peasant art in russia - 1912 charles holme 1848-1923

8/3/2019 Peasant Art in Russia - 1912 Charles Holme 1848-1923

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SOUTHERN BRANCHUNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIALIBRARY'.'^3 ANGCLES. CALIB


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ARTIN RUSSIA

EDITED BYCHARLES HOLME

47177MCMXII

'THE STUDIO' LTD.LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK


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PREFATORY NOTEThe Editor desires to express his indebtedness to Princess AlexandreSidamon-Eristoff and Mile. N. de Chabelskoy for the valuableassistance they have rendered him in the preparation of this volumeby placing at his disposal their remarkable collection of Russian^ Peasant Art. Most of the illustrations which accompany the article

r on Great Russia are from this source, including the unique and^ beautiful series of peasant costumes. The Editor also tenders his

thanks to Count Alexis Bobrinsky, who has supplied the otherillustrations which appear in the section devoted to Great Russia,mostly those of articles in wood. Amongst others who havegiven valuable help should be mentioned M. Paul Ettinger,M. N. Bilachevsky, Director of the Nicolas II Museum at Kieff,

^ M. Basile Kritchevsky, M. S. Wasilkovsky, M. Gruchevsky,M. P. Dorochenko, the Polskie Towarzystwo Krajoznawcze (the"-^Z Polish Society for the Investigation of the Country), Mme. Al.^ Janowski, M. Wisznieki, Mme. Maryan Wawrzeniecki, M. E.

Trojanowski, M. Michael Brensztejn, and the authorities of thevarious museums who have kindly allowed examples of RussianPeasant Art under their charge to be reproduced here.

111


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/ARTICLES

The Peasant Art of Great Russia. By Princess AlexandreSidamon-Eristoff and Mlle. N. de Chabelskoy

The Peasant Art of Little Russia (The Ukraine). ByN. Bilachevsky

The Peasant Art of Russian Poland. By Maryan WawrzenieckiThe Peasant Art of Lithuania. By Michael Brensztejn

PAGE

15IS47

ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOURGREAT RUSSIA

Peasant Costume from Archangel Novgorod Tula Vladimir

Casket in Carved Walrus Ivory, from ArchangelWoman's Head-dress ornamented with Pearls and

from Kostroma ...Embroidered Bag ornamented with Pearls ...Embroidered PincushionPainted Front of a Stall, from a Church in Perm

Precious Stones,

LITTLE RUSSIA (THE UKRAINE)Designs for Silk EmbroideryHand-woven Material used for SkirtsGroup of Pottery from PoltavaEarthenware Plates and BottlePainted Wooden PlatesChurch with Nine CupolasInterior of a Peasant's House in Poltava

NOSI

223944177

178179180

291A

338-340370-372

409444-446447-449

465474


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ILLUSTRATIONS IN MONOTONEGREAT RUSSIA

NOSPeasant Costumes from

Archangel ... ... ... 2, 3Kaluga ... ... ... 4, 5Kazan ... ... ... 6Kostroma ... ... ... 7-9Kursk ... ... 10-12Moscow ... ... 14, 15Nij ni-Novgorod ... 16-19Novgorod ... ... 20,21Olonetz ... ... 23, 24Orel ... ... 25, 26Penza ... ... 27, 28Pskoff ... 29Riazan ... ... 30-34Smolensk ... ... ... 35Tamboff ... ... ... 13Tula ... ... 36-38Tver 40-43Vologda ... ... ... 45Yaroslavl ... ... 46-48

Lace, Embroidery, etc.Bedcurtain Borders from

Kostroma... ... ... 65Moscow ^5, 56, 58, 66, 67, 75Nij ni-Novgorod 52, 54, 57, 60

68, 74, 7750, 51, 62, 78

69, 8449

... 61, 64, 70

St. PetersburgTverVologda . .

.

Yaroslavl ...Bedcurtain Trimmings from

Olonetz ...OrelSt. PetersburgYaroslavl

81, 82 53... 7159,72

Chasubles ... 85, 1 13Collars ... ... 9699Cross in Gold and Silk ... 108Curtain from Tver ... ... 63Dolls, Ancient ... 114 116Eucharistic Cloths ...

NOSHair Ornaments (" Kosnik ")100-103Hand-printed Linen ("Naboika") ^

94, 95Head-dresses ... 104-107Icon Panel ... ... 109, 1 12Towel-Borders from

Kaluga ... 80, 83, 86-93Nij ni-Novgorod ... 73, 76Novgorod ... 86-93St. Petersburg ... 79, 86-93Metal-work and Jewellery


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Furniture and WoodcarvingBowlsBoxBrakesCake-mouldsCandlesticksCaskets

258,244-219-167,296,266-

251, 254,295.181-196-

ishFrame ... ... 252,Laundry Beetles ("Valki ")

188-195, 196-202, 240,Looms ... 300, 302,MugPanelPew, churchPlaqueReading-desks

ChairsCornicesCrosses ... 122,CupboardsDistafFs (" Pralki ")Egg-dish

Salt-boxesScoopsSledges

287,folding ("Analoi'

261, 225, 257, 262- 236-238,241,

276-

NOS

253165259250222168297-273255299-187-218239279243303256260289223288)

265264242278

NOSFurniture and Woodcarving

{cont.)Spoons ... 224, 226, 227Tables ... 280, 285, 290, 292

"candle" 286, 291, 301Window frame and shutters 298Churches, Houses, etc.

