010 V2: 154OTO pumps, 2010 V2: 169, 171Otten, Gerald, 2010 V2: 225Otto plate units, 2010 V2: 214ounces (oz, OZ)

converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39symbols or, 2009 V1: 15

out-o-sequence work conditions, cost estimates orprojects and, 2009 V1: 90

outdoor gas booster installation, 2010 V2: 126outdoor swimming pools, 2011 V3: 108. See also swimming

poolsoutall sewers, 2009 V1: 26outgasing, 2011 V3: 277outlet pressuresoutlet pressure regulators, 2011 V3: 10standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 21outlet valves, 2012 V4: 202outlets. See also inlets; stations

fow rates at outlets, 2009 V1: 3, 5gas or vacuum. See stationspressure in cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 69septic tanks, 2010 V2: 146storm drainage collection systems, 2010 V2: 46symbols or, 2009 V1: 11velocity o fow rom outlets, 2009 V1: 6

outpatient-services rooms, 2011 V3: 36, 46output, 2009 V1: 26outside diameters (OD), 2009 V1: 15outside screw and yoke (OS&Y), 2012 V4: 83, 89

outside the box thinking, 2009 V1: 225outstanding value, dened, 2009 V1: 209overall system thermal eciency, 2009 V1: 128overengineering, perception o, 2009 V1: 251overestimating needs, 2009 V1: 218overll prevention, 2011 V3: 84, 148overfow

or bathtubs, 2012 V4: 16

ttings, ountains, 2011 V3: 102or lavatories, 2012 V4: 10rates or grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 149storm drains. See secondary storm-drainage systems

overfow roo drains, 2009 V1: 26overhead

costs in value engineering, 2009 V1: 208, 217in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85

overhead equipment. See suspended equipmentoverheating protection in solar systems, 2009 V1: 122overheating vacuum exhausters, 2010 V2: 179overland fow rates or sites, 2011 V3: 239, 240, 242overlap in toilet accessibility, 2009 V1: 105overspray areas in irrigation, 2011 V3: 96overtime labor costs, in take-o estimating method, 2009

V1: 86overturning, preventing, 2009 V1: 153, 183overvoltage, dened, 2009 V1: 143owner urnished, contractor installed (OFCI), 2009 V1: 64owners

perception o engineering, 2009 V1: 251quality requirements and, 2009 V1: 262value engineering and, 2009 V1: 208

OX (oxygen). See oxygen (O2, OX)oxidants, 2009 V1: 26oxidation

joints resistant to, 2012 V4: 57ozone molecules and, 2012 V4: 194

oxidation, dened, 2009 V1: 143oxidation reduction potential (ORP), 2011 V3: 129oxidizing chemicals in microbial control, 2010 V2: 213oxidizing gases, 2011 V3: 77, 266OXY/ACR pipes, 2012 V4: 32OXY/MED pipes, 2012 V4: 32oxyacetylene welding, 2012 V4: 61oxygen (O2, OX)

bulk oxygen systems, 2011 V3: 57–59, 59color coding outlets, 2011 V3: 55corrosion process, 2009 V1: 134, 2010 V2: 190cylinder-maniold supply systems, 2011 V3: 59, 60, 61dened, 2011 V3: 77in re triangle, 2011 V3: 22–23ormula, 2012 V4: 173

high contents in water, 2012 V4: 176medical gas pipe sizing, 2011 V3: 68–69, 70, 71medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 51, 52–53medical gas storage, 2011 V3: 57–61medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 50medical reserve supply, 2011 V3: 58oxygen USP, 2011 V3: 61, 77oxygenated water, 2010 V2: 160reducing with carbon dioxide, 2011 V3: 27removing, 2010 V2: 199, 2012 V4: 176saturation with, 2010 V2: 197

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surgical use, 2011 V3: 56symbols or, 2009 V1: 8, 15testing concentrations, 2011 V3: 75in water, 2010 V2: 189

oxygen concentration cells, 2009 V1: 143oxygen-delivery equipment, 2011 V3: 77oxygen-enriched atmospheres, 2011 V3: 77oxygen index, 2011 V3: 77

oxygen scavengers, 2010 V2: 216oxygen toxicity, 2011 V3: 77oz, OZ (ounces), 2009 V1: 15, 39ozonation

cooling tower water, 2010 V2: 217eed water, 2010 V2: 220Legionella and, 2010 V2: 111pure water systems, 2010 V2: 222small drinking water systems, 2010 V2: 218swimming pools, 2011 V3: 133water treatments, 2010 V2: 160, 214, 2012 V4: 194–195

ozonegenerators, 2010 V2: 214layer, 2011 V3: 26water treatments, 2012 V4: 194–195

PP (pressure). See pressureP & ID (piping and instrumentation diagrams), 2009 V1:

15P alkalinity, 2010 V2: 189P (peta) prex, 2009 V1: 34p (pico) prex, 2009 V1: 34p-traps

foor drains with, 2009 V1: 11laboratory sinks, 2011 V3: 45–46

Pa (pascals), 2009 V1: 34PA (pipe anchors), 2009 V1: 10

PA (polyamide), 2009 V1: 32Pa s (pascal-seconds), 2009 V1: 34packed-bed, activated-carbon lters, 2010 V2: 201packed tower aeration, 2010 V2: 218packing, dened, 2012 V4: 89, 101packing glands, 2012 V4: 89packing material in vacuum deaerators, 2010 V2: 199packing nuts, 2012 V4: 89pad elastomer isolation, 2012 V4: 139padding or glass pipe, 2012 V4: 35paddle wheel type fow sensors, 2011 V3: 124PAEK (polyaryl etherketone), 2009 V1: 32pain, thresholds o, 2010 V2: 111painted propane tanks, 2010 V2: 132

paints in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 147Pair, Claude H., 2011 V3: 96palladium lters, 2011 V3: 273panels, lining with lead, 2010 V2: 238panic buttons, 2010 V2: 121paper diatomaceous earth lters, 2012 V4: 181paper towel clogs, 2010 V2: 11paran, 2010 V2: 12paragraph numbering in CSI ormat, 2009 V1: 59parallel approaches or wheelchairs, 2009 V1: 99–101, 102parallel gas system congurations, 2010 V2: 122

parallel installation o pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2:69–70, 2012 V4: 82

parallel pump systems, 2012 V4: 97, 101parapet wall scuppers, 2010 V2: 49, 52Parekh, B.S., 2010 V2: 225Pareto principle, 2009 V1: 218, 249Pareto, Vilredo, 2009 V1: 218Park, Richard, 2009 V1: 252

Parmalee heads, 2011 V3: 1partial pressures law, 2010 V2: 72partially-sprinklered spaces, 2009 V1: 12participation in value engineering presentations, 2009

V1: 249particle settling rates, 2012 V4: 178particulate radiation, 2010 V2: 237particulate silica, 2010 V2: 190particulates

contamination in air, 2011 V3: 265contamination in compressed air, 2011 V3: 174testing or, 2011 V3: 280in water, 2010 V2: 187, 193

parts per million (ppm, PPM), 2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2: 191converting to grains per gallon, 2012 V4: 201dened, 2012 V4: 202water purity, 2011 V3: 47, 2012 V4: 175

party walls, 2009 V1: 202pascal-seconds, 2009 V1: 34pascals, 2009 V1: 34passivation, 2009 V1: 136passive, dened, 2009 V1: 143passive control, cross-connections, 2012 V4: 162–164passive solar systems, 2011 V3: 192passive solar water heaters, 2009 V1: 122passive verbs in unction analysis, 2009 V1: 218paste sealants, 2012 V4: 60pasteurizing biosolids, 2012 V4: 240pathogenic organisms, 2012 V4: 177pathogens, 2010 V2: 139, 188patient rooms

bathing areas, 2011 V3: 36xtures or, 2011 V3: 37health care acilities, 2011 V3: 37medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 53, 56medical vacuum, 2011 V3: 54patient head wall stations, 2011 V3: 56

patient vacuum (VAC), 2011 V3: 77Paul, D., 2010 V2: 225paved areas

imperviousness actors, 2011 V3: 239runo, 2010 V2: 42storm drainage, 2010 V2: 41

PB (polybutylene). See polybutylene (PB)PC (polycarbonate), 2009 V1: 32PCTFE (polychlorotrifuoroethylene), 2009 V1: 32PCUs (platinum cobalt units), 2010 V2: 193PD (pressure drops or dierences). See pressure drops or

dierencesPD (pump discharge lines), 2009 V1: 8PDAP (polydiallyl phthalate), 2009 V1: 32PDI (Plumbing and Drainage Institute). See Plumbing and

Drainage Institute (PDI)PE (polyethylene). See polyethylene (PE)

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Index 323

PE (potential energy), 2009 V1: 2, 5PE-AL-PE (polyethylene/aluminum/polyethylene), 2012

V4: 69pea gravel backll, 2011 V3: 155Peabody, A.W., 2009 V1: 144peak consumption in gas boosters, 2010 V2: 128peak demand

fushometer valves and, 2012 V4: 7

medical air, 2011 V3: 53, 62medical gas, 2011 V3: 50swimming pools, 2011 V3: 106urinals, 2012 V4: 8–9vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 65water soteners, 2012 V4: 185

peak fow, Rational Method, 2010 V2: 43peak horsepower, dened, 2011 V3: 186peak loads, 2009 V1: 26peak shaving, 2010 V2: 47PEEK (polyether etherketone), 2009 V1: 32pendent sprinklers, 2009 V1: 13, 29penetration o irrigation water, 2011 V3: 91, 96people with disabilities

ambulatory-accessible toilet compartments, 2009 V1: 106 ANSI 117.1-1998, 2009 V1: 99–115bathing rooms, 2009 V1: 104–105bathtub and shower seats, 2009 V1: 114–115bathtub design, 2009 V1: 109–110design or, 2009 V1: 99drinking ountains and water coolers, 2009 V1: 101–105exposed piping and accessibility, 2009 V1: 109xture design standards and, 2012 V4: 2grab bars, 2009 V1: 106history o design and construction standards, 2009 V1:

97–98introduction to plumbing or, 2009 V1: 97laundry equipment, 2009 V1: 115lavatories and sinks, 2009 V1: 108–109legislation, 2009 V1: 98–99reerences, 2009 V1: 115shower compartments, 2009 V1: 110–112swimming pool acilities, 2011 V3: 107, 110, 134–135urinal design, 2009 V1: 108water closets and toilets, 2009 V1: 105–108, 2012 V4: 4water coolers or, 2012 V4: 217–218

per-area costs, 2009 V1: 89per-xture estimations, cost estimations, 2009 V1: 88percent transmissibility (T), dened, 2012 V4: 137perception o engineers, 2009 V1: 251perchloric acid, 2010 V2: 232percolation

dened, 2009 V1: 26

rates or soils, 2010 V2: 139–142perect vacuums, 2010 V2: 165, 2011 V3: 172perfuorocarbons (PFCs), 2011 V3: 27perorated strap irons, 2012 V4: 65perormance bonds, 2009 V1: 56perormance criteria in specications, 2009 V1: 63, 69perormance actor eciency, solar, 2011 V3: 191 Perormance Requirements or Automatic Compensating

Valves or Individual Showers and Tub/Shower

Combinations, 2010 V2: 105

Perormance Requirements or Automatic TemperatureControl Mixing Valves, 2010 V2: 105

Perormance Requirements or Water Temperature Limiting Devices, 2010 V2: 105

perormance specications, 2009 V1: 61perormance tests. See testing peruoroalkoxy, 2009 V1: 32perimeter diking, 2011 V3: 84

peristaltic pumps, 2011 V3: 129–130perlite, 2011 V3: 121, 122perlite insulation, 2012 V4: 107permanent hardness, 2012 V4: 176permanganate o potash, 2012 V4: 173permeability

coecient o (K actor), 2010 V2: 158converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39permeable strata in soils, 2010 V2: 141

permeance, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39permits

industrial wastewater, 2011 V3: 82–83RCRA hazardous waste, 2011 V3: 83

Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook, 2011 V3: 89personnel protection, insulation and, 2012 V4: 103, 111, 112persons with disabilities. See people with disabilitiespesticides in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 147peta prex, 2009 V1: 34petroleum-based uel systems. See diesel-oil systems;

gasoline systemspetroleum hydrocarbons in storm water, 2010 V2: 27petroleum products, 2011 V3: 136–137PEX (cross-linked polyethylene), 2009 V1: 32, 2012 V4:

48–49, 69PEX-AL-PEX (cross-linked polyethylene/aluminum/cross-

linked polyethylene), 2012 V4: 49, 69PF (phenol ormaldehyde), 2009 V1: 32PFA (peruoroalkoxy), 2009 V1: 32PFCs (perfuorocarbons), 2011 V3: 27PG (pressure gauges with gauge cocks), 2009 V1: 10pH

acid wastes, 2010 V2: 235adjustments to waste, 2010 V2: 227–228, 2012 V4: 227alkalinity and, 2010 V2: 189boiler eed water, 2010 V2: 216in corrosion rates, 2009 V1: 134dened, 2009 V1: 143, 2012 V4: 202discharge rom laboratories, 2011 V3: 42–44eed water or pure water systems, 2010 V2: 221industrial wastewater systems, 2011 V3: 85–87limits or sanitary drainage systems, 2011 V3: 46measuring, 2010 V2: 192predicting water deposits, 2010 V2: 196–197

saturation, 2010 V2: 196swimming pools, 2011 V3: 127–131values in waste, 2010 V2: 229

pH Control o Chemical Waste, 2010 V2: 246pharmaceutical acilities, 2011 V3: 81, 2012 V4: 192pharmaceutical pure water, 2010 V2: 219, 2012 V4: 52Pharmaceutical Water, 2010 V2: 224, 225pharmaceutical water pipe, 2012 V4: 39pharmacies

bio-pure water, 2011 V3: 48xtures, 2011 V3: 38

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health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 53

Phase 1 and 2 vapor recovery, 2011 V3: 137, 145–146,148, 149

PHCC-NA. See Plumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors–National Association (PHCC-NA)

phenol ormaldehyde, 2009 V1: 32phenolics

as thermoset, 2012 V4: 39ion exchange resins, 2012 V4: 183phenolphthalein alkalinity, 2010 V2: 189Philadelphia systems, 2010 V2: 18, 39phosphates, 2009 V1: 140, 2010 V2: 189phosphoric acid, 2010 V2: 189, 232phosphorus, 2010 V2: 189phosphorus 32, 2010 V2: 238phosphorus, storm water, 2010 V2: 27photo laboratories, 2012 V4: 161photographic badges or radiation levels, 2010 V2: 237photolytic oxidation, 2010 V2: 194photostat equipment, 2012 V4: 161photovoltaics, dened, 2011 V3: 188–189physical characteristics o drinking water, 2010 V2: 217physical condition surveys, 2009 V1: 267–270physical therapy rooms, 2011 V3: 36, 38physically challenged people. See people with disabilitiesphysics laboratories, 2010 V2: 171. See also laboratoriesPIB (polyisobutylene), 2009 V1: 32pico prex, 2009 V1: 34pilot-operated gas regulators, 2011 V3: 254pilot-operated pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 69pilot-operated valves, 2012 V4: 82pilot-valve discs, 2011 V3: 6pints, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39pipe anchors (PA), 2009 V1: 10pipe-applied vacuum breakers, 2012 V4: 163pipe attachments, 2012 V4: 132pipe braces. See bracing pipe channels, 2012 V4: 132pipe clamps, 2012 V4: 120, 132pipe clips, 2012 V4: 120, 132pipe-covering protection saddle, 2012 V4: 132pipe cutters, 2012 V4: 61pipe dope, 2010 V2: 191, 2012 V4: 60pipe elevations. See ater cold pull elevation; design

elevationspipe riction pressure drop, 2010 V2: 94pipe glue, 2010 V2: 191pipe guides, 2009 V1: 10pipe hanger assemblies, 2012 V4: 132pipe hanger drawings, 2012 V4: 132

pipe hanger loads. See pipe loads; support and hangerloads

pipe hanger locations. See cold hanger location; hot hangerlocations

pipe hanger plans and plan locations, 2012 V4: 132pipe hangers. See supports and hangerspipe insulation

cleaning and sterilization, 2012 V4: 104damage, 2012 V4: 113design considerations, 2012 V4: 113expansion o pipes and insulation, 2012 V4: 113

glossary, 2012 V4: 103high-density inserts, 2012 V4: 105, 110installing on valves and ttings, 2012 V4: 110insulation shields, 2012 V4: 132insulation thickness, 2012 V4: 106, 107, 110–112 jacketing, 2012 V4: 106–109noise, 2012 V4: 113purposes, 2012 V4: 103

smoke and re requirements, 2012 V4: 104–105storage and handling, 2012 V4: 113supports and hangers, 2012 V4: 104, 105, 110types o, 2012 V4: 104–106

calcium silicate, 2012 V4: 106cellular glass, 2012 V4: 106elastomeric, 2012 V4: 105berglass, 2012 V4: 105oamed plastic, 2012 V4: 106insulating cement, 2012 V4: 106lagging, 2012 V4: 109plastic jackets, 2012 V4: 108wire mesh, 2012 V4: 108

water vapor and, 2012 V4: 103weight o, 2012 V4: 115

pipe jointsacid-waste systems, 2010 V2: 232chemical-waste systems, 2010 V2: 242ll and, 2010 V2: 14heat-used socket joints, 2010 V2: 232inspection, 2011 V3: 69, 74material codes and standards, 2009 V1: 43natural gas systems, 2011 V3: 257pure-water systems, 2011 V3: 48–49radioactive waste systems, 2010 V2: 239restrainers, 2011 V3: 221sanitary, 2011 V3: 48–49screwed mechanical joints, 2010 V2: 232special-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 228thermal expansion and, 2010 V2: 16welded joints, 2010 V2: 239

pipe loadscold loads, 2012 V4: 129deadweight loads, 2012 V4: 129design loads, 2012 V4: 129dynamic loads, 2012 V4: 129riction loads, 2012 V4: 130hot loads, 2012 V4: 131hydrostatic loads, 2012 V4: 131operating loads, 2012 V4: 132seismic loads, 2012 V4: 134thermal loads, 2012 V4: 135thrust loads, 2012 V4: 135

trip-out loads, 2012 V4: 135water hammer loads, 2012 V4: 136wind loads, 2012 V4: 136

pipe nipple codes, 2009 V1: 43pipe openings, 2012 V4: 133pipe racks, 2012 V4: 133pipe rollers, 2012 V4: 121pipe rolls, 2012 V4: 133pipe saddle supports, 2012 V4: 133pipe shats, 2011 V3: 68pipe shoes, 2012 V4: 133

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Index 325

pipe sleeve hangers or supports, 2012 V4: 133pipe sleeves, 2009 V1: 153, 2012 V4: 66–67, 123–125, 133pipe slides, 2012 V4: 121, 133pipe solvents, 2010 V2: 191pipe straps, 2012 V4: 133pipe supports. See supports and hangerspipe system loads. See pipe loadspipe unions, 2012 V4: 65

pipes and piping. See also sizing; specic kinds o piping orpiping unctionsaccessories

anchors, 2012 V4: 59–60, 62gaskets, 2012 V4: 63hangers and supports. See supports and hangerspipe sleeves, 2012 V4: 66–67pipe unions, 2012 V4: 65service connections or water piping, 2012 V4: 67

applicationscentralized drinking-water cooler systems, 2012

V4: 222–223chilled drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 222compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 176, 182–183condensate drainage, 2011 V3: 165corrosive wastes, 2011 V3: 46distilled water, 2012 V4: 193exposed piping on storage tanks, 2011 V3: 148re-protection systems, 2011 V3: 6, 28ountains, 2011 V3: 101–102high-pressure condensate, 2011 V3: 166laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 276–280, 277–280laboratory waste and vent piping, 2011 V3: 46liquid uel systems, 2011 V3: 149–151medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 68–76natural gas, 2010 V2: 121–125, 123, 126, 128–131,

2011 V3: 256–257propane, 2010 V2: 135pure-water systems, 2011 V3: 48–49roo drains and pipes, 2010 V2: 49sewage lie stations, 2011 V3: 236sprinkler systems, 2011 V3: 9, 12–13, 13–14, 20steam, 2011 V3: 159–161swimming pools, 2011 V3: 113vacuum piping, 2010 V2: 174–178

bedding, 2011 V3: 225–226, 227bending, 2012 V4: 61calculating water capacity per oot, 2011 V3: 9cleaning and covering exposed ends, 2012 V4: 25codes and standards, 2009 V1: 42–45computer analysis o piping systems, 2009 V1: 180corrosion, 2009 V1: 141cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85

damage to pipes, 2012 V4: 25dened, 2011 V3: 78draining, 2012 V4: 25erosion, 2011 V3: 161hazardous waste incompatibilities, 2011 V3: 83–84, 84installation requirements, 2012 V4: 25insulation. See pipe insulation joints. See jointsleakage, 2009 V1: 126loads. See pipe loadsmaterials expansion, 2012 V4: 211

monitoring leakage, 2011 V3: 145noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 190–193, 195nominal volumes, 2012 V4: 211openings, 2012 V4: 133pipe schedules, 2011 V3: 12, 14piping symbols, 2009 V1: 7–15pitch, 2011 V3: 165protection, 2009 V1: 255

resonance and vibration transmission, 2012 V4: 143roughness, 2010 V2: 78seismic protection, 2009 V1: 145, 158–179size. See sizing snaking in trenches, 2012 V4: 208, 209specications, 2012 V4: 25standards and codes, 2012 V4: 68–71temperature classication, 2012 V4: 118thermal expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 67

aboveground piping, 2012 V4: 207–208underground piping, 2012 V4: 208–209

tightness testing, 2011 V3: 153total developed length, 2012 V4: 206, 207total loads, 2012 V4: 115–116types

acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), 2012 V4: 51aluminum, 2012 V4: 54brass (copper alloy) pipe, 2010 V2: 13cast-iron soil pipe, 2012 V4: 25–26chlorinated polyvinyl-chloride (CPVC), 2010 V2:

190, 2011 V3: 49, 2012 V4: 39, 50, 51concrete pipe. See concrete piping copper drainage tube, 2012 V4: 33–34, 40, 58copper pipe. See copper piping copper water tube, 2012 V4: 29–40cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), 2012 V4: 48–49cross-linked polyethylene/aluminum/cross-linked

polyethylene (PEX-AL-PEX), 2012 V4: 49double containment, 2012 V4: 51, 56–57ductile iron water and sewer pipe. See ductile iron

piping errous, 2011 V3: 101berglass pipe (FRP), 2012 V4: 53glass pipe, 2010 V2: 234, 239, 2012 V4: 34–36high silicon (duriron), 2012 V4: 53lead piping, 2010 V2: 75low extractable PVC, 2012 V4: 52medical gas tubing, 2011 V3: 69, 74, 2012 V4: 33–34plastic. See plastic piping polybutylene pipes, 2012 V4: 39, 41–42, 50polyethylene/aluminum/polyethylene (PE-AL-PE),

2012 V4: 49polypropylene (PP), 2012 V4: 51–52

polypropylene-random, 2012 V4: 52polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 2010 V2: 190, 2012 V4:

39, 49, 50polyvinylidene fuoride (PVDF), 2012 V4: 52reinorced thermosetting resin pipe (RTRP), 2012

V4: 53special purpose piping, 2012 V4: 54–56stainless steel, 2012 V4: 54–56steel pipe. See steel piping Tefon, 2012 V4: 52thermoplastic piping, 2012 V4: 208

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vitried clay piping, 2010 V2: 75, 243, 2011 V3:242, 2012 V4: 53, 54

unintended uses, 2012 V4: 116water fow tables, 2011 V3: 14–17

piping and instrumentation diagrams (P & IDs), 2009 V1: 15

Piping Handbook, 2010 V2: 136piston displacement, dened, 2011 V3: 186

piston reciprocating compressors, 2011 V3: 174piston-style water hammer arresters, 2010 V2: 72, 74pistons

balanced-piston valves, 2012 V4: 82in water-pressure regulators, 2012 V4: 80

pit-type re-department connections, 2009 V1: 12pitch

dened, 2009 V1: 26pipe, 2011 V3: 165pitch down or up, 2009 V1: 11radioactive waste systems, 2010 V2: 240special-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 228vacuum cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 186

pitcher llers, 2012 V4: 218pitless adapters, 2010 V2: 158, 159pitot pressure, 2011 V3: 4, 5, 210pitot tubes, 2011 V3: 3–4, 210pitting, dened, 2009 V1: 143pitting corrosion, 2009 V1: 130, 2010 V2: 195, 2012 V4:

173–174PIV (post indicator valves), 2009 V1: 15, 2011 V3: 220–221PL (Public Laws). See Public Lawsplain air chambers, 2010 V2: 73plane angles, 2009 V1: 34, 36plans. See construction contract documents; plumbing

drawingsplantings, types o, 2011 V3: 96plaster, lining with lead, 2010 V2: 238plaster o paris, 2012 V4: 173plaster traps, 2011 V3: 39plastic xtures

standards, 2012 V4: 2types o, 2012 V4: 1

plastic insulation, 2012 V4: 106plastic jackets, 2012 V4: 108Plastic Pipe Institute (PPI)

Thermal Expansion and Contraction in Plastic PipingSystems, 2009 V1: 206

plastic piping as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 188bedding, 2011 V3: 225–226, 227codes, 2009 V1: 43corrosion, 2009 V1: 141, 2010 V2: 164

electrousion joints, 2012 V4: 61ttings, 2012 V4: 48uel product dispensing and, 2011 V3: 150gas piping, 2011 V3: 256, 257hangers, 2012 V4: 122 joints, 2012 V4: 48, 59–60laboratory wastes, 2011 V3: 46Manning ormula and, 2011 V3: 242natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 123–124polyolen piping, 2012 V4: 49porous suraces, 2012 V4: 193

roughness, 2010 V2: 78sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 12–13standards, 2012 V4: 69–71thermoplastic piping, 2012 V4: 208types, 2012 V4: 39–53water hammer and, 2010 V2: 71–72

plastic pumps, 2011 V3: 123plastic wraps on toilet seats, 2012 V4: 4

plate and rame modules in reverse osmosis, 2010 V2:211–212plate lugs. See lugsplate tectonics, 2009 V1: 148plates or anchoring, 2012 V4: 125platorm diving, 2011 V3: 107plating

dened, 2012 V4: 133demineralized water and, 2012 V4: 177

plating solutions, 2009 V1: 141platinum, 2009 V1: 132platinum cobalt units (PCUs), 2010 V2: 193platy soils, 141, 2010 V2: 140plenum-rated areas, 2009 V1: 259, 262plot plans, irrigation systems and, 2010 V2: 24plug angle valves, 2012 V4: 75plug disc valves, 2012 V4: 74plug-type dezincication, 2009 V1: 131plug valves (PV), 2009 V1: 9, 15

dened, 2012 V4: 77hot-water service, 2012 V4: 87liqueed petroleum gas systems, 2012 V4: 87

plumber’s riends, 2012 V4: 161plumbing

appliances, 2009 V1: 26appurtenances, 2009 V1: 26code agencies, 2009 V1: 42cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85–90dened, 2009 V1: 26designs, 2009 V1: 92–94ttings. See ttingsxtures. See xturesplumbing systems dened, 2009 V1: 26specications. See specicationssymbols, 2009 V1: 7–15terminology, 2009 V1: 16–21

Plumbing and Drainage Institute (PDI), 2010 V2: 96abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 32bioremediation system standards, 2012 V4: 231grease interceptor standards, 2012 V4: 228, 231hydromechanical grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 145list o standards, 2009 V1: 53PDI symbols or water hammer arresters, 2010 V2:

72–74Plumbing and Piping Industry Council (PPIC), 2009 V1: 160 Plumbing Appliance Noise Measurements, 2009 V1: 206plumbing codes, dened, 2012 V4: 170. See also codes and

standards Plumbing Design and Installation Reerence Guide, 2010

V2: 55 Plumbing Design Manual, 2010 V2: 55plumbing drawings

abbreviations, 2009 V1: 14–15checklists, 2009 V1: 92–94

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Index 327

comprehensive, 2009 V1: 264costs analysis phase, 2009 V1: 234dened, 2009 V1: 55DWG abbreviation, 2009 V1: 14ensuring high quality with detailed specs, 2009 V1:

253–254existing building alterations, 2009 V1: 266unction evaluation, 2009 V1: 232–233

unctional development, 2009 V1: 246graphic conventions, 2009 V1: 100introduction, 2009 V1: 55samples o clear specications, 2009 V1: 255, 260–261in specications, 2009 V1: 63

Plumbing Engineer, 2010 V2: 55plumbing engineering

changes in technology and products, 2009 V1: 262coordinating in re protection design, 2011 V3: 29dened, 2009 V1: 26ensuring high quality in, 2009 V1: 253

Plumbing Engineering and Design Handbook o Tables,2010 V2: 130

Plumbing Engineering and Design Standard 45, 2010 V2: 55

Plumbing Engineering Design Handbook, 2012 V4: 2plumbing ttings. See ttingsplumbing xtures. See xtures and xture outletsPlumbing-Heating-Cooling Contractors-National

Association (PHCC-NA), 2009 V1: 54, 87 National Standard Plumbing Code, 2010 V2: 115

plumbing inspectors, 2009 V1: 26, 255 Plumbing Manual, 2010 V2: 96plumbing specications. See specications Plumbing Systems and Design, 2010 V2: 29pneumatic control system, resh water makeup, 2011 V3:

132–133pneumatic pressure dierential switches, 2012 V4: 181pneumatic pressures, 2010 V2: 2–3, 2011 V3: 64pneumatic tank gauging, 2011 V3: 142pneumatically operated main drain modulating valves,

2011 V3: 131–132POC (points o connection), 2009 V1: 11point loading, 2012 V4: 133point-o-use reverse osmosis, 2012 V4: 198point-o-use ultraltration, 2010 V2: 201point-o-use vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 172point-o-use water heating, 2009 V1: 121, 2011 V3: 47points o connection (POC), 2009 V1: 11poisonous gases, 2011 V3: 267polar solvents, 2011 V3: 25polarization

dened, 2009 V1: 143

hydrogen lm buildup, 2009 V1: 129polishing deionizers, 2010 V2: 205, 210polishing exchangers, 2010 V2: 206polishing water in pure water systems, 2010 V2: 221, 2012

V4: 198pollen, as contaminant in air, 2011 V3: 265pollutants, 2012 V4: 170pollution

air contaminants, 2011 V3: 264–265contamination in compressed air, 2011 V3: 173dilution, 2011 V3: 81

ecological piping, 2012 V4: 52ltering air pollution, 2011 V3: 63priority pollutants, 2011 V3: 81rainwater and precipitation, 2010 V2: 45sanitary precautions or wells, 2010 V2: 159solar water heaters, 2011 V3: 189storm-drainage systems and, 2010 V2: 41

polyamide, 2009 V1: 32

polyamide membranes, 2010 V2: 213, 2012 V4: 196polyaryl etherketone, 2009 V1: 32polybutylene (PB), 2009 V1: 32

applications, 2012 V4: 41–42expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 207physical properties, 2012 V4: 50standards, 2012 V4: 69thermoplastics, 2012 V4: 39

polycarbonate, 2009 V1: 32polychlorotrifuroroethylene, 2009 V1: 32polydiallyl phthalate, 2009 V1: 32polyelectrolytes, 2010 V2: 199polyester xtures, 2012 V4: 1polyether etherketone, 2009 V1: 32polyethylene (PE), 2010 V2: 78, 191

bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 230expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 208gas lines, 2011 V3: 257gas systems, 2010 V2: 124insulation, 2012 V4: 106laboratory gas piping, 2011 V3: 276PE abbreviation, 2009 V1: 32standards, 2012 V4: 69storage tanks, 2010 V2: 223stress and strain gures, 2012 V4: 206thermal expansion or contraction, 2012 V4: 207types o, 2012 V4: 42–49

polyethylene/aluminum/polyethylene (PE-AL-PE), 2012 V4: 49

polyisobutylene, 2009 V1: 32polyisopryne, 2009 V1: 32polymer membranes, 2010 V2: 213polymeric silica, 2010 V2: 190polymers, 2009 V1: 26polyolen piping, 2012 V4: 49polyphenylene sulde, 2009 V1: 32polypropylene, 2009 V1: 32polypropylene piping

double containment, 2012 V4: 51laboratories, 2010 V2: 232, 2011 V3: 42–43pipe characteristics, 2012 V4: 39, 50pure water systems, 2010 V2: 224pure-water systems, 2011 V3: 49

soil and waste piping, 2010 V2: 13standards, 2012 V4: 70suluric acid and, 2011 V3: 85USP water, 2010 V2: 223 VOCs and, 2010 V2: 190water hammer and, 2010 V2: 71–72

polypropylene-random (PP-R), 2012 V4: 52polypropylene storage tanks, 2010 V2: 223, 2011 V3: 84polystyrene insulation, 2012 V4: 106polystyrene resins, 2012 V4: 183polysulone, 2009 V1: 32

