Peace and Conflict in West Peace and Conflict in West Africa: Dealing with ex-Africa: Dealing with ex-

combatants combatants in Sierra Leone and Liberia in Sierra Leone and Liberia

Walt KilroyWalt Kilroy

School of Law and Government, Dublin City UniversitySchool of Law and Government, Dublin City Universitywalt.kilroy@dcu.iewalt.kilroy@dcu.ie

The support of the Jesuit Centre for Faith and Justice and of Trócaire is gratefully acknowledgedThe support of the Jesuit Centre for Faith and Justice and of Trócaire is gratefully acknowledged..

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“In current usage... peacebuilding is an attempt, after a peace has been negotiated or imposed, to address the sources of present hostility and build local capacities for conflict resolution”.

- Doyle and Sambanis, 2006, Making War and Building Peace, Princeton: Princeton University Press, p. 22

Ways to “improve the prospects for peaceful governance” include:

• Strengthening state institutions• Increasing political participation• Engaging in land reform• Deepening civil society• Finding ways to respect ethnic identities

A definition of peacebuildingA definition of peacebuilding

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DisarmamentDisarmamentDemobilisationDemobilisationReintegrationReintegration

“Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration programmes are often at the nexus of peacekeeping, post-conflict peacebuilding and development”

- UN Secretary General’s report on DDR to General Assembly (2006: 8)

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Disarmament is the Disarmament is the collection, collection, documentation, control documentation, control and disposal of small and disposal of small arms, ammunition, arms, ammunition, explosives and light and explosives and light and heavy weapons of heavy weapons of combatants and often combatants and often also of the civilian also of the civilian population. population.

- UN Secretary General (2006)- UN Secretary General (2006)

Surrendered arms stored under UN peacekeepers’ supervision

Bunia, Democratic Republic of Congo,

May 2005

DisarmamentDisarmamentDemobilisationDemobilisationReintegrationReintegration

DisarmamentDisarmamentDemobilisationDemobilisationReintegrationReintegration

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Combatants from MODEL lining up to surrender their weapons as part of the DDR process in Liberia in 2004. (Photo: IRIN)

DisarmamentDisarmamentDemobilisationDemobilisationReintegrationReintegration

DisarmamentDisarmamentDemobilisationDemobilisationReintegrationReintegration

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Registration of ex-combatantsBunia, Democratic Republic of Congo May 2005

DisarmamentDisarmamentDemobilisationDemobilisationReintegrationReintegration

Demobilization is the Demobilization is the formal and controlled formal and controlled discharge of active discharge of active combatants from armed combatants from armed forces or other armed forces or other armed groups. groups. UN Secretary General (2006)

Involves registration in Involves registration in camps, and immediate camps, and immediate support packages.support packages.

77Bunia, Democratic Republic of Congo May 2005

DisarmamentDisarmamentDemobilisationDemobilisationReintegrationReintegration

Reintegration is the process by which ex-combatants acquire civilian status and gain sustainable employment and income.

Reintegration is essentially a social and economic process with an open timeframe, primarily taking place in communities at the local level.

- UN Secretary General - UN Secretary General (2006)(2006)

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DDR as an integral part of DDR as an integral part of the peace processthe peace process

Usually part of final peace agreementUsually part of final peace agreement Does not make agreement inevitable Does not make agreement inevitable Can be halted by return to hostilitiesCan be halted by return to hostilities ‘‘...an interplay, a subtle interaction, between the dynamics ...an interplay, a subtle interaction, between the dynamics

of a peace process’ and how DDR is implemented (Berdal, of a peace process’ and how DDR is implemented (Berdal, 1996: 73) 1996: 73)

11111111

What works well – and What works well – and doesn’tdoesn’t

Interaction with peace Interaction with peace processprocess

Building of confidenceBuilding of confidence Reduction in armsReduction in arms Children’s Children’s

reintegration and reintegration and rehabilitationrehabilitation

Women face greater Women face greater problems in problems in reintegrating, but are reintegrating, but are not catered for well in not catered for well in DDR programmesDDR programmes

Gaps in funding, Gaps in funding, delays in providing delays in providing benefitsbenefits