Belfries in North Russia317,318Cemetery in Archangel ... 319Churches in North Russia315, 316Churches in Olonetz

Convent Chapel in Archangel

Granary in North RussiaHouses in North RussiaHouses in OlonetzHouses in Vologda ...Interior of Church

ArchangelInterior of

VologdaStairway to

ArchangelStairway to irlouse inOlonetz Windmill in North Russia

ChurchHouse

House

304:

in

in

in

314311309308

, 307306312313310305320

VUI


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LITTLE RUSSIA (THE UKRAINE)Pottery and GlasswareNOSPeasant Costumes and Scenes

OF. Peasant LifePeasant Family from Kieff 322Preparing the Hemp in KiefF323, 330Harvesting in Volhynia ... 324Group of Peasants from' KiefF 325Peasant Girl Cleaning Fish 326An Alfresco Meal in KiefF 327Peasant Girls from KiefF... 328Peasant's Summer Costume

from Volhynia ... ... 329Peasant Costumes from KiefF

331. 332, 334-337from South333

Peasant GirlUkraine .

Embroidery and TextilesBlouses, Women's Em-

broidered ... ... 341-344Blouses, Embroidery for 353-359Tapestries, Woollen

360-369, 373-378Towels, Embroidered 345-3 5^

Museum InteriorsKiefF, Volkskunst Museum at

379-384Poltava, 385

Metal-work and JewelleryChurch-crosses, iron 386-389Pendants, silver ... 390-397

Bottles, glass 404)Bowls, earthenwareFlasks, Jars, Jugs, glass 399-403,Jugs, earthenwareMiscellaneous glasswarePlates, earthenwareStove-tiles, Tumbler, glass

410,

NOS

405, 408421, 422419, 420417, 418406, 407429> 434

... 4084 1 1 -4 1423-428430-433

... 398Furniture and Woodcarving

Bowl, wooden ... ... 439Carriages, parts of 462,466-471Coffer, wooden ... ... 442Dish, wooden ... ... 441Gingerbread-moulds, wooden

450-461Jug, woodenScoops, woodenSledgeSledge, parts ofSpoon, woodenTable (i8th century)

Peasants' Houses inKiefF, South Ukraine

44343 5-43 7> 440464

466-471438

... 463

... 472(interiors)

475, 476Siedlce, N.W. Ukraine ... 473

a 2 IX


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RUSSIAN POLANDNOS

Costumes from


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CUT PATEK DESIGN


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GREAT RUSSIA


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GRICAT RUSSIA

I I'I'.ASAXT COSll'Ml'; l-ROM ARCllAXC.l


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THE PEASANT ART OE GREATRUSSIA. ByPrincess Alexandre SiDAMON-Eristoff and Mlle. N. de Chabelskoy.RUSSIA is an immense territory, parts of it unknown even inour own day, embracing every kind of climate and many

latitudes. The country is inhabited by people of differentorigins, amongst whom the Slavs predominate, and whosemanners and customs are of the greatest antiquity.

Situated on this vast plain are splendid cities ; but, thoughsometimes monotonous, it has delightful scenery, immense forestsand lofty mountains, rich in precious stones and all kinds of minerals.Such is the country which stretches from the Arctic Ocean to theCaspian Sea, with the Crimea and the Caucasus Mountains in thesouth, vast Siberia on the Asiatic boundary, and Great Russia,White Russia, and Little Russia (the Ukraine) in the centre.

Glancing back over the manners and style of living of theRussian people, one recognises that from most remote times theyIpyed^to^ decorate all objects among which their lives were passed ;beginning with the Church, the house, vehicles, sledges, boats,clothes, even down to the smallest household bowl. In thisdecoration their artistic tastesat times naivetheir religious feelings,and their deep imagination are expressed.

The long-drawn-out winter, when the peasant is obliged tocease from work in the fields, helps to develop these tastes still more.During the long evenings the family meets by the stove, each oneengaged in making some object either for the house or for sale. Atthe time when factories did not exist, and even later when thenumber of them was insufficient for so large a country, the difficultyof communication, caused by the long distances and the poor roads,contributed largely to each district producing for itself most ot thenecessary objects. For the same reason these objects were stampediwith a character and originality peculiarly local. Some few placesspecialised, indeed, according to the natural characteristics of thedistrict. Thus the northern provinces, so rich in forests, producedall kinds of articles in wood, among other things plates, carved andpainted. In the villages situated beside rivers or lakes, boats and allthe necessary appliances for fishing were made. The Government ofRiazan was noted for its pottery, its clay vessels, and its enamelledbricks, the latter being used in the decoration of churches and otherbuildings and for stoves. The Government of Vladimir possessedcraftsmen skilled in metal-work and enamelling, as well as engraversand painters who produced popular pictures, illustrated books andb^ 3