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polysulone membranes, 2010 V2: 213polytetrafuoroethylene. See Tefonpolytrophic processes, 2009 V1: 27polyurethane insulation, 2012 V4: 106polyvalent ions, 2012 V4: 199polyvinyl acetate (PVA), 2012 V4: 108polyvinyl carbazol, 2009 V1: 32polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 2010 V2: 71, 78, 94

corrosion, 2009 V1: 141xtures, 2012 V4: 1ountain systems, 2011 V3: 102insulation jackets, 2012 V4: 108low extractable PVC, 2012 V4: 52noise, 2010 V2: 14pipe characteristics, 2012 V4: 39, 50piping, 2010 V2: 190pure-water systems, 2011 V3: 49PVC abbreviation, 2009 V1: 32sanitary drainage, 2010 V2: 12–13shower pans, 2012 V4: 16storage tanks and hazardous wastes, 2011 V3: 84stress and strain gures, 2012 V4: 206suluric acid and, 2011 V3: 85thermal expansion or contraction, 2012 V4: 207types o piping, 2012 V4: 49volatile organic compounds, 2010 V2: 190

polyvinyl-fuoride. See polyvinylidene fuoride (PVDF)polyvinyl ormal, 2009 V1: 32polyvinylidene chloride, 2009 V1: 32polyvinylidene fuoride (PVDF), 2010 V2: 13, 71

distilled water piping, 2012 V4: 193insulation jackets, 2012 V4: 108piping, 2010 V2: 223, 224, 2011 V3: 49, 2012 V4: 52PVDF abbreviation, 2009 V1: 32standards, 2012 V4: 70

ponding, 2010 V2: 47, 51ponds, stabilization, 2010 V2: 150pools, 2009 V1: 27. See also refecting pools; swimming

poolscodes and standards, 2011 V3: 100–101xture requirements, 2011 V3: 109interactive, 2011 V3: 100saety regulations, 2011 V3: 104–106

poor value, dened, 2009 V1: 209pop-up sprinklers, 2011 V3: 93population density, 2010 V2: 99porcelain enameled steel xtures

dened, 2012 V4: 1standards, 2012 V4: 2

pore size in lter membranes, 2010 V2: 213pores, 2009 V1: 27

porous paper lters, 2012 V4: 181porous soils, 2011 V3: 91porous stone tubes, 2012 V4: 181portable re extinguishers, 2009 V1: 13, 2011 V3: 28–29portable propane tanks, 2010 V2: 132Portland cement, 2012 V4: 230positive attachments, dened, 2009 V1: 185positive-displacement air compressors, 2011 V3: 62, 174positive-displacement meters, 2010 V2: 59, 88positive-displacement pumps, 2012 V4: 91post indicator valves (PIV), 2009 V1: 15, 2011 V3: 220–221

pot and pan sinks, 2011 V3: 39, 2012 V4: 154, 155potable water, 2012 V4: 170. See also drinking water;

private water systems; wellspotash alum, 2010 V2: 199potassium, 2010 V2: 189, 190, 2012 V4: 173, 198potassium bicarbonate, 2010 V2: 190potassium carbonate, 2010 V2: 190potassium chloride, 2010 V2: 190

potassium hydroxide, 2010 V2: 147potassium permanganate, 2010 V2: 160, 2012 V4: 173potential energy (PE)

calculating, 2009 V1: 2dened, 2011 V3: 185velocity head and, 2009 V1: 5

potential head, 2012 V4: 101potentiometric suraces o aquiers, 2010 V2: 157POTW (Publicly Owned Treatment Works), 2011 V3: 83,

2012 V4: 227POU ltration, 2010 V2: 201pounding orces in water. See water hammerpounds (lb, LBS)

converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39pounds per cubic oot (lb/t3), 2009 V1: 15pounds per square oot (ps, PSF), 2009 V1: 15pounds per square inch (psi, PSI), 2009 V1: 2, 15, 2011

V3: 30, 184pounds per square inch absolute (psia), 2009 V1: 15,

2010 V2: 166, 2011 V3: 78, 172pounds per square inch gauge (psig), 2009 V1: 15, 2010

V2: 166, 2011 V3: 78, 172symbols or, 2009 V1: 15

powerconversion actors, 2009 V1: 36converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38measurements, 2009 V1: 34

power/capacity characteristic curves, 2012 V4: 95–97power company o-peak power savings, 2009 V1: 119power steam, 2010 V2: 200power usage, economizing on, 2009 V1: 119powered vaporizers, 2011 V3: 57POWTS. See private onsite wastewater treatment systemspozzolan, 2012 V4: 230PP. See polypropylene piping PP-R (polypropylene-random), 2012 V4: 52, 70–71PPIC (Plumbing and Piping Industry Council), 2009 V1: 160ppm, PPM (parts per million). See parts per million

(ppm, PPM)PPS (polyphenylene sulde), 2009 V1: 32Practical Design o a High-purity Water System, 2010

V2: 225Practical Plumbing Design Guide, 2010 V2: 55

pre-action systems, 2009 V1: 28, 2011 V3: 9, 10–11, 29pre-action valves, 2009 V1: 13pre-bid inormation, 2009 V1: 56pre-cast manholes, 2011 V3: 226, 230pre-cast water storage tanks, 2010 V2: 162pre-coolers, 2011 V3: 186, 2012 V4: 220pre-engineered cathodically protected steel tanks, 2011

V3: 138pre-engineered dry-chemical systems, 2011 V3: 24pre-engineered ountains, 2011 V3: 98pre-engineered wet chemical systems, 2011 V3: 24

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Index 329

pre-abricated grease interceptor standards, 2012 V4: 145pre-abricated shower bases, 2012 V4: 13pre-abricated shower enclosures, 2012 V4: 13pre-abricated water storage tanks, 2010 V2: 162pre-ormed insulation or valves and ttings, 2012 V4: 110pre-heated eed water, 2012 V4: 194pre-plumbed vaults, ountain equipment, 2011 V3: 99pre-rinse spray valves

LEED 2009 baselines, 2010 V2: 25pre-sotening distillation eed water, 2012 V4: 191pre-treatment in pure water systems, 2010 V2: 221pre-treatment ordinances, 2011 V3: 83precipitates in water, 2010 V2: 160, 198, 2012 V4: 202precipitation. See rainwater and precipitationprecision in measurements, 2009 V1: 33predicting water deposits and corrosion, 2010 V2: 196–197prelters

air compressors, 2011 V3: 178eed water, 2010 V2: 194

prexes in SI units, 2009 V1: 34premium grade PVC piping, 2011 V3: 49preparation

checklists, 2009 V1: 91–92in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85section in specications, 2009 V1: 71in value engineering presentations, 2009 V1: 249

Preparation phase in value engineering, 2009 V1: 209preparing or jobs, checklists, 2009 V1: 91–92PRES (pressure). See pressurePresentation phase in value engineering, 2009 V1: 209, 249presets, dened, 2012 V4: 133President’s Committee on Employment o the

Handicapped, 2009 V1: 97PRESS (pressure). See pressurepress-connect joints, 2012 V4: 58press-tted ends on valves, 2012 V4: 80pressure (PRESS, PRES, P). See also pressure drops or

dierencesair-consuming devices, 2011 V3: 180air pressure, 2011 V3: 264barometric. See barometric pressurecompressed air, 2011 V3: 172, 178, 181conversion actors, 2009 V1: 36dierential, trap, 2011 V3: 165examples or pipe sizing, 2010 V2: 87–89xture requirements, 2010 V2: 89fow and air, 2010 V2: 2fuctuation warnings, 2011 V3: 67fuctuations, 2012 V4: 117riction head, 2009 V1: 2, 6, 2010 V2: 61–63riction loss and, 2009 V1: 2, 2010 V2: 87

head (hd), 2009 V1: 14, 2012 V4: 101head coecient, dened, 2012 V4: 101hydraulic shock, 2009 V1: 6hydrostatic pressure, 2010 V2: 3–4measurements, 2009 V1: 34, 2010 V2: 3–4, 84, 165–166natural gas, 119–121, 2010 V2: 115nozzle pressure fow tables, 2011 V3: 3pressure-regulating valves, 2010 V2: 69–70pressure sensors, 2010 V2: 63pressure-volume relationships (gas laws), 2010 V2: 126pressure waves. See water hammer

pump anity laws, 2009 V1: 6pump head, 2010 V2: 61–63relationship, hydrostatic fuids, 2012 V4: 159–160relative discharge curves, 2011 V3: 211relie valves, 2010 V2: 106sizing pipes and, 2010 V2: 78–84soil pressures, 2011 V3: 138in specic applications

booster pump systems, 2010 V2: 61–68carbon dioxide extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 26centralized chilled water systems, 2012 V4: 221, 223closed hot-water systems, 2012 V4: 209condensate piping, 2011 V3: 166distilled water distribution, 2012 V4: 194domestic water supply, 2011 V3: 210expansion tanks, 2010 V2: 67–68re pumps, 2011 V3: 21–22gas boosters, 2010 V2: 125–128gravity tank systems, 2010 V2: 66heavy fow drains, 2010 V2: 9hot-water system pressures, 2010 V2: 97interstitial tank monitoring, 2011 V3: 143laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 276natural gas pressure, 2011 V3: 254–255, 256natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 115, 119–121, 126,

127, 129nitrogen surgical instruments, 2011 V3: 56–57nitrous oxide, 2011 V3: 60plastic piping systems, 2011 V3: 49pneumatic pressures in sanitary drains, 2010 V2:

2–3propane tanks, 2010 V2: 132saturated steam, 2011 V3: 159–161sewage lit stations, 2011 V3: 229sprinkler systems, 2011 V3: 3, 13–14, 14storm-drainage stacks, 2010 V2: 50submersible uel pumps, 2011 V3: 151vacuum cleaning system requirements, 2010 V2: 181water mains, 2011 V3: 206water soteners, 2012 V4: 185

stack fow capacity and, 2010 V2: 3–4suds pressure zones, 2010 V2: 37–38system head loss checklist, 2011 V3: 154tests

medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 74, 75–76storage tanks, 2011 V3: 152–153water fow tests, 2010 V2: 84–87

vacuum dened, 2010 V2: 165vacuum pressure measurement, 2010 V2: 166velocity head (h), 2009 V1: 5velocity o water in pipes and, 2010 V2: 75, 76–78, 78

water hammer and, 2010 V2: 71–72water meters and, 2010 V2: 88water vapor in air and, 2011 V3: 172–173

pressure-assist water closets, 2009 V1: 127pressure-balancing xtures. See pressure-regulating or

reducing valves (PRV)pressure classes, ductile iron cement-lined pipe, 2012 V4: 29pressure deaerators, 2012 V4: 176pressure dew points, 2011 V3: 266pressure diatomaceous earth lters, 2011 V3: 120pressure dierential fow sensors, 2011 V3: 124

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pressure dierential switches, 2012 V4: 181pressure drops or dierences (PD, DELTP)

air ltration and, 2011 V3: 180backfow preventers and, 2011 V3: 215calculating, 2009 V1: 2compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 72–73, 177, 181,

182, 184dened, 2010 V2: 136, 2012 V4: 202

double-check valves and, 2011 V3: 215examples or pipe sizing, 2010 V2: 87–89ttings, 2011 V3: 214uel systems, 2011 V3: 151gas boosters, 2010 V2: 128gas lters and, 2011 V3: 273gas line lters and, 2011 V3: 254gas valves and, 2011 V3: 274gravity lters, 2012 V4: 179–180installing taps, 2011 V3: 210–214laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 276, 279measuring in water fow tests, 2010 V2: 84medical air, 2011 V3: 68–69medical gas, 2011 V3: 68natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 115, 119–121piping runs, 2011 V3: 214pressure drop curves, 2012 V4: 186, 225sanitary drainage, 2010 V2: 2sprinkler hydraulic calculations, 2011 V3: 14steam, 2011 V3: 159–161strainers and, 2011 V3: 216vacuum cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 181–184vacuum exhauster sizing, 2010 V2: 184vacuum piping, 2010 V2: 174–176vacuum pressures, 2010 V2: 168valve sizing, 2012 V4: 83valves and ttings, 2010 V2: 90–91, 2011 V3: 214water meters, 2010 V2: 84, 2011 V3: 216water soteners and, 2012 V4: 185

pressure ltersbackwashing, 2012 V4: 180, 181compared to diatomaceous earth, 2012 V4: 182dened, 2012 V4: 180horizontal pressure sand lters, 2012 V4: 180multimedia depth lters, 2012 V4: 180vertical pressure sand lters, 2012 V4: 180

pressure gaugesbackwashing, 2012 V4: 181with gauge cocks (PG), 2009 V1: 10measurements, 2010 V2: 166

pressure loss. See pressure dropspressure maintenance (jockey) pumps, 2009 V1: 23pressure media lters, 2010 V2: 201

pressure piping double containment, 2012 V4: 56expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 207glass pipe, 2012 V4: 35polypropylene-random, 2012 V4: 52

pressure product-dispensing systems, 2011 V3: 146pressure ratings, 2009 V1: 27pressure-regulating or reducing valves (PRV), 2010 V2: 94

health care water supplies, 2011 V3: 46irrigation systems, 2011 V3: 95natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 115, 118

pressure-relie valves (PV), 2009 V1: 10shower valves, 2010 V2: 62–63, 2012 V4: 16symbols or, 2009 V1: 9, 15tank size and, 2010 V2: 66tub valves, 2012 V4: 17types o, 2010 V2: 69–70

Pressure Regulating Values or Liquifed Petroleum Gas,

2010 V2: 115

pressure regulatorscompressed air systems, 2011 V3: 179deluge valves, 2011 V3: 10fushometer tanks, 2012 V4: 6laboratory gas cylinders, 2011 V3: 271–272natural gas systems, 2011 V3: 254–255water storage tanks, 2010 V2: 163–164

pressure relie valves (PV), 2009 V1: 10, 15 Pressure Sewer Demonstration at the Borough o

Phoenixville, Pennsylvania, 2010 V2: 154pressure sewers, 2010 V2: 144pressure swing air dryers, 2011 V3: 179pressure switches (PS), 2009 V1: 10pressure tanks, 2011 V3: 136pressure-type vacuum breakers, 2012 V4: 163pressure vacuum breakers (PVBs), 2012 V4: 166, 170pressure-volume relationships (gas laws), 2010 V2: 126pressure water coolers, 2012 V4: 216, 217, 220pressure water lters, 2010 V2: 159pressure waves. See water hammerpressurized uel delivery systems, 2011 V3: 145, 151–152pretreated eed water, 2012 V4: 194pretreating efuent. See bioremediation pretreatment

systemsprices, 2009 V1: 210. See also costs and economic concernsprimary barriers or inectious wastes, 2010 V2: 240primary tanks

aboveground types, 2011 V3: 148construction, 2011 V3: 139interstitial monitoring, 2011 V3: 143underground tanks, 2011 V3: 138

prime costs, 2009 V1: 217primers, 2009 V1: 136priming in dry-pipe systems, 2011 V3: 8priority pollutants, 2011 V3: 81prism-like soils, 141, 2010 V2: 140private onsite wastewater treatment systems (POWTS)

aerobic wastewater treatment plants, 2010 V2: 150collection and treatment alternatives, 2010 V2: 144–145dened, 2009 V1: 27distribution boxes, 2010 V2: 148–149estimating sewage quantities, 2010 V2: 150–152inspection, 2010 V2: 153

introduction, 2010 V2: 139large systems, 150, 2010 V2: 149primary collection and treatment systems, 2010 V2: 139private sewers, 2009 V1: 27septic tanks, 2010 V2: 145–149soil-absorption systems, 2010 V2: 139–142

private sewage disposal systems, 2009 V1: 27private unit weighting in xture fow rate estimates, 2012

V4: 186private use

dened, 2009 V1: 27

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Index 331

lavatories, 2012 V4: 9private water systems

codes and standards, 2010 V2: 155drinking water demand, 2010 V2: 159initial operation and maintenance, 2010 V2: 164introduction, 2010 V2: 155matching water storage to pump fow, 2010 V2: 162perormance specications, 2010 V2: 164

sources o supply, 2010 V2: 155system equipment, 2010 V2: 160–164water quality, 2010 V2: 159–160wells, 2010 V2: 155–157

Proceedings o the Third National Conerence on IndividualOn Site Wastewater Systems, 2010 V2: 154

process gases, 2011 V3: 266 Process Piping Design (ASME B31.3), 2011 V3: 176, 277process wastewater, 2012 V4: 175Procurement and Contracting Requirements Group, 2009

V1: 58, 72producer costs, 2009 V1: 217producer gas, 2010 V2: 114producers (vacuum)

dened, 2010 V2: 178locating, 2010 V2: 181sizing, 2010 V2: 184

product costs, 2009 V1: 217product dispensing systems

aboveground tank systems, 2011 V3: 149underground tank systems

dispenser pans, 2011 V3: 146re suppression, 2011 V3: 146–147uel islands, 2011 V3: 146uel transactions, 2011 V3: 147pressure dispensing, 2011 V3: 146product dispensers, 2011 V3: 146

product level gauging, 2011 V3: 148, 149product spec sheet examples, 2009 V1: 256product standards, 2009 V1: 61, 2012 V4: 168product substitutions, 2009 V1: 62product water. See treated waterproduction wells in geothermal energy, 2009 V1: 123productivity rates, in cost estimation, 2009 V1: 87–88products

costs, 2009 V1: 217detail/product/material specication checklist, 2009

V1: 215section in specications, 2009 V1: 63, 71in specications, 2009 V1: 64value engineering questions, 2009 V1: 209

proessionals, dened, 2012 V4: 170prot markup in cost determinations, 2009 V1: 210

programmers, irrigation systems, 2011 V3: 95project conditions section in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 70project costs, 2009 V1: 210project manuals

contents o, 2009 V1: 56–57dened, 2009 V1: 55

propagation velocity, 2009 V1: 6propane, 2010 V2: 114. See also uel-gas piping systems;

liquied petroleum gasglossary, 2010 V2: 135–136laboratory use, 2010 V2: 121

physical properties, 2010 V2: 113sizing systems, 2010 V2: 135

Propane 101 (propane101.com), 2010 V2: 137propane regulators, 2010 V2: 132–133propane torches, 2010 V2: 133propane vaporizers, 2010 V2: 134propeller water meters, 2010 V2: 60property protection in re protection, 2011 V3: 1

prophylactic additives to water, 2010 V2: 160proportional solubility law, 2010 V2: 72proportions o septic tanks, 2010 V2: 146proprietary names in specications, 2009 V1: 60, 61–62proprietary specications, 2009 V1: 61–62propylene, 2010 V2: 114propylene glycol, 2009 V1: 141 Protected Aboveground Tanks or Flammable and

Combustible Liquids (UL 2085), 2011 V3: 137protected end o galvanic series, 2009 V1: 132protection

insulation, 2012 V4: 106–109section in specications, 2009 V1: 72storage tanks, 2011 V3: 149value engineering contract document clauses, 2009

V1: 251protection saddles, 2012 V4: 133protection shields

dened, 2012 V4: 133hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 121

protective coatings, 2009 V1: 136. See also coated metalprotective potential, dened, 2009 V1: 143protective saddles, 2012 V4: 121protein-orming oam, 2011 V3: 25protein-mixed chemical concentrates, 2011 V3: 25protocol gases, 2011 V3: 266Provent single-stack plumbing systems, 2010 V2: 17–18PRV (pressure-regulating or reducing valves). See

pressure-regulating or reducing valvesprying actions in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 182PS (polysulone), 2009 V1: 32PS (pressure switches), 2009 V1: 10PS standards. See under International Association o

Plumbing and Mechanical Ocials (IAPMO)pseudo-dynamic elastic analysis, 2009 V1: 151Pseudo Value Engineers, 2009 V1: 249Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 2010 V2: 43ps, PSF (pounds per square oot), 2009 V1: 15psi, PSI (pounds per square inch)

converting to metric units, 2011 V3: 30measurements, 2011 V3: 184psi absolute (psia, PSIA), 2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2: 166,

2011 V3: 78, 172

psi gage (psig, PSIG), 2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2: 166, 2011 V3: 172

psi gauge (psig, PSIG), 2011 V3: 78symbols or, 2009 V1: 15

psia, PSIA (psi absolute), 2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2: 166, 2011 V3: 78, 172

psig, PSIG (psi gage), 2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2: 166, 2011 V3:78, 172

psychrometry, dened, 2011 V3: 186PTFE. See Tefon (PTFE)public, educating on graywater systems, 2010 V2: 27–28

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public areasxtures or, 2011 V3: 35heel-proo grates, 2010 V2: 11sediment buckets, 2010 V2: 11

public hydrants, 2009 V1: 12Public Law 90-480, 2009 V1: 98Public Law 93-112, 2009 V1: 98Public Law 98, 2011 V3: 137

Public Law 616, 2011 V3: 137public sewersavailability o, 2011 V3: 225dened, 2009 V1: 27discharging into, 2010 V2: 227neutralizing acid wastes or, 2010 V2: 235public storm sewer systems, 2010 V2: 41, 2011 V3: 249radioactive waste systems and, 2010 V2: 240

public swimming pools. See swimming poolspublic unit weighting in xture fow rate estimates, 2012

V4: 186public use

dened, 2009 V1: 27lavatories, 2012 V4: 9

public utilities, 2010 V2: 113, 116public water supply. See municipal water supplyPublicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW), 2011 V3: 83,

2012 V4: 227pull-out spray accessories, 2012 V4: 11, 13pulsation, air compressors, 2011 V3: 177pulse remote-readout gas meters, 2010 V2: 116pump anity laws, 2011 V3: 125pump discharge lines (PD), 2009 V1: 8pump perormance curves, 2012 V4: 101pumper connections, 2009 V1: 12pumping

dened, 2011 V3: 186septic tanks, 2010 V2: 145wells, 2010 V2: 157–158

pumping head, 2010 V2: 161pumps

acoustics, 2012 V4: 138anity laws, 2012 V4: 94, 95applications

booster pump systems, 2010 V2: 61–68centralized drinking-water coolers, 2012 V4: 222, 224chemical eed, 2011 V3: 129–130chilled drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 221cooling vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 171distilled water systems, 2012 V4: 191, 192domestic booster, 2012 V4: 97drainage, 2012 V4: 98–99drainage systems, 2012 V4: 98–99

re pumps, 2011 V3: 21–22re suppression, 2012 V4: 98geothermal energy systems, 2009 V1: 123gravity tank systems, 2010 V2: 65–66house pumps, 2010 V2: 66hydropneumatic-tank systems, 2010 V2: 62, 64–65liquid uel systems, 2011 V3: 151–152liquid-waste decontamination systems, 2010 V2: 240sewage lit stations, 2011 V3: 229solar, circulating system, 2011 V3: 197solar systems, 2011 V3: 200, 201–202

specialty, 2012 V4: 97–99storm drainage backup systems, 2010 V2: 41sump pumps in sanitary drainage systems, 2010

V2: 8–9swimming pools, 2011 V3: 104, 110, 114, 122–123,

125–126systems or water supplies, 2010 V2: 160–162water circulation, 2012 V4: 98

well pumps, 2010 V2: 160–162as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 189automatic shutdown, 2011 V3: 84bases, 2010 V2: 158, 161casings, 2012 V4: 91, 92characteristic curves, 2012 V4: 95–97controls, 2012 V4: 99–100direct connection hazards, 2012 V4: 161earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 157eciency, 2009 V1: 6–7, 2012 V4: 93–94environmental concerns, 2012 V4: 99glossary, 2012 V4: 100–102impellers, 2012 V4: 91installation, 2012 V4: 100matching water storage to pump fow, 2010 V2: 162motor controls, 2010 V2: 63–64mounting details, 2009 V1: 204noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 194–201overview, 2012 V4: 91in parallel, dened, 2012 V4: 101perormance, 2012 V4: 95–97power/capacity characteristic curves, 2012 V4: 95–97pump anity laws, 2009 V1: 6, 2011 V3: 125purging vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 171repairing, 2012 V4: 99seals, 2012 V4: 91, 92secondary containment areas, 2011 V3: 84in series, dened, 2012 V4: 101staging, 2012 V4: 97suluric acid and, 2010 V2: 231temperature maintenance, 2012 V4: 98timers, 2010 V2: 64types o

acid eed, 2011 V3: 129–130axial, 2012 V4: 91centriugal, 2012 V4: 91, 91–97ejector pumps, 2011 V3: 228–229mixed-fow, 2012 V4: 91multiple pump systems, 2010 V2: 63multistage, 2012 V4: 97parallel pump systems, 2012 V4: 97positive-displacement, 2012 V4: 91regenerative pumps, 2012 V4: 97

submersible, 2010 V2: 158, 2011 V3: 151–152, 233vertical, 2012 V4: 92, 97volute, 2012 V4: 92

vibration isolation, 2009 V1: 202, 2012 V4: 137volutes, 2012 V4: 97

Pumps and Pump Systems, 2009 V1: 39purchasers in cost equation, 2009 V1: 217pure air properties, 2011 V3: 263–264pure water, 2010 V2: 219, 2012 V4: 175, 196pure-water systems. See also water purication

dened, 2010 V2: 187

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Index 333

health care acilities, 2011 V3: 46, 47–49piping materials, 2011 V3: 48–49types o pure water, 2011 V3: 47

purge valves, 2011 V3: 275purging

gas maniolds and regulators, 2011 V3: 275laboratory gas lines, 2011 V3: 270laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 280

medical gas zones, 2011 V3: 67, 74natural gas systems, 2011 V3: 257vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 171

puried gas grade, 2011 V3: 267puried water (PW), 2010 V2: 72, 74, 219, 2012 V4:

35, 175. See also pure-water systems; waterpurication

puriers, laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 273purity

compressed air, 2011 V3: 180laboratory gases, 2011 V3: 263, 273monitors, 2012 V4: 193testing medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 75–76

push-connect joints, 2012 V4: 58push-on joints, 2011 V3: 221push-seal gasketed drains, 2010 V2: 13push-seal gasketed outlets, 2010 V2: 13putreaction, 2009 V1: 27 Putting Industrial Vacuum to Work, 2010 V2: 186puzzles

Nine Dots exercise, 2009 V1: 225, 252Six Sticks exercise, 2009 V1: 225, 252

PV (plug valves). See plug valves (PV)PV (pressure relie valves), 2009 V1: 15PVA (polyvinyl acetate), 2012 V4: 108PVBs. See pressure vacuum breakers (PVBs)PVC. See polyvinyl chloride (PVC)PVC (polyvinyl chloride), 2010 V2: 94PVC piping

expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 208standards, 2012 V4: 69–70

PVDC (polyvinylidene chloride), 2009 V1: 32PVDF (polyvinyl-fuoridine). See polyvinylidene fuoride

(PVDF)PVDM (polyvinyl ormal), 2009 V1: 32PVE (Pseudo Value Engineers), 2009 V1: 249PVK (polyvinyl carbazol), 2009 V1: 32PW (pure water). See pure-water systems; puried water;

water puricationpyramids, calculating volume, 2009 V1: 4pyrogens, 2010 V2: 188, 213

distilled water and, 2012 V4: 175, 192intravenous injections and, 2012 V4: 192

laboratory grade water, 2012 V4: 198pure water systems and, 2011 V3: 47

pyrophoric gases, 2011 V3: 267

Qqt, QT (quarts), 2009 V1: 39quads, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39quality

appearance o installations, 2009 V1: 262–263building noise and perceptions o, 2009 V1: 187building occupants and, 2009 V1: 263

building owners and, 2009 V1: 262contractors and, 2009 V1: 262in cost estimation, 2009 V1: 89costs vs. benets, 2009 V1: 253equipment supports, 2009 V1: 258low cost vs. high quality, 2009 V1: 263–264makeshit or eld-devised methods, 2009 V1: 254–257mock-ups, 2009 V1: 264

quality assurance in specications, 2009 V1: 63, 70quality control section in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 72regional and climate considerations, 2009 V1: 262researching readily-available products and

technologies, 2009 V1: 262saety and, 2009 V1: 258–262specication clarity and, 2009 V1: 253–254, 264o water, 2010 V2: 27–28, 159–160. See also water

analysis; water puricationquantities. See also demand

clean gas agents, 2011 V3: 27in creativity checklist, 2009 V1: 227irrigation water, 2011 V3: 91water supplies, 2011 V3: 2–6

quarter-circle rotary sprinklers, 2011 V3: 94quarter-turn valves, 2012 V4: 73quarts (qt, QT), 2009 V1: 39questions in value engineering presentations, 2009 V1: 249quick-coupling method o irrigation, 2011 V3: 92quick-disconnect couplings, 2011 V3: 184quick-opening devices, 2011 V3: 9quick-response sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29quick valve closure, 2010 V2: 71quieting pipes, 2010 V2: 13–14

RR (hydraulic radii), 2009 V1: 1°R, R (Rankines), 2009 V1: 15, 30

R, R (thermal resistance), 2012 V4: 103, 105R, R- (rerigerants), 2009 V1: 140R-13 and R-13A re-protection systems, 2012 V4: 39RAD (radiation). See radiationrad, RAD (radians). See radiansrad/s (radians per second), 2009 V1: 34rad/s2 (radians per second squared), 2009 V1: 34radial fow, 2012 V4: 101radians (RAD)

measurement unit conversions, 2009 V1: 34radians per second, 2009 V1: 34radians per second squared, 2009 V1: 34

radiant emittance (exitance), 2011 V3: 191radiant energy, 2012 V4: 195

radiant fux, 2011 V3: 191radiant intensity, 2011 V3: 191radiation (RADN, RAD)

dened, 2011 V3: 191nature o, 2010 V2: 236–237radiation equivalent to man (rem), 2010 V2: 237rads (radioactive dosage), 2010 V2: 237treatment acilities, 2010 V2: 238

radicals (ions), 2009 V1: 134, 143, 2010 V2: 229radio requency remote-readout gas meters, 2010 V2: 116radioactive waste drainage and vents

allowable radiation levels, 2010 V2: 237

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approval process and applications, 2010 V2: 238diluting radwaste, 2010 V2: 240introduction, 2010 V2: 235–236measuring radiation, 2010 V2: 237nature o radiation, 2010 V2: 236–237pipe selection, 2010 V2: 239radioactive materials, 2010 V2: 238shielding systems, 2010 V2: 238

system design criteria, 2010 V2: 238–240radioactivitydened, 2010 V2: 236–237radioactive hal lives, 2010 V2: 238radioactive isotopes, 2010 V2: 236–237, 238

radiological characteristics o drinking water, 2010 V2: 217Radiological Saety Ocers, 2010 V2: 238radium 226, 2010 V2: 238radius screwed ells, 2010 V2: 93RADN (radiation). See radiationradon gas, 2010 V2: 160, 190, 217radwaste (waterborne radioactive waste), 2010 V2: 236rain shuto devices, 2011 V3: 96Rainbird Company, 2011 V3: 96 Rainall Rates: How Much Rain Is Enough in Design?,

2010 V2: 55rainwater and precipitation

calculating intensity, 2010 V2: 44–46calculating time o concentration, 2010 V2: 44–46capturing rainwater, 2009 V1: 126cisterns, 2010 V2: 162, 2012 V4: 236duration, 2011 V3: 241–242fow rates, 2010 V2: 53imperviousness actor, 2011 V3: 239inlet times, 2011 V3: 242intensity-duration-requency curves, 2011 V3: 239,

244–248pipe loads, 2012 V4: 115pollution, 2010 V2: 45polypropylene-random piping, 2012 V4: 52precipitation, dened, 2009 V1: 27rainall rates, 2010 V2: 57, 2011 V3: 239, 240rainwater drains (SD, ST). See storm-drainage systemsregional requirements or plumbing installations, 2009

V1: 262return periods, 2011 V3: 240–241runo patterns, 2010 V2: 43runo volume calculation example, 2010 V2: 56siphonic roo drains, 2010 V2: 53storing in controlled fow systems, 2010 V2: 52–53storm-drainage systems, 2010 V2: 41

raised-foor areas, 2011 V3: 27ramp-drain grates, 2010 V2: 11

ramps, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 134–135random hangers, 2012 V4: 133range ability, gas meters, 2010 V2: 117Rankines (°R, R), 2009 V1: 15, 30, 2011 V3: 184ranking unctions in value engineering, 2009 V1: 235rapid sand/direct ltration package plants, 2010 V2: 218rate o corrosion

acidity, 2009 V1: 134Faraday’s Law, 2009 V1: 134lm ormation, 2009 V1: 135homogeneity in, 2009 V1: 134

oxygen content, 2009 V1: 134temperature, 2009 V1: 135velocity in, 2009 V1: 135

rate o fow. See fow ratesrated vacuum levels, 2010 V2: 166–167ratings

drinking water coolers, 2012 V4: 215–216insulation smoke requirements and ratings, 2012 V4: 104