Finding livelihoods for Finding livelihoods for ex-combatantsex-combatants

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DDR in Africa since 1990DDR in Africa since 1990

Angola

Mozambique

Ethiopia

Eritrea

Namibia

Burundi

Sierra LeoneLiberia

Côte d’Ivoire

DRC

Sudan

KEY:Early casesRecentUnderway/proposed

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Sierra Leone chronologySierra Leone chronology

1700s: departure point for slave trade1700s: departure point for slave trade 1787: Colony for freed slaves set up1787: Colony for freed slaves set up 1808: Freetown (and later rest the country) becomes British 1808: Freetown (and later rest the country) becomes British

crown colonycrown colony 1961: Independence1961: Independence 1967: Military coup, and move towards repressive one-party rule1967: Military coup, and move towards repressive one-party rule

Corruption and poor governanceCorruption and poor governance Services for citizens decline Services for citizens decline Exclusion and poverty (including youth)Exclusion and poverty (including youth) Diamond trade run for benefit of elitesDiamond trade run for benefit of elites

1989: War starts in neighbouring Liberia1989: War starts in neighbouring Liberia 1991: War starts in Sierra Leone with RUF incursion from Liberia1991: War starts in Sierra Leone with RUF incursion from Liberia

Outside actors: ECOMOG peacekeepers, private military contractors, Outside actors: ECOMOG peacekeepers, private military contractors, and UK intervention (2000) to contain RUFand UK intervention (2000) to contain RUF

1999 July: Lome peace agreement signed with RUF1999 July: Lome peace agreement signed with RUF 2002: War declared over2002: War declared over

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Participation: What is it?Participation: What is it?

Chambers (1985, 1997)Chambers (1985, 1997) Concept still evolving, and is not uncontestedConcept still evolving, and is not uncontested Genuine involvement of beneficiaries in all stages of the Genuine involvement of beneficiaries in all stages of the

programme cycle: programme cycle: Deciding on needsDeciding on needs Planning interventionsPlanning interventions Implementing themImplementing them MonitoringMonitoring Evaluating the programmeEvaluating the programme

In reality, most work has been done on the later stages In reality, most work has been done on the later stages (M & E)(M & E)

Usually based in more stable communities than post-Usually based in more stable communities than post-conflict environmentsconflict environments

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““Ladder of participation” adapted from Pretty (1995)Ladder of participation” adapted from Pretty (1995)

Self-mobilizationSelf-mobilization People take initiatives independently of outsiders’ People take initiatives independently of outsiders’ involvement.involvement.

Interactive Interactive participation participation

Joint analysis, action plans and decisions on Joint analysis, action plans and decisions on resources, with strengthening of local institutions.resources, with strengthening of local institutions.

Functional Functional participationparticipation

People implement (esp to reduce costs) and make People implement (esp to reduce costs) and make smaller decisions.smaller decisions.

Participation for Participation for material incentivesmaterial incentives

People contribute land, labour, in return for People contribute land, labour, in return for benefits.benefits.

Participation by Participation by consultationconsultation

Consultation, but decision-making is not shared.Consultation, but decision-making is not shared.

Passive Passive participationparticipation

People are told what has been decidedPeople are told what has been decided

Manipulative Manipulative participationparticipation

A pretenceA pretence

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Participation: how it might Participation: how it might helphelp

Enhancing the sense of ownership at national and Enhancing the sense of ownership at national and community levelcommunity level

Addressing social capital Addressing social capital

Dealing with perceptions that those with guns are Dealing with perceptions that those with guns are being rewardedbeing rewarded

More relevant services for all, including marginalized More relevant services for all, including marginalized groups such as children, women, and the disabledgroups such as children, women, and the disabled

Promoting reconciliation and acceptance of ex-Promoting reconciliation and acceptance of ex-combatants, where the whole community can see that combatants, where the whole community can see that it benefitsit benefits

Building long term national capacityBuilding long term national capacity

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Key themes from Key themes from Focus GroupsFocus Groups