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GREAT RUSSIA/manuscripts, and fashioned icons (holy images). The Governmentof Tula was renowned for its arms of tempered and embossed steel,j ewellery, and all kinds of articles in metal. The Government ofYaroslavl, so rich in flax, furnished many different textiles, from the

f simple household cloth to that of the finest quality. The Govern-ment of Archangel has always carried on a large trade in furs, and

jbeen famous for its boat-building ; also for clever workmanship in

I walrus ivory.The wool 01 domestic animals is used everywhere to makeclothing materials, as well as a kind of thick felt for winter shoes.The technical knowledge has been transmitted by one generation toanother, and by the custom of the family working together. Sothat every peasant is not only a cultivator of the soil, but also acraftsman.

f Besides the various necessary domestic articles, the RussianI women excel in the making of lace, and, above all, in embroidery,which plays a great part in the life of the people. The largestnumber of designs and the most important characteristic motifs arefound in the embroidery, and these especially help in the study of the

\ national art. It is in a great measure due to the ingenious work ofj the Russian women that this art is preserved to our time.

Russian decorative art dates from very early ages. In spite ofthe successive influences of contact with Asia, with Byzantium, andwith the West, modified by the requirements of native customs, ityet retains its national character and diversity of form, and has hadthe advantage at all times of exponents possessing great skill and

[ability. If amongst the mass of designs a certain number are found]to proceed from individual inventiveness and imagination, yet thegreater part have a particular or emblematic significance, whichalthough dimmed and lost with the passage of time, yet preserves thetraditional forms. Besides numerous geometrical patterns and con-ventional floral motifs, these designs represent sacred and decorativetrees, fantastical flowers, symbolic animals such as lions, unicorns,horses, stags, birds, &c., often facing one another, and havingbetween them a tree or a sacred vase. Many examples representpeople with raised arms and outstretched hands, signifyingthe gesture of religious adoration, habitual to heathen as wellas to Christian people ; sometimes complete compositions, such asreligious processions, scenes of sacrifices, of temples, and of idols, aredepicted.Among the most general subjects are the fabulous birds calledSirin and zAlconost, who assume woman's form, and who, accordingto the legend, live in Paradise and delight the saints with their songs.

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GREAT RUSSIAI One of the symbolic signs very much in favour was the svastika,'known in the most remote period of ancient India, a sign of goodI augury and especially of good luck . It was freely employed in thedecoration of all kinds of articles.

Later on the Czar Peter the Great, with his reforms, had amarked influence on design, and the subjects became more realistic.Attempts were made to represent whole landscapes, with palaces,festivals, and people in the costume of the time, as we see in theaccompanying illustration (No. 78), which depicts a fireworkdisplay at a fete.The conditions of family life, which dedicated woman entirelyto the home, not allowing her to take part in social affairs, con-tributed still more to interest her in handicraft. In pagan times thepersonality of the woman was held to be equal to that of the man.She had not only her rights in the family life, but she possessed alsoher social rights. She had control of her property, and she joinedin the chase just as a warrior took part in battle. All was changedwith the advent of Christianity. The literature and ideas ofByzantium had more effect on the women than on the men, andconsequently on home life. The ascetic teachings of Byzantium, basedon the complete perversity of Byzantine society, were transportedwith the religion into Russia, when the social life was still youngand scarcely formed, and served as a base for a monastic life, as wellas for the ideas of seclusion and retirement from social intercourse.Thus were created the austere conditions of the life of the terem, apart of the house reserved for women and exclusively for family life.This retired existence became more and more strict in proportion tothe social position. Except for a few very simple pleasures, whichenlivened the monotony, needlework was the favourite occupationas well as amusement. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,in the houses of the noblemen and the Czars, one or more rooms werealways reserved near the terem for needlework, thus forming atelierswhere the women in the service of the family worked under thedirection of the mistress of the house.The mass of the people came less strongly under the influenceof these teachings, and, vyhile they acceptedChristianity, they stillretained the advantages of_pagan rule, which explains the presencein the ornamentations of the many subjects which bear traces of theearlier belief.Among the numerous embroidered articles it is on the bordersof the bedcurtains and towels especially that the most interesting andcharacteristic designs are to be found. The bedcurtains were used todecorate the bed and the bedstead as well as the backs of the sledges

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GREAT RUSSIAand wedding conveyances, or on the occasions of the traditionalcarnival processions, and in this case the decoration was completedby towels attached to the dougas (bow of the shaft).

Towels, in addition to their customary use, served from theearliest times as adjincts to religious worship, when they wereemployed to decorate the temples of the idols, or were hung Iromthe sacred trees as votive offerings. We still see, as a relic of thesame custom, images and crosses thus decorated, and the people bringtheir towels as offerings to the church. At the present time towels areused also to decorate the izba (peasant homes), for draping mirrorsand images ; or, spread out along the walls, they form a kind ofsimple art gallery for the Russian peasant.

Unfortunately all these practices are dying out more andmore every year, in proportion to the increase in the number offactories, the products of which are causing the hand-made articlesto quickly disappear, making them dearer and more difficult toobtain.