LEED, 2012 V4: 234load ratings. See load ratingsportable re extinguishers, 2011 V3: 28saturated steam pressure valves, 2012 V4: 78valves (v, V, VLV), 2012 V4: 78water, oil, and gas (WOG) pressure rating, 2012 V4:

78, 84ratio o specic heats, dened, 2011 V3: 186Rational Method, 2009 V1: 7, 2010 V2: 42–43, 2011 V3:

238–239raw sewage, 2009 V1: 27raw water, 2010 V2: 187, 220RCP (reinorced concrete pipe), 2012 V4: 29RCRA (Resource Conservation and Recovery Act), 2010

V2: 242, 2011 V3: 82, 83, 137rcvr, RCVR (receivers), 2010 V2: 170, 173RD. See roo drainagere-fashing, 2011 V3: 23reaction orces in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 180Reactive Hazard gases, 2011 V3: 263reactive silica, 2010 V2: 190reactivity, hangers and supports and, 2012 V4: 117ready mix concrete, 2012 V4: 230reagent grade water, 2010 V2: 219, 2012 V4: 197, 198real costs, 2009 V1: 218rear wall grab bars, 2009 V1: 106reasonable care, dened, 2012 V4: 170reasoning against value engineering, 2009 V1: 225REC (receivers), 2010 V2: 170, 173receiver tanks

medical air compressors, 2011 V3: 62–63vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 64

receivers (rcvr, RCVR, REC), 2010 V2: 170, 173receiving costs, 2009 V1: 217receptors, 2009 V1: 27recessed-box hose bibbs, 2009 V1: 10recessed grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 154recessed sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29recessed water coolers, 2012 V4: 217–218, 218recharge basins, 2011 V3: 250rechargeable air chambers, 2010 V2: 73recharging aquiers, 2010 V2: 155rechlorination treatments, 2010 V2: 110–111

reciprocating air compressors, 2011 V3: 62, 174–175, 177,2012 V4: 84

reciprocating (rotary) piston pumps, 2010 V2: 169recirculating hot-water systems, 2010 V2: 109recirculating sand lter sewage systems, 2010 V2: 145recirculation systems

or high purity water, 2011 V3: 48or hot water, 2010 V2: 105

reclaimed water. See graywater systemsreclamation, wastewater, 2012 V4: 236–237recombined FOG (ats, oil, and grease), 2012 V4: 227

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Index 335

Recommendation phase in value engineering, 2009 V1:209, 249

Recommendations or a New ADAAG, 2009 V1: 115 Recommended Practice or Backow Prevention and Cross-

connection Control, 2010 V2: 95 Recommended Practice or Fire Flow Testing and Marking

o Fire Hydrants (NFPA 291), 2011 V3: 3, 30 Recommended Practice or Handling Releases o

Flammable and Combustible Liquids and Gases(NFPA 329), 2011 V3: 137recovered energy, 2009 V1: 128recovering heat rom water heaters, 2010 V2: 100–101recovery in reverse osmosis, 2010 V2: 211recovery pressure, dened, 2011 V3: 186recovery rooms

xtures, 2011 V3: 39health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 53, 56medical vacuum, 2011 V3: 54

recreational establishmentsestimating sewage quantities, 2010 V2: 151septic tank/soil-absorption systems or, 150, 2010 V2: 149

recreational pools, 2011 V3: 107rectangles, calculating area, 2009 V1: 3rectangular bath seats, 2009 V1: 114rectangular solids, calculating volume, 2009 V1: 4rectiers, 2009 V1: 139, 140recycled water systems. See graywater systemsrecycling systems, salt, 2012 V4: 189red brass, 2009 V1: 132reduced noise transmission, 2010 V2: 13–14reduced-port ball valves, 2012 V4: 75reduced pressure

conditions in water storage tanks, 2010 V2: 163dened, 2011 V3: 187all-o, 2012 V4: 80in pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 94reduced-pressure backfow preventers, 2010 V2: 94reduced pressure zones (RPZ), 2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2:

60–61, 94, 2011 V3: 215, 220reduced-pressure-principle backfow devices (RPBDs)

(RPZs), 2010 V2: 94costs and locations or, 2012 V4: 168dened, 2012 V4: 165, 170

reduced pressure zone backfow preventers, 2009 V1: 27,2012 V4: 163

reduced-size venting, 2010 V2: 18–19reduced temperature, dened, 2011 V3: 187reduced water-fow rates, 2009 V1: 118reduced water pressure dierential, 2012 V4: 80reduced zone backfow preventers (RZBP), 2009 V1: 10

reducers, dened, 2009 V1: 27reducing bushings, 2010 V2: 92redundancy in hazardous waste systems, 2011 V3: 84reerence standard specications, 2009 V1: 61reerences

bioremediation systems, 2012 V4: 229–230cold water systems, 2010 V2: 95–96conserving energy, 2009 V1: 128designing or people with disabilities, 2009 V1: 115re-protection systems, 2011 V3: 30ormulae, symbols, and terminology, 2009 V1: 39

gasoline and diesel-oil systems, 2011 V3: 156graywater systems, 2010 V2: 29health care acilities, 2011 V3: 78irrigation systems, 2011 V3: 96sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 19seismic protection, 2009 V1: 185special-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 246steam and condensate systems, 2011 V3: 169

vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 186water treatment and purication, 2010 V2: 224–225reerences section in specications, 2009 V1: 63, 69refecting pools

codes and standards, 2011 V3: 100–101dened, 2009 V1: 27design, 2011 V3: 98fow rates, 2011 V3: 100interactive, 2011 V3: 100overview, 2011 V3: 98

rerigerant ater-coolers, 2011 V3: 178rerigerants (R, R-), 2009 V1: 140rerigerated air dryers, 2011 V3: 178rerigeration loads, 2012 V4: 222, 223, 224rerigeration mechanical rooms, 2009 V1: 158rerigeration piping, 2012 V4: 29, 32rerigeration systems

centralized chilled water systems, 2012 V4: 222heat reclamation, 2009 V1: 123waste heat usage, 2009 V1: 123, 124water coolers, 2012 V4: 219–220

regenerable ion exchange, 2010 V2: 205regenerants, dealkalizing and, 2010 V2: 199regeneration controls on ion exchangers, 2012 V4: 183–184regeneration cycle

in dealkalizing, 2010 V2: 199dened, 2012 V4: 202in deionizing, 2010 V2: 206–208, 207in demineralizers, 2011 V3: 48, 2012 V4: 182in ion exchange, 2010 V2: 208, 2012 V4: 183–184salt recycling, 2012 V4: 189, 191service deionization, 2012 V4: 182sodium chloride usage, 2012 V4: 184in water soteners, 2010 V2: 210, 2012 V4: 185, 189

regenerative alternative media lters, 2011 V3: 122regenerative diatomaceous earth lters, 2011 V3: 120–122regenerative pumps (turbines), 2012 V4: 97regional authorities, 2010 V2: 227regional requirements or plumbing installations, 2009

V1: 262registers in uel dispensers, 2011 V3: 146regulated substances, 2011 V3: 136regulations. See codes and standards

regulator creep, 2011 V3: 179, 272regulator relie vents, 2010 V2: 121regulators, 2009 V1: 27. See specic types o regulators

propane, 2010 V2: 132–133purging, 2011 V3: 275

Rehabilitation Act o 1973 (93-112), 2009 V1: 98reinorced concrete pipe (RCP), 2012 V4: 29reinorced thermosetting resin pipe (RTRP), 2012 V4: 53reinorcing ribs in tanks, 2011 V3: 138reject stream rom reverse osmosis, 2010 V2: 211relative discharge curves, 2011 V3: 211

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relative humidity (rh, RH), 2009 V1: 15, 2011 V3: 186, 265relative velocity, 2012 V4: 146relay interace controls, 2011 V3: 67reliability o water supplies, 2011 V3: 2, 6relie valves

centralized drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 223compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 180–181re pumps, 2011 V3: 22

gas regulators, 2011 V3: 255hot-water systems, 2010 V2: 106, 2012 V4: 209laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 274propane tanks, 2010 V2: 133sizing, 2010 V2: 106water-pressure regulators and, 2012 V4: 80

Relie Valves or Hot Water Supply Systems, 2010 V2: 112relie vents

dened, 2009 V1: 27gas regulator relie vents, 2010 V2: 117–118gas systems, 2010 V2: 121gas trains, 2011 V3: 255osets, 2010 V2: 37

remote-control irrigation valves, 2011 V3: 94remote earth (remote electrodes), 2009 V1: 143remote electrodes, 2009 V1: 143remote ll ports, 2011 V3: 139–140, 148remote leakage rom tanks, 2011 V3: 144remote portions o re design areas, 2011 V3: 12remote-readout gas meters, 2010 V2: 116remote-readout water meters, 2010 V2: 60remote secondary-containment enclosures, 2011 V3: 148remote water coolers, 2012 V4: 216removal ratios or grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 148Remove Organics by Activated Carbon Adsorption, 2010

V2: 225removing tanks, 2011 V3: 154rems (radiation equivalent to man), 2010 V2: 237renewable energy resources, 2011 V3: 189renovations, cost estimating and, 2009 V1: 90repetition in value engineering presentations, 2009 V1: 249replacements or Halon gases, 2011 V3: 27Report on Hydraulics and Pneumatics o Plumbing

Drainage Systems, 2010 V2: 19reports, physical condition o buildings, 2009 V1: 267–269required NPSH, 2012 V4: 101research acilities, radiation in, 2010 V2: 238research-grade gases, 2011 V3: 267Research Report: Water Reuse Standards and Verication

Protocol, 2010 V2: 29researching new technologies and products, 2009 V1: 262reserves (connected standbys), 2011 V3: 27reservoirs, 2010 V2: 47

condensate drainage, 2011 V3: 164dened, 2012 V4: 133municipal, 2011 V3: 6storm drainage systems, 2010 V2: 41

residential dual check valves, 2012 V4: 170–171residential garage sediment buckets, 2010 V2: 11residential kitchen aucets, 2010 V2: 25residential kitchen sinks

aucets, 2012 V4: 12types and requirements, 2012 V4: 10–12

residential land use, runo, 2010 V2: 42

residential sprinkler systems (re protection), 2011 V3: 18residential systems

cold-water systems. See cold-water systemsestimating sewage quantities, 2010 V2: 150–152reghting demand fow rates, 2011 V3: 224xture drainage loads, 2010 V2: 3gas appliances, 2010 V2: 116hot-water systems. See hot-water systems

irrigation, 2011 V3: 92lavatory fow rates, 2012 V4: 9numbers o xtures, 2012 V4: 21propane tanks, 2010 V2: 133–134sewage-disposal systems. See private onsite wastewater

treatment systems (POWTS)sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29typical graywater supply and demand, 2010 V2: 24water supply. See domestic water supply

residual acids, 2012 V4: 177residual pressure

dened, 2009 V1: 27, 2010 V2: 94domestic water supply, 2011 V3: 208–210re hydrants, 2011 V3: 3sprinkler hydraulic calculations, 2011 V3: 13

residual radiation, 2010 V2: 239resilient mounts

calculating vibration, 2012 V4: 140–141economic concerns, 2012 V4: 143natural requencies and, 2012 V4: 138vibration calculator, 2012 V4: 140–141

resilient pipe isolation, 2009 V1: 191, 201resilient pipe supports, 2012 V4: 133resilient valve seating, 2012 V4: 76resilient wedge valve design, 2012 V4: 74resin beads, 2010 V2: 206resins, dissolved metal removal, 2011 V3: 87resins, ion-exchange

continuous deionization, 2010 V2: 209–210dened, 2010 V2: 205, 2012 V4: 183, 202in diluting compartments, 2010 V2: 209overview, 2010 V2: 205–206regenerating, 2010 V2: 206strong-acid and weak-acid, 2010 V2: 206volatile organic compounds in, 2010 V2: 191

resistance ratings (re loads), 2011 V3: 2resistivity

dened, 2009 V1: 27, 143low extractable PVC, 2012 V4: 52resistivity meters, 2012 V4: 183, 193soil, 2009 V1: 138

resonance and ringing calculating, 2012 V4: 138

preventing, 2012 V4: 118upper foor installations, 2012 V4: 142–143vibration and, 2012 V4: 137

resonant amplication, dened, 2012 V4: 137resource conservation, 2009 V1: 117Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 2009 V1: 117,

2010 V2: 242, 2011 V3: 82, 137resources

gasoline and diesel-oil systems, 2011 V3: 156health care acilities, 2011 V3: 78industrial wastewater treatment, 2011 V3: 89

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Index 337

irrigation systems, 2011 V3: 96–97solar energy, 2011 V3: 203

respirators, 2010 V2: 229, 231response actor in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 177response in pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 94response spectrum in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 151, 180restaurants, 150, 2010 V2: 149. See also ood-processing

areas and kitchens

drinking ountain usage, 2012 V4: 223xtures, 2012 V4: 20grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 145water consumption, 2012 V4: 187

restraints and restraining control devicesdened, 2012 V4: 133or earthquakes, 2009 V1: 158, 183or re-protection joints, 2011 V3: 221illustrated, 2012 V4: 121

restricted areas (acilities with radiation), 2010 V2: 237restrooms. See water-closet compartments; water closetsretail stores, 2012 V4: 223retaining straps, 2012 V4: 133retard chambers, 2011 V3: 6, 7retention basins, 2011 V3: 250

bioremediation systems, 2012 V4: 228FOG bioremediation systems, 2012 V4: 228

retention periods or grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 147retention ratios in bioremediation, 2012 V4: 230retirement costs, in labor costs, 2009 V1: 86retractable ceiling medical gas columns, 2011 V3: 56return air (ra, RA), 2009 V1: 262return bends, 2010 V2: 93return circuits, 2009 V1: 129return osets, 2009 V1: 27return periods, 2009 V1: 27return periods in rainall, 2010 V2: 57, 2011 V3: 240–241reusing water. See graywater systemsrev, REV (revolutions), 2009 V1: 15revent pipes, 2009 V1: 27. See also individual ventsreverse fow

active control, 2012 V4: 164–166air gaps, 2012 V4: 162–164, 167barometric loops, 2012 V4: 164causes, 2012 V4: 160–162passive control, 2012 V4: 162–164vacuum breakers, 2012 V4: 164, 166, 167water distribution hazards, 2012 V4: 161, 162

reverse osmosis (RO)applications, 2012 V4: 198–199cartridges, 2010 V2: 194continuous deionization and, 2010 V2: 210dened, 2010 V2: 211–213, 2012 V4: 175

drinking-water coolers, 2012 V4: 221health care acilities, 2011 V3: 48history and current technology, 2012 V4: 196–197laboratory grade water comparison, 2012 V4: 197–198membrane congurations, 2010 V2: 211–212membrane selection, 2010 V2: 213overview, 2012 V4: 195–196polishing systems, 2012 V4: 198polymer membranes, 2010 V2: 213silica and, 2010 V2: 190small drinking water systems, 2010 V2: 218

VOCs in membranes, 2010 V2: 191water quality, 2012 V4: 197–198water sotening pretreatment, 2012 V4: 187water supply (RO), 2009 V1: 8

Reverse Osmosis and Nanofltration System Design, 2010 V2: 224

reverse-trap water closets, 2012 V4: 2reversible potential, dened, 2009 V1: 143

revolutions (rev, REV)revolutions per minute (rpm, RPM), 2009 V1: 15revolutions per second (rps, RPS), 2009 V1: 15

Reynold’s number or turbulence, 2009 V1: 2, 2010 V2:74–75, 77, 2012 V4: 146

RF remote-readout gas meters, 2010 V2: 116RFP (berglass reinorced plastic), 2010 V2: 78, 94rgh, RGH (roughness). See roughness o pipesrh, RH (relative humidity). See relative humidityRHO (density). See densityrhomboids, calculating area, 2009 V1: 4rhombuses, calculating area, 2009 V1: 3RI (Ryzner stability index), 2010 V2: 196Richardson, D.W., Sr., 2010 V2: 224rigging, 2012 V4: 133right-angle triangles, calculating area, 2009 V1: 4rigid braces, 2012 V4: 133rigid ceiling medical gas columns, 2011 V3: 56rigid cellular urethane, 2012 V4: 107rigid hangers, 2012 V4: 133rigid pipes

expansion o, 2012 V4: 208plastic piping, 2011 V3: 150

rigid supports, 2012 V4: 133rim top test, 2012 V4: 5rims

dened, 2009 V1: 27on urinals, 2009 V1: 108rim top test, 2012 V4: 5water closets, 2012 V4: 4

ring bands, 2012 V4: 133ring buoys, 2011 V3: 135ring hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 119ring-securing methods around drains, 2010 V2: 16ringing in pipes. See resonance and ringing rinsing in regeneration cycle, 2010 V2: 206, 208, 2012

V4: 202ripraps, 2009 V1: 27riser clamps, 2009 V1: 194, 2012 V4: 119, 120, 134riser hangers, 2012 V4: 134riser-mounted sprinklers, 2011 V3: 93risers

bracing, 2009 V1: 161, 171

checklists, 2009 V1: 94dened, 2009 V1: 27, 2011 V3: 78, 2012 V4: 134earthquake protection and joints, 2009 V1: 161hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 65natural gas piping, 2010 V2: 131noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 191riser clamps, 2012 V4: 120, 134riser down (elbows), 2009 V1: 10riser hangers, 2012 V4: 134riser-mounted sprinklers, 2011 V3: 93riser up (elbows), 2009 V1: 11

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symbols or, 2009 V1: 12thermal expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 206

rises or drops, 2009 V1: 11rising stems (RS)

dened, 2012 V4: 89with inside screws, 2012 V4: 79with outside screws, 2012 V4: 78–79

Risk Guides in value engineering, 2009 V1: 248

riveted steel piping, 2010 V2: 75, 78rms (root main square), 2009 V1: 15RNA materials, 2012 V4: 194RO (reverse osmosis). See reverse osmosisroadblocks to creativity, 2009 V1: 225rock salt, 2010 V2: 210rod couplings, 2012 V4: 134rod hangers, 2012 V4: 134rod stieners, 2012 V4: 124, 134rods and anchors, 2012 V4: 124, 134Roentgens, 2010 V2: 237roll and plate devices, 2012 V4: 134roll grooved joints, 2012 V4: 58roll hangers, 2012 V4: 134roll-in shower compartments, 2009 V1: 110–111roll plates, 2012 V4: 134roll stands, 2012 V4: 134roll trapezes, 2012 V4: 134rollers, 2012 V4: 64, 65, 121roo drainage, 2010 V2: 41

as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 188avoiding septic tank disposal, 2010 V2: 147controlled fow systems, 2010 V2: 52–53limited-discharge roo drains, 2011 V3: 250RD abbreviation, 2009 V1: 15roo drain sizes, 2010 V2: 54roo drains, dened, 2009 V1: 27siphonic roo drains, 2010 V2: 53

roong design considerations in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 180imperviousness actors, 2011 V3: 239roo penetrations, 2010 V2: 34

roong tar kettles, 2010 V2: 133root main square (rms), 2009 V1: 15rotary gas meters, 2010 V2: 116–117rotary lobe compressors, 2011 V3: 175rotary lobe (roots) pumps, 2010 V2: 169rotary piston pumps, 2010 V2: 169rotary pop-up sprinklers, 2011 V3: 92, 93rotary screw air compressors, 2011 V3: 62, 175rotary vane, once-through-oil pumps, 2010 V2: 169rotating lters, 2011 V3: 88rotational natural requencies, 2012 V4: 138

rotors in gas boosters, 2010 V2: 125rotting cork, 2012 V4: 139rough-ins

checklist, 2009 V1: 95examples o poor quality, 2009 V1: 255roughing in, dened, 2009 V1: 27water closets, 2012 V4: 4

rough vacuum, 2010 V2: 165roughness o pipes

airly rough pipe, 2010 V2: 81airly smooth pipe, 2010 V2: 80

laminar fow and, 2010 V2: 74pipe sizing and, 2010 V2: 75–84pipe types and, 2010 V2: 78rough pipe, 2010 V2: 82smooth pipe, 2010 V2: 79types o pipes and, 2010 V2: 75

round bowls on water closets, 2012 V4: 3round suraces, heat loss and, 2012 V4: 110

RPBDs. See reduced-pressure-principle backfow devicesrpm, RPM (revolutions per minute), 2009 V1: 15rps, RPS (revolutions per second), 2009 V1: 15RPZ (reduced pressure zones), 2009 V1: 15, 2010 V2:

60–61, 62–63, 94, 2011 V3: 215, 220RPZ (reduced-pressure-principle backfow devices)

costs and locations or, 2012 V4: 168dened, 2012 V4: 165

RS. See rising stems (RS)RSOs (Radiological Saety Ocers), 2010 V2: 238RTRP (reinorced thermosetting resin pipe), 2012 V4: 53rubber

noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 190, 194vibration control, 2012 V4: 138vibration insulation, 2012 V4: 139

rubber compression gaskets, 2012 V4: 26rubber acing in dry-pipe clappers, 2011 V3: 8rubber gaskets, 2012 V4: 29rubber-in-shear isolators, 2009 V1: 158rubber insulation, 2012 V4: 105, 110rubber isolation devices

noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 197–198rubber insulation, 2012 V4: 105, 110with steel spring isolators, 2012 V4: 139–142vibration control, 2012 V4: 138

rubble drains (rench drains), 2009 V1: 24rules in Function Analysis, 2009 V1: 218running loads, condensate drainage, 2011 V3: 165running traps, 2011 V3: 45runo

imperviousness actor, 2011 V3: 239patterns, 2010 V2: 43Rational Method, 2010 V2: 42–43rational method and, 2011 V3: 238–239Rational method or calculating, 2009 V1: 7volume calculation, commercial sites, 2010 V2: 56

runouts, 2009 V1: 27Russell SRTA (Stationary Refector/Tracking Absorber)

system, 2011 V3: 195–196rust

as contaminant in air, 2011 V3: 265ormation in iron pipes, 2009 V1: 129rusting, dened, 2009 V1: 143

RV (pressure-relie valves). See pressure-regulating orreducing valves

Ryzner stability index (RI), 2010 V2: 196RZBP (reduced zone backfow preventers), 2009 V1: 10

SS (entropy), 2009 V1: 34S (siemens), 2009 V1: 34S (soil). See soilsS (soil sewers), 2009 V1: 8S (conductance), 2009 V1: 34

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Index 339

s, SEC (seconds), 2009 V1: 33s traps (unvented traps), 2011 V3: 45sacricial anodes, 2009 V1: 137saddles and rollers, 2012 V4: 64, 119, 121, 134saddles or tanks, 2011 V3: 155Sae Drinking Water Act o 1974, 2010 V2: 155, 159, 187,

217, 2012 V4: 173, 225Sae Handling o Acids, 2010 V2: 246

saety. See also hazardscontrolled substance spills, 2010 V2: 186fammable and volatile liquids, 2010 V2: 244–246ountains, 2011 V3: 100gas boosters, 2010 V2: 125gas utility controllers and laboratory service panels,

2010 V2: 121gases in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 148hot-water systems, 2010 V2: 97, 111lie saety in re protection, 2011 V3: 1propane, 2010 V2: 131propane tanks, 2010 V2: 132, 133–134quality installations and, 2009 V1: 258–262radioactive waste-drainage systems, 2010 V2: 239Radiological Saety Ocers, 2010 V2: 238refecting pools and, 2011 V3: 100saety actors, dened, 2012 V4: 134sanitary precautions or wells, 2010 V2: 159storm drainage collection systems, 2010 V2: 46swimming pools, 2011 V3: 104–106, 135types o acids, 2010 V2: 230–232vacuum cleaning system issues, 2010 V2: 186water eatures, 2011 V3: 134

Saety and Health Regulations or Construction (OSHA 29

CFR 1926), 2011 V3: 136saety cabinets, 2010 V2: 241saety actors, dened, 2012 V4: 134saety shut-o devices, 2010 V2: 136sal soda. See sodium carbonate (soda ash)sales tax, in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 86salesmanship in value engineering, 2009 V1: 249salt-laden air, 2009 V1: 262salt splitting, 2010 V2: 199salt water, 2012 V4: 117salts. See also sodium chloride

dened, 2012 V4: 202in distilled water, 2012 V4: 191–192ions in reverse osmosis, 2010 V2: 187in irrigation water, 2011 V3: 91nanoltration, 2012 V4: 199recycling systems, water soteners, 2012 V4: 189storage, 2012 V4: 189water hardness and, 2012 V4: 176

water purity and, 2012 V4: 175water sotener consumption, 2012 V4: 187, 189

samplesacid wastes, 2011 V3: 45inectious waste systems, 2010 V2: 242radioactive waste efuent, 2010 V2: 240

sampling manholes, 2011 V3: 45SAN (sanitary sewers), 2009 V1: 8, 28. See also sanitary

drainage systemsSan Diego Gas & Electric Company, 2009 V1: 128San Fernando Earthquake, 2009 V1: 152

sand ltrationdrinking water, 2010 V2: 159–160, 218earthquake damage to lters, 2009 V1: 152horizontal pressure sand lters, 2012 V4: 180laboratory water, 2010 V2: 201pure water systems, 2010 V2: 221sand lters dened, 2009 V1: 28sewage treatment, 2010 V2: 145

swimming pools, 2011 V3: 110, 114, 117–118vertical pressure sand lters, 2012 V4: 180sand points, 2010 V2: 157sands

graywater irrigation systems and, 2010 V2: 25imperviousness actors, 2011 V3: 239porous soils, 2011 V3: 91, 96in soil texture, 2010 V2: 140storm water inltration, 2010 V2: 48

sanistans, 2011 V3: 40sanitary building drains. See also sanitary drainage

systemsas source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 188cast-iron soil pipe, 2012 V4: 25

sanitary, dened, 2009 V1: 28sanitary drain system pumps, 2012 V4: 98sanitary drainage tting codes, 2009 V1: 44sanitary drainage systems

alternative disposal methods, 2011 V3: 237alternative systems, 2010 V2: 16–19building sewers (house drains), 2010 V2: 14–15, 2012

V4: 25codes and standards, 2010 V2: 1components, 2010 V2: 8–12, 2011 V3: 225–228connections, 2011 V3: 226, 249dened, 2010 V2: 1drainage loads, 2010 V2: 3drainage structures, 2011 V3: 226–228ttings, 2009 V1: 44xture discharge characteristics, 2010 V2: 3foor leveling around drains, 2010 V2: 16fow in, 2010 V2: 1–2orce main connections, 2011 V3: 234graywater systems and, 2010 V2: 27–28grease interceptors, 2011 V3: 226grease interceptors and, 2012 V4: 154health care acilities, 2011 V3: 42–46 joining methods, 2010 V2: 13–14kitchen areas, 2010 V2: 15laboratories, 2011 V3: 43–44materials or, 2010 V2: 13overview, 2011 V3: 225pipes, 2009 V1: 44

pneumatic pressures in, 2010 V2: 2–3preliminary inormation, 2011 V3: 205protection rom damage, 2010 V2: 16Provent systems, 2010 V2: 17–18public sewer availability, 2011 V3: 225reduced-size venting, 2010 V2: 18–19sample letters, 2011 V3: 225sanitary sewers (SAN, SS), 2009 V1: 8, 28sanitation and cleaning, 2010 V2: 15sel-cleansing velocities, 2010 V2: 7sewage lit stations, 2011 V3: 228–237

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single-stack systems, 2010 V2: 18sizing, 2011 V3: 224, 225sloping drain capacities, 2010 V2: 5–8Sovent systems, 2010 V2: 17–18stack capacities, 2010 V2: 3–5supports, 2010 V2: 12thermal expansion, 2010 V2: 16trenching and bedding, 2011 V3: 225–226, 227

vacuum drainage systems, 2010 V2: 19waterproong, 2010 V2: 15–16sanitary xture units (SFU), 2009 V1: 15sanitary joints, 2011 V3: 48–49sanitary sewer pipe codes, 2009 V1: 44sanitary sewer systems. See sanitary drainage systemssanitary tees

fow capacity and, 2010 V2: 4water closet installation, 2012 V4: 5

sanitaryware. See xturessanitation. See also cleanouts

eed water, 2010 V2: 195xture materials and, 2012 V4: 1foor drains, 2012 V4: 17precautions or wells, 2010 V2: 159sanitary seals on wells, 2010 V2: 156stainless steel piping, 2012 V4: 56water soteners, 2010 V2: 211

sanitizer levels, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 127sanitizers/oxidizers

eed system, 2011 V3: 130–131hospitals, 2011 V3: 40ozone system, 2011 V3: 133–134UV system, 2011 V3: 133–134

Sansone, John T., 2010 V2: 55SARA Title III Act (Superund Amendment and

Reauthorization Act o 1986), 2011 V3: 137sasol, 2010 V2: 114sat., SAT (saturation). See saturationsaturated air and vapor mixtures, 2011 V3: 187, 265saturated steam

dened, 2011 V3: 157–158pressure, 2011 V3: 159–161valve ratings, 2012 V4: 78

saturated vapor pressure, 2011 V3: 187saturation (sat., SAT)

dened, 2011 V3: 187o soils, 2010 V2: 141o water with calcium carbonate, 2010 V2: 196

saturation pressure, 2011 V3: 187SAVE (Society o American Value Engineering), 2009

V1: 207sawcutting trenches, labor productivity rates, 2009 V1: 87

Saybolt Seconds Furol (ss, SSF), 2011 V3: 137Saybolt Seconds Universal (ssu, SSU), 2011 V3: 137SBR (styrene butadiene), 2009 V1: 32SC (sillcocks), 2009 V1: 15scalars, dened, 2009 V1: 85scalding water, 2010 V2: 97, 111, 2012 V4: 112scale and scale ormation

boilers, 2010 V2: 215chlorides and sulates, 2010 V2: 190cooling towers, 2010 V2: 217distilled water and, 2012 V4: 191–192

xtures and appliances, 2012 V4: 185hardness and, 2010 V2: 189, 2012 V4: 176impure water and, 2012 V4: 173–174Langelier saturation index, 2010 V2: 196magnesium and, 2010 V2: 190predicting water deposits and corrosion, 2010 V2:

196–197removing with water sotening, 2010 V2: 210

Ryzner stability index, 2010 V2: 196in stills, 2012 V4: 192temperature and, 2012 V4: 185total dissolved solids and, 2010 V2: 193water deposits and corrosion, 2010 V2: 195–196water piping systems, 2010 V2: 160

scale plates, 2012 V4: 134scanning electron microscopy, 2010 V2: 188. See also

electron microscopesscavenging adapters, 2011 V3: 66sch (standard ch), 2010 V2: 126scm, SCFM (standard cubic eet per minute)

ambient ree air and, 2010 V2: 166compressed air pipe sizing, 2011 V3: 183compressed air tools, 2011 V3: 180dened, 2011 V3: 78, 187medical air compressors, 2011 V3: 62medical vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 64sizing gas systems, 2011 V3: 269

scs, SCFS (cubic eet per second), 2009 V1: 34Schedule 10 steel pipe, 2012 V4: 37Schedule 40 ABS pipe, 2012 V4: 51Schedule 40 plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 59Schedule 40 polypropylene pipe, 2012 V4: 51Schedule 40 polyvinyl pipe, 2012 V4: 49Schedule 40 PVC plastic, 2011 V3: 13, 2012 V4: 49Schedule 40 PVDF pipe, 2012 V4: 52Schedule 40 steel pipe, 2012 V4: 44–45Schedule 80 ABS pipe, 2012 V4: 51Schedule 80 CPVC plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 193Schedule 80 plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 59Schedule 80 polypropylene pipe, 2012 V4: 51Schedule 80 polyvinyl pipe, 2012 V4: 49Schedule 80 PVC plastic, 2012 V4: 49Schedule 80 PVDF pipe, 2012 V4: 52Schedule 80 steel pipe, 2012 V4: 46–47schedules (pipe size), 2009 V1: 28schedules (project)

checklist, 2009 V1: 94–95section in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 70, 72

school laboratories. See laboratoriesschools

hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99

laboratory gas systems, 2010 V2: 121numbers o xtures or, 2012 V4: 20, 22septic tank systems or, 150, 2010 V2: 149shower room grates, 2010 V2: 11swimming pools and, 2011 V3: 108vacuum calculations or, 2010 V2: 180water consumption, 2012 V4: 187, 223

Schueler, Thomas R., 2010 V2: 55scope lines, 2009 V1: 219scoring pipes and equipment, 2012 V4: 173screening