Life is very hard (economically) Life is very hard (economically) Problems with quality and duration of trainingProblems with quality and duration of training No jobs result, even if the training is completedNo jobs result, even if the training is completed Inaccurate information re the DDR programmeInaccurate information re the DDR programme Broken promisesBroken promises Little input to decisions on the programme, Little input to decisions on the programme,

apart from training/education optionsapart from training/education options Missing or misappropriated benefitsMissing or misappropriated benefits Corruption and cheatingCorruption and cheating Lack of confidence in the programmeLack of confidence in the programme

2020

Being listened to (both countries)

41

7

28

22

70

17

24

52

76

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

F1 Reintegration expla ined E3 Knew your needs E5 What you sa id have anyeffect

Yes , defi nitelyA bi t, to some extentNot at a l l

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““Nothing of what they promised, did they give Nothing of what they promised, did they give us.”us.”

““The problem lies with those who promised things The problem lies with those who promised things to us but did not fulfil. Benefits were expected to us but did not fulfil. Benefits were expected which we would have used to ensure support for which we would have used to ensure support for our families, and these were not provided. That is our families, and these were not provided. That is why my kids are all in the streets, so you can see why my kids are all in the streets, so you can see that my condition is terrible, I swear to God.”that my condition is terrible, I swear to God.”

““So really the disarmament process did not go So really the disarmament process did not go down well [with us], because they cheated us: down well [with us], because they cheated us: what was meant for us was not given to us.”what was meant for us was not given to us.”

- Three participants, Focus Group A, Bo, - Three participants, Focus Group A, Bo, Sierra LeoneSierra Leone

Focus group commentsFocus group comments

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Survey of ex-combatants in Sierra Leone (Sept Survey of ex-combatants in Sierra Leone (Sept 2008)2008)

Q: “If you were running a DDR programme now, Q: “If you were running a DDR programme now, what things would you do to help people feel what things would you do to help people feel included in the process, and have their views included in the process, and have their views listened to?”listened to?”

They should learn to fulfil their promises. It's a They should learn to fulfil their promises. It's a serious issue: (we) agreed to disarm fully, but serious issue: (we) agreed to disarm fully, but some have been abandoned. some have been abandoned.

I would be open with them and give them the I would be open with them and give them the opportunity to express their thoughtsopportunity to express their thoughts

I would try to know what they wantI would try to know what they want Try to encourage people to forget about the past Try to encourage people to forget about the past

and become a new person in societyand become a new person in society I will help the real people and not bribeI will help the real people and not bribe

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Q: “What would you avoid doing?”Q: “What would you avoid doing?”

TheftTheft Building up false hopesBuilding up false hopes CheatingCheating DeceitDeceit Corruption Corruption Marginalising and duping the target groupMarginalising and duping the target group Making bogus promisesMaking bogus promises

Survey of ex-combatants in Sierra Leone (Sept Survey of ex-combatants in Sierra Leone (Sept 2008)2008)

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Why there are problemsWhy there are problems

Short time frame for starting DDR programmesShort time frame for starting DDR programmes Many different actors, with varying agendas, Many different actors, with varying agendas,

capacities, and organisational cultures. capacities, and organisational cultures. Funding from disparate donors, who themselves Funding from disparate donors, who themselves

have a variety of perspectives.have a variety of perspectives. Lack of capacity and social capital in post-war Lack of capacity and social capital in post-war

environment.environment. Early stages (disarmament) do not lend Early stages (disarmament) do not lend

themselves to consultation.themselves to consultation. Engagement with commanders may be necessary Engagement with commanders may be necessary

but is problematic.but is problematic.

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Is participation possible in Is participation possible in DDR?DDR?

Ladder of participation is a useful tool for analysing Ladder of participation is a useful tool for analysing reintegration:reintegration: PowerPower AgencyAgency Social capitalSocial capital

Lower rungs of ladder are reached – at timesLower rungs of ladder are reached – at times Many obstacles, especially time constraintsMany obstacles, especially time constraints Children’s programmes showed more participationChildren’s programmes showed more participation Matter of degree (who, when, and how) Matter of degree (who, when, and how) More opportunities in later stagesMore opportunities in later stages It can point to greater ownership, sustainability, and It can point to greater ownership, sustainability, and

better outcomesbetter outcomes