Thanks to museums and private collections, which have beenestablished just in time, a great number of the most varied articlesbelonging to the household have been preserved, and they throw alight on life in past centuries and reflect the qualities peculiar toSlavo-Russian art.* However, even now there still exist in the vastdistricts of Great Russia many out-of-the-world spots, especiallytowards the north, far from the railways. In the heart of these hugeforests, and away from all contact with civilisation, the life stillretains its primitive and local character, and continues in accordancewith the rites and traditions of the past. Here the peasant has notyet abandoned his picturesque costume, and in his typical izba a'^corresponding interior is to be found. Here, too, may still be seenthe old churches of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, with theirmany cupolas, still preserving the old images adorned with silk andgold work, or painted by a master hand, and covered with splendidchasubles embellished with precious stones and real pearls. Thesacristies of these churches often contain real treasures of art andarchaeology among the priestly vestments.

In these places the people still use in their daily life manyoriginal articles which, although of more recent execution, are made

* Many governments and towns now have museums containing antiquities ot theparticular district. 7 here is the Alexander III. Museum.at St. Petersburg ; the ImperialHistorical Museum at Moscow, to whicli has been added the Schoukine Museum ;while the Stroganoff Arts and Industries School contains real national treasures.Moreover, there are numerous private collections, the most striking of which is that ofthe Princess Sidamon-Eristoffand Mile, de Chabelskoy, from which most of the illustrationsto this article have been taken.


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GREAT RUSSIAtin accordance with the old traditional forms. The Russian peopleare carpenters by instinct ; every peasant is accordingly able to buildhis izba^ which for centuries has always been constructed in the sameway, occasionally of brick, but generally of large, rounded beams,thanks to the proximity of the forest. These izbas^ with their slightroofing, have for exterior decoration carved wooden cornices ; thechief beam which supports the roof often ends in the form of a rose,a horse's head, or a conventional bird. All these decorative portionsare usually painted in various colours, which give a bright appearanceto the cottages.The simple furniture consists of seats, either fixed or movable, afew tables, a sideboard for the display of plates and dishes, and somechests embellished with metal-work or painting. The peasants delightto decorate the under sides of the lids of these coffers with popularengravings. A great oven in stone is built in such a way thatone part forms a large flat surface on which the whole familysleep in the depth of winter. In the right-hand corner of the wall,called the krasni u^ol {ihc beautifuLcgrner), are placed one or more holyimages or icons before which wax tapers or little oil lamps burn,forming a family altar. Sometimes there are a few engravings either ofreligious subjects or representing popular heroes, a loom for weaving,and a few household utensils. This is the usual simple appearanceof the generality of the houses, with a barn or stable, and a littleenclosure round. For fear of fire the houses are placed a gooddistance apart from each other, but are grouped in large villageswith a wide road running through the centre.

Old customs are kept up in their entirety in many of the villages,and religious and civil ceremonies are still carried out accordingto the ancestral traditions, sometimes so full of meaning andsimple poetry. The people still retain the many observancesin all the important events of family lifebirth, marriage, andburialras well as the different customs incidental to Christmas,Easter, &c.But especially are ancient ceremonies adhered to on the occasionof weddings, such as the use of the great loaf, a kind of decorated,and sometimes gilded cake, a symbol of prosperity, as well as manygifts which the maiden is obliged to offer to htr fiance, and to all therelatives and guests according to the degree of relationship or to theirsocial position. Tradition exacts that all these presents should bethe actual work of the bride, as a proof of her ability and industry.This is why provident young girls prepare their presents a longtime in advance. For this purpose the young maidens in everyvillage meet together at one another's houses in turn to work ; these

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GREAT RUSSIAlittle gatherings, much resorted to by the young people, end withsongs, games, and dances.The wedding presents consist chiefly of towels with wideborders, with a woven or embroidered design, and chirinkas (a kindof pocket-handkerchief made from a square piece of material em-broidered handsomely either at the corners or all round).The custom of giving wedding presents was very widespread inthe sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, not only among the peasants,who still preserve it, but also among the noblemen and even theCzars, only in this case the chirinkas were more handsome, being ofsilk or muslin, richly embroidered in gold, and decorated with fringesand tassels. Sometimes, instead of embroidery, they were embellishedwith wide gold lace, interwoven with real pearls. The chirinka wasboth an object for display and one of the indispensable adjuncts of theRussian woman's wardrobe, the most obvious and the favouritearticle ; and it was, moreover, the custom always to hold it in thehand when going to church, or on visits, or during all ceremonies.The national costume varied greatly in different governments,nearly every district and village having its special dress. The women /< % 'y%^M^ tup -Jk , .

w .^^ p^ i' * Mi ' '' - B ^^ r ! ' r '^ 1 V ^lit- as'"" ij^^^--'W.}?jM'^'

m i% ""J-" ^.^i^ ^/J

81 TRIMMING OF BEDCURTAIN EMBROIDERED ON LINEN, FROM OLONETZ

fe^.^

xi:i:i:|ii;[.mi'y i i;i ii n iiH/^ -a82 TRIMMING OF BEDCURTAIN EMBROIDERED ON LINEN, FROM OLONETZ