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Index 341

in graywater treatment, 2010 V2: 25vacuum exhaust piping, 2010 V2: 184

screw compressors, 2011 V3: 175, 177screw pumps, 2010 V2: 169screwed bonnets, 2012 V4: 79, 89screwed ells, 2010 V2: 93screwed ends o valves, 2012 V4: 79screwed ttings, 2009 V1: 152

screwed-lug type valves, 2012 V4: 76screwed mechanical joints, 2010 V2: 232screwed tees, 2010 V2: 93screwed union-ring bonnets, 2012 V4: 79scrub-up sinks, 2011 V3: 36, 38, 40scum in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 145scuppers, 2009 V1: 28, 2010 V2: 52SCW (sot cold water), 2009 V1: 8SD (storm or rainwater drains). See storm-drainage

systemsSDI (service deionization), 2012 V4: 182SDI (silt density index), 2010 V2: 194SDR (standard dimension ratio)

abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 15HDPE pipe, 2012 V4: 42PP-R pipe, 2012 V4: 52SDR21 PVC pipe, 2012 V4: 49SDR26 PVC pipe, 2012 V4: 49

SE (sea level). See sea levelsea level (sl, SL, SE)

atmospheric pressure, 2011 V3: 186barometric pressure, 2011 V3: 172vacuum ratings, 2010 V2: 166

sealed sprinklers, 2011 V3: 8sealing grouts in wells, 2010 V2: 158seals

butterfy valve seals, 2012 V4: 84elastomeric seals or gaskets, 2012 V4: 207fashing rings, 2010 V2: 11foor drains in inectious waste systems, 2010 V2: 242pumps, 2012 V4: 91, 92seal liquids in vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 170trap seals in foor drains, 2010 V2: 11water closets, 2012 V4: 5well xtures, 2010 V2: 158

seamless copper pipe, 2012 V4: 29–30seamless copper water tube, 2012 V4: 29–40seamless steel piping, 2012 V4: 37seasonal fow rates, 2012 V4: 186seats

accessible shower compartments, 2009 V1: 112bathtub and shower seats, 2009 V1: 109, 114–115seat ouling tests, 2012 V4: 5

toilets, 2009 V1: 108water closets, 2012 V4: 4–5

seats (valves)seat erosion, 2012 V4: 74seat tests, 2012 V4: 87

seawater, 2009 V1: 141second-guessing designs, 2009 V1: 208second-stage propane regulators, 2010 V2: 132–133secondary containment

o hazardous wastes, 2011 V3: 84o inectious wastes, 2010 V2: 240

secondary containment tanksaboveground types, 2011 V3: 147–148interstitial monitoring, 2011 V3: 143interstitial spaces, 2011 V3: 139underground tanks, 2011 V3: 139

secondary unctions, 2009 V1: 219, 223secondary gas regulators, 2010 V2: 121secondary pipe liquid monitoring, 2011 V3: 145

secondary pipe vapor monitoring, 2011 V3: 145secondary roo drains, 2009 V1: 28secondary storm-drainage systems

controlled-fow systems, 2010 V2: 52–53planning or in design, 2010 V2: 52scuppers, 2010 V2: 52

seconds (s, SEC), 2009 V1: 33Seconds Redwood, 2011 V3: 137Seconds Saybolt Furol (SSF), 2011 V3: 137Seconds Saybolt Universal (SSU), 2011 V3: 137section modulus, 2012 V4: 205Sectionormat, 2009 V1: 59, 62–65sections

in Manual o Practice, 2009 V1: 68–72MasterFormat 2004, 2009 V1: 59–60o pump equipment, 2010 V2: 161in specications, 2009 V1: 62–65

security o oxygen storage areas, 2011 V3: 59sediment

removing, 2010 V2: 198–199in water, 2010 V2: 188

sediment bucketskitchen drains, 2010 V2: 15–16materials, 2010 V2: 13in oil collectors, 2010 V2: 12in sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 11

sedimentationbioremediation systems, 2012 V4: 228in graywater treatment, 2010 V2: 25turbidity and, 2012 V4: 175in water treatment, 2010 V2: 198–199

seepage beds. See soil-absorption sewage systemsseepage fanges, 2010 V2: 15–16seepage pits, 2009 V1: 28, 2010 V2: 25, 2011 V3: 237seiches, 2009 V1: 149seismic, dened, 2009 V1: 185seismic control devices, 2009 V1: 190, 2012 V4: 134seismic design categories, 2009 V1: 157Seismic Design or Buildings, 2009 V1: 174, 185seismic orces, hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 65, 117seismic joints, crossing, 2009 V1: 152seismic loads, 2012 V4: 134seismic protection

calculating seismic orces, 2009 V1: 179–180causes and eects o earthquakes, 2009 V1: 148–149codes and standards, 2009 V1: 147, 174computer analysis o piping systems, 2009 V1: 180damage rom earthquakes, 2009 V1: 149design considerations, 2009 V1: 180–182earthquake measurement and seismic design, 2009 V1:

151–152equipment protection, 2009 V1: 153–158glossary, 2009 V1: 185introduction, 2009 V1: 145–148

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learning rom past earthquakes, 2009 V1: 152–153pipe restraints, 2009 V1: 158–179, 2010 V2: 12, 16,

2011 V3: 18plumbing equipment, 2009 V1: 262potential problems, 2009 V1: 183reerences, 2009 V1: 185seismic loads, dened, 2009 V1: 145seismic risk maps, 2009 V1: 145–146

underground storage tanks and, 2011 V3: 138Seismic Restraint Manual Guidelines or Mechanical

Systems, 2009 V1: 185selective attack corrosion, 2009 V1: 131–132selective suraces, 2011 V3: 191selectivity coecients, 2010 V2: 205sel-bracing problems in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 184sel-cleansing velocities, 2010 V2: 7sel-closing valves, 2011 V3: 35sel-contained breathing units, 2010 V2: 229, 231sel-contained ountains, 2011 V3: 98sel-extinguishing, dened, 2009 V1: 28sel-jetting well points, 2010 V2: 157sel-metering aucets, 2012 V4: 12sel-priming pumps, 2011 V3: 110, 122sel-regulating heat-trace systems, 2010 V2: 105–106sel-scouring velocity in sewers, 2011 V3: 225sel-siphonage, 2010 V2: 2sel-venting in Provent systems, 2010 V2: 17–18sel-venting in Sovent systems, 2010 V2: 17–18selling unctions, 2009 V1: 218SEMI (Semiconductor Equipment Manuacturers

Institute), 2010 V2: 187, 218semi-ambulatory individuals

semi-ambulatory disabilities, 2009 V1: 99water closet requirements, 2009 V1: 108

semi-automatic grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 151semi-circular lavatories, 2012 V4: 10semi-engineered drawings, 2012 V4: 134semi-engineered hanger assemblies, 2012 V4: 134semi-instantaneous water heaters, 2010 V2: 104semi-permeable membranes, 2011 V3: 48, 2012 V4: 196semi-recessed water coolers, 2012 V4: 218semiautomatic changeover maniolds, 2011 V3: 271semiautomatic dry standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 20Semiconductor Equipment and Materials International,

2010 V2: 187, 218Sendelbach, M.G., 2010 V2: 225seniors. See elderlysensible heat (SH)

dened, 2009 V1: 128, 2011 V3: 157heat transer eciency and, 2011 V3: 162

sensitivity in pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 94

sensorscorrosive-waste systems, 2011 V3: 43aucet controls, 2009 V1: 128fow, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 114–115, 124–125grease removal devices, 2012 V4: 151–152hazardous material level sensors, 2011 V3: 84level-sensing, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 131–132line-pressure sensors, 2011 V3: 67liquid uel leakage, 2011 V3: 145pH sensors, 2011 V3: 44pressure sensors, 2010 V2: 63

separating systemsor acid waste, 2010 V2: 229, 235bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 230FOG bioremediation systems, 2012 V4: 228grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 146–148or oil, 2010 V2: 245–246

separator/lters in air compressors, 2011 V3: 178, 180separators, grease, 2012 V4: 151

separators in vacuum cleaning systemskinds o materials, 2010 V2: 184location, 2010 V2: 181pressure loss, 2010 V2: 184types o systems, 2010 V2: 178–179

septic tanksbiological treatment o sewage in, 2010 V2: 145chemicals in, 2010 V2: 147cleaning, 2010 V2: 148clogging materials, 2010 V2: 147–148compartments, 2010 V2: 147dened, 2009 V1: 28estimating sewage quantities, 2010 V2: 150–152grease interceptors, 2010 V2: 147institutional and recreational establishments, 2010 V2:

149–150percolation rates and, 2010 V2: 153sanitary sewers and, 2011 V3: 237sizing, 2010 V2: 146solids removal, 2010 V2: 145specications, 2010 V2: 145–147venting, 2010 V2: 148

septum lters, 2010 V2: 218sequence

o project phases, cost estimates and, 2009 V1: 90section in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 70

sequential unctions in FAST approach, 2009 V1: 221–223series o pumps, 2012 V4: 97, 101series water conditioning equipment, 2012 V4: 186service cocks, 2010 V2: 91service conditions, dened, 2012 V4: 134service connections or water piping, 2012 V4: 67service deionization, 2010 V2: 208–209service deionization (SDI), 2012 V4: 182service actors, 2009 V1: 28service fow rates or water soteners, 2012 V4: 185service gaskets, 2012 V4: 57service hot water, 2009 V1: 28service runs, dened, 2012 V4: 202service sinks, 2010 V2: 86, 99

abbreviations, 2009 V1: 15dened, 2012 V4: 12noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 199

required xtures, 2012 V4: 20–23Service Station Tankage Guide (API 1611), 2011 V3: 156service stations, 2011 V3: 147service valves, propane tanks, 2010 V2: 133service water heating, solar, 2011 V3: 196–199service-weight cast-iron soil pipe, 2012 V4: 25, 28services

costs, 2009 V1: 210ongoing and one-time costs, 2009 V1: 217

set pressure in pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 94, 106

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Index 343

settlement. See bedding and settlement; creep;sedimentation

settling tanks, 2011 V3: 88, 2012 V4: 179settling velocity, 2012 V4: 146severe backfow hazards, 2011 V3: 215sewage, dened, 2009 V1: 28. See also efuentsewage efuent. See efuentsewage ejectors, 2009 V1: 28, 2011 V3: 228, 2012 V4: 98

sewage lit stations, 2011 V3: 228–236fow rates, 2011 V3: 236orce mains, 2011 V3: 236overview, 2011 V3: 228–229pipes, 2011 V3: 236required head, 2011 V3: 229sewage pumps, 2011 V3: 229storage basins, 2011 V3: 235–236vacuum and pressure venting, 2011 V3: 236–237velocity in pipes, 2011 V3: 236

sewage pumps, 2012 V4: 98–99sewage systems. See sewer systemssewage treatment plants, 2010 V2: 27–28sewer gas, 2010 V2: 114sewer mains, 2012 V4: 29sewer systems. See also building sewers; private onsite

wastewater treatment systems (POWTS); publicsewers; soil-absorption sewage systems; specictypes o sewers

combined systems, 2011 V3: 249direct connection hazards, 2012 V4: 161discharge rom laboratories, 2011 V3: 43–44preliminary inormation, 2011 V3: 205sample sewer services letter, 2011 V3: 260sanitary sewer systems, 2011 V3: 225–237. See also

sanitary drainage systemssewer manholes, 2012 V4: 161sewer video equipment, 2010 V2: 10storm sewers, 2011 V3: 237–243

SFU (sanitary xture units), 2009 V1: 15SG. See specic gravity (SG)SH (sensible heat), 2009 V1: 128SH (showers). See showersshaking vacuum lter bags, 2010 V2: 179shallow-end depth o swimming pools, 2011 V3: 107shallow ll, building sewers and, 2010 V2: 14shallow manholes, 2011 V3: 228, 232shallow wells, 2010 V2: 155, 156, 162shapes o swimming pools, 2011 V3: 108shear lugs, 2012 V4: 134shear motions, preventing, 2009 V1: 153, 183, 184sheet copper, 2012 V4: 16sheet fows, 2011 V3: 242

sheet lead, 2012 V4: 16Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National

Association (SMACNA), 2009 V1: 160, 185Sheet Metal Industry Fund, 2009 V1: 185

Guidelines or Seismic Restraints o Mechanical

Systems, 2009 V1: 180shell-and-coil compressors, 2012 V4: 221shell-and-tube condensers, 2012 V4: 221shell-and-tube heat exchangers, 2009 V1: 123, 2011 V3:

167–169shell tests, 2012 V4: 87

shelving accessibility in toilet and bathing rooms, 2009 V1: 105ambulatory accessible toilet compartments, 2009 V1: 107

shielded hubless coupling, 2012 V4: 57shielding on radioactive drainage systems, 2010 V2: 238shields. See protection shieldsShigella, 2010 V2: 43shine. See radiation

shipping costs, 2009 V1: 90, 217shock absorbers. See water hammer arrestersshock absorbers, cork as, 2012 V4: 139shock arrestors in noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 192shock intensity o water hammer, 2010 V2: 71Sholes, Christopher, 2009 V1: 225shopping centers, 2010 V2: 24. See also retail storesshops. See retail storesshort circuiting in grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 150short-circuiting installations, 2009 V1: 140shot-in concrete anchors, 2009 V1: 154, 184shower pans, 2012 V4: 16shower valves

fow rates, 2012 V4: 16installation, 2012 V4: 16types, 2012 V4: 16

showerheadsLEED 2009 baselines, 2010 V2: 25low fow, 2009 V1: 127noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 194, 200poor installation o, 2009 V1: 255poor installations o, 2009 V1: 257scaling, 2010 V2: 111wasted water, 2009 V1: 127water usage reduction, 2012 V4: 236

showersabbreviation or, 2009 V1: 15body sprays, 2012 V4: 16emergency showers, 2010 V2: 229, 231, 2012 V4: 17–18enclosures, 2009 V1: 112xture pipe sizes and demand, 2010 V2: 86xture-unit loads, 2010 V2: 3fow rates, 2012 V4: 13grab bars, 2009 V1: 112–114grates in school shower rooms, 2010 V2: 11graywater supply and demand, 2010 V2: 24graywater systems, 2009 V1: 126health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36, 40hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99hydrotherapy, 2011 V3: 38labor rooms, 2011 V3: 39minimum numbers o, 2012 V4: 20–23noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 198, 201

patient rooms, 2011 V3: 37pressure reducing balancing valves and, 2010 V2: 62–63public areas in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 37rates o sewage fows, 153, 2010 V2: 152reduced water usage, 2009 V1: 118reducing fow rates, 2009 V1: 126requirements, 2012 V4: 13–16seats, 2009 V1: 114–115shower compartment accessibility, 2009 V1: 110–112spray units, 2009 V1: 109–110, 112standards, 2012 V4: 2

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swimming pool bathhouses, 2011 V3: 110swimming pool acilities, 2011 V3: 109thresholds, 2009 V1: 112water xture unit values, 2011 V3: 206

Shreir, L.L., 2009 V1: 144shrinkage o ceramic xtures, 2012 V4: 1shrub sprinkler heads, 2011 V3: 94Shumann, Eugene R., 2010 V2: 55

shut-o devicesdened, 2010 V2: 136uel dispensers, 2011 V3: 146gas cabinets, 2011 V3: 270laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 274

shut-o valvesearthquake-sensitive valves, 2009 V1: 153medical gases, 2011 V3: 66–67

shutdown pump eatures, 2010 V2: 63shutdown relays, 2011 V3: 28shuto NPSH, 2012 V4: 101Shweitzer, Philip A., 2011 V3: 89SI units. See International System o Unitssiamese re-department connections, 2009 V1: 12, 28. See

also re-protection systemsside-beam brackets, 2012 V4: 134side-beam clamps, 2012 V4: 134side reach or wheelchairs, 2009 V1: 99–101, 104side spray accessories, 2012 V4: 11, 13sidesway prevention, 2009 V1: 183sidewalk re-department connections, 2009 V1: 12sidewall areas, 2009 V1: 28sidewall grab bars, 2009 V1: 106sidewall sprinklers, 2009 V1: 13, 29Siegrist, R., 2010 V2: 29siemens, 2009 V1: 34sight disabilities, 2009 V1: 99signals or re alarms, 2011 V3: 6signicant digits, 2009 V1: 33signicant movement, 2012 V4: 134sil-os solder, 2012 V4: 79silencers

on air compressors, 2011 V3: 175on vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 179

silica, 2010 V2: 190, 2012 V4: 182silica gel, 2011 V3: 179silicates, 2010 V2: 189, 2012 V4: 197silicon, 2010 V2: 189silicon iron piping, 2010 V2: 14, 2012 V4: 53sill cocks, 2009 V1: 15silt

content o water, 2011 V3: 91loams, 2011 V3: 91

removing, 2010 V2: 198–199silt density index, 2010 V2: 194in soil texture, 2010 V2: 140in water, 2010 V2: 188

silt density index (SDI), 2010 V2: 194silver, 2009 V1: 129, 132silver solder, 2009 V1: 132, 2012 V4: 79 A Simple Method or Retention Basin Design, 2010 V2: 55simplex gas booster systems, 2010 V2: 119, 120simultaneous operators o vacuum systems, 2010 V2:

180, 183

simultaneous-use actors. See diversity actorsine wave congurations o pipe, 2012 V4: 208single. See also headings beginning with “one-”, “mono-”, etc.single-acting altitude valves, 2010 V2: 163single-acting cylinders in compressors, 2011 V3: 174single-acting devices, 2012 V4: 134single-compartment septic tanks, 2010 V2: 147single-compartment sinks, 2012 V4: 11

single-degree-o-reedom systems, 2009 V1: 150single-eect stills, 2012 V4: 192single-occupant toilet rooms, 2012 V4: 21single pipe rolls, 2012 V4: 134single-seated pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 69–70single-stack systems, 2010 V2: 18single stacks, 2010 V2: 39single-stage distillation, 2010 V2: 200single-stage gas regulators, 2011 V3: 272single-step deionization (mixed bed), 2010 V2: 206, 208single-wall tanks, 2011 V3: 139sink-disposal units. See ood waste grinderssinks and wash basins. See also lavatories

accessibility, 2009 V1: 108–109aucets, 2012 V4: 12–13xture pipe sizes and demand, 2010 V2: 86xture-unit loads, 2010 V2: 3ood-preparation, 2011 V3: 39general category o, 2012 V4: 12graywater and, 2010 V2: 23–24, 2012 V4: 238health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36, 40hot water demand, 2010 V2: 99inectious waste drainage, 2010 V2: 241kitchen sinks, 2012 V4: 10–12laboratory rooms, 2011 V3: 41laboratory sink drainage rates, 2010 V2: 235laundry sinks, 2012 V4: 12neutralizing acid rom, 2010 V2: 235noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 193, 197, 198pharmacies and drug rooms, 2011 V3: 38poor installations o, 2009 V1: 257public areas in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 35rates o sewage fows, 2010 V2: 153service sinks, 2012 V4: 12standards, 2012 V4: 2surgical scrub-up areas, 2011 V3: 38traps and acid wastes, 2011 V3: 45–46water xture unit values, 2011 V3: 206

sintered metal lters, 2011 V3: 273SIP (steam in place), 2011 V3: 277siphon jet urinals, 2012 V4: 8siphon jet water closets, 2012 V4: 2siphonage. See back-siphonage

Siphonic Roo Drainage, 2010 V2: 55siphonic roo drains, 2010 V2: 53Siphonic Roo Drains, 2010 V2: 55siphons in secondary containment areas, 2011 V3: 84site coecients in seismic orce calculations, 2009 V1:

174–177site storm drainage, 2009 V1: 7site utilities

domestic water supply, 2011 V3: 206–208, 259re-protection water supply, 2011 V3: 218–225natural gas services, 2011 V3: 251–257, 261

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Index 345

o-peak power savings, 2009 V1: 119overview, 2011 V3: 205preliminary inormation, 2011 V3: 205sample general notes, 2011 V3: 258sanitary sewer services, 2011 V3: 224–237, 260storm sewers, 2011 V3: 237–243, 260swimming pool locations and, 2011 V3: 107

sites

geological stability o, 2010 V2: 24irrigation system plans, 2011 V3: 96obtaining plans, 2011 V3: 205

sitz baths, 2010 V2: 99, 2011 V3: 36, 40Six Sticks exercise, 2009 V1: 225, 252Sixth National Symposium on Individual and Small

Community Sewage Systems, 2010 V2: 55sizing

acid-neutralization tanks, 2011 V3: 44acid-waste drainage system pipes, 2010 V2: 235air compressors, 2011 V3: 63, 174–176air receivers, 2011 V3: 177–178bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 229, 230centralized drinking-water coolers, 2012 V4: 222,

223–224clean agent gas pipes, 2011 V3: 28cleanouts, 2010 V2: 9–10cold-water system pipes, 2010 V2: 73–90, 75–84compressed air piping, 2011 V3: 177, 183conveyance piping, storm drainage, 2010 V2: 47corrugated steel gas piping systems, 2010 V2: 123cryogenic tanks, 2011 V3: 59distillation systems, 2012 V4: 193domestic water heaters, 2010 V2: 98–99elevated water tanks, 2010 V2: 65–66, 68expansion tanks, 2012 V4: 209, 212foor drains, 2010 V2: 10–11gas boosters, 2010 V2: 127–128gas line lters, 2011 V3: 254gas meters, 2011 V3: 254gas piping, 2009 V1: 7gas regulators, 2011 V3: 255grab bars, 2009 V1: 112grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 155–156high-pressure condensate piping, 2011 V3: 166hot-water circulation systems, 2010 V2: 105hydropneumatic tanks, 2010 V2: 64–66irrigation, 2011 V3: 92laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 269, 275–276, 277–280liqueed petroleum gas systems, 2010 V2: 135liquid uel piping, 2011 V3: 150–151medical air compressors, 2011 V3: 63medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 50, 68–69, 70, 71

medical vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 64, 70natural gas piping, 2010 V2: 123, 126, 128–131, 130–

131, 2011 V3: 256nitrogen gas systems, 2011 V3: 64, 70nitrous oxide systems, 2011 V3: 60, 61, 70, 71nominal pipe size, 2010 V2: 165oxygen systems, 2011 V3: 60, 70, 71pipe examples or cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 87–89pressure and, 2010 V2: 78–84pressure and temperature relie valves, 2010 V2: 106pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2: 69–70

project size and cost estimates, 2009 V1: 89review o pipe procedures, 2010 V2: 84–87roo drainage systems, 2010 V2: 51, 53–54sanitary sewer systems, 2011 V3: 224, 225septic tanks, 2010 V2: 146sewage lie station pipes, 2011 V3: 236soil absorption systems, 2010 V2: 143solar energy systems, 2011 V3: 193, 196–199

special-waste system pipes, 2010 V2: 228, 229, 230, 231sprinkler system pipes, 2011 V3: 13, 14standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 21steam distribution piping, 2011 V3: 159–161storm drainage systems, 2010 V2: 53–54, 54storm sewers, 2011 V3: 243–249storm water ditches, 2011 V3: 250submersible pumps, 2011 V3: 146, 151–152swimming pools, 2011 V3: 106–107toilet compartments, 2009 V1: 105–106vacuum system receivers, 2010 V2: 170vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 174–178

exhaust, 2011 V3: 65pumps, 2011 V3: 65vacuum cleaning inlets, tools, and tubing, 2010

V2: 180vacuum cleaning piping network, 2010 V2: 181–183vacuum cleaning system separators, 2010 V2: 186vacuum exhaust pipes, 2010 V2: 178vacuum piping, 2010 V2: 174–176, 2011 V3: 73vacuum producers (exhausters), 2010 V2: 184vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 176

valves, 2012 V4: 83velocity and, 2010 V2: 76–78vents, 2010 V2: 35–37vertical stacks, 2010 V2: 5water hammer arresters, 2010 V2: 72–73water mains, 2011 V3: 6water meters, 2010 V2: 60–61water-pressure regulators, 2012 V4: 82water soteners, 2012 V4: 186, 188, 190water storage tanks, 2010 V2: 162wells, 2010 V2: 156

sketches. See also plumbing drawingscosts analysis phase, 2009 V1: 234unction evaluation, 2009 V1: 232–233unctional development, 2009 V1: 246

skimmersFOG separation, 2012 V4: 228ountains, 2011 V3: 102grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 151skimming trays, 2012 V4: 151surge capacity, 2011 V3: 111–112

swimming pools, 2011 V3: 114, 117skimming oils, 2011 V3: 88sl, SL (sea level), 2010 V2: 166slabs, in radioactive waste systems, 2010 V2: 240slack cables in earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 158slaughterhouses, 2010 V2: 15sleepers, 2012 V4: 134sleeves, pipe, 2012 V4: 123–125slide plates, 2012 V4: 134slides, 2011 V3: 134sliding motions

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preventing or pipes or equipment, 2009 V1: 153o seismic plates, 2009 V1: 148

sliding stems on valves, 2012 V4: 79sliding supports, 2012 V4: 134sliding vane compressors, 2011 V3: 175, 177sliding vane pumps, 2010 V2: 173slime, 2010 V2: 195, 2012 V4: 177slime bacteria, 2010 V2: 188

slip, dened, 2011 V3: 187, 2012 V4: 101slip expansion joints, 2012 V4: 207slip ttings, 2012 V4: 134slip joints, 2009 V1: 28slip-resistant bases in baths, 2012 V4: 16slip RPM, dened, 2011 V3: 187slip type couplings, 2012 V4: 63slop sinks, 2012 V4: 161slope

o ditches, 2011 V3: 250o foors, 2011 V3: 110o sewers, 2011 V3: 224o sites, 2010 V2: 42, 2011 V3: 96, 242

sloping drainsxture loads, 2010 V2: 6, 8–9Manning ormula, 2009 V1: 1minimum slope o piping, 2010 V2: 6sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 5–8sel-cleansing velocities, 2010 V2: 7steady fow in, 2010 V2: 6

slow sand ltration, 2010 V2: 218sludge

activated sludge systems, 2011 V3: 88dened, 2009 V1: 28, 2010 V2: 195rom water soteners, 2010 V2: 160removal, 2011 V3: 88in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 145

slugs o water, 2010 V2: 2, 3slurry eed system, diatomaceous earth, 2011 V3: 120SMACNA (Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’

National Association), 2009 V1: 160, 185small bore pipes, 2010 V2: 239small-diameter gravity sewers, 2010 V2: 144smoke

requirements or insulation, 2012 V4: 104vacuum systems and, 2011 V3: 64

smoke detectors, 2009 V1: 20, 2011 V3: 28smooth piping, 2010 V2: 79smothering res, 2011 V3: 24snaking pipes, 2012 V4: 208, 209snier systems (LPG), 2010 V2: 135snow

as part o total load, 2012 V4: 115

regional requirements or plumbing installations, 2009 V1: 262

snow melting piping, 2012 V4: 32snubbers, 2012 V4: 134snubbing devices or earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 156,

157, 180soaking combustibles in inerting atmosphere, 2011 V3: 26soap dispensers, 2012 V4: 11soaps, 2009 V1: 141. See also suds

in gray water, 2010 V2: 27in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 147

soapstone xtures, 2012 V4: 1, 12Social Security taxes, in labor costs, 2009 V1: 86Society o American Value Engineering (SAVE), 2009 V1:

207, 209socket usion joins, 2012 V4: 61socket-type joints, 2011 V3: 257socket welding

dened, 2010 V2: 239

socket-end welding, 2012 V4: 79socket-joint welding, 2012 V4: 61socket-weld end connections, 2009 V1: 22

soda ash. See sodium carbonate (soda ash)sodium, 2010 V2: 189, 190

dened, 2012 V4: 202ormula, 2012 V4: 173laboratory grade water, 2012 V4: 198nanoltration, 2012 V4: 199

sodium aluminate, 2010 V2: 199, 2012 V4: 178sodium azide, 2010 V2: 13sodium bicarbonate, 2010 V2: 190, 2012 V4: 173sodium bisulate, 2010 V2: 160, 2011 V3: 87sodium carbonate (soda ash), 2010 V2: 190, 2012 V4: 173, 183sodium chloride, 2010 V2: 190, 2012 V4: 173, 182sodium cycle ion exchange, 2010 V2: 210, 2012 V4: 176sodium hexametaphosphate, 2009 V1: 140, 2010 V2: 160sodium hydroxide (lye or caustic soda), 2010 V2: 147, 207

ormula, 2012 V4: 173regeneration and, 2012 V4: 183, 184

sodium hypochlorite, 2010 V2: 160, 2011 V3: 87sodium ion exchange plants, 2012 V4: 184sodium silicate, 2009 V1: 140sodium sulate, 2010 V2: 189, 2012 V4: 173sodium thiosulate, 2010 V2: 160sot cold water (SCW), 2009 V1: 8sot conversions, 2009 V1: 33sot water (SW), 2012 V4: 175, 202. See also water sotenerssotening membranes. See nanoltrationsotening water. See water sotenerssotware. See computer programssoil-absorption sewage systems

allowable rates o sewage application, 2010 V2: 153alternative components, 2010 V2: 144–145choosing absorption systems, 2010 V2: 142construction considerations, 2010 V2: 143–144drain elds dened, 2009 V1: 21drain elds, dened, 2009 V1: 21estimating sewage quantities, 2010 V2: 150–152estimating soil absorption potential, 2010 V2: 139–142individual wastewater treatment plants, 2010 V2: 150inspection, 2010 V2: 153institutional and recreational establishments, 2010 V2:

149–150mound systems, 2010 V2: 142percolation rates or soils, 2010 V2: 141–142setbacks, 2010 V2: 142sizing, 2010 V2: 143

soil-moisture monitors, 2011 V3: 96soil pipes, 2009 V1: 28soil sewers (S, SS), 2009 V1: 8soil stacks, 2010 V2: 1soil vents. See stack ventssoils

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Index 347

abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 15color, 141, 2010 V2: 140depth, 2010 V2: 141graywater irrigation systems and, 2010 V2: 24–25irrigation and, 2011 V3: 91, 96maps o, 2010 V2: 140percolation tests, 2010 V2: 141–142proles, 2011 V3: 91, 205

rainall, municipalities, 2010 V2: 57resistivity, 2009 V1: 138runo, 2010 V2: 42in seismic orce calculations, 2009 V1: 174storm water inltration, 2010 V2: 48structure, 2010 V2: 141swelling characteristics, 2010 V2: 141swimming pool locations and, 2011 V3: 107texture, 2010 V2: 140–141underground tanks and, 2011 V3: 138

solar absorptance, dened, 2011 V3: 191Solar and Sustainable Energy Society o Canada web site,

2011 V3: 203solar constants, 2011 V3: 192The Solar Decision Book, 2011 V3: 203solar degradation, 2011 V3: 192Solar Design Workbook, 2011 V3: 204solar energy. See also green building and plumbing

collecting methods, 2011 V3: 193commercial applications, 2011 V3: 190Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) system, 2011

V3: 196concentrating collectors, 2011 V3: 190, 193, 195–196copper pipe, 2012 V4: 32costs, 2011 V3: 189, 192, 193CPC equations, 2011 V3: 196denitions, 2011 V3: 188–189, 190–193estimating calculations, 2011 V3: 193-chart sizing method, 2011 V3: 196–199fat-plate collectors, 2011 V3: 190, 193–195glossary, 2011 V3: 190–193home water heating, 2011 V3: 189, 196–199LEED credits, 2011 V3: 190light, dened, 2011 V3: 188–189photovoltaics, 2011 V3: 188–189resources, 2011 V3: 203sizing, 2011 V3: 193, 196–199solar energy sources, 2009 V1: 128solar system denitions, 2011 V3: 192specications, 2011 V3: 199–203SRTA equations, 2011 V3: 195–196Stationary Refector/Tracking Absorber (SRTA)

system, 2011 V3: 195–196

sun, overview o, 2011 V3: 188tax credits, 2011 V3: 190thermal, dened, 2011 V3: 188–189thermal eciency equations, 2011 V3: 194–195thermal water heaters, 2010 V2: 104vacuum tube collectors, 2011 V3: 190, 193water heaters, 2009 V1: 121–122, 2010 V2: 104, 2012

V4: 241Solar Energy Industries Association web site, 2011 V3: 203Solar Energy Research Institute, 2011 V3: 204solar energy systems

heat exchangers, 2011 V3: 201heat pumps, 2011 V3: 203insulation, 2011 V3: 203pumps, 2011 V3: 200, 201–202sizing, 2011 V3: 196–199solar panels, 2011 V3: 199, 201storage tanks, 2011 V3: 203water heaters, 2011 V3: 202, 2012 V4: 241

Solar Energy Systems Design, 2011 V3: 204Solar Energy Thermal Processes, 2011 V3: 203Solar Heating and Cooling, 2011 V3: 203Solar Heating Design by the -Chart Method, 2011 V3: 204The Solar Heating Design Process, 2011 V3: 204Solar Heating Systems, 2011 V3: 204The Solar Hydrogen Civilization, 2011 V3: 203solar panel layouts, 2011 V3: 199, 201Solar Rating and Certication Corporation (SRCC), 2009