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GREAT RUSSIA

83 BORDER OF TOWEL EMBROIDERED ON LINEN, FROM KALUGA

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k^^

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84 EMBROIDERED BORDER OF BEDCURTAIN, FROM TVER

85 TRIMMING OF CHASUBLE EMBROIDERED ON LINEN


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GREAT RUSSIA

'c:nic]^:^m:^m^Mr:Msim

86 TO 93 BORDERS OF TOWELS EMBKOIDERED ON LINEN, FKOM KALUGA, NOVGOROD, AND ST. PETERSBURG


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J.o


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GREAT RUSSIA

96 AND 97 COLLARS IN CUT MOTHER-OF-rEARL98 AND 99 COLLARS IN GOLD THREAD EMBROIDERYORNAMENTED WITH STONES AND PEARLS


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GREAT RUSSIA

loo TO 103 HAIR ORNAMENTS ("KOSNIK")WORN BY YOUNG GIRLS


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GREAT RUSSIA

MI

104 TO 107 HEAD-DRESSES WORN BY WOMEN FROMVLADIMIR, MOSCOW, KALUGA, AND NOVGOROD


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GREAT RUSSIA

io8 AND 109 CROSS EMBROIDERED IN GOLD AND SILKAND EMBROIDERED ICON PANEL FROM NORTH RUSSIA


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GREAT RUSSIA

no EUCHARISTIC CLOTH EMBROIDERED IN GOLDAND SILK ON SATIN I I I EUCHARISTIC CLOTH EMBROIDERED IN GOLDAND SILK ON SATIN

IIJ ICON PANEL EMBROIDERED IN GOLD ANDSILK ON SATIN II ^ 0RNAMENT..;OF CHASUBLE EMBROIDERED INGOLD AND SILK


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wenV)UC/5

JoQH2Wuz


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mD


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GREAT RUSSIA

125 TO 130 SILVER-GILT AND ENAMELLEDEARRINGS SET WITH STONES AND PEARLS


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enCD

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GREAT RUSSIA

142 TO 150 IRON AND COPPER PADLOCKS


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ozX(-oos

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GREAT RUSSIA

156 TO 159 EARTHENWARl': TILES


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GREAT RUSSIA

1 60 TO 163 EARTHENWARE COVERED DISH AND JUGS


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inID

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228 TO 235 READING-POINTERS IN CARVED WALRUS IVORY


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GREAT RUSSIA

236 CARVED WOODEN SCOOP 237 CARVED WOODEN SCOOP

238 CARVED WOODEN SCOOP 239 CARVED WOODEN EGG DISH

240 CARVED WOODEN 24I AND 242 CARVED WOODEN SCOOPSLAUNDRY BEETLE 243 CARVED WOODENLAUNDRY BEETLE


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GREAT RUSSIA

244 TO 2 50_^CARVED WOODEN CAKE-MOULDS


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O


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DW

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338 TO 340 DESIGNS EOR SILL EMBROIDERY


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LITTLE RUSSIA (THE UKRAINE)

'^1^^ ' -": "'iaifir"

345 TO 352 EMBROIDERED TOWELS


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MZ-i-'^^

409 GROUP OF POTTERY FROM POLTAVAKROM A TAINTING BY BASII.F. KRITCHEVSKV


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410 EARTHENWARE STOVE-TILES (XVIIIth CENTURY)


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4H TO 416 EARTHENWARE PLATES


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I (

472 peasant's house in KIEFF, south UKRAINE

473 peasant's house in SIEDLCE, north-west UKRAINE


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LITTLE RUSSLX (THE UKRAINE)

475 AND 476 INTERIORS OF PEASANTS' HOUSES IN KIEFF, SOUTH UKRAINE


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477 CUT PAPER DESIGN


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RUSSIAN POLAND

d


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THE PEASANT ART OF RUSSIANPOLAND. By Maryan Wawrzeniecki.THE aichjcological remains obtained by excavation in thelands that subsequently formed Poland testify to the variousinfluences which were formerly predominant in theseregions. So far as the present state of scientific investiga-tion permits, it is asserted that these influences came from

ihe north, the south, the east, and the west. It is to this day adisputed question whether Slavs constituted the primitive inha-bitants of these lands. The only definite historical fact is that theso-called epoch of the " Burgwalltypus " (" vitrified forts ") is closelyassociated with the Slavs. The Slavs of the pre-historic ages (asT, Peisker has proved in his work. Die dlteren Beztehungen der Slawenzu Turkotartaren und Germanen und ihre sozialgeschichtliche Bedeutung,inhabited these lands in dependence on their neighbours. In theeast they were oppressed by the Turko-Tartar tribes, in the westand north by the Germans. The rise of the Slavonic states wascombined with an internal revolution, a popular movement aimingat emancipation from foreign oppression. The masses of Slavs,stirred to revolt, placed on the throne individuals from amongthemselves. These individuals, thanks to hired mercenary retinues(" Druzina " or " Comitatus "), gradually gained power and imposedtheir will on their opponents.

Slowly kings appeared, and from the " retinue " of warriorsa nobility (" szlachta ") was evolved. The land began to beapportioned by the king in possession to the most notable membersof his court. In consequence then of the settlement on the landof these Slavonic inhabitants we get an outline of the first struggle

' between the old and the new landowners. The history of the firstcenturies of historical Poland, already a Christian country, containsscanty but sufficient information as to peasant revolutions. Theyhave been represented by monkish chroniclers as reprehensibleattempts at a Pagan reaction : but they are associated too with aprotest against the social changes that tended towards the mediaevalcaste-system. Gradually the position of the nobility and the knightsbecame so strong and grew to such power that the Polish kings fellinto dependence on this Order, and in 1422 they published atCzerwinsk a " Privilege" radically undermining the freedom of thepeasant class. The dependence of the peasant on his "lord"became, as throughout all Europe, an accomplished fact, in a greateror less degree according to the will or personal character of thelandlord ; and, despite the humanitarian edict of Kosciuszko (issuedon May 7, 1794, at Polaniec), despite the examples of self-denial anddT. 35


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RUSSIAN POLANDnobility set by those gentlemen who of their own free will releasedthe peasants on their estates from all burdens and " corvees," thisdependence continued more or less until the year 1864.The " Congress Kingdom " of Poland, which produced thepeasant decorative art represented in our illustrations, comprisesthe piece of land that was artificially carved out by the Congress otVienna in 18 15. It is a country without natural boundaries, theeastern parts having the character of the Ruthenian country, thewest of Prussian Masovia, the south of the Vistula plain andthe Cracow district, and the north of the neighbouring Lithuanianregions. This accessibility and accidental, purely political isola-tion of the regions from whence our materials are derived, excludes

' any fundamental originality in comparison with the neighbouringPolish lands in Austria and Prussia. Together with the other landsof ancien t historical Poland, the regions of the Congress Kingdomhave passed through various changes and evolutions. As far back asthe remote Middle Ages German colonisation in the villages, andmore especially in the towns, brought hither foreign i.e. Germaninfluences. Incessant wars, which covered almost the wholehistory of medieval Poland, wars that were principally successful,introduced among the local peasant population an immigratoryalien element composed of prisoners of war. This element includedGermans, Ruthenians, sometimes Turks and Tartars. The plunderingraids of Lithuanians and Jadzwings, Tartars and Hungarians alsoproduced a great admixture of nationalities. The maintenance ofbands and militia, often recruited from foreign sources (Hungarians,Wallachs or Scotchmen), by the magnates of the castles, even by thegentry, further increased the foreign element and introduced aliendress and manners. In the age of Sigismund I a strong Italianinfluence spread over the country. Even to-day the ornamentalembroidery on the peasant's coat is called " fior."

In more recent periods, when the Napoleonic wars took thePolish peasants to Italy, Spain and Moscow, the returning soldiersbrought back with them to their homes impressions of the foreign

1 productions they had seen. But one is sensible of little of this alieninfluence in the examples of the peasant art we have collected here.And for this there are several reasons. In the first place, I maydraw attention to the principal characteristics, building materialswood and straw, the irregular concentration of homesteads withtheir straw roofs in close contact, and hence frequent conflagrations,

, resulting in the complete destruction of whole villages, with all the[i houses and tools. The people, their life and customs, have onlyIlately attracted the attention of occasional investigators. We have36


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RUSSIAN POLAND(begun to make amateur collections of their traditions^ folksongs anddialects. Our ideas on the subjecT were such that if any onereflected on popular art, as did Joseph Ignatius Kraszewski ("TheArt of the Slavs," Vilna, i860), it was such a strange phenomenonthat it did not find an echo till the appearance in 1903 of CasimirMoklowski's " Peasant Art." Gradually more scientific collectorscame forward, and of these the most prominent was Oscar Kolberg,and later Sigismund Gloger and the learned Dr. Jan Karlowicz, whofinally instituted the scientific investigation of the Polish peasants.And not till 1910 did the erudite Professor Stanislas Ciszewskioccupy the chair of Ethnography at the University of Lemberg(Lwow). All these were the efforts of private, public-spiritedindividuals, for we have no governmental assistance in this direction.The Museum of Agriculture and Industry, to which we owe thegreater part of the collected material, is an institution maintainedpurely by the joint efforts of private individuals. The " Society forthe Investigation of the Country " is also a private institution. Andthis results in our being able to show only unequal and incompletematerial. Such a work is beyond the ability and means of privatepersons. We must also continually take into consideration theremarkable fact that the peasant has for nearly forty years regardedthe educated man with disfavour ; every kind of scientific inves-tigation he considers as dangerous to himself. He nourishes asuperstitious prejudice towards actions that are incomprehensible tohis understanding. There are districts in Poland {e.g. Ojcow) wherethe very word " book " creates a pan[c^mong_the_peasantry. Addto this the great distances to railways and highroads, and the lack ofconvenient centres for the investigator, and we get some idea ofthe difficulties that have beset the scientist throughout the wholeCongress Kingdom of Poland.The cottage and the dress, these contain all the achievementsof peasant ornamentation. The cottages are principally built ofwood and thatched with strawin districts rich in timber built onthe " corner-post " or " zamek " (beams laid one on the other andprojecting at the corners) systems, in poorer districts on the cheaper" rygiel " (" bolt ") method. In the contours of the peasant's cottageare reflected the influences of styles that once predominated all overPoland. The decorativeness of the cottage of the Polish peasanth'es in the beauty of the general outline, in the straw thatching, inthe painting of the outside walls, in the beautiful joining of thecorners, in the extension in profile beyond the corners of the beamsof the wall (the " rysie " of the cottages in Nieborow), and in thelines of the wooden posts supporting the veranda or porch. If the