V1: 122, 2011 V3: 203solar water heaters, 2012 V4: 241Solar Water Heaters: A Buyer’s Guide, 2011 V3: 204soldering

clearance or, 2012 V4: 25copper water tube, 2012 V4: 30corrosion and, 2009 V1: 136dened, 2009 V1: 28, 2012 V4: 58fuxes, 2012 V4: 59lead-ree solders, 2012 V4: 59lead in solder, 2012 V4: 220soldered joints and earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 160valve ends, 2012 V4: 79

solenoid valves, 2009 V1: 9, 2010 V2: 118solid angles, 2009 V1: 34solid toilet seats, 2012 V4: 4solid waste disposal

as energy source, 2009 V1: 122solid waste incineration systems, 2009 V1: 122solids removal in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 145

solid wedge discs, 2012 V4: 74solid wedges, 2012 V4: 89solids

rectangular, 2009 V1: 4solids interceptors, 2011 V3: 45in water, 2010 V2: 193

solids-handling pumps, 2012 V4: 98soluble silica, 2010 V2: 190solute. See treated watersolution sinks, 2011 V3: 38Solution Source or Steam, Air, and Hot Water Systems,

2011 V3: 169solutions to puzzles, 2009 V1: 252solvents

PEX piping and, 2012 V4: 49in pure-water systems, 2011 V3: 49

sonic cleaners, 2011 V3: 40sound isolation in building code requirements, 2009 V1: 188Sound Transmission Class (STC), 2009 V1: 187sounds. See acoustics in plumbing systemssour gas, 2011 V3: 252source shut-o valves, 2011 V3: 66source water

dened, 2010 V2: 187pure-water systems, 2010 V2: 220

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sources o inormation in value engineering, 2009 V1:209–210, 216

Sources o Pollutants in Wisconsin Stormwater, 2010 V2: 55sources, vacuum, 2010 V2: 169–171, 173, 176Sovent single-stack plumbing systems, 2010 V2: 17–18, 39sp ht, SP HT (specic heat), 2009 V1: 34sp vol, SP VOL (specic volume). See specic volumespace, conned

insulation and, 2012 V4: 113water soteners and, 2012 V4: 188space heating

equipment condensate traps, 2011 V3: 166––167solar, 2011 V3: 198

spacing around water closets, 2012 V4: 5–6drinking ountains, 2012 V4: 13expansion joints, 2012 V4: 207grab bars or accessibility, 2009 V1: 112–113hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 65, 116, 122lavatories, 2012 V4: 10manholes, 2011 V3: 233urinals, 2012 V4: 9o vacuum inlets, 2010 V2: 180

span gases, 2011 V3: 266spas, 2010 V2: 111, 2011 V3: 109spec, SPEC (specications). See specicationsspecial components, dened, 2012 V4: 134special sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29special tools, dened, 2012 V4: 171special-waste drainage systems

acid-waste systems, 2010 V2: 229–236chemical-waste systems, 2010 V2: 242–243codes and standards, 2010 V2: 227re-suppression water drainage, 2010 V2: 243–244fammable and volatile liquids, 2010 V2: 244–246uture growth o systems, 2010 V2: 229general design considerations, 2010 V2: 229inectious and biological waste systems, 2010 V2:

240–242introduction, 2010 V2: 227pH values in waste, 2010 V2: 228–229piping and joint selection, 2010 V2: 228planning or larger systems, 2010 V2: 229radioactive waste drainage and vents, 2010 V2: 238–240reerences, 2010 V2: 246separating systems, 2010 V2: 229sizing piping, 2010 V2: 228, 230, 231special wastes dened, 2009 V1: 28system approval requirements, 2010 V2: 227–228

specialty gasesclassication o, 2011 V3: 266–267

generating, 2011 V3: 270specialty pumps, 2012 V4: 97–99specialty water closets, 2009 V1: 127specic conductance, 2010 V2: 193specic energy, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38specic unctionality, dened, 2009 V1: 219specic gravity (SG), 2009 V1: 28

dened, 2010 V2: 136, 2011 V3: 136, 187gases, table o, 2011 V3: 267natural gas, 2010 V2: 126, 131plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 50

propane, 2010 V2: 131PVC pipe, 2012 V4: 49sizing gas systems, 2011 V3: 269symbols or, 2009 V1: 15table o substances, 2011 V3: 168–169

specic heat (sp ht, SP HT, C)dened, 2011 V3: 187measurements, 2009 V1: 34

table o substances, 2011 V3: 168–169specic humidity, 2011 V3: 186specic resistance in water, 2010 V2: 192, 2011 V3: 47,

2012 V4: 175specic speed, dened, 2012 V4: 95, 101specic volume (sp vol, SP VOL, V, CVOL)

dened, 2011 V3: 187expansion and, 2012 V4: 209measurements, 2009 V1: 34saturated steam, 2011 V3: 157–158

Specifcation or Aluminum-alloy Seamless Pipe and

Seamless Extruded Tube, 2010 V2: 122Specifcation or Field Welded Tanks or Storage o

Production Liquids (API 12D), 2011 V3: 88Specifcation or Seamless Copper Tube or Air-

conditioning and Rerigeration Field Service, 2010 V2: 122

Specifcation or Shop Welded Tanks or Storage o

Production Liquids (API 12F), 2011 V3: 88specications (spec, SPEC). See also construction contract

documents; project manuals; names o speciclisting agencies; names under publishing agencies(American National Standards Institute, etc.);

titles o specifc documentschecklist, 2009 V1: 94–95comprehensive, 2009 V1: 264computer production o, 2009 V1: 65contents o sections, 2009 V1: 62–65costs associated with, 2009 V1: 217ensuring high quality with detailed specs, 2009 V1:

253–254in FAST approach, 2009 V1: 221ormats, 2009 V1: 57introduction, 2009 V1: 55keeping up to date with products and technologies,

2009 V1: 262MasterFormat, 2009 V1: 58MasterFormat 2004, 2009 V1: 72–83MasterFormat Level Four (1995), 2009 V1: 68–69MasterFormat Level One (1995), 2009 V1: 66MasterFormat Level Three (1995), 2009 V1: 68MasterFormat Level Two (1995), 2009 V1: 66–68methods or creating, 2009 V1: 60–62

noise specications, 2009 V1: 205–206problems with reuse, 2009 V1: 57in project manuals, 2009 V1: 56questioning in value engineering, 2009 V1: 208specic language in, 2009 V1: 254“specications” as incorrect term, 2009 V1: 55Uniormat, 2009 V1: 57–58, 65–66

Specifcations or Making Buildings and Facilities Usableby the Physically Handicapped, 2009 V1: 97

Specications Group, 2009 V1: 58, 72–74specimen-type water closets, 2011 V3: 38

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Index 349

Spectext, 2009 V1: 65speed o pumps, 2009 V1: 6Speller, Frank N., 2009 V1: 144Spencer Turbine Co., 2010 V2: 186spherical soil structure, 141, 2010 V2: 140spider guides, 2012 V4: 135spigot outlets, 2010 V2: 13spill-resistant vacuum breakers, 2012 V4: 163, 166, 171

spillsaboveground tank systems, 2011 V3: 148acids, 2010 V2: 229controlled substances, 2010 V2: 186industrial waste, 2011 V3: 84oil, 2010 V2: 244–246underground liquid uel tanks, 2011 V3: 140–141

spineboards, 2011 V3: 135spiral wound modules

in cross-fow ltration, 2010 V2: 213in reverse osmosis (SWRO), 2010 V2: 194, 211–212

Spitzglass ormula, 2009 V1: 7, 2010 V2: 130spkr. See sprinkler systems (re protection)splashing, air gaps and, 2012 V4: 167split-case horizontal end-suction pumps, 2011 V3: 21split-pipe rings, 2012 V4: 120split rim toilet seats, 2012 V4: 4split-ring hangers, 2012 V4: 104split rings, 2012 V4: 130split-wedge discs, 2012 V4: 74split wedges, 2012 V4: 89sponge rubber isolators, 2009 V1: 198sports acilities, numbers o xtures or, 2012 V4: 20spout location on water ountains, 2009 V1: 101spray heads on irrigation sprinklers, 2011 V3: 92–93spray nozzle waterall aerators, 2010 V2: 198spray units

in bathtubs, 2009 V1: 109–110in showers, 2009 V1: 112

spray valves, pre-rinseLEED 2009 baselines, 2010 V2: 25

spring-actuated check valves, 2012 V4: 76–77, 84spring cushion hangers or rolls, 2012 V4: 121, 135spring hangers, 2012 V4: 121, 135spring isolators

illustrated, 2009 V1: 204noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 194problems in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 182, 183pump isolation and, 2009 V1: 196stored energy in, 2009 V1: 158

spring lines, 2009 V1: 28spring-loaded pressure regulators, 2012 V4: 82spring supports, 2009 V1: 180

spring-sway braces, 2012 V4: 135spring tube benders, 2012 V4: 61springing pipes, 2012 V4: 25Sprinkler Irrigation, 2011 V3: 96Sprinkler Irrigation Systems, 2011 V3: 96sprinkler systems (re protection)

automatic sprinkler system types, 2009 V1: 28combined dry-pipe and pre-action, 2011 V3: 10–11concealed sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29corrosion-resistant sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29dened, 2009 V1: 28–29

deluge systems, 2011 V3: 9–10design density, 2011 V3: 11–12direct connection hazards, 2012 V4: 161drop nipples on pendent sprinklers, 2009 V1: 13dry upright sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29earthquake damage to, 2009 V1: 152in elevator shats, 2011 V3: 29extended-coverage sidewall sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29

re hazard evaluation, 2011 V3: 2re pumps or, 2011 V3: 21–22reghting water drainage, 2010 V2: 243–244fush sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29oam extinguishers, 2011 V3: 25–26ully-sprinklered spaces, 2009 V1: 12gas cabinets, 2011 V3: 270heads, 2009 V1: 13history o, 2011 V3: 1hydraulic design, 2011 V3: 11–13intermediate-level sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29large-drop sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29nippled-up sprinklers, 2009 V1: 13non-sprinklered spaces, 2009 V1: 12numbers o sprinklers in operation, 2011 V3: 12occupancy classication, 2009 V1: 28open sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29ornamental sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29partially-sprinklered spaces, 2009 V1: 12pendent sprinklers, 2009 V1: 13, 29pipe materials, 2011 V3: 20pre-action systems, 2011 V3: 9quick-response sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29recessed sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29residential, 2009 V1: 29, 2011 V3: 18sediment buckets in drains, 2010 V2: 11seismic protection and, 2009 V1: 177sidewall sprinklers, 2009 V1: 13, 29special sprinklers, 2009 V1: 29sprinkler types, 2009 V1: 28–29, 2011 V3: 6–11supports and hangers, 2011 V3: 18, 19system design, 2011 V3: 2–18temperature rating, 2011 V3: 18time rames or water delivery, 2011 V3: 9usage, 2011 V3: 14, 18water demands, 2010 V2: 159, 2011 V3: 2–6

sprinkler systems (irrigation)concepts, 2011 V3: 92impact heads, 2011 V3: 93lawn sprinklers, 2009 V1: 8sample inormation sheet, 2011 V3: 97shrub heads, 2011 V3: 94spray heads, 2011 V3: 92–93

trickle irrigation, 2011 V3: 94spurs, 2011 V3: 226sq., SQ (squares). See squaressquare-edged inlets, 2010 V2: 93square eet, calculating, 2011 V3: 30square oot [m2] method, dened, 2009 V1: 89squares (sq., SQ)

calculating area, 2009 V1: 3converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39

sr (steradians), 2009 V1: 34SRRC (Solar Rating and Certication Corp.), 2009 V1: 122

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SRTA (Stationary Refector/Tracking Absorber) system,2011 V3: 195–196

SS (sanitary sewers), 2009 V1: 8, 28. See also sanitarydrainage systems

SS (service sinks). See service sinksSSD (subsoil or ooting drains), 2009 V1: 8ss, SSF (Saybolt Seconds Furol), 2011 V3: 137ssu, SSU (Saybolt Seconds Universal), 2011 V3: 137

ST (storm or rainwater drains). See storm-drainagesystemsstability index (Ryzner), 2010 V2: 196stabilization ponds, 2010 V2: 150stabilized chlorines, 2011 V3: 128stack vents

air in, 2010 V2: 2dened, 2009 V1: 29, 2010 V2: 33sizing, 2010 V2: 35–37stack venting dened, 2009 V1: 29

stacks. See vertical stackssta areas (health care acilities), 2011 V3: 35sta lounges, 2011 V3: 36staged evaporation, 2010 V2: 200stages in pump equipment, 2010 V2: 161staging, pumps, 2012 V4: 97stagnant water, 2010 V2: 72stain-resistance testing, 2012 V4: 1staining xtures and appliances with hard water, 2012

V4: 185stainless steel

bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 230commercial sinks, 2012 V4: 11electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 132xtures, 2011 V3: 35, 2012 V4: 1gas storage, 2011 V3: 268glass pipe couplings, 2012 V4: 36gutters, 2011 V3: 113 jackets, 2012 V4: 108laboratory gas piping, 2011 V3: 276mesh insulation jackets, 2012 V4: 108nickel content, 2012 V4: 1passivation, 2009 V1: 136pumps, 2011 V3: 123reverse osmosis equipment, 2012 V4: 196valves, 2012 V4: 77worm gear clamps, 2012 V4: 57

stainless-steel drains, 2010 V2: 240stainless-steel grates, 2010 V2: 15stainless-steel piping

distilled water piping, 2012 V4: 193exposed piping on storage tanks, 2011 V3: 148industrial waste pipe, 2010 V2: 239

pure-water system, 2011 V3: 49soil and waste pipe, 2010 V2: 13special uses, 2012 V4: 54–56USP water, 2010 V2: 223, 224vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 173

stainless-steel storage tanks, 2010 V2: 223, 2011 V3: 84stairs and stairwells

aboveground storage tanks, 2011 V3: 148standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 20

stall urinals, 2012 V4: 8stanchions, 2012 V4: 119, 121, 135

stand pipes, 2012 V4: 125standard (std, STD), 2009 V1: 15standard air, 2011 V3: 187standard atmospheres, dened, 2011 V3: 172standard atmospheric pressure

dened, 2011 V3: 187in vacuums, 2010 V2: 165

standard cartridge depth ltration, 2010 V2: 201

standard ch (sch), 2010 V2: 126standard cubic eet per minute (scm). See scm, SCFM(standard cubic eet per minute)

standard dimension ratio (SDR), 2009 V1: 15, 29, 2012 V4: 42

standard re-protection symbols, 2009 V1: 12–13standard re tests, 2011 V3: 2Standard or Bulk Oxygen Systems at Consumer Sites

(NFPA 50), 2011 V3: 57, 78Standard or Color-marking o Compressed Gas Cylinders

Intended or Medical Use (CGA C-9), 2011 V3: 78Standard or Combustible Metals (NFPA 484), 2011 V3: 30Standard or Disinecting Water Mains, 2010 V2: 95Standard or Disinection o Water Storage Facilities, 2010

V2: 95Standard or Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems (NFPA

17), 2011 V3: 24, 30Standard or Energy Conservation in New Building

Design (ASHRAE 90A), 2011 V3: 203Standard or Fire Prevention During Welding, Cutting,

and Other Hot Work, 2010 V2: 136Standard or Health-care Facilities, 2010 V2: 172, 2011

V3: 78, 263Standard or Health-care Facilities (NFPA 99), 2011 V3:

51, 76Standard or Hypochlorites, 2010 V2: 95Standard or Liquid Chlorine, 2010 V2: 95Standard or Low-, Medium-, and High-Expansion Foam

(NFPA 11), 2011 V3: 25, 30Standard or Parking Structures, 2010 V2: 115Standard or Portable Fire Extinguishers (NFPA 10), 2011

V3: 28, 30Standard or Tank Vehicles or Flammable and

Combustible Liquids (NFPA 385), 2011 V3: 137Standard or the Design and Installation o Oxygen-uel

Gas Systems or Welding, Cutting, and Allied

Processes, 2010 V2: 137Standard or the Installation o Foam-Water Sprinkler

Systems and Foam-Water Spray Systems (NFPA16), 2011 V3: 25, 30

Standard or the Installation o Nitrous Oxide Systems at

Consumer Sites (CGA G-8.1), 2011 V3: 78Standard or the Installation o Private Fire Service Mains

and their Appurtenances, 2011 V3: 30Standard or the Installation o Sprinkler Systems (NFPA

13), 2009 V1: 185, 2011 V3: 30Standard or the Installation o Sprinkler Systems in One-

and Two-Family Dwellings and Manuactured

Homes, 2011 V3: 18Standard or the Installation o Sprinkler Systems in

Residential Occupancies up to and Including FourStories in Height, 2011 V3: 18

Standard or the Installation o Standpipe and Hose

Systems (NFPA 14), 2011 V3: 30

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Index 351

Standard or the Installation o Stationary Pumps or Fire Protection (NFPA 20), 2011 V3: 30

Standard or Water Spray Fixed Systems or Fire Protection (NFPA 15), 2011 V3: 24

Standard or Wet Chemical Extinguishing Agents, 2011 V3: 24? 30

standard ree airat atmospheric pressure (scm). See scm, SCFM

(standard cubic eet per minute)in vacuum sizing calculations, 2010 V2: 175Standard Handbook or Mechanical Engineers, 2009 V1: 1Standard Method o Test o Surace Burning

Characteristics o Building Materials (NFPA 255),2011 V3: 69

Standard o Testing to Determine the Perormance o Solar

Collections (ASHRAE 93), 2011 V3: 203Standard on Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems

(NFPA 12), 2011 V3: 30Standard on Clean Agent Extinguishing Systems (NFPA

2001), 2011 V3: 30Standard on Halon 1301 Fire Extinguishing Systems

(NFPA 12A), 2011 V3: 27, 30Standard on Water Mist Fire Protection Systems (NFPA

750), 2011 V3: 25, 30standard plumbing and piping symbols, 2009 V1: 7–15Standard Plumbing Code, 2010 V2: 55standard-port ball valves, 2012 V4: 75standard ports, 2012 V4: 89standard pressure and temperature (SPT), dened, 2011

V3: 187standard reerence points (compressed air), 2011 V3: 172Standard Specifcation or Aluminum and Aluminum-

Alloy Drawn Seamless Tubes (ASTM B210), 2010 V2: 122, 2011 V3: 277

Standard Specifcation or Copper-brazed Steel Tubing,2010 V2: 122

Standard Specifcation or Pipe, Steel, Black and Hot-dipped, Zinc-coated Welded and Seamless, 2010 V2: 122

Standard Specifcation or Seamless and Welded AusteniticStainless Steel Sanitary Tubing (ASTM A270),2011 V3: 276

Standard Specifcation or Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe or

High-Temperature Service, 2010 V2: 122Standard Specifcation or Seamless Copper Tube (ASTM

B75), 2011 V3: 276Standard Specifcation or Seamless Copper Tube or Air

Conditioning and Rerigeration Field Service

(ASTM B280), 2011 V3: 276Standard Specifcation or Seamless Copper Tube or

Medical Gas Systems (ASTM B819), 2011 V3: 276

Standard Specifcation or Seamless Copper Water Tube(ASTM B88), 2010 V2: 122, 2011 V3: 276

Standard Specifcation or Thermoplastic Gas Pressure Pipe, 2010 V2: 123–124

standard temperature and pressure, 2009 V1: 29Standard Text Method or Surace Burning Characteristics

o Building Materials, 2010 V2: 122, 224standard water closets, 2012 V4: 4standard-weight steel pipe, 2012 V4: 37standards. See codes and standardsstandby losses in circulating systems, 2009 V1: 119

standing water, 2010 V2: 49standpipe systems

classications and characteristics, 2011 V3: 18, 20–21dened, 2009 V1: 29–30, 2012 V4: 101re pumps or, 2011 V3: 21fatland storage tanks, 2010 V2: 162standpipe air chambers, 2010 V2: 72, 73standpipes, dened, 2012 V4: 101

symbols or, 2009 V1: 13system classes o service, 2009 V1: 30system types, 2009 V1: 30

startup loads, condensate drainage, 2011 V3: 163state agencies, 2010 V2: 227, 238, 2011 V3: 82state rost lines, 2011 V3: 218, 220state, gas, 2011 V3: 187state rainall rate tables, 2010 V2: 57states in creativity checklist, 2009 V1: 227static cake diatomaceous earth lters, 2011 V3: 120static defection (d)

dened, 2012 V4: 137or pump vibration, 2012 V4: 138

static headcalculating, 2009 V1: 2dened, 2012 V4: 97, 101gallons per minute and, 2010 V2: 73velocity head and, 2009 V1: 5well pumps, 2010 V2: 161

static pressure (SP)dened, 2010 V2: 94domestic water supply, 2011 V3: 208–210elevation and, 2010 V2: 84re hydrants, 2011 V3: 4irrigation fow, 2011 V3: 96sprinkler hydraulic calculations, 2011 V3: 13water mains, 2011 V3: 206

static pressure head, 2012 V4: 101static suction head, 2012 V4: 101static suction lit, 2012 V4: 101static wells, 2010 V2: 157–158stationary propane tanks, 2010 V2: 132Stationary Refector/Tracking Absorber (SRTA) system,

2011 V3: 195–196stations (medical gas and vacuum)

ceiling outlets, 2011 V3: 55–56estimating number, 2011 V3: 50–51, 52–53inlets, 2011 V3: 78medical gas diversity actors, 2011 V3: 70medical vacuum, 2011 V3: 54order o gas outlets, 2011 V3: 51outlets, 2011 V3: 78patient headwall gas systems, 2011 V3: 51, 55

surgical ceiling columns, 2011 V3: 55–56terminals, 2011 V3: 51–54types o, 2011 V3: 56

STC (Sound Transmission Class), 2009 V1: 187std, STD (standard), 2009 V1: 15steady fow

continuous fow rates, 2012 V4: 186in horizontal drains, 2010 V2: 6–8, 8–9

steady-state heat balance equations, 2010 V2: 100steam and condensate systems

condensate drainage, 2011 V3: 163–166

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condensate removal, 2011 V3: 161–162distilling water rom steam, 2010 V2: 200distribution piping, 2011 V3: 159–161fash, 2011 V3: 157–159, 166ouling, 2011 V3: 162geothermal, 2009 V1: 123high-pressure steam, 2009 V1: 9, 2012 V4: 86–87low-pressure steam, 2009 V1: 9, 2012 V4: 85–86

medium-pressure steam, 2009 V1: 9, 2012 V4: 86overview, 2011 V3: 157pressure drop, 2011 V3: 159–161reerences, 2011 V3: 169saturated steam, 2011 V3: 157–158, 159–161steam atmospheric vents, 2009 V1: 9steam heat in distillation, 2012 V4: 192steam traps, 2009 V1: 11traps, 2011 V3: 162–163velocity, 2011 V3: 159–160waste heat usage o condensate, 2009 V1: 123water hammer, 2011 V3: 162

steam deaerators, 2010 V2: 199steam-red water heaters, 2009 V1: 121steam in place (SIP), 2011 V3: 277steam indirect-red water heaters, 2010 V2: 104steam tables, 2012 V4: 161steam traps, 2009 V1: 11steam vaporizers, 2011 V3: 57steam working pressure (SWP), 2009 V1: 15, 2012 V4: 83steatite xtures, 2012 V4: 1steel. See also stainless steel; steel piping

anchoring to, 2012 V4: 123beam connections in pipe bracing, 2009 V1: 168, 169in electromotive orce series, 2009 V1: 132xtures, 2012 V4: 1foor decks in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 160in galvanic series, 2009 V1: 132storage tanks, 2011 V3: 138stress and strain gures, 2012 V4: 206thermal expansion or contraction, 2012 V4: 207underground tanks, 2011 V3: 155water tanks, 2010 V2: 162

Steel Above Ground Tanks or Flammable and Combustible Liquids (UL 142), 2011 V3: 88, 137, 147

steel bands, 2012 V4: 119steel clamps, 2012 V4: 119steel clips, 2012 V4: 119steel xtures, 2012 V4: 1steel pipe sleeves, 2012 V4: 67steel piping. See also galvanized-steel piping; stainless-

steel piping dimensions, 2012 V4: 44–47

uel-product dispensing, 2011 V3: 149hangers, 2012 V4: 122Manning ormula and, 2011 V3: 242natural gas, 2011 V3: 257natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 122radioactive wastes, 2010 V2: 239roughness, 2010 V2: 78standards, 2012 V4: 69surace roughness, 2010 V2: 75Tefon lined, 2012 V4: 52types, 2012 V4: 36–37, 44–45

velocity and, 2010 V2: 78welded joints, 2012 V4: 61

steel protection saddles and shields, 2012 V4: 119steel riser clamps, 2012 V4: 119steel spring isolators, 2009 V1: 196–197, 2012 V4: 139–142steel stanchions, 2012 V4: 119steel strap hangers, 2012 V4: 65Steel Tank Institute (STI), 2011 V3: 137

steel trapezes, 2012 V4: 119steel tubing, 2010 V2: 122steel welded attachments, 2012 V4: 119Steele, Alred, 2009 V1: 39, 2010 V2: 46, 47, 55, 96steep grass area, runo, 2010 V2: 42steep head curves, 2012 V4: 101stems

dened, 2012 V4: 89on valves, 2012 V4: 78

Stenzel, Mark H., 2010 V2: 225step-down gas regulators, 2010 V2: 121steradians, 2009 V1: 34sterilization

eed water, 2010 V2: 195inectious waste systems, 2010 V2: 242insulation on pipes, 2012 V4: 104laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 277pure water systems, 2010 V2: 223ultraviolet, 2011 V3: 48, 2012 V4: 195

sterilizers, 2011 V3: 39, 40, 42, 2012 V4: 161Stevens Building Technology Research Laboratory, 2010

V2: 18Steward SRTA (Stationary Refector/Tracking Absorber)

system, 2011 V3: 195–196STI (Steel Tank Institute), 2011 V3: 137sticking (manual tank gauging), 2011 V3: 142stills, 2010 V2: 200, 202–204

bafe systems, 2012 V4: 192decentralized or centralized, 2012 V4: 192distillation, 2012 V4: 189–194heat sources or, 2012 V4: 191hospital requirements, 2011 V3: 42maintenance, 2012 V4: 198multiple-eect, 2012 V4: 192pure-water systems, 2011 V3: 48scaling in, 2012 V4: 192single-eect stills, 2012 V4: 192steam heating, 2012 V4: 192storage reservoirs, 2012 V4: 193types o, 2012 V4: 192–193vapor-compression, 2012 V4: 192

Stokes law, 2012 V4: 148, 178stop plugs, 2012 V4: 89

stop valves, 2009 V1: 30, 2011 V3: 35stops, 2012 V4: 135storage

costs, 2009 V1: 217o distilled water, 2012 V4: 193re hazard evaluation, 2011 V3: 2gravity lters and, 2012 V4: 180o gray water, 2010 V2: 22, 27–28o laboratory gases, 2011 V3: 267–270o medical gases

medical compressed air, 2011 V3: 61–64

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Index 353

nitrogen, 2011 V3: 63–64nitrous oxide, 2011 V3: 59–60oxygen, 2011 V3: 57–59

propane tanks, 2010 V2: 131–134o pure water, 2010 V2: 223o rainwater, 2010 V2: 52–53o salt, 2012 V4: 189section in specications, 2009 V1: 63–64, 70

o sewage in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 146tanks, rainwater, 2012 V4: 238storage basins, sewage lit stations, 2011 V3: 235–236storage devices (thermal), 2011 V3: 192storage media (thermal), 2011 V3: 192storage reservoirs, 2011 V3: 84storage rooms, 2011 V3: 68storage subsystems, 2011 V3: 192storage tanks. See tanksstorage water heaters, 2009 V1: 121. See also tank-type

water heatersstores. See retail storesstorm building drains. See storm-drainage systemsstorm drainage

accessibility, 2010 V2: 48–49calculating intensity, 2010 V2: 44–46calculating time o concentration, 2010 V2: 44–46collection systems, 2010 V2: 46contaminants, 2010 V2: 43–44conveyance, 2010 V2: 46–47detention, 2010 V2: 47–48hydrographs, 2010 V2: 43inltration, 2010 V2: 48introduction, 2010 V2: 42maintenance, 2010 V2: 48–49pollution, 2010 V2: 45rainall or selected municipalities, 2010 V2: 57Rational Method, 2010 V2: 43runo patterns, 2010 V2: 43runo volume calculation example, 2010 V2: 56storm events, 2010 V2: 42treatment, 2010 V2: 48vector control, 2010 V2: 49water quality, 2010 V2: 43

Storm Drainage Design and Detention using the Rational

Method, 2010 V2: 55storm-drainage pipe codes, 2009 V1: 42storm-drainage systems. See also rainwater and

precipitationbuilding drainage systems, 2010 V2: 49–54calculations, 2010 V2: 53–54cast-iron soil-pipe building drains, 2012 V4: 25clear water waste branches, 2010 V2: 50

codes, 2009 V1: 42–44, 2011 V3: 238codes and standards, 2010 V2: 41–42controlled-fow systems, 2010 V2: 52–53design criteria, 2010 V2: 49–54design storms, 2011 V3: 239disposal methods, 2011 V3: 249–250introduction, 2010 V2: 41materials, 2010 V2: 42overview, 2011 V3: 237pipe sizing and layout, 2010 V2: 49–54preliminary inormation, 2011 V3: 205

rainall intensity-requency-duration charts, 2011 V3:244–248

Rational method, 2009 V1: 7, 2011 V3: 238–239reinorced concrete pipe building drains, 2012 V4: 29roo drainage, 2010 V2: 51–53sample utility letters, 2011 V3: 238secondary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 52sizing, 2011 V3: 243–249

sizing ditches, 2011 V3: 250storm drains (SD, ST), 2009 V1: 8storm sewers dened, 2009 V1: 30system design procedure, 2011 V3: 243–249

storm water, 2009 V1: 30. See also graywater; wastewatercodes and standards, 2010 V2: 22contaminant concentration, 2010 V2: 27dened, 2010 V2: 21introduction, 2010 V2: 21water balance, 2010 V2: 21–23, 28

Storm Water Retention Methods, 2010 V2: 55Stormwater: The Dark Side o Stormwater Runo

Management, 2010 V2: 55STPs (sewage treatment plants), 2010 V2: 22, 27–28straight lobe compressors, 2011 V3: 175straight-reading volume meters, 2012 V4: 183strain

dened, 2009 V1: 30maximum allowable, 2012 V4: 205–206

strainersbasket strainers, 2010 V2: 92cold water systems, 2010 V2: 60distributors in water soteners, 2012 V4: 201pressure losses, 2011 V3: 216roo drains, 2010 V2: 53sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 11sediment buckets, 2010 V2: 11swimming pools, 2011 V3: 124symbols or, 2009 V1: 10

strap hangers, 2012 V4: 128straps, 2012 V4: 135stratication in water heaters, 2010 V2: 105stray current corrosion, 2009 V1: 132, 143stream regulators or water coolers, 2012 V4: 219, 222stream-spray irrigation sprinklers, 2011 V3: 94streams, irrigation systems and, 2010 V2: 25street pressure, 2009 V1: 30stress

conversion actors, 2009 V1: 36dened, 2009 V1: 30maximum allowable, 2012 V4: 205–206measurements, 2009 V1: 34stress analysis, 2012 V4: 135

stress-accelerated corrosion, 2009 V1: 143stress corrosion, 2009 V1: 143stress-corrosion cracking, 2009 V1: 131, 143, 2010 V2: 195strip-chart recorder water meters, 2010 V2: 60strong-base regeneration, 2010 V2: 206, 207strongbacks, 2009 V1: 154strontium 90, 2010 V2: 238structural angle bracing, 2009 V1: 160structural attachments, 2012 V4: 135structural channel bracing, 2009 V1: 160structural strength

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bath and shower seats, 2009 V1: 114–115grab bars, 2009 V1: 114–115

structural stresses on piping systems, 2012 V4: 117structure-borne sound, 2009 V1: 187structured biolms, 2012 V4: 229strut bracing, 2009 V1: 166, 168strut clamps, 2012 V4: 135struts, 2012 V4: 135

studs in noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 193styrene butadiene, 2009 V1: 32styrooam blocking on glass pipe, 2012 V4: 35sub-micron cartridge ltration, 2010 V2: 201sub-sterilizing rooms, 2011 V3: 36, 39submerged inlet hazards, 2012 V4: 161submersible pumps

design, 2012 V4: 99illustrated, 2011 V3: 233mounting, 2012 V4: 100protection o wells, 2010 V2: 158shallow wells, 2010 V2: 162sizing, 2011 V3: 151–152underground storage tanks, 2011 V3: 146well pumps, 2010 V2: 160

submittals section in specications, 2009 V1: 63, 69subsidence

basin design, 2012 V4: 178turbidity and, 2012 V4: 178

subsoil drainage pipe, 2009 V1: 44subsoil drains (SSD), 2009 V1: 8, 30substances, amount (moles), 2009 V1: 33substituting products

in proprietary specications, 2009 V1: 62value engineering process and, 2009 V1: 207

subsurace drip irrigation systems, 2010 V2: 25subsurace obstructions, swimming pool locations and,

2011 V3: 107subsurace waste-disposal systems. See soil-absorption

sewage systemssubsurace water. See ground watersubsystems, solar, 2011 V3: 192subterranean vaults, ountain equipment, 2011 V3: 99–100subway vibration and resonance, 2012 V4: 118Suction Fittings or Use in Swimming Pools, Wading

Pools, and Hot Tubs (ASME A112.18.8), 2011 V3:101, 104, 112, 135

suction ttings, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 101, 104, 112suction uel-delivery systems, 2011 V3: 145suction head, dened, 2012 V4: 101suction inlets in storage tanks, 2010 V2: 163suction lit, dened, 2012 V4: 101suction piping, 2010 V2: 163

suction pressuredened, 2011 V3: 187ountains, 2011 V3: 100

suction sump pumps, 2011 V3: 101suction-type pumps, 2010 V2: 157sudden enlargements, 2010 V2: 92suds

pressure zones, 2009 V1: 30, 2010 V2: 37–38venting, 2010 V2: 37–38

sulate-reducing bacteria, 2010 V2: 188sulates, 2010 V2: 189, 190, 206

dened, 2012 V4: 202nanoltration, 2012 V4: 199sulate ions, 2012 V4: 173water hardness and, 2012 V4: 176

suldes, 2009 V1: 136sultes, 2010 V2: 189, 216sulur, 2010 V2: 189sulur dioxide, 2011 V3: 87, 265

suluric aciddemineralizers, 2012 V4: 183ormula, 2012 V4: 173rom cation exchange, 2012 V4: 184in regeneration, 2010 V2: 207special wastes, 2010 V2: 230–232storage tanks, 2011 V3: 85in water chemistry, 2010 V2: 189

sulurous acid, 2010 V2: 189sulphate. See sulatessummary section in specications, 2009 V1: 63, 69sumps and sump pumps

capacity, 2011 V3: 237containment sumps, 2011 V3: 139duplex sump pump systems, 2010 V2: 8elevation and, 2012 V4: 98eld-abricated sumps, 2011 V3: 105–106xture-unit values, 2010 V2: 8–9fexible pipe connectors, 2011 V3: 150foor drains and, 2010 V2: 10ountains, 2011 V3: 100–102liquid-waste decontamination systems, 2010 V2: 242noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 203roo drainage and, 2010 V2: 54sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 8–9, 9–10sewage lie stations, 2011 V3: 235–236sump pits, 2010 V2: 242sump pumps dened, 2009 V1: 30sumps dened, 2009 V1: 30swimming pools, 2011 V3: 112

Sun, T.Y., 2009 V1: 185sunlight

overview, 2011 V3: 188plastic corrosion, 2009 V1: 141protecting against, 2010 V2: 16, 2011 V3: 148solar energy. See solar energy

super fushes, 2009 V1: 30supercritical fow. See hydraulic jumps in fowSuperund Amendment and Reauthorization Act o 1986

(SARA Title III), 2011 V3: 82, 137superheated air and vapor mixtures, 2011 V3: 187superstrut bracing, 2009 V1: 163supervised heat-up method, condensate drainage, 2011 V3:

163–164supervisory (tamper) switches, 2009 V1: 30supplementary conditions, 2009 V1: 56supplementary units o measurement, 2009 V1: 34supplies (sply., SPLY, SUP), 2009 V1: 217support and hanger loads

calculating or hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 115–116cold loads, 2012 V4: 129deadweight loads, 2012 V4: 129design considerations, 2012 V4: 115–118design loads, 2012 V4: 129

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Index 355

dynamic loads, 2012 V4: 129riction loads, 2012 V4: 130hot loads, 2012 V4: 131hydrostatic loads, 2012 V4: 131load ratings, 2012 V4: 122, 124operating loads, 2012 V4: 132seismic loads, 2012 V4: 134thermal loads, 2012 V4: 135

thrust loads, 2012 V4: 135trip-out loads, 2012 V4: 135water hammer loads, 2012 V4: 136wind loads, 2012 V4: 136

support drawings, 2012 V4: 128, 135supporting rolls, 2012 V4: 119supports and hangers. See also support and hanger loads

allowing or expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 207alternate attachment to hangers, 2009 V1: 167anchoring and anchor types, 2012 V4: 123, 123–125clean agent gas pipes, 2011 V3: 28clear specications or, 2009 V1: 255codes and standards, 2009 V1: 43dened, 2009 V1: 30, 2012 V4: 130, 132, 135design considerations, 2012 V4: 115–118

acoustics, 2012 V4: 118loads, 2012 V4: 115–116manmade environmental conditions, 2012 V4: 118natural environmental conditions, 2012 V4: 117pressure fuctuations, 2012 V4: 117structural stresses, 2012 V4: 117thermal stresses, 2012 V4: 116

drawings and plans, 2012 V4: 128, 132, 135earthquake bracing, 2009 V1: 160engineering issues, 2012 V4: 115–118glossary, 2012 V4: 125–136hanger rod gravity orces in earthquakes, 2009 V1: 180hangers, dened, 2009 V1: 24illustrated, 2012 V4: 121installation productivity rates, 2009 V1: 86, 89insulation or, 2012 V4: 104, 105, 110load ratings, 2012 V4: 122, 124materials, 2009 V1: 43, 2012 V4: 122medical gas piping, 2011 V3: 68noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 190, 191, 196, 203plan locations, 2012 V4: 132poor installations o, 2009 V1: 259reactivity and conductivity, 2012 V4: 117sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 12selection criteria, 2012 V4: 118–122spacing, 2012 V4: 65, 116, 122sprinkler systems, 2011 V3: 18, 19symbols or, 2009 V1: 13

types o, 2012 V4: 63–66, 118–122beam clamps, 2012 V4: 120brackets, 2012 V4: 121clevis hangers, 2012 V4: 120concrete inserts, 2012 V4: 120hanger assemblies, 2012 V4: 130, 132pipe clamps, 2012 V4: 120pipe rollers, 2012 V4: 121pipe slides, supports, anchors, and shields, 2012

V4: 121spring hangers and constant supports, 2012 V4: 121

vacuum cleaning tubing, 2010 V2: 179surace abrasions

corrosion and, 2009 V1: 136grab bars, 2009 V1: 113

surace burning pipe characteristics, 2010 V2: 224surace ault slips, 2009 V1: 149surace res, 2011 V3: 23surace-mounted pumps, 2010 V2: 160

surace ponds, 2010 V2: 47surace runo. See runo surace skimmers. See skimmerssurace temperature o insulation, 2012 V4: 111surace-type sprinkler spray heads, 2011 V3: 92–93surace water

as eed water or pure water systems, 2010 V2: 220carbon dioxide in, 2012 V4: 176dened, 2010 V2: 188discharge permits or, 2011 V3: 83need or treatment, 2012 V4: 173–174

Surace Water Treatment Rule, 2010 V2: 217suraces o xture materials, 2012 V4: 1surge capacity, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 111–112surge pressure. See water hammersurge tanks, 2010 V2: 25surge vessels (tanks), swimming pools, 2011 V3: 113, 116surges in horizontal drains, 2010 V2: 5surgical ceiling columns, 2011 V3: 55–56surgical clean-up areas, 2011 V3: 36surgical gas track systems, 2011 V3: 56surgical instruments, 2011 V3: 56, 64surgical scrub areas, 2011 V3: 36surgical supply areas, 2011 V3: 36surgical vacuum (SV), 2009 V1: 9surveys

cross connections, 2012 V4: 171existing buildings, 2009 V1: 265–270, 267–270plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85water sotener data, 2012 V4: 189

suspended equipmentearthquake restraints, 2009 V1: 154xed suspended equipment, 2009 V1: 157poor installations o, 2009 V1: 258, 259vibration-isolated, suspended equipment, 2009 V1: 158

suspended metals in wastes, 2011 V3: 87suspended piping

earthquake recommendations, 2009 V1: 152noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 192, 195

suspended solids. See also turbiditydened, 2010 V2: 188ltration, 2010 V2: 201removing, 2010 V2: 199

total suspended solids, 2010 V2: 193turbidity, 2010 V2: 188

suspended tanks, 2009 V1: 153suspension, dened, 2010 V2: 188, 2012 V4: 202suspension hangers. See supports and hangerssustainable design, 2012 V4: 233SV (surgical vacuum), 2009 V1: 9SV (service) cast-iron soil pipe, 2012 V4: 25, 28swamp gas, 2010 V2: 190Swartman, Robert K., 2011 V3: 204

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sway bracing. See also lateral and longitudinal swaybracing; restraints and restraining control devices

acceptable types, 2009 V1: 181horizontal loads or, 2009 V1: 178–179illustrated, 2012 V4: 126lateral and longitudinal, 2009 V1: 175–176, 178longitudinal and transverse, 2009 V1: 172, 173noise mitigation and, 2009 V1: 190

potential problems, illustrated, 2009 V1: 183sway in piping, 2009 V1: 152sweep ttings, 2012 V4: 223swelling characteristics o soils, 2010 V2: 141swimming pools

bathhouses, toilets, and showers, 2011 V3: 110chemical controls, 2011 V3: 127–131chemistry, 2011 V3: 115circulation, 2011 V3: 113–116circulation pumps, 2011 V3: 122–123dened, 2009 V1: 30dehumidication, 2011 V3: 127design parameters, 2011 V3: 106–110direct connection hazards, 2012 V4: 161eed systems, 2011 V3: 127–131lters

diatomaceous earth, 2011 V3: 119–122overview, 2011 V3: 114sand, 2011 V3: 117–118

xture requirements, 2011 V3: 109fow control devices, 2011 V3: 125–126fow sensors, 2011 V3: 124–125resh water makeup, 2011 V3: 132–133grate materials, 2010 V2: 13handicapped access, 2011 V3: 134–135health codes, 2011 V3: 106heat recovery, 2011 V3: 127inlets, 2011 V3: 135ladders, 2011 V3: 134–135level control systems, 2011 V3: 131–132location, 2011 V3: 107main drains, 2011 V3: 132numbers o xtures or, 2012 V4: 20numbers o swimmers, 2011 V3: 106operating systems, 2011 V3: 111–116overview, 2011 V3: 104ozone system, 2011 V3: 133physical characteristics, 2011 V3: 107–110ramps, 2011 V3: 134–135saety equipment, 2011 V3: 135size and capacity, 2011 V3: 106–107skimmers, 2011 V3: 114, 117specialty systems, 2011 V3: 116, 133–134

strainers, 2011 V3: 124surge vessels, 2011 V3: 113, 116underwater lights, 2011 V3: 135UV system, 2011 V3: 133–134water eatures, 2011 V3: 134water heating, 2011 V3: 126–127

swing check valves, 2010 V2: 92, 164, 2012 V4: 76, 84, 89swing eyes, 2012 V4: 119swing loops, 2012 V4: 206swinging on pipes, 2012 V4: 116switch-gear rooms, 2011 V3: 68

swivel pipe rings, 2012 V4: 135swivel turnbuckles, 2012 V4: 135SWP (steam working pressure), 2009 V1: 15, 2012 V4: 83SWRO (spiral wound modules), 2010 V2: 194, 211–212SYGEF piping, 2011 V3: 49symbols

re protection, 2009 V1: 12–13reerences, 2009 V1: 39

standardized plumbing and piping symbols, 2009 V1:7–15Synthesis phase in value engineering, 2009 V1: 209synthetic ber gas lters, 2011 V3: 252synthetic resins, 2010 V2: 205SYS (systems), 2009 V1: 128system curve analysis or pumps, 2012 V4: 95–97system descriptions in specications, 2009 V1: 63, 69system head curves, 2012 V4: 95, 102system perormance criteria in specications, 2009 V1:

63, 69Systeme International d’Unites. See International System

o Units (SI)systems (SYS)

dened, 2009 V1: 128diagramming, 2009 V1: 223value engineering questions, 2009 V1: 209

Systems and Applications Handbook, ASHRAE, 2011 V3: 204

Tt (metric tons), 2009 V1: 34T (temperature). See temperatureT (teslas), 2009 V1: 34T (time). See timet-joints, 2012 V4: 58T (tera) prex, 2009 V1: 34t, TD (temperature dierences), 2009 V1: 128

T&P valves (temperature and pressure relie), 2010 V2: 106T4 or T6 aluminum temper, 2011 V3: 277tablespoons, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39tabular take-o sheets, in cost estimations, 2009 V1: 86take-o estimating method, cost estimating, 2009 V1:

86–87Take the Guesswork out o Demineralizer Design, 2010

V2: 224taking pretty to the bank, 2009 V1: 262–263tamper switches, 2009 V1: 30tamping ll, 2010 V2: 15Tanaka, T., 2010 V2: 225tangential-fow ltration, 2010 V2: 201, 211tank-mounted product dispensers, 2011 V3: 149

tank-type water closets, 2009 V1: 127tank-type water heaters, 2009 V1: 121tankless water heaters, 2009 V1: 120tanks. See also septic tanks

abandonment and removal, 2011 V3: 154buoyant orces, 2011 V3: 241calculating volume, 2010 V2: 64–66carbon dioxide extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 26connections and access, 2011 V3: 139, 148construction, 2011 V3: 139corrosion protection, 2011 V3: 148earthquake damage, 2009 V1: 152, 153

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Index 357

earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 154–157, 182, 183lling and spills, 2011 V3: 139–140, 148fow-through periods, 2012 V4: 147gauges, 2011 V3: 148hazardous waste incompatibilities, 2011 V3: 83–84, 84installation, 2011 V3: 154–156insulation, 2012 V4: 110leak prevention and monitoring, 2011 V3: 148–149

Legionella growth in, 2010 V2: 109materials, 2011 V3: 138–139, 147–148overll prevention, 2011 V3: 141, 148protection, 2011 V3: 149tank end defection, 2011 V3: 154tank arms, 2009 V1: 139tightness testing, 2011 V3: 142–143, 153types o

aboveground tanks, 2011 V3: 84, 147–149break tanks, 2012 V4: 168chilled drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 222, 224cryogenic, 2011 V3: 57distilled water systems, 2011 V3: 48drinking water storage, 2010 V2: 162expansion tanks, 2010 V2: 67–68, 2012 V4: 209–213re-protection supplies, 2011 V3: 219reghting drainage, 2010 V2: 244gravity tank systems, 2010 V2: 65–66hydropneumatic-tank systems, 2010 V2: 64–65,

64–66kill tanks, 2010 V2: 241–242liqueed petroleum gas, 2010 V2: 131–135liquid uel tanks, 2011 V3: 139–140natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 131–135product dispensing systems, 2011 V3: 149propane, 2010 V2: 131–134radioactive wastes, 2010 V2: 240rainwater, 2012 V4: 238settling tanks, 2011 V3: 88solar energy systems, 2011 V3: 203solar water heaters, 2009 V1: 121storage tanks, dened, 2011 V3: 136storm drainage detention, 2010 V2: 47–48suspended, 2009 V1: 157thermal expansion tanks, 2010 V2: 106underground tanks, 2011 V3: 84, 139–140water storage tanks, 2010 V2: 223, 2011 V3: 46

vapor recovery, 2011 V3: 149venting, 2011 V3: 141, 148volume calculations, 2012 V4: 147

tannin in water, 2012 V4: 202tape thread sealants, 2012 V4: 60tapping illegally into water lines, 2010 V2: 59

tapping valves, 2012 V4: 67taps

large wet tap excavations, 2011 V3: 213pressure loss and, 2011 V3: 210–214

target areas in water closets, 2012 V4: 3taste o drinking water, 2010 V2: 160, 217tax credits, solar energy, 2011 V3: 190Tax Incentives Assistance Project (TIAP) web site, 2011

V3: 203taxes

in labor costs, 2009 V1: 86

in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 86Taylor, Halsey Willard, 2012 V4: 215TD (temperature dierences), 2009 V1: 128TD (turndown ratio), 2010 V2: 127TDS (total dissolved solids). See total dissolved solids

(TDS)TE (top elevation), 2009 V1: 15teaspoons, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39

technetium 99, 2010 V2: 238Techniques o Value Analysis and Engineering, 2009 V1: 252technology advances, value engineering and, 2009 V1: 208Technology or the Storage o Hazardous Liquids, 2011

V3: 89tectonic plates, 2009 V1: 148tee-wyes, fow capacity and, 2010 V2: 4tees (TEE), 2009 V1: 10, 30Tefon (PTFE), 2009 V1: 32, 2010 V2: 239

as contaminant in air, 2011 V3: 265 joint caulking, 2011 V3: 46pipes, 2012 V4: 52polytetrafuoroethylene, 2009 V1: 32valve seating, 2012 V4: 76, 77

temp., TEMP (temperatures). See temperatureTEMP. HW (tempered hot water), 2009 V1: 8TEMP. HWR (tempered hot water recirculating), 2009 V1: 8temperature (temp., TEMP, T)

acid wastes, 2011 V3: 43air pressure and, 2011 V3: 264bathtub water notes, 2009 V1: 110compressed air systems and, 2011 V3: 178conversion actors, 2009 V1: 36, 37cooling air compressors, 2011 V3: 178corrosion rates and, 2009 V1: 135CPVC vs. PVC piping, 2012 V4: 51deaeration water temperatures, 2010 V2: 199dened, 2011 V3: 187degree systems, 2009 V1: 30density and viscosity o water and, 2012 V4: 178dew points, 2011 V3: 173drinking-water coolers and, 2012 V4: 216drops in fowing water, 2012 V4: 112–113elevated temperatures or removing Legionella, 2010

V2: 109–110energy conservation, 2009 V1: 117–118expansion and contraction and, 2012 V4: 67eed water temperature and deposits, 2010 V2: 197,

214, 221fue gases, 2010 V2: 119gas regulators and, 2011 V3: 272hangers and supports and, 2012 V4: 119hot-water properties, 2010 V2: 107

hot-water relie valves, 2010 V2: 106hot-water temperatures, 2010 V2: 101, 102–104, 105,

2011 V3: 39, 47insulation and temperature loss, 2012 V4: 103laboratory gases, 2011 V3: 275, 279Legionella growth and, 2010 V2: 108–110maintenance hot-water temperatures, 2010 V2: 105–106maintenance, pumps, 2012 V4: 98measurements, 2009 V1: 33microbial control in water, 2010 V2: 214mixed-water temperatures, 2010 V2: 101

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natural gas, 2010 V2: 126non-SI units, 2009 V1: 34oxygen and corrosion implications, 2012 V4: 176pipe classication, 2012 V4: 118pipe expansion and contraction, 2009 V1: 3propane vaporization and, 2010 V2: 134PVC pipe and, 2012 V4: 51rating, sprinkler systems (re protection), 2011 V3: 18

scalding water, 2010 V2: 111scaling and, 2012 V4: 185settling velocity and, 2012 V4: 146shower compartments, 2009 V1: 112, 2012 V4: 16special-waste efuent, 2010 V2: 228specic resistance and, 2010 V2: 192sprinkler head ratings, 2011 V3: 13storage tanks and piping, 2011 V3: 154surace temperature o insulation, 2012 V4: 111swimming pool heaters, 2011 V3: 126temperature dierences (TD, )t, TDIF), 2009 V1: 128temperature stratication, 2011 V3: 154thermal expansion, 2012 V4: 205thermal support systems and earthquakes, 2009 V1: 160water heaters, 2010 V2: 97, 101water vapor in air and, 2011 V3: 172–173water volume and, 2010 V2: 67–68

Temperature-actuated Mixing Valves or Plumbed

Emergency Equipment, 2010 V2: 105Temperature-actuating Mixing Valves or Hot Water

Distribution Systems, 2010 V2: 104–105temperature-pressure-relie valves (TPV, TPRV), 2009 V1:

10, 2010 V2: 106temperature stratication, 2011 V3: 154tempered water

abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 15dened, 2009 V1: 30tempered hot water (TEMP. HW, TW), 2009 V1: 8

tempered hot water recirculating (TEMP. HWR, TWR),2009 V1: 8

temporary hardness, 2012 V4: 176tensile strength

plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 50PVC pipe and, 2012 V4: 51

tensile stressesexpansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 67stacks, 2012 V4: 208with temperature change, 2012 V4: 206

Tension 360 bracing, 2009 V1: 162tension problems in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 184Tentative Provisions or the Development o Seismic

Regulations or Buildings, 2009 V1: 174, 185tera prex, 2009 V1: 34

terminal elements, dened, 2009 V1: 128terminal length, dened, 2010 V2: 1terminal velocity

dened, 2010 V2: 1stack capacities and, 2010 V2: 4stack terminal velocity, 2009 V1: 3

terminal vents, 2010 V2: 34terra-cotta pipe sleeves, 2012 V4: 67terrazzo xtures, 2012 V4: 1tertiary treatment o gray water, 2010 V2: 26–27, 27–28teslas, 2009 V1: 34

test block conditions in gas boosters, 2010 V2: 128Test or Surace Burning Characteristics o Building

Materials, 2010 V2: 224test headers, 2009 V1: 12test-method standards, 2009 V1: 61test station cathodic protection, 2009 V1: 140testing

cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 90

compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 183gaseous re-suppression systems, 2011 V3: 28hot-water relie valves, 2010 V2: 106hydrants, 2011 V3: 3–4hydraulic soil conditions, 2010 V2: 139–142insulation, 2012 V4: 104laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 280liquid uel systems, 2011 V3: 152–154medical gas alarms, 2011 V3: 74–75medical gas systems, 74–76, 2011 V3: 69natural gas services, 2011 V3: 257percolation rates or soils, 2010 V2: 141–142pipes or radioactive waste systems, 2010 V2: 239plastic xtures, 2012 V4: 1seat tests (valves), 2012 V4: 87shell tests (valves), 2012 V4: 87tank tightness testing, 2011 V3: 142–143, 153urinal tests, 2012 V4: 8water closet fushing, 2012 V4: 4–5welders or radioactive pipe systems, 2010 V2: 239wells, 2010 V2: 158

tetrafuoroethylene (TFE), 2012 V4: 36, 60, 84tetrafuoroethylene valve seating, 2012 V4: 74text, abbreviations in, 2009 V1: 14–15texture o soils, 2010 V2: 140–141TFE (tetrafuoroethylene), 2012 V4: 36, 60, 84TFE (tetrafuoroethylene) valve seating, 2012 V4: 74that is (i.e.), 2009 V1: 15theaters

drinking ountain usage, 2012 V4: 223vacuum calculations or, 2010 V2: 180

theoretical barometric pressure, 2011 V3: 172theoretical horsepower, 2011 V3: 186therapy pools, 2011 V3: 107, 111therm, converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39thermal compressors, 2011 V3: 187thermal conductivity (k, K)

insulation, 2012 V4: 103measurements, 2009 V1: 34plastic pipe, 2012 V4: 50

thermal contraction and plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 189.See also contraction o materials

thermal eciency

dened, 2009 V1: 30, 128water heaters and, 2010 V2: 107–108

thermal energy, 2011 V3: 188–189thermal expansion. See expansion (exp, EXP, XPAN)Thermal Expansion and Contraction in Plastic Piping

Systems, 2009 V1: 206thermal-hydraulic irrigation valves, 2011 V3: 94thermal insulation thickness, 2009 V1: 118thermal loads, 2012 V4: 135thermal resistance (R, R, RES), 2012 V4: 103thermal-shock protection, 2009 V1: 112

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Index 359

thermal storage devices and media, 2011 V3: 192thermal stresses on piping systems, 2012 V4: 116thermal-support systems, earthquakes and, 2009 V1: 160thermal transmittance (U), 2012 V4: 103thermocompression distillation, 2010 V2: 200thermodynamic disc traps, 2011 V3: 162thermometers, 2009 V1: 10thermoplastic piping, 2010 V2: 123, 2012 V4: 39, 208

thermoplastic valves, 2012 V4: 77thermoset plastic, 2011 V3: 138, 2012 V4: 39thermostatic bellows steam traps, 2011 V3: 162thermostatic-mixing shower valves, 2009 V1: 15, 2012 V4:

16, 18thermostatic-mixing tub valves, 2012 V4: 17thermostatic steam traps, 2011 V3: 162thermostats (T STAT)

chilled drinking-water systems, 2012 V4: 221drinking water coolers, 2012 V4: 220

thermosyphon in fuids, 2011 V3: 192thermosyphon solar systems, 2009 V1: 122, 2011 V3:

192, 198thickness (thkns, THKNS, THK)

insulation, 2012 V4: 106, 107, 110–112o soils, 2010 V2: 141

thin skin membranes, 2012 V4: 197thinking outside the box, 2009 V1: 225thkns, THKNS (thickness). See thicknessthousand cubic eet (Mc, MCF), 2009 V1: 15thousand pounds (kip, KIP), 2009 V1: 15thread cutting, 2012 V4: 61thread lubricants, 2012 V4: 60thread sealants, 2012 V4: 60–61threaded end connections, 2009 V1: 22threaded joints

earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 160mechanical joints, 2012 V4: 57preparing, 2012 V4: 60–61

threaded outlet drain body, 2010 V2: 14threaded outlets, 2010 V2: 13threaded rod couplings, 2012 V4: 135threaded rods, 2012 V4: 122, 135three-bolt pipe clamps, 2012 V4: 135three-compartment sinks, 2012 V4: 11thresholds in shower compartments, 2009 V1: 112throttling valves, 2012 V4: 73thrust blocks, 2009 V1: 30, 2011 V3: 223thrust loads, 2012 V4: 135tie rods, 2011 V3: 221TIG (tungsten inert gas), 2012 V4: 61tight piping systems, 2009 V1: 160tightness testing, 2011 V3: 142–143, 153

tiles in absorption systems, 2010 V2: 143time (T)

clean agent gas re suppression, 2011 V3: 28o concentration in runo, 2011 V3: 241–242in creativity checklist, 2009 V1: 227intervals in hydraulic shock, 2009 V1: 6in measurements, 2009 V1: 33non-SI units, 2009 V1: 34time in pipes, 2011 V3: 242–243time-temperature curves in re tests, 2011 V3: 2–3

time delays in clean gas extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 28

time historycomputer analysis, 2009 V1: 180earthquakes, 2009 V1: 150, 151

timers or pumps, 2010 V2: 64tin

coatings or distillers, 2012 V4: 192corrosion, 2009 V1: 129distillation systems, 2012 V4: 192

galvanic series, 2009 V1: 132piping, 2010 V2: 75tin-lined copper pipes, 2011 V3: 49

tipping prevention, 2009 V1: 183tissue-culture rooms, 2011 V3: 47titanium, 2009 V1: 132, 2011 V3: 24, 2012 V4: 192titration, 2012 V4: 203TOC (total organic carbon), 2010 V2: 194TOC (total oxidizable carbon), 2012 V4: 52toe clearance in toilet compartments, 2009 V1: 105toilet compartments. See water-closet compartmentstoilet fanges, 2009 V1: 198toilet paper

dispensers, 2009 V1: 106in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 147

toilets. See also water closetsdual-fush

xture drain fow, 2010 V2: 2xture-unit loads, 2010 V2: 3LEED 2009 baselines, 2010 V2: 25low-fow

xture drain fow, 2010 V2: 2vacuum toilets, 2010 V2: 19

tolerance, 2009 V1: 33tons (TON), 2009 V1: 39tools

tool access in cleanouts, 2010 V2: 9–10or vacuum cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 180

top-beam clamps, 2012 V4: 135top coats, 2009 V1: 136top elevation (TE), 2009 V1: 15top-spud water closets, 2012 V4: 3torch testing, 2012 V4: 1torches, propane-powered, 2010 V2: 133tornados, 2009 V1: 262Toro Company, 2011 V3: 96torque

conversion actors, 2009 V1: 35converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38measurements, 2009 V1: 34

Torr, 2009 V1: 30torrs, 2010 V2: 166total alkalinity, 2010 V2: 189

total connected loads, 2011 V3: 51, 252, 256total costs

dened, 2009 V1: 217generalized, 2009 V1: 217

total developed lengths, 2012 V4: 206, 207total discharge head, dened, 2012 V4: 102total dissolved solids (TDS), 2010 V2: 193, 217, 2012 V4: 203total dynamic head (TDH), 2010 V2: 161, 2011 V3: 123total xture count weights, 2012 V4: 186total fooding systems

carbon dioxide systems, 2011 V3: 26

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dry-chemical extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 23total head, 2010 V2: 161

centriugal pumps, 2012 V4: 93dened, 2012 V4: 91, 102impeller tip velocity and, 2012 V4: 95pump eciency, 2012 V4: 94

total head/capacity curves, 2012 V4: 95–97total head curves, 2012 V4: 95–97

total loads (pipe supports), 2012 V4: 115–116total organic carbon (TOC), 2010 V2: 194total oxidizable carbon (TOC), 2012 V4: 52, 195total pressure loss method, 2010 V2: 87, 89, 94–95total pumping head, 2010 V2: 161total suspended solids, 2010 V2: 193total trihalomethanes (TTHM), 2010 V2: 110total work orce in vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 169tower water. See cooling-tower watertowers in standpipe systems, 2011 V3: 21toxic, dened, 2009 V1: 31toxic gases, 2011 V3: 267, 275–276TPRV. See TPV (temperature-pressure-relie valves)TPV (temperature-pressure-relie valves), 2009 V1: 10,

2010 V2: 106TR-55, 2010 V2: 44–46trace elements in water, 2010 V2: 190Trace Level Analysis o High Purity Water, 2010 V2: 224tractor-type grates, 2010 V2: 11trac loads

automotive trac and grates, 2010 V2: 11bioremediation pretreatment systems, 2012 V4: 230cleanouts and, 2010 V2: 9grates and strainers, 2010 V2: 11trac vibration or resonance, 2012 V4: 118

trailer parksseptic tank systems or, 2010 V2: 149–150sewers, 2009 V1: 31

transactions, uel, 2011 V3: 147transer fuid, heat, 2011 V3: 192transer-type showers, 2009 V1: 112transerring hazardous wastes, 2011 V3: 84transition ttings, 2011 V3: 256transition joints, 2012 V4: 57transmissibility o vibration

designing, 2012 V4: 137upper foor installation, 2012 V4: 142–143varying requency ratios and, 2012 V4: 138–139

transmittance, 2011 V3: 193transmitted orces, 2012 V4: 138transport trucks, 2011 V3: 57Transportation Department. See U.S. Department o

Transportation

transportation gas service, 2010 V2: 114transportation gas services, 2011 V3: 252transverse bracing, 2009 V1: 159, 160, 185. See also lateral

and longitudinal sway bracing transverse sway bracing, 2009 V1: 172trap design, 2010 V2: 31–32trap primers, 2009 V1: 31trap seals

dened, 2009 V1: 31actors in trap seal loss, 2010 V2: 31–32foor drains, 2010 V2: 11, 2012 V4: 17

introduction, 2010 V2: 31–32primer devices, 2012 V4: 17reducing trap seal losses, 2010 V2: 31–32tests, 2012 V4: 5

trapeze hangersbracing pipes on trapeze, 2009 V1: 168, 171dened, 2012 V4: 135illustrated, 2012 V4: 64, 121

noise isolation, 2009 V1: 196potential problems in bracing, 2009 V1: 183preerence or, 2012 V4: 65selecting, 2012 V4: 119

trapeziums, calculating area, 2009 V1: 4trapezoids, calculating area, 2009 V1: 4traps. See also trap seals

building traps, dened, 2009 V1: 18condensate drainage, 2011 V3: 166dened, 2009 V1: 30, 31distance rom vent connections, 2010 V2: 34grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 145, 154heat exchangers, 2011 V3: 167–169introduction, 2010 V2: 31–32sink traps, 2011 V3: 45–46space heating equipment, 2011 V3: 166–167special-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 228steam, 2011 V3: 162–163urinals, 2012 V4: 8

travel devices, 2012 V4: 135travel indicators, 2012 V4: 135travel scales, 2012 V4: 135travel stops, 2012 V4: 135TRC (tubular modules in reverse osmosis), 2010 V2:

211–212treated water. See also water treatment

dened, 2010 V2: 187rom reverse osmosis, 2010 V2: 211systems. See graywater systems

Treating Cooling Water, 2010 V2: 225treatment

biosolids, 2012 V4: 238–240gray water, 2010 V2: 25–27, 27–28oil in water, 2010 V2: 245–246storm drainage, 2010 V2: 48