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RUSSIAN POLANDcottage is old, it time has laid her hand on it, then the picturesque-ness is displayed in the harmony of the colouring, constitutinga beautiful, multi-coloured splash in the landscape. The beauty ofits interior lies in the " pajonki " (i.e. " spiders," designs madeof straw) and " wycinanki (cut-out designs of coloured papej),probably once associated with a superstTtTous belief in " bewitch-ment " and the " evil eye," that has now disappeared in somedistricts, but in others still continues as a decorative motive. Themany-coloured chests, the woollen covers, the beautiful bed-covers, thebenches and tables, together with the cupboards, the dishes and salt-cellars, and the basinsjor holywaLer b_ythe door, these are all objectsadorned with a carved or painted design. But their claim to artisticimportance will always lie not in the form but in the decoration andcolour. The excellence of external form, the beauty of cardinallines do not constitute the esthetic value of peasant productions.The harmony and even the discordancy of colouring, these are thetrue tokens of peasant art.

Completely identical are the characteristics that predominatein the peasant costumes, which also bear the disappearing features ofstyles that once held sway in Poland. In southern provinces, suchas Kielce, this dress, in its conformity to certain patterns (flowers onthe materials for corsets, shirts, shawls and aprons), has preserved allthe features of " barocco." Many hold the view that dress and itsornaments were not always created by the peasantry itself (for instance,the black crosses on the coats of the Miechow peasants recall thedependence of these peasants on the monks of Miechow, priests ofthe Holy Sepulchre, i.e. Crusaders). We may infer that in otherdistricts, too, the will of the lord of the manor left its mark herealso. This dress, poor enough in its general outlines, has oftenbeautiful details, such as applique-work, embroidery, and alwaysvery pretty colouring. The dress is completed by a cap or hat,a belt and boots. The caps have great variety and some externalbeauty. The belts are often very richly adorned, and are alwaysinteresting from their decorative motifs and colour schemes.The women wear very gay costumes. The general lines offemale dress are less happy, for important changes were introducedhere by the influence of the clergy scenting in everything sin andtemptation. The colouring and beauty or the embroideries and thedesigns constitute the leading characteristics and qualities of femaledress, which strikes one by its relatively slight adaptation to theclimatic conditions of the Kingdom of Poland. To-day radicalchanges are beginning to take place in this direction.

With dress is closely associated weaving and embroidery.38


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RUSSIAN POLANDWeaving has survived chiefly in the northern and western parts orthe country. The southerners have for sixty years ceased to producewoven articles. The Lowicz, the Opoczynski districts, togetherwith Podlasie and the Kurpian country {i.e. the region of greatforests) are the chief strongholds of weaving. Here very ancientmotifs often appear, hut we must confess that our people havea childlike susceptibility and gladly adopt what they have seenelsewhere and what has taken their fancy ; hence they sometimesabandon their own traditional decorative designs and introduceothers which please by their modernity. With weaving areconnected such implements as the spindle, the distaff, the bobbin,and, in some places, the spinning-wheel, often in their form andornamentation revealing very interesting traditions. Here we mustmention the weaver's frame, which still survives as a relic of remoteantiquity, and often contains its own peculiar decorative workexecuted in wood. The very primitive batlet, used in con-nection with the washing of woven tissues, is also a subject forornamentation.

Objects of every-day use, such as pokers for stirring the fire,also the tinder-boxes forged by peasant smiths, all bear orna-mental decoration, and their types justify us in assigning them tothe very early archaeological periods in the history of these lands.The surroundings of the cottage, i.e. fences and railings, alsoshow a right conception of the beautiful. The posts of the fencesare sometimes carved into distinct shapes, while the larger stakes ofthe railings are similarly treated. The enclosed fences in somedistricts have designs not altogether lacking in traditional art andcharm.

By the highways, at the crossroads, stand_so3called "jfig^res,"or roadside ^crosses. These figures in different parts of theCongress Kingdom are of various dimensions and sometimespossess an individuality of their own. In the southern districts theyare frequently quadrilateral posts, with niches for figures or smallpictures. On the top of such a post is placed the form of thesuffering Jesus, usually the work of some small town or villagecarver. It is a typical example of peasant sculpture, where oftenthe chisel takes the place of the knife, and the technicalities of wood-carving are transferred to stone. Wooden crosses are also foundsupporting the outstretched figure of Christ. These are smallertowards the south, taller in the north, and enormous in Lithuania.Besides crosses and brick-supported posts the peasants are alwayswilling to pay for so-called " little chapels." Such chapels area survival of the " coffer " altars , common in the Gothic and