Treatment o Organic Chemical Manuacturing

Wastewater or Reuse (EPA 600), 2011 V3: 89treatment plants. See also names o specic treatment

plants (chemical treatment, water treatment)treatment rooms

xtures, 2011 V3: 38health care acilities, 2011 V3: 36medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 52

medical vacuum, 2011 V3: 54water demand, 2011 V3: 46

tree piping systems, 2011 V3: 12trench drains

in chemical plants, 2010 V2: 243dened, 2012 V4: 17, 18

trenchesabsorption trenches. See soil-absorption sewage

systemslabor productivity rates, 2009 V1: 87–88sanitary sewer services, 2011 V3: 225–226, 227

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Index 361

storage tank piping, 2011 V3: 155Tri-Services Manual, 2009 V1: 174, 180triage rooms, 2011 V3: 38triangles

calculating area, 2009 V1: 4–5exercise, 2009 V1: 225, 252rule or sink location, 2012 V4: 11

trichlor, 2011 V3: 128

trichloroethylene, 2011 V3: 66trickle collectors, 2011 V3: 191trickle irrigation, 2011 V3: 94trickling lters, 2011 V3: 88triggering clean agent gas re suppression, 2011 V3: 28trihalomethanes, 2010 V2: 213, 2012 V4: 177trip-out loads, 2012 V4: 135triple points, 2009 V1: 31triplex vacuum pump arrangements, 2010 V2: 178trisodium phosphate, 2010 V2: 12TROs (tubular modules in reverse osmosis), 2010 V2:

211–212truss-type bracing, 2009 V1: 182tsunamis, 2009 V1: 149TTHM (total trihalomethanes), 2010 V2: 110TU (turbidity units), 2012 V4: 175tub llers, 2012 V4: 17tube ozone units, 2010 V2: 214tube pulls, 2009 V1: 31tube washers, 2011 V3: 41tuberculation, 2009 V1: 143tubing

natural gas systems, 2010 V2: 122–124vacuum cleaning hose capacity, 2010 V2: 180

tubular-bag separators, 2010 V2: 178tubular membranes, 2012 V4: 196tubular modules in reverse osmosis, 2010 V2: 211–212Tully, G.F., 2011 V3: 204tungsten inert gas (TIG), 2012 V4: 61tunnels, vibration and resonance rom, 2012 V4: 118turbidity

clarication o, 2010 V2: 198–199, 2012 V4: 178–179dened, 2009 V1: 31, 2010 V2: 188, 2012 V4: 203drinking water, 2010 V2: 217lter beds and, 2012 V4: 180measuring, 2010 V2: 193treating in water, 2012 V4: 175

turbidity units (TU), 2012 V4: 175turbine gas meters, 2010 V2: 116–117turbine meters, 2010 V2: 88turbine pumps, 2010 V2: 160–161, 162, 2011 V3: 123–124,

2012 V4: 97turbine water meters, 2010 V2: 60, 61

turbo machines. See pumpsturbo pumps, 2010 V2: 169turbo-surgical instruments, 2011 V3: 56turbulence

dened, 2009 V1: 31determining riction, 2010 V2: 74–75foatation and, 2012 V4: 150in grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 147in rate o corrosion, 2009 V1: 135turbulent fow in pipes, 2009 V1: 2

tur

imperviousness actors, 2011 V3: 239runo, 2010 V2: 42

turnbucklesdened, 2012 V4: 136illustrated, 2012 V4: 64, 120, 124use o, 2012 V4: 65

turndown ratio (TD), 2010 V2: 127turnover rate, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 111

TW (tempered hot water). See tempered watertwin-agent dry-chemical systems, 2011 V3: 23twin-stage propane regulators, 2010 V2: 133twisting motions, hangers and, 2012 V4: 116two. See also entries beginning with double-, dual-, or

multiple-two-bed deionizing units, 2011 V3: 48two-compartment septic tanks, 2010 V2: 147two-compartment sinks, 2012 V4: 11two-pipe venturi suction pumps, 2010 V2: 157two-point vapor recovery, 2011 V3: 145two-stage propane regulators, 2010 V2: 133two-stage reduction, 2010 V2: 69two-step deionization (dual-bed), 2010 V2: 206, 207two-valve parallel pressure-regulated valves, 2010 V2:

69–70two-way braces, 2012 V4: 136two-word expressions o unctions, 2009 V1: 218, 225TWR (tempered hot water recirculating), 2009 V1: 8TYP (typical), 2009 V1: 15Type 1 air compressors, 2011 V3: 62Type 2 air compressors, 2011 V3: 62Type A gray-water systems, 2010 V2: 26Type ACR/MED pipes, 2012 V4: 32Type ACR pipes, 2012 V4: 32Type B gas vents, 2010 V2: 136Type B gray-water systems, 2010 V2: 26Type B vent codes, 2009 V1: 43Type B-W gas vents, 2010 V2: 136Type DWV pipes, 2012 V4: 32, 33–34Type G copper, 2012 V4: 32, 34Type K copper

copper water tube, 2012 V4: 29dimensions and capacity, 2012 V4: 33–34lengths, standards, and applications, 2012 V4: 32medical gas tube, 2011 V3: 69, 2012 V4: 33–34

Type L coppercopper water tube, 2012 V4: 29dimensions and capacity, 2012 V4: 35–36lengths, standards, and applications, 2012 V4: 32medical gas tube, 2011 V3: 69, 2012 V4: 33–34natural gas, 2011 V3: 257

Type L gas vents, 2010 V2: 136

Type L vent codes, 2009 V1: 43Type M copper

copper water tube, 2012 V4: 29dimensions and capacity, 2012 V4: 37–38lengths, standards, and applications, 2012 V4: 32

Type OXY/ACR pipes, 2012 V4: 32Type OXY, MED pipes, 2012 V4: 32Type OXY/MED pipes, 2012 V4: 32typhoid, 2012 V4: 177typhoons, 2012 V4: 117typical (TYP), 2009 V1: 15

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UU bolts, 2012 V4: 120U , U (heat transer coecients) (U actor), 2012 V4: 104U-bolts, 2012 V4: 64, 120, 136UF. See ultralters and ultraltrationUF membranes, 2010 V2: 191UFAS (Uniorm Federal Accessibility Standard), 2009 V1:

97–98

Uhlig, Herbert H., 2009 V1: 144UHP (utility horsepower), 2012 V4: 102UL listings. See Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL)ULC (Underwriters Laboratories o Canada), 2009 V1:

41–42ULF. See ultra-low-fow water closetsultra-clean tanks, gas cylinders, 2011 V3: 268ultra-high purity gas grade, 2011 V3: 267, 276ultra-high purity plus gas grade, 2011 V3: 267ultra-high vacuum, 2010 V2: 165ultra-low-fow water closets

operation, 2009 V1: 127water usage rates, 2009 V1: 127

ultra-pure water (UPW), 2012 V4: 52

ultra-pure water systems, 2010 V2: 218ultra zero gas grade, 2011 V3: 267ultralters and ultraltration

cross-fow ltration, 2010 V2: 201, 213dened, 2012 V4: 199membrane lters, 2010 V2: 211oil spills, 2010 V2: 245

Ultraviolet Disinection in Biotechnology: Myth vs. Practice, 2010 V2: 224

ultraviolet disinection standards, 2012 V4: 195ultraviolet rays. See UV (ultraviolet rays)U.N. World Commission on the Environment and

Development, 2012 V4: 233unassisted creativity, 2009 V1: 227

unbalanced orces, vibration and, 2012 V4: 138unblockable drains, 2011 V3: 105unconsolidated aquiers, 2010 V2: 157undamped mechanical systems, 2009 V1: 150under-counter grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 154under-counter mounted lavatories, 2012 V4: 10under-counter mounted sinks, 2012 V4: 11under-lm corrosion, 2009 V1: 143under-foor areas, 2011 V3: 27under-table waste and vent piping, 2011 V3: 46underground building sanitary pipe codes, 2009 V1: 44underground digging, planning impacts o, 2012 V4: 118underground inspections, 2009 V1: 95underground piping

acid-waste piping, 2010 V2: 234cast-iron soil pipe, 2012 V4: 25coatings, 2009 V1: 136dened, 2009 V1: 31materials or, 2010 V2: 12–13medical gas piping, 2011 V3: 68thermal expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 208–209underground building sanitary pipe codes, 2009 V1: 44valves, 2012 V4: 88

underground pressurized uel delivery systems, 2011 V3: 145

underground sprinklers, 2011 V3: 92

underground storage tanks (USTs)abandonment and removal, 2011 V3: 154codes and standards, 2011 V3: 137connections and access, 2011 V3: 139construction, 2011 V3: 139dened, 2011 V3: 136dispenser pans, 2011 V3: 146lling and spills, 2011 V3: 139–140

re suppression, 2011 V3: 146–147uel islands, 2011 V3: 146uel transactions, 2011 V3: 147hazardous wastes, 2011 V3: 84leak detection and system monitoring, 2011 V3: 141–145liquid uel storage tanks, 2011 V3: 139–140materials, 2011 V3: 138overll prevention, 2011 V3: 141product dispensing systems, 2011 V3: 146–147testing, 2011 V3: 152vapor recovery systems, 2011 V3: 145–146venting, 2011 V3: 141

underground suction uel delivery systems, 2011 V3: 145underground valves, 2012 V4: 88Understanding the Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and Spa

Saety Act, 2011 V3: 135underwater pool lights, 2011 V3: 135underwriters. See insuranceUnderwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL)

abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 32list o standards, 2009 V1: 54publications (discussed)

berglass pipe, 2012 V4: 53fame testing standards, 2012 V4: 105gas booster components, 2010 V2: 125hot-water components, 2010 V2: 106, 112pipe hangers, 2011 V3: 18surace burning pipe characteristics, 2010 V2: 224valve re protection approvals, 2012 V4: 87–88valve standards, 2012 V4: 73

publications (listed)UL 142: Steel Above Ground Tanks or Flammable

and Combustible Liquids, 2011 V3: 88,137, 147

UL 2080: Fire Resistant Tanks or Flammable and

Combustible Liquids, 2011 V3: 147UL 2085: Insulated Aboveground Tanks or

Flammable and Combustible Liquids, 2011 V3: 137

web site, 2011 V3: 89Underwriters Laboratories o Canada, 2009 V1: 41–42unemployment taxes, in labor costs, 2009 V1: 86ungridded piping systems, 2011 V3: 12

uniorm attack corrosion, 2009 V1: 129–130Uniorm Building Code (UBC), 2009 V1: 185, 2012 V4: 225Uniorm Federal Accessibility Standard (UFAS), 2009 V1:

97–98uniorm fow

in horizontal drains, 2010 V2: 6–8Manning ormula, 2009 V1: 1

Uniorm Plumbing Code, 2009 V1: 206, 2010 V2: 39,115, 136

building xture requirements, 2012 V4: 18graywater, 2010 V2: 22

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Index 363

grease interceptor requirements, 2012 V4: 156–157minimum xture requirements, 2012 V4: 22–23vent sizing, 2010 V2: 39–40

uniorm pressure loss method, 2010 V2: 87, 89, 95Uniormat specication system, 2009 V1: 57–58, 65–66unintended uses o piping, 2012 V4: 116uninterrupted water supplies, 2011 V3: 46uninterruptible gas services, 2011 V3: 251

union bonnets, 2012 V4: 90union rings, 2012 V4: 90union shoulder pieces, 2012 V4: 90union threaded pieces, 2012 V4: 90unions (joints)

dened, 2012 V4: 90fanged, 2009 V1: 10screwed, 2009 V1: 10union bonnets, 2012 V4: 90union rings, 2012 V4: 79, 90union shoulder pieces, 2012 V4: 90union threaded pieces, 2012 V4: 90

unions (labor), 2009 V1: 90, 2012 V4: 113unisex toilet rooms, 2012 V4: 19unit costs, in plumbing cost estimation, 2009 V1: 85unit heaters, condensate traps, 2011 V3: 167United States agencies and departments. See U.S. agencies

and departmentsUnited States Pharmacopoeia. See U.S. Pharmacopoeia

(USP)units, measurement. See measurement unitsUniversal Plumbing Code (UPC), 2009 V1: 15universities. See also laboratories

diversity actor calculations, 2010 V2: 176laboratory gas systems, 2010 V2: 121

unknowns in value engineering presentations, 2009 V1: 249unobstructed reach or wheelchairs, 2009 V1: 103, 104unoccupied buildings, conserving energy in, 2009 V1: 119unrestricted areas (acilities with radiation), 2010 V2: 237unsanitary, dened, 2009 V1: 31untreated water. See water impuritiesup fow, dened, 2012 V4: 203UPC (Universal Plumbing Code), 2009 V1: 15UPC vent sizing, 2010 V2: 39–40upeed risers, 2012 V4: 220upper-foor installations, 2012 V4: 142–143upright sprinklers, 2009 V1: 13, 29upstream, dened, 2009 V1: 31UPW (ultrapure water), 2012 V4: 52UR. See urinals (UR)Urban Hydrology or Small Watersheds, 2010 V2: 44, 55urban storm water, 2010 V2: 27urinals (UR). See also water closets

abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 15accessibility design, 2009 V1: 108chase size, 2012 V4: 9exclusion rom gray-water systems, 2010 V2: 21xture pipe sizes and demand, 2010 V2: 86fushing requirements, 2012 V4: 8–9gray water use, 2010 V2: 23–24health care acilities, 2011 V3: 35, 36installation requirements, 2012 V4: 9LEED 2009 baselines, 2010 V2: 25minimum number or buildings, 2012 V4: 22–23

noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 197reducing fow rates, 2009 V1: 126specialty urinals, 2009 V1: 127standards, 2012 V4: 2submerged inlet hazards, 2012 V4: 161swimming pool acilities, 2011 V3: 109testing, 2012 V4: 8traps, 2012 V4: 8

types, 2012 V4: 8typical use, 2010 V2: 23ultra low fow, 2009 V1: 127water xture unit values, 2011 V3: 206water usage reduction, 2012 V4: 236waterless, 2012 V4: 8

U.S. Architectural and Transportation BarriersCompliance Board (ATBCB), 2009 V1: 98, 99

U.S. Army Corps o Engineersspecications, 2009 V1: 57U.S. Army Corps o Engineers Manual, 2010 V2: 137value engineering, 2009 V1: 207

U.S. Centers or Disease Control and Prevention, 2009 V1:14, 2010 V2: 108–109

U.S. Department o Commerce, National InormationServices, 2010 V2: 29

U.S. Department o Deense, 2009 V1: 185, 208Tri-Services Manual, 2009 V1: 180

U.S. Department o Energy, 2009 V1: 42 Active Solar Energy System Design Practice Manual,

2011 V3: 204Energy Eciency and Renewable Energy web site,

2011 V3: 204Greening Federal Facilities Guide, 2009 V1: 126

U.S. Department o Health and Environmental Control,2010 V2: 112

U.S. Department o Health and Human Services, 2011 V3: 35

U.S. Department o Housing and Urban Development,2009 V1: 97, 99

U.S. Department o the Army, 2010 V2: 55U.S. Department o Transportation (DOTn), 2009 V1: 14,

52, 2010 V2: 132U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

aggressiveness index, 2010 V2: 196chemical waste system codes and, 2010 V2: 242Efuent Guideline program, 2011 V3: 82–83industrial waste water dened, 2011 V3: 81publications (discussed)

bioremediation standards, 2012 V4: 227drinking water standards, 2012 V4: 173laboratory gas regulations, 2011 V3: 263potable water treatment technologies, 2010 V2: 187

private water wells, 2010 V2: 155storage tank regulations, 2011 V3: 137tank leak detection regulations, 2011 V3: 141ultraviolet disinection standards, 2012 V4: 195

publications (listed), 2010 V2: 154 EPA 440: The EPA Euent Guidelines Series, 2011

V3: 89 EPA 600/2-79-130: Activated Carbon Process or

Treatment o Wastewater Containing

Hexavalent Chromium, 2011 V3: 89 EPA 600: Treatment o Organic Chemical

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Manuacturing Wastewater or Reuse, 2011 V3: 89

regulations, 2011 V3: 81, 82Sae Drinking Water Act and, 2010 V2: 159special waste drainage codes and, 2010 V2: 227water consumption statistics, 2009 V1: 127website, 2011 V3: 156

U.S. Federal Specications (FS), 2012 V4: 225

U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2010 V2: 220, 224, 227eed water components, 2010 V2: 220PVDF standards, 2012 V4: 70

U.S. General Services Administration, 2009 V1: 185, 2010 V2: 29

U.S. Government Printing Oce, 2011 V3: 89U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), 2009 V1: 32, 2012

V4: 2, 233U.S. Occupational Saety and Health Administration, 2010

V2: 232U.S. Pharmacopoeia (USP)

eed water values, 2010 V2: 220PVDF standards, 2012 V4: 70USP nomographs, 2010 V2: 218USP puried water, 2010 V2: 219, 221water treatment standards, 2010 V2: 187

U.S. Public Health Service (USPHS), 2010 V2: 154U.S. Veterans Administration, 2009 V1: 185U.S. War Department, 2010 V2: 55USACOE. See U.S. Army Corps o Engineersusage. See demandusages in swimming pools, 2011 V3: 107use actors

air compressors, 2011 V3: 183compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 183

USEPA. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agencyusers in cost equation, 2009 V1: 217USGBC. See U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC)USP. See U.S. Pharmacopoeia (USP)USP gas grade, 2011 V3: 267USPHS (U.S. Public Health Service), 2010 V2: 154USTs. See underground storage tanks (USTs)utilities. See site utilitiesutility controllers (gas systems), 2010 V2: 121utility costs, lowering, 2009 V1: 119utility gas. See uel-gas piping systemsutility horsepower (UHP), 2012 V4: 102Utility LP-Gas Plant Code, 2010 V2: 137utility sinks, 2011 V3: 36utility water treatment, 2010 V2: 214–215UV (ultraviolet rays), 2009 V1: 15

Legionella control, 2010 V2: 110sterilization, 2011 V3: 48

swimming pool sterilization, 2011 V3: 133–134ultraviolet radiation, dened, 2011 V3: 193ultraviolet radiation treatment o water, 2010 V2: 110,

213, 218, 222, 223, 2012 V4: 193, 195UV treatment o water, 2010 V2: 160

V v, V (valves). See valves V (specic volume). See specic volume V (velocity o uniorm fow), 2009 V1: 1 V (velocity). See velocity

V (vents). See vents and venting systems V (volts). See voltsv/v (volume to volume), 2010 V2: 191vac, VAC (vacuum). See vacuum (vac, VAC)vacation pay, in labor costs, 2009 V1: 86vacuum (vac, VAC)

dened, 2009 V1: 31, 2010 V2: 165, 2012 V4: 171perect vacuum, 2011 V3: 172

sewage lit stations, 2011 V3: 236–237surgical use, 2011 V3: 56symbols or, 2009 V1: 9, 15valves or systems, 2012 V4: 84–85

vacuum breakers, 2009 V1: 31. See also backfowpreventers

atmospheric, 2012 V4: 166dened, 2010 V2: 95, 2012 V4: 171illustrated, 2012 V4: 167types o, 2012 V4: 164

vacuum cleaning systems, 2010 V2: 178–186. See also vacuum systems

cleanouts, 2010 V2: 186codes and standards, 2010 V2: 178components, 2010 V2: 178–179riction losses, 2010 V2: 181–184, 184inlet locations and spacing, 2010 V2: 180piping, 2010 V2: 179separators, 186, 2010 V2: 184simultaneous operators, 2010 V2: 180sizing exhausters, 2010 V2: 184types, 2010 V2: 178

Vacuum Cleaning Systems, 2010 V2: 186vacuum deaerators, 2010 V2: 199, 2012 V4: 176vacuum drainage systems, 2010 V2: 19vacuum levels

dened, 2010 V2: 165in exhauster sizing, 2010 V2: 184

vacuum-operated waste transport system, 2012 V4: 236Vacuum Piping Systems, 2010 V2: 186vacuum producers (exhausters), 2010 V2: 178, 181, 184vacuum product dispensers, 2011 V3: 146, 149vacuum pumps, 2010 V2: 169–170, 176, 2011 V3: 50, 65vacuum relie valves, 2009 V1: 31vacuum sand lters, 2011 V3: 118–119Vacuum Sewage Collection, 2010 V2: 154vacuum sewers, 2010 V2: 144vacuum sources, 2010 V2: 169–171, 173, 174, 176Vacuum Sources, 2010 V2: 186vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 178–186. See also vacuum

cleaning systemsaltitude adjustments, 2010 V2: 166–167codes and standards, 2010 V2: 172

color coding, 2011 V3: 55undamentals, 2010 V2: 165general layout, 2010 V2: 174introduction, 2010 V2: 165laboratory systems, 2010 V2: 173, 2011 V3: 41–42leakage, 2010 V2: 177, 178Level 1 dened, 2011 V3: 78Level 3 dened, 2011 V3: 78levels, 2011 V3: 34–35medical gas system switches, 2011 V3: 66medical vacuum

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Index 365

design checklist, 2011 V3: 50diversity actors, 2011 V3: 70laboratory outlets, 2011 V3: 41–42number o stations, 2011 V3: 51, 52–53oral surgery equipment, 2011 V3: 42patient vacuum, 2011 V3: 77piping systems, 2011 V3: 54, 64–65

piping, 2010 V2: 173, 2011 V3: 69, 73

pressure drop, 2010 V2: 168pressure measurement, 2010 V2: 166pump curves, 2010 V2: 168purchasing, 2010 V2: 170reerences, 2010 V2: 186sizing, 2010 V2: 174–178, 2011 V3: 69, 73time to reach rated vacuum, 2010 V2: 167–168vacuum-pressure gauges, 2010 V2: 171vacuum sources, 2010 V2: 169–171, 173, 176velocity calculations, 2010 V2: 169work orces, 2010 V2: 169

vacuum tube collectors, 2011 V3: 190, 193valence, 2010 V2: 188, 189, 205Value Analysis, 2009 V1: 252value, dened, 2009 V1: 209value engineering (VE)

arguments against, 2009 V1: 225checklists

creativity worksheets, 2009 V1: 226detail/product/material specication checklists,

2009 V1: 215evaluation checklists, 2009 V1: 230–231unction denitions orms, 2009 V1: 219–224, 222unctional evaluation worksheets, 2009 V1: 236–247idea development and estimated cost orms, 2009

V1: 234idea evaluation worksheets, 2009 V1: 245project inormation checklists, 2009 V1: 211–216project inormation sources checklists, 2009 V1: 216questions checklists, 2009 V1: 209recommendation worksheets, 2009 V1: 249, 250

compared to cost tting, 2009 V1: 249contract document clauses, 2009 V1: 251cost inormation, 2009 V1: 217–218creativity process, 2009 V1: 223–229dened, 2009 V1: 207elements o, 2009 V1: 209Evaluation phase, 2009 V1: 229–235Function Analysis phase, 2009 V1: 218–223Functional Development sketches, 2009 V1: 232–233Gut Feel Index, 2009 V1: 235–248Inormation phase, 2009 V1: 209–218 job plan phases, 2009 V1: 209

overview, 2009 V1: 207–208pre-recommendation questions, 2009 V1: 248purpose, 2009 V1: 207–208qualitative results, 2009 V1: 208Recommendation/presentation phase, 2009 V1: 249results o, 2009 V1: 252Risk Guides, 2009 V1: 248salesmanship in, 2009 V1: 249science o, 2009 V1: 251–252second creativity, cost, and evaluation analysis, 2009

V1: 235

value changes, 2009 V1: 208value dened, 2009 V1: 209

Value Engineering, A Plan or Invention, 2009 V1: 252Value Engineering, A Systematic Approach, 2009 V1: 252Value Engineering Change Proposals (VECP), 2009 V1: 251Value Engineering or the Practitioner, 2009 V1: 252Value Engineering in the Construction Industry, 2009 V1: 252Value Engineering Job Plan (VEJP), 2009 V1: 209

Value Engineering: Practical Applications, 2009 V1: 252Value Engineering, Theory and Practice in Industry, 2009 V1: 252

valve-per-sprinkler irrigation, 2011 V3: 92valved zones in irrigation systems, 2010 V2: 25valves (v, V, VLV). See also specic types o valves

applicationscompressed air systems, 2011 V3: 176, 2012 V4: 84emergency gas shutos, 2010 V2: 121equivalent lengths or natural gas, 2010 V2: 123re-protection systems, 2012 V4: 87–88gas regulators, 2011 V3: 272gasoline and LPG service, 2012 V4: 87high-pressure steam service, 2012 V4: 86–87high-rise service, 2012 V4: 88high-temperature hot-water service, 2012 V4: 87hot and cold domestic water, 2012 V4: 83–84hydrostatic relie, swimming pools, 2011 V3:

112–113inectious waste systems, 2010 V2: 242irrigation systems, 2011 V3: 94–95laboratory gas systems, 2011 V3: 273–274low-pressure steam and general service, 2012 V4:

85–86medical air compressors, 2011 V3: 63medical gas control valves, 2011 V3: 66–67medical gas systems, 2012 V4: 85medium-pressure steam service, 2012 V4: 86propane tanks, 2010 V2: 133pure water systems, 2010 V2: 224steam traps, 2011 V3: 162–163testing in medical gas systems, 2011 V3: 74vacuum systems, 2011 V3: 65, 2012 V4: 84–85

as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 189closing quickly, 2010 V2: 71codes and standards, 2009 V1: 44, 2012 V4: 73components, 2012 V4: 78–80dened, 2009 V1: 31domestic pressure drops and, 2011 V3: 214end connections, 2012 V4: 79–80riction loss in, 2010 V2: 90–91glossary o terms, 2012 V4: 88–90installing insulation, 2012 V4: 110

materials or, 2012 V4: 77noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 194–201operating conditions, 2012 V4: 73pressure losses, 2012 V4: 83ratings, 2012 V4: 78in risers, 2009 V1: 10service considerations, 2012 V4: 73sizing, 2012 V4: 83stems, 2012 V4: 78suluric acid and, 2010 V2: 230types o, 2012 V4: 73–77

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angle valves, 2012 V4: 75automatic shutdown, 2011 V3: 84ball valves, 2012 V4: 75, 83, 84–85, 88butterfy valves, 2012 V4: 76, 84, 86, 88check valves, 2012 V4: 73, 84, 86, 87, 88, 89deluge, 2011 V3: 9–10diaphragm-actuated, 2011 V3: 125double-check valve assemblies, 2012 V4: 165

foat-operated main drain butterfy, 2011 V3: 132fush valve vacuum breakers, 2012 V4: 166gate valves, 2012 V4: 73–74, 83, 85, 86, 89globe valves, 2012 V4: 74–75, 83, 86, 87, 89lit check valves, 2012 V4: 76manual butterfy, 2011 V3: 125multi-turn valves, 2012 V4: 73nonlubricated plug valves, 2012 V4: 87plug valves, 2012 V4: 77pneumatically operated main drain modulating,

2011 V3: 131–132quarter-turn valves, 2012 V4: 73swing check valves, 2012 V4: 76water-pressure regulators. See water-pressure

regulatorswater-saving, 2009 V1: 127

water-pressure regulators, 2012 V4: 82weight o, 2012 V4: 115in yard boxes (YB), 2009 V1: 10

vandal-proo grates and strainers, 2010 V2: 11vandalism

dressing rooms, 2011 V3: 110asteners on grates and strainers, 2010 V2: 11protecting against, 2010 V2: 16

vane-type water-fow indicators, 2011 V3: 6vapor barriers

dened, 2012 V4: 136insulation, 2012 V4: 105, 107perm rating, 2012 V4: 104types o, 2012 V4: 112

vapor-compression distillation, 2010 V2: 200, 2012 V4: 192vapor contamination in air, 2011 V3: 265vapor pressure, 2009 V1: 31, 2011 V3: 187vapor recovery systems

aboveground tank systems, 2011 V3: 149classications, 2011 V3: 137hazardous wastes, 2011 V3: 84testing, 2011 V3: 153underground tank systems, 2011 V3: 145–146

vapor return valves, propane tanks, 2010 V2: 133vaporization, propane tanks, 134, 2010 V2: 132vaporizers, 2011 V3: 57vapors, hazardous

acid wastes and, 2010 V2: 229, 231atmospheric tank venting and, 2011 V3: 141contamination in compressed air, 2011 V3: 173hydrocarbons, 2011 V3: 136–137monitoring, 2011 V3: 142, 144, 145vapor pockets, 2011 V3: 153 VOCs, 2010 V2: 190

variability, dened, 2012 V4: 136variable-area fow meters, 2011 V3: 177, 275variable-requency drives (VFD), 2011 V3: 125–126variable-speed drivers, 2011 V3: 22

variable-speed pressure booster pumps, 2012 V4: 102variable-speed pumps, 2010 V2: 63, 2011 V3: 125variable spring hanger indicators, 2012 V4: 136variable spring hangers, 2012 V4: 136varnishes in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 147vaults, subterranean ountain, 2011 V3: 99–100 VECP (Value Engineering Change Proposals), 2009 V1: 251vector control, storm drainage, 2010 V2: 49

vegetable oil, 2010 V2: 11vegetable peelers, 2012 V4: 161vehicular trac, 2010 V2: 11 VEJP (Value Engineering Job Plan), 2009 V1: 209vel., VEL (velocity). See velocityvelocity (vel., VEL, V)

air in vents and, 2010 V2: 35centralized drinking-water cooler systems, 2012 V4: 223cold-water systems, 2010 V2: 75, 76–78conversion actors, 2009 V1: 36dened, 2009 V1: 31earthquakes, 2009 V1: 150foating velocity, 2012 V4: 146fow rom outlets, 2009 V1: 6hydraulic shock, 2009 V1: 6intake air in compression systems, 2011 V3: 182irregularity o shapes and, 2012 V4: 146Legionella growth in systems and, 2010 V2: 109liquid uel piping, 2011 V3: 151measurements, 2009 V1: 34non-SI units, 2009 V1: 34open-channel fow, 2009 V1: 1in rate o corrosion, 2009 V1: 135sel-scouring velocity in sewers, 2011 V3: 225settling, 2012 V4: 146sewage lie stations, 2011 V3: 236sizing method or pipes, 2010 V2: 71–72steam, 2011 V3: 159–160storm water in ditches, 2011 V3: 250swimming pool drains, 2011 V3: 104–105terminal velocity, dened, 2010 V2: 1types o piping and, 2010 V2: 78vacuum cleaning systems, 183, 2010 V2: 181vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 169water hammer and, 2010 V2: 71–72, 73, 76–78

velocity head (h), 2009 V1: 5, 2012 V4: 102velocity-limited devices, 2012 V4: 136velocity pipe sizing method, 2010 V2: 89vent connectors, dened, 2010 V2: 136vent gases, dened, 2010 V2: 136vent-limiting devices, 2010 V2: 117vent pipes

cast-iron soil pipe, 2012 V4: 25

glass pipe, 2012 V4: 35vent stack terminals, 2010 V2: 34vent stacks

air in, 2010 V2: 2dened, 2009 V1: 31, 2010 V2: 35design, 2010 V2: 35sizing, 2010 V2: 35–37

vent systems codes, 2009 V1: 43ventilators, 2011 V3: 69vents and venting systems (V, vent, VENT). See also vent

stack terminals; vent stacks

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Index 367

aboveground tank systems, 2011 V3: 148acid-waste systems, 2010 V2: 229, 234, 2011 V3: 42air admittance valves, 2010 V2: 39alternative systems, 2010 V2: 39atmospheric tank venting, 2011 V3: 148chemical-waste systems, 2010 V2: 243combination drain and vent, 2010 V2: 33duct seismic protection, 2009 V1: 145

actors in trap seal loss, 2010 V2: 31–32re-suppression drainage and, 2010 V2: 244xture vents, 2010 V2: 32–34, 38–39orce mains, 2011 V3: 234–235gas appliances, 2010 V2: 117, 118gas regulator relie vents, 2010 V2: 117–118gas venting categories, 2010 V2: 119grease interceptors, 2012 V4: 154, 155inectious waste systems, 2010 V2: 242introduction, 2010 V2: 31, 34–35island vents, 2010 V2: 34 jurisdictions, 2010 V2: 39–40laboratory waste and vent piping, 2011 V3: 46loop venting, 2009 V1: 31main vents, 2010 V2: 37manholes, 2011 V3: 228, 233mechanical area, ountain equipment, 2011 V3: 99natural gas venting systems, 2010 V2: 118–119noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 195osets, 2010 V2: 37oil separators, 2010 V2: 246oxygen storage areas, 2011 V3: 59Philadelphia stack, 2010 V2: 39propane systems, 2010 V2: 134–135reduced-size venting, 2010 V2: 18–19sanitary drainage systems, 2010 V2: 18–19septic tank vents, 2010 V2: 148sewage lit stations, 2011 V3: 236–237single stack, 2010 V2: 39sizes and lengths, 2009 V1: 3, 2010 V2: 35–37sizing, 2010 V2: 39–40Sovent systems, 2010 V2: 39special-waste drainage systems, 2010 V2: 228storm-drainage stacks, 2010 V2: 50suds venting, 2010 V2: 37–38swimming pools, 2011 V3: 108symbols or, 2009 V1: 8, 15testing, 2011 V3: 153thermal expansion and contraction, 2012 V4: 207–208traps and trap seals, 2010 V2: 31–32underground liquid uel tanks, 2011 V3: 141vent-limiting devices, 2010 V2: 117vented inlet tees in septic tanks, 2010 V2: 146

waste anesthetic gas management, 2011 V3: 65–66waste stacks, 2010 V2: 33

venturi suction pumps, 2010 V2: 157verbs in unction analysis, 2009 V1: 218, 219, 225vert., VERT (vertical). See verticalvertical orces, 2009 V1: 183vertical high-rate sand lters, 2011 V3: 118vertical leaders, 2010 V2: 50vertical movement o hangers and supports, 2012 V4: 118vertical natural requencies, 2012 V4: 138vertical pipes, 2009 V1: 31, 2012 V4: 119

vertical pressure media lters, 2010 V2: 201vertical pressure sand lters, 2012 V4: 180vertical pumps, 2012 V4: 96, 97vertical risers or vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 180vertical seismic load, 2009 V1: 177vertical shat turbine pumps, 2009 V1: 23vertical stacks

anchors, 2012 V4: 207

calculating terminal velocity and length, 2009 V1: 3dened, 2010 V2: 1ttings, 2010 V2: 1fow in, 2010 V2: 1–2hydraulic jumps and, 2010 V2: 2, 35loading tables, 2010 V2: 4maximum xture-unit values, 2010 V2: 4multistory stacks, 2010 V2: 5noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 194pneumatic pressure in, 2010 V2: 2–3sizing, 2010 V2: 5stack capacities, 2010 V2: 3–5stacks, dened, 2009 V1: 29storm-drainage stacks, 2010 V2: 50thermal expansion or contraction, 2012 V4: 207weight o, 2010 V2: 2

vertical turbine pumpsre pumps, 2011 V3: 21illustrated, 2010 V2: 161private water systems, 2010 V2: 160–161shallow wells, 2010 V2: 162swimming pools, 2011 V3: 123–124

vertical velocity, 2012 V4: 146 VGB (Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and Spa Saety Act),

2011 V3: 101, 104–106, 112 VGB stamps, 2011 V3: 104, 112viable-count essays, 2010 V2: 188vibrating ll above sewers, 2010 V2: 15vibration and vibration isolation

applications, 2012 V4: 142–143calculating, 2012 V4: 140–141compressed air systems, 2011 V3: 182compression joints, 2012 V4: 57dened, 2012 V4: 137earthquakes

earthquake vibration periods, 2009 V1: 150foor-mounted equipment, 2009 V1: 157–158piping and, 2009 V1: 160suspended equipment, 2009 V1: 158

ormulas or transmissability, 2012 V4: 138–139glossary, 2012 V4: 137hangers and supports and, 2012 V4: 118natural or ree vibration, 2009 V1: 150

noise-related lawsuits, 2009 V1: 263piping, 2009 V1: 160, 2012 V4: 143. See also water

hammerpumps, 2009 V1: 196, 202, 2012 V4: 99speed and vibration control, 2012 V4: 143types o vibration control devices

cork, 2012 V4: 139dened, 2012 V4: 136elastomers, 2012 V4: 139neoprene rubber, 2012 V4: 139steel spring isolators, 2012 V4: 139–142

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vibration isolation mounts, 2009 V1: 153vibration isolators, 2012 V4: 137water supply systems, 2009 V1: 191–192

vibration isolation devices. See vibration and vibrationisolation

video equipment, 2010 V2: 10vinyl coatings, 2009 V1: 136 Virginia Graeme Baker Pool and Spa Saety Act (VGB),

2011 V3: 101, 104–106, 112virusesdened, 2012 V4: 203distilled water and, 2012 V4: 192in eed water, 2010 V2: 188, 213ozone treatments and, 2012 V4: 194storm water, 2010 V2: 43, 49

visc. See viscosity (visc, VISC, MU)viscosity (visc, VISC, MU)

calculating values o, 2009 V1: 2dened, 2011 V3: 136kinematic, 2010 V2: 73, 74, 77measurements, 2009 V1: 34settling velocity and, 2012 V4: 178

visual inspections, 2009 V1: 267–270visualization in unction analysis, 2009 V1: 219 Viton, 2009 V1: 32vitreous china xtures, 2011 V3: 35, 2012 V4: 1, 2vitried clay, 2009 V1: 31vitried clay piping, 2010 V2: 75, 243, 2011 V3: 242

characteristics, 2012 V4: 53dimensions, 2012 V4: 54standards, 2012 V4: 71

VLV (valves). See valves VOCs (volatile organic compounds). See volatile organic

compoundsvol., VOL (volume). See volumevolatile liquids, 2010 V2: 12, 244–246volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 197, 2009 V1: 15, 2010

V2: 187, 190, 2011 V3: 137, 145volatile substances in distillation, 2012 V4: 191volcanoes, 2009 V1: 148volts (V, E, VOLTS)

decomposition potential dened, 2009 V1: 142measurement conversions, 2009 V1: 34

volume (vol., VOL)calculating, 2009 V1: 3–5conversion actors, 2009 V1: 36fow rate measurements, 2009 V1: 34, 2010 V2: 166ormulas, 2012 V4: 147gas particles, 2011 V3: 171initial and expanded water volume, 2012 V4: 209nominal volume, 2012 V4: 211

non-SI units, 2009 V1: 34saturated steam, 2011 V3: 157–158sink volume calculations, 2012 V4: 155volumetric expansion, 2012 V4: 211water calculations, 2010 V2: 67–68

volume to volume (v/v), 2010 V2: 191volumetric expansion, 2012 V4: 211volute pumps, 2012 V4: 92volutes, 2012 V4: 97vortex in storm drainage collection systems, 2010 V2: 46

W W (walls), 2009 V1: 202 W (waste sewers), 2009 V1: 8, 15 W (watts). See watts W/m K (watts per meter per kelvin), 2009 V1: 34w/w (weight to weight), 2010 V2: 191wading areas, 2011 V3: 107wading pools, 2011 V3: 109, 111

waer butterfy valves, 2010 V2: 179waer-style valves, 2012 V4: 76 WAG (waste anesthetic gases), 2011 V3: 65–66 WAGD (waste anesthetic-gas disposal), 2011 V3: 55,

65–66, 78wages, in labor costs, 2009 V1: 86waiting rooms, 2011 V3: 36 WAL (walls), 2009 V1: 202walking, noise o, 2009 V1: 187–188wall carriers, 2012 V4: 5–6wall cleanouts (WCO), 2009 V1: 11wall-hung equipment

earthquake restraints, 2009 V1: 155quality installations, 2009 V1: 259

wall-hung xtures, noise mitigation and, 2009 V1: 197wall-hung lavatories, 2012 V4: 10wall-hung urinals, 2012 V4: 9wall-hung water closets, 2009 V1: 197, 2012 V4: 3, 5–6wall-hung water coolers, 2012 V4: 217, 218wall hydrants (WH), 2009 V1: 10, 12, 15, 31, 2010 V2: 86wall inlets, swimming pools, 2011 V3: 135wall-mounted medical gas stations, 2011 V3: 56walls (W, WAL), 2009 V1: 202ward rooms, 2011 V3: 37ware washers, 2012 V4: 229warning systems (medical gas), 2011 V3: 67, 74–75warping, joints resistant to, 2012 V4: 57warranty section in specications, 2009 V1: 64, 70–71

Warren, Alan W., 2010 V2: 55wash basins. See sinks and wash basinswash-down urinals, 2012 V4: 8wash troughs, 2012 V4: 180washdown water closets, 2012 V4: 2washing foors with gray water, 2010 V2: 21washing machines. See laundry systems and washerswashout urinals, 2012 V4: 8washout water closets, 2012 V4: 2washrooms. See water-closet compartmentswaste, dened, 2009 V1: 31waste anesthetic-gas disposal, 2011 V3: 55, 65–66, 78waste brines, 2010 V2: 148, 210waste-disposal units. See ood waste grinders

waste tting standards, 2012 V4: 2waste grinders, 2011 V3: 36. See also ood waste grinderswaste-heat usage, 2009 V1: 123–126waste-heat vaporizers, 2011 V3: 57waste oil (WO), 2009 V1: 8, 2011 V3: 136waste oil vents (WOV), 2009 V1: 8waste or soil vents. See stack ventswaste pipes, 2009 V1: 31, 2012 V4: 25waste sewers (W), 2009 V1: 8, 15waste stacks, 2010 V2: 1vents, 2010 V2: 33waste streams

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Index 369

evaluation, 2011 V3: 83segregating, 2011 V3: 86

waste transport, vacuum-operated, 2012 V4: 236wastewater. See also graywater; storm water; wastewater

managementcodes and standards, 2010 V2: 22dened, 2010 V2: 21introduction, 2010 V2: 21

issues o concern, 2010 V2: 22, 24LEED certication, 2010 V2: 21water balance, 2010 V2: 21–23, 28

Wastewater Engineering: Treatment/Disposal/Reuse, 2010 V2: 154

wastewater heat recovery, 2009 V1: 125wastewater management. See also graywater systems;

private onsite wastewater treatment systems(POWTS)

biosolids, 2012 V4: 238–240black water, 2012 V4: 237, 238, 239energy requirements, 2012 V4: 241graywater, 2012 V4: 236–237, 238, 239individual aerobic wastewater treatment, 2010 V2: 150industrial wastewater treatment. See industrial

wastewater treatmentoverview, 2012 V4: 236rainwater, 2012 V4: 236reclaimed and gray water systems, 2009 V1: 126, 2010

V2: 25–27wastewater pumps, 2012 V4: 98–99 WAT (watts). See wattswater (WTR). See also water analysis; water chemistry;

water-distribution pipes and systemsas seal liquid in liquid ring pumps, 2010 V2: 170average daily use, 2009 V1: 117contamination in compressed air, 2011 V3: 173distribution hazards, cross-connections, 2012 V4: 161, 162expansion ormulas, 2012 V4: 209–211ormula, 2012 V4: 173reezing points (p, FP), 2012 V4: 112–113graywater. See graywater systemshuman body, need or, 2012 V4: 215kinematic viscosity, 2010 V2: 73, 74, 77lead-ree legislation, 2012 V4: 225mass and volume calculations, 2010 V2: 67–68methods or treatment, 2012 V4: 175–177oil-water separation, 2011 V3: 88plastic corrosion and, 2009 V1: 141portable re extinguishers, 2011 V3: 29quality, storm drainage, 2010 V2: 43samples o, 2010 V2: 91specic volumes, 2012 V4: 209

temperature drop, 2012 V4: 112–113thermodynamic properties, 2012 V4: 209types o

deionized water, 2012 V4: 175distilled water (DL), 2012 V4: 175high purity water, 2012 V4: 195, 197–198potable water, 2012 V4: 52, 174–175puried water (PW), 2012 V4: 175raw water, 2012 V4: 174reagent and laboratory grades, 2012 V4: 197–198sot water (SW), 2012 V4: 175

tower water, 2012 V4: 175wastewater. See wastewaterweight calculations, 2012 V4: 209

water absorption, plastic pipe and, 2012 V4: 50water analysis

aggressiveness index, 2010 V2: 196codes and standards, 2010 V2: 187example report, 2010 V2: 192

introduction, 2010 V2: 191pH, 2010 V2: 192, 197predicting water deposits and corrosion, 2010 V2:

196–197reerences, 2010 V2: 224–225Ryzner stability index, 2010 V2: 196silt density index, 2010 V2: 194specic conductance, 2010 V2: 193total dissolved solids, 2010 V2: 193total organic carbon, 2010 V2: 194total suspended solids, 2010 V2: 193water soteners and, 2012 V4: 187

water attractions, 2011 V3: 109water balance, 2010 V2: 21–23, 28, 2011 V3: 128water chemistry

elements, acids, and radicals in water, 2010 V2: 189introduction, 2010 V2: 187–188

water chillers, 2012 V4: 215water circulation pumps, 2012 V4: 98water-closet compartments

accessibility, 2009 V1: 105–108ambulatory-accessible toilet compartments, 2009 V1: 106patient rooms, 2011 V3: 37single-occupant unisex toilet rooms, 2012 V4: 21spacing, 2012 V4: 5–6swimming pool bathhouses, 2011 V3: 110

water-closet fanges, 2012 V4: 5water closets (WC). See also urinals

abbreviation or, 2009 V1: 15accessibility design, 2009 V1: 105–108bariatric, 2012 V4: 4, 6bolts, 2012 V4: 5chase size, 2012 V4: 6, 7conserving water in, 2010 V2: 149exclusion rom gray-water systems, 2010 V2: 21xture pipe sizes and demand, 2010 V2: 86xture-unit loads, 2010 V2: 3fushing perormance testing, 2012 V4: 4–5fushing systems, 2012 V4: 6–8gray water usage, 2010 V2: 22–24in health care acilities, 2011 V3: 35, 36, 37high-eciency toilets (HET), 2009 V1: 127installation requirements, 2012 V4: 5–6

minimum numbers o, 2012 V4: 20–23mounting, 2012 V4: 3noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 192, 194poor installations o, 2009 V1: 255, 257rates o sewage fows, 2010 V2: 153reducing fow rates, 2009 V1: 126seats, 2012 V4: 4shapes and sizes, 2012 V4: 3–4specimen-type, 2011 V3: 38standards, 2012 V4: 2, 5submerged inlet hazards, 2012 V4: 161

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swimming pool acilities, 2011 V3: 109types o, 2009 V1: 127, 2012 V4: 2–3ultra-low-fow, 2009 V1: 127water conservation, 2009 V1: 127water xture unit values, 2011 V3: 206water usage reduction, 2012 V4: 236

water column (wc), 2012 V4: 5water conditioning. See also water purication; water

soteners; water treatmentdened, 2010 V2: 187drinking water coolers, 2012 V4: 220–221glossary, 2012 V4: 199–203

water-conditioning or treating devices, 2009 V1: 31Water Conditioning Manual, 2010 V2: 224water conservation. See conserving waterwater consumption. See demandwater consumption tests, 2012 V4: 5, 8water-cooled ater-coolers, 2011 V3: 178water-cooled condensers, 2012 V4: 220water coolers. See drinking-water coolerswater damage

insulation and, 2012 V4: 103, 107, 113sprinkler systems, 2011 V3: 2swimming pool bathhouses, 2011 V3: 110

water deposits, 2010 V2: 195, 196–197 Water Distributing Systems or Buildings, 2010 V2: 96water distribution, dened, 2010 V2: 95water-distribution pipes and systems. See also cold-water

systems; hot-water systemscodes, 2009 V1: 45dened, 2009 V1: 31, 2012 V4: 171hazardous connections, 2012 V4: 161pipe codes, 2009 V1: 45service connections, 2012 V4: 67water supply and distribution symbols, 2009 V1: 12water supply systems, 2009 V1: 31weight o water-lled pipes, 2009 V1: 177

Water Eciency design (LEED), 2012 V4: 2water eatures, 2011 V3: 134water xture units (WFU), 2009 V1: 15water-fow indicators, 2011 V3: 6water fow tests, 2010 V2: 84–87water or injection (WFI), 2010 V2: 219, 221, 223, 2012 V4:

192, 199water gas, 2010 V2: 114water glass, 2009 V1: 140water hammer

as source o plumbing noise, 2009 V1: 189calculating hydraulic shock, 2009 V1: 6condensates and, 2011 V3: 162controlling water hammer, 2010 V2: 72–73

dened, 2009 V1: 31, 2010 V2: 70–73uel dispensers, 2011 V3: 151hangers and supports and, 2012 V4: 117noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 192shock intensity, 2010 V2: 71sizing o arresters, 2010 V2: 72–73symbols on arresters, 2010 V2: 72system protection and control, 2010 V2: 72–73velocity and, 2010 V2: 76–78water hammer loads, 2012 V4: 136

water hammer arresters (WHA)

as protection and control, 2010 V2: 72–73codes, 2009 V1: 43dened, 2009 V1: 31noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 192sizing, 2010 V2: 72–73symbols, 2009 V1: 10, 2010 V2: 72

water heaters. See also hot-water systemsavoiding standby losses, 2009 V1: 119

booster water heaters, 2009 V1: 121, 2010 V2: 104codes, 2009 V1: 43conserving energy, 2009 V1: 117–120, 119earthquake damage, 2009 V1: 152earthquake protection, 2009 V1: 153, 154–157eciency, 2010 V2: 97–98energy eciency, 2012 V4: 241expansion tanks, 2010 V2: 67–68explosions, 2010 V2: 97gas eciency, 2010 V2: 115gas water heaters, 2009 V1: 121hard water and, 2012 V4: 185heat recovery, 2010 V2: 100–101improper installations, 2009 V1: 253–254indirect-red, 2010 V2: 104locations o, 2009 V1: 120materials expansion, 2012 V4: 211noise mitigation, 2009 V1: 199overview, 2010 V2: 101–105point-o-use booster heaters, 2011 V3: 47product spec sheets, 2009 V1: 256relie valves, 2012 V4: 209sizing, 2010 V2: 98–99solar, 2011 V3: 189, 196–199, 202, 2012 V4: 241solar thermal, 2010 V2: 104steam indirect-red, 2010 V2: 104stratication in water heaters, 2010 V2: 105suspended, 2009 V1: 258swimming pools, 2011 V3: 126–127temperature, 2010 V2: 97, 101thermal eciency, 2010 V2: 107–108types o systems, 2009 V1: 120venting systems, 2010 V2: 118

water horsepower, 2012 V4: 102water impurities, 2010 V2: 188–191

alkalinity, 2010 V2: 189analysis and measurement, 2010 V2: 191–194biological ouling, 2010 V2: 195, 217conditions and recommended treatments, 2012 V4:

174, 175–184dissolved gases, 2010 V2: 190hardness, 2010 V2: 189microorganisms, 2010 V2: 188

need or treatment, 2012 V4: 173–174specic resistance, 2010 V2: 192suspended solids, 2010 V2: 188treatment methods, 2010 V2: 197–214volatile organic compounds, 2010 V2: 190

water lateral, dened, 2010 V2: 95water levels, ountains, 2011 V3: 102water mains

age and size, 2011 V3: 6copper pipe, 2012 V4: 29, 32dened, 2009 V1: 31

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Index 371

re-protection connections, 2011 V3: 217, 220inspection checklist, 2009 V1: 95pressure and, 2011 V3: 206sprinkler systems, 2011 V3: 3

water makeup, 2012 V4: 224Water Management: A Comprehensive Approach or

Facility Managers, 2010 V2: 29water management plans, 2009 V1: 126

water metersdomestic water meters, 2010 V2: 59–60fow-pressure loss averages, 2010 V2: 61irrigation, 2011 V3: 95–96loss o pressure, 2010 V2: 84pressure losses, 2011 V3: 216readings in consumption estimates, 2012 V4: 186

water mist extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 24–25Water Mist Fire Protection Systems (NFPA 750), 2011 V3: 30water motor gongs, 2011 V3: 6water, oil, and gas (WOG) pressure rating, 2009 V1: 15,

2012 V4: 78, 84water pipes. See cold-water systems; hot-water systems;

water-distribution pipes and systemswater polishing, 2012 V4: 198water pressure

excess water pressure, 2010 V2: 68–70gravity-tank systems, 2010 V2: 65–66hydropneumatic-tank systems, 2010 V2: 64–65water hammer and, 2010 V2: 72

water-pressure regulatorsinstalling, 2012 V4: 82selection and sizing, 2012 V4: 80–82types o, 2012 V4: 80–82

water pumps. See pumpswater purication and quality

central purication equipment, 2010 V2: 223–234Clean Water Act, 2011 V3: 82–83codes and standards, 2010 V2: 187, 218conductivity/resistivity meters, 2012 V4: 183glossary, 2012 V4: 199–203gray-water systems, 2010 V2: 27–28introduction, 2010 V2: 159measuring, 2012 V4: 175methods, 2011 V3: 47–48pharmaceutical systems, 2010 V2: 219polishers and, 2010 V2: 210pure-water systems dened, 2010 V2: 187reerences, 2010 V2: 224–225reverse osmosis and, 2012 V4: 197–198specic resistance o pure water, 2010 V2: 192system design, 2010 V2: 221types o water

biopure water, 2012 V4: 175deionized water, 2012 V4: 175distilled water (DL), 2012 V4: 175eed water, 2010 V2: 219grades o laboratory water, 2010 V2: 219high-purity water, 2011 V3: 47, 2012 V4: 175, 197,

197–198, 202potable water, 2012 V4: 174–175reagent and laboratory grades, 2012 V4: 197–198

water impurities, 2010 V2: 188–191water quality. See water purication and quality

water-resistivity meters, 2010 V2: 193water-reuse systems. See graywater systemswater rise tests, 2012 V4: 5water risers, 2009 V1: 31water saver devices in reverse osmosis, 2012 V4: 198water seals, 2009 V1: 31water service

calculation worksheet, 2011 V3: 207

dened, 2010 V2: 95water-service pipes, dened, 2009 V1: 31water service entrances, 2012 V4: 171water shock absorbers. See water hammer arresters

(WHA)water slides, 2011 V3: 107water soteners

as pretreatments, 2012 V4: 187chemicals, 2012 V4: 173, 175or distillation, 2012 V4: 194earthquake damage, 2009 V1: 152eciency, 2012 V4: 188exchanging contaminants, 2012 V4: 198xture fow rates or, 2012 V4: 186hardness exchange ability, 2012 V4: 187hardness o water, 2010 V2: 189ion-exchange, 2010 V2: 201, 2012 V4: 182–184, 184leakage, 2010 V2: 210overview, 2012 V4: 184–185pure water systems, 2010 V2: 222regeneration, 2012 V4: 185, 187salt recycling systems, 2012 V4: 189salt storage, 2012 V4: 189selection actors, 2012 V4: 185–188single or multiple systems, 2012 V4: 188sizing, 2012 V4: 188, 190space needs, 2012 V4: 188survey data, 2012 V4: 189types o, 2010 V2: 160, 210utility water, 2010 V2: 215waste brines, 2010 V2: 148

water consumption guide, 2012 V4: 187water sports, 2011 V3: 107water spray xed extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 24Water Spray Fixed Systems or Fire Protection (NFPA 15),

2011 V3: 30water-storage tanks

earthquake damage, 2009 V1: 152re-protection water supply, 2011 V3: 225pressure regulators, 2010 V2: 163–164types o, 2010 V2: 162

water levels in, 2010 V2: 162water supply xture units (WSFU), 2010 V2: 76

water-supply systems. See cold-water systems; domesticwater supply; re-protection systems; hot-watersystems; private water systems; water-distributionpipes and systems; wells

Water Systems or Pharmaceutical Facilities, 2010 V2: 224water tables

underground storage tanks and, 2011 V3: 138wells, 2010 V2: 157–158

Water Tanks or Fire Protection, 2010 V2: 162water temperature. See also hot-water temperatures

bathtub water notes, 2009 V1: 110

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chilled water systems, 2012 V4: 221deaeration water temperatures, 2010 V2: 199eed water temperature and deposits, 2010 V2: 197,

214, 221hot-water properties, 2010 V2: 107hot-water relie valves, 2010 V2: 106hot-water temperatures, 2010 V2: 101, 102–104, 2011

V3: 39, 47

maintenance hot-water temperatures, 2010 V2: 105–106mixed-water temperatures, 2010 V2: 101scalding water, 2010 V2: 111shower compartments, 2009 V1: 112, 2012 V4: 16swimming pools, 2011 V3: 108water heaters, 2010 V2: 97, 101

water toys, 2011 V3: 107water treatment

boiler eed water, 2010 V2: 215–216chemicals, 2012 V4: 173codes and standards, 2010 V2: 187conditions and recommended treatments, 2012 V4:

175–184cooling towers, 2010 V2: 216–217corrosion inhibitors, 2009 V1: 141dened, 2010 V2: 187drinking water, 2010 V2: 218external and internal treatments, 2012 V4: 174ountains and pools, 2011 V3: 98methods o producing, 2012 V4: 175microbial control, 2010 V2: 213–214reerences, 2010 V2: 224–225series equipment, 2012 V4: 186specic impurities, 2012 V4: 174surace and groundwater needs, 2012 V4: 173–174swimming pools, 2011 V3: 110types o

aeration, 2010 V2: 197–198chlorination, 2012 V4: 177–178clarication, 2010 V2: 198–199, 2012 V4: 178–179copper-silver ionization, 2012 V4: 199deaeration, 2010 V2: 199dealkalizing, 2010 V2: 199decarbonation, 2010 V2: 199demineralization, 2012 V4: 182–184distillation, 2010 V2: 199–201, 2012 V4: 189–194ltration, 2010 V2: 201–204, 2012 V4: 179–182, 199ion-exchange and removal, 2010 V2: 201–211, 2012

V4: 182–184membrane ltration and separation, 2010 V2: 201,

211–213nanoltration, 2012 V4: 199ozonation, 2012 V4: 194–195

reverse osmosis, 2012 V4: 175, 195–199service deionized water, 2012 V4: 182ultraltration, 2012 V4: 199ultraviolet light, 2012 V4: 193water purication, 2010 V2: 218–219water sotening, 2010 V2: 210, 2012 V4: 184–189

utility water treatment, 2010 V2: 214–215water impurities, 2010 V2: 188–191

Water Treatment or HVAC and Potable Water Systems,2010 V2: 224

Water Use in Ofce Buildings, 2010 V2: 29

Water: Use o Treated Sewage on Rise in State , 2010 V2: 29Water Uses Study, 2010 V2: 29water utility letters, 2011 V3: 208water vapor in air

compressed air, 2011 V3: 265–266physics o, 2012 V4: 103properties, 2011 V3: 172–173removing, 2011 V3: 273

water wells. See wellswater working pressure (WWP), 2009 V1: 15, 2012 V4: 88waterborne radioactive waste (radwaste), 2010 V2: 236waterall aerators, 2010 V2: 198wateralls, 2011 V3: 100waterless urinals, 2009 V1: 127, 2012 V4: 8waterproo manholes, 2011 V3: 228, 233waterproong drains, 2010 V2: 15–16, 53watts (W, WAT)

converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 39dened, 2011 V3: 193measurement conversions, 2009 V1: 34 W/m K (watts per meter per kelvin), 2009 V1: 34

wave actions in water (tsunamis), 2009 V1: 149wave pools, 2011 V3: 107–108wax ring seals, 2012 V4: 5 Wb (webers), 2009 V1: 34 WC. See water closets (WC)wc (water column), 2012 V4: 5 WCO (wall cleanouts), 2009 V1: 11 WD (wind). See windweak-base regeneration, 2010 V2: 206, 207weather conditions, 2009 V1: 90

aboveground tanks and, 2011 V3: 148domestic water service pressure and, 2011 V3: 210irrigation and, 2011 V3: 91, 96pipe insulation, 2012 V4: 107pipe supports and, 2012 V4: 115regional requirements or plumbing installations, 2009

V1: 262webers, 2009 V1: 34wedges (valves), 2012 V4: 90weep holes, 2010 V2: 16, 2012 V4: 16weight (wt, WT)

clean agent gas re containers, 2011 V3: 27horizontal loads o piping, 2009 V1: 177piping, earthquake protection and, 2009 V1: 159in seismic orce calculations, 2009 V1: 177water, 2012 V4: 209weight loss in corrosion, 2009 V1: 134

weight to weight (w/w), 2010 V2: 191weighted evaluations in value engineering, 2009 V1: 235weighting fow rates in xture estimates, 2012 V4: 186

weirs, 2011 V3: 100Welded and Seamless Wrought-Steel Pipe, 2010 V2: 122welded attachments and supports, 2012 V4: 119, 121welded beam attachments, 2012 V4: 136welded ends on valves, 2012 V4: 79welded joints, 2012 V4: 58, 61welded pipe attachments, 2012 V4: 136welded steel piping, 2012 V4: 37Welded Tanks or Oil Storage (API 250), 2011 V3: 88welding

clearance or, 2012 V4: 25

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Index 373

corrosion and, 2009 V1: 136earthquake protection techniques, 2009 V1: 159problems in seismic protection, 2009 V1: 184types o, 2012 V4: 61weld decay dened, 2009 V1: 143welded joints in radioactive waste systems, 2010 V2: 239

weldless eye nuts, 2012 V4: 136wells

bored wells, 2010 V2: 156–157driven wells, 2010 V2: 157dug and augered wells, 2010 V2: 156equilibrium equations or wells, 2010 V2: 157–158gray-water irrigation systems and, 2010 V2: 24hydraulics o, 2010 V2: 157–158initial operation and maintenance, 2010 V2: 164introduction, 2010 V2: 155–156irrigation usage, 2011 V3: 96 jetted wells, 2010 V2: 157matching water storage to pump fow, 2010 V2: 162monitoring umes, 2011 V3: 144monitoring groundwater, 2011 V3: 143–144perormance specications, 2010 V2: 164protection o, 2010 V2: 159pumps, 2010 V2: 160–162system equipment, 2010 V2: 160–164types o, 2010 V2: 155water demand and, 2010 V2: 159water quality, 2010 V2: 159–160

West Nile virus, 2010 V2: 49wet-bulb temperature (wbt, WBT), 2011 V3: 187wet chemical extinguishing systems, 2011 V3: 24wet foors in chemical plants, 2010 V2: 243wet gas, 2011 V3: 187, 252wet helical-lobe units, 2011 V3: 187wet niche lights, 2011 V3: 135wet-pipe systems, 2009 V1: 28, 2011 V3: 6, 7wet rotor pumps, 2012 V4: 93wet standpipe systems, 2009 V1: 30, 2011 V3: 20wet-tap excavations, 2011 V3: 213wet vacuum-cleaning systems (WVC)

dened, 2010 V2: 178illustrated, 2010 V2: 185pitch, 2010 V2: 186separators, 2010 V2: 179symbols or, 2009 V1: 9

wet venting, 2009 V1: 31, 2010 V2: 32wet wells

capacity, 2011 V3: 237sewage lie stations, 2011 V3: 235–236

wetted suraces, propane tanks, 2010 V2: 132 Weymouth ormula, 2009 V1: 7, 2010 V2: 130

approaches and reaches, 2009 V1: 102clear space or, 2009 V1: 99–101toilet and bathing rooms, 2009 V1: 104–105water cooler accessibility, 2012 V4: 217–218

wheeled re extinguishers, 2011 V3: 23, 29 WHEN relationship, 2009 V1: 223whirlpool bathtubs, 2010 V2: 111, 2012 V4: 16whirlpools, 2011 V3: 111

Whitney, Eli, 2009 V1: 225 WHY logic path, 2009 V1: 223wind (WD)

eect on irrigation sprinklers, 2011 V3: 93hangers and supports and, 2012 V4: 117wind loads, 2012 V4: 136

Windows TR-55, 2010 V2: 44–46 Winston Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) system,

2011 V3: 196wire drawing, 2012 V4: 74, 80wire hooks, 2012 V4: 136wire mesh insulation jackets, 2012 V4: 108wire ropes, 2012 V4: 128wire screens or diatomaceous earth lters, 2012 V4: 181wire wound tubes or diatomaceous earth lters, 2012

V4: 181wireless meter-reading equipment, 2010 V2: 116Wisconsin Administrative Code, 2011 V3: 135 Wisconsin Department o Natural Resources, 2010 V2: 55 Wisconsin DNR, 2010 V2: 29 WO (waste oil), 2009 V1: 8 WOG (water, oil, and gas pressure rating). See water, oil,

and gas (WOG) pressure rating Wol, J.B., 2010 V2: 29wood, anchoring into, 2012 V4: 123wood shrinkage, protecting against, 2010 V2: 16wood stave piping, 2010 V2: 75, 78 Woodcock, J.J., 2010 V2: 29word processing o specications, 2009 V1: 65work

conversion actors, 2009 V1: 35converting to SI units, 2009 V1: 38dened, 2009 V1: 56, 2011 V3: 187measurements, 2009 V1: 35

work change directives, 2009 V1: 57work unctions in value engineering, 2009 V1: 218working deionizers, 2010 V2: 205working hours, in cost estimation, 2009 V1: 90working occupants, 2010 V2: 99working pressure, vacuum systems, 2010 V2: 171workmanship standards, 2009 V1: 61, 253–254workmen’s compensation, in labor costs, 2009 V1: 86worksheets. See checklists and orms