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RUSSIAN POLANDRenaissance times. The sides, or wings, were taken away, andonly the centre remained. A small gallery, a roof and a cross wereadded, and we have ready a fetish to which the peasants attachgreat importance and attribute wonderful powers. Here and therebeside the roads or before the village churches we come upon figuresof saints, fashioned by the chisel of some self-educated village artist.These examples of sculpture, which Professor W. Luszczkiewicz hasclassed as peasant art, in the imperfection of the proportions andthe hang of the drapery, recall the barbaric productions of Romanart. I have never been able to feel any trace of Gothic traditionsin these figures. The great crosses of forged iron placed on thewooden posts in the chapels, or on the posts of stone or brick, arcchiefly the handiwork of a peasant smith dwelling in the village.In the work of these smiths we can generally find much art andskill, and it is full of character,A conception of beauty is revealed in the iron-work ot thecarts, especially in the south of the country. The ends of the shafts,the so-called " little dogs," and the foreparts of the cart called" frontings," are covered by the smiths with iron-work which theyadorn with designs of the crescent, cross, wheel, and sometimeseye {cf. " Ziemia," journal of the Society for the Investigationof the Country, 1910-1911).The locks of the cottage doors and of the coffers, together withthe padlocks and keys, are also beautiful in the form of a heart,clover, or some other decoration, always interesting. Of thisbranch of art, however, we have at present but small materialcollected.The fishing-tackle, although far from ornamental, has, however,in the general outlines of its form much charm associated with itsutility. The harness, too, though greatly modernised, yet retainssometimes marks of beauty.We consider that popular ornamentation has been preserved inits most typical and unaltered form in the customary ceremonialsurvivals i.e. in pai nted and decorated "Easter-eggs " with theirornamental colouring (red, blue and whi te) and their designs(svastika, small tree, spiral, wheel, triangle, cross) ; in the ceremonialcakes (" placki ") or wedding cakes ("kolacze"), " korowaje,"" osutki," " orzeszki " and " szczodraki," and various other kindsof cakes ; in such symbolical objects of superstitious ritual as thewand of the wedding "starosta" or " elder " (symbol of Phallus), thewreaths and crowns of the wedding festivities and of the " harvesthome"; in the "gaiki" (celebrations connected with the changeof the seasons) or the solstice ; also in the cut paper designs and

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RUSSIAN POLAND"spiders" which we have already mentioned in connection withthe cottage interior.

In the above-mentioned objects, in our opinion, certain ancientsuperstitious traditions have been preserved. The colouring andartistic designs of tjie ceremonial " Easter eggs "which, by theway , are under the ban oFlihe Churchyintended to be divided andeaten in the days connected with the worship of the "new sun,"and the contents of which afford a symbol of fertility and fresh life(the renewal of nature), seem to have as their purpose the protectionof all from the impure negative powers (enchantment) of these veryelements. The colours of the eggs and their decorative designswere considered in distant ages as effectual means of neutralisingthese powers.

Easter eggs thus decorated {i.e. protected or secured against evil)often form gifts for friends or lovers (the village maidens give themto the farmhands) accompanied by wishes for prosperity (vitality).The same motifs, inherited from the superstitious faith of remoteantiquity, constitute the decoration of the "crowns" at the weddingand the harvest home, also of the ceremonial wedding cakes.Besides the usual decorative designs emphasising the actualceremony (the spiral, cross, wand), we find concealed in theseornaments an ancient motif v/hich is supposed to hallow those cakesapportioned among all who partake in the ceremony. In thecategory of ancient symbols we must include the wand of theelders (" starosta ") of the wedding : these wands play an importantrole and are indispensable to a marriage contract. The execution ofthe work on these "wands" and "crowns," apart from tradition, isa good criterion of the level of aesthetic feeling among the peasantryof any given district.

In some of the popular superstitious ceremonies connectedwith the solstice, such as the " gwiazda " (star), " gaik " (grove),the " turon," the decorative instinct of the people also reveals itself.The ribbons used in the decoration of some of the objects, althoughat present largely displaced by factory-made articles, none the lessbear designs that satisfy the artistic tastes of the peasants.

In summarising the nature of all the materials we have beenable to collect, we must emphasise the fact that throughout thewhole region of the Congress Kingdom one continually feels theconnection of these lands, from the earliest times, with the greathome of culture of the peoples of Mid-Europe. It is the influenceof Western currents of thought, sometimes caricatured and adapted,but distinctly felt at every step, that constitutes our separate positionin these lands. Here are but scanty relics of Lithuanian (Scandi-

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RUSSIAN POLANDnavian) from the north and Little Russian influence from the east.And the whole mass of our people is indissolubly bound up with themother of their civilisationWestern Europe. There is a completeabsence of Byzantine influence in the lands of the CongressKingdom.Throughout our country, now but a remnant of the oncepowerful Polish state, we are, as we have always been, the offspringof Western civilisation. Such was the fate allotted to us. Thisinfluence and connection, which we shall uphold with pride, isconfirmed alike by the art of our enlightened classes and by the artof our common people, and we intend to maintain it in the future.

(Translated by A. B. Boswell)

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478 PEASANT COSTUME FROM KIELCE


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peasant art in russia - 1912 charles holme 1848-1923

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