PE - Anatomy and Physiology

Please make notes and then complete tasks 1-4.

Introduction

The skeletal and muscular systems are very closely linked and are often referred to as the musculo-

skeletal system. All sporting techniques, from the powerful executions needed in a game of rugby to

the smooth elegance displayed by a gymnast on the beam, require the skeletal and muscular

systems of our bodies to work together effectively and efficiently

Our skeleton provides the framework that allows movement to take place and our skeletal muscles

provide the energy to pull our bones and joints into the correct positions needed for different types

of physical activity. In this chapter we will look at the structure and function of both of these body

systems, which will help us understand how we move our bodies during physical activity. We will

learn to describe anatomically the movements that occur at the joints and to explain how these

movements take place in terms of the muscles in action and the type of contraction occurring. We

can then use this knowledge to carry out a full movement analysis for specific sporting techniques.

Towards the end of the chapter we will look at the role that muscle fibres play in their contribution

to movement by studying the different types of muscle fibre and seeing how each is adapted to suit

certain forms of physical activity. This activity could be very powerful such as that demonstrated by

Kevin Pieterson hitting a six, or more endurance based such as that required by David Walliams

when he swam the English Channel .Like all human structures, bones, joints and muscles can suffer

from disorders from time to time . These can be due to an injury caused whilst taking part in exercise

or a condition that has developed due to a lack of exercise. So, we will try to critically evaluate the

impact that an active lifestyle has in maintaining a healthy musculo-skeletal system.

EXAM TIP

Movement analysis is a very popular topic

about which examiners like to test your

knowledge. Make sure you are confident at

applying the knowledge you have gained in

this chapter to different types of sporting

movements. Remember that practise makes

perfect!

KEY TERMS

SKELETON

The bony framework upon which the rest of

the body is built. It provides attachments for

the muscular system and carries and protects

the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.

SKELETAL MUSCLES

This attaches to and moves the skeleton. It is

often termed striated muscle because it has

obvious stripes on it caused by the long muscle

fibres of which it is composed. It is also called

voluntary muscle because it is the only type of

muscle under our conscious control.

JOINT

A place on the body where two or more bones

meet.

The skeletal system: Introduction to the skeleton

The skeleton is the structure that gives us our shape, provides protection for our internal organs and

offers a supportive framework for the attachment of muscles therefore facilitating movement. Our

bones also act as a site for the production of blood cells and a store of minerals, particularly calcium.

The average human adult has 206 bones that are divided into two different parts, the axial and the

appendicular skeleton:

206 bones

AXIAL SKELETON APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Skull Shoulder girdle and upper limbs

Thoracic girdle Pelvic girdle and lower limbs

Vertebral column

You do not need to know the names of all the bones in the body but you do need to be familiar with

the main bones that make up the major joints that we use for movement. Use the diagram on the

next page to familiarise yourself with their names.

APPLY IT - The skeleton has five main functions: SUPPORT, PROTECTION, MOVEMENT,

BLOOD CELL PRODUCTION and MINERAL STORE. Give examples of how the functions of

the skeleton enable you to carry out your every-day needs and routine.

EXAM TIP

On your exam paper you will not be required

to label a skeleton but it is recommended that

you can identify the bones that articulate to

form the following joints: wrist, radio-ulnar,

elbow, shoulder, spine, hip, knee and ankle.

REMEMBER – The clavicle, scapula and pelvis belong to the appendicular

skeleton. It is a common error to link them to the axial skeleton.

KEY TERMS

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

The bones of the upper and lower limbs and their girdles that join to the axial skeleton

AXIAL SKELETON

This forms the long axis of the body and includes the bones of the skull, spine and rib cage.

LIGAMENT

A tough band of fibrous, slightly elastic connective tissue that attaches one bone to another.

It binds the ends of bones together to prevent dislocation

TENDON

A very strong connective tissue that attaches skeletal muscle to bone.

TASK 1

1. List the individual bones that make up the following regions of the skeleton:

Thoracic girdle

Shoulder girdle

Upper limb

Pelvic girdle

Lower limb

2. Classification of joints: Identify the joints numbered 1-8 in the diagram below and list

the bones that articulate to form each of the joints you have identified. Record your

results in the table:

Joint number

Joint name Bones that articulate Helpful hints

1

List three bones

2

This is an easy one!

3

List three bones

4

List only two bones – find out the names of the bony features that

articulate

5

Name the bones that make up the spine –

find out the five areas of the spine and the

names of the 2 bones at the top of the spine

6

List only two bones – find out the names of the bony features that

articulate

7

Be careful here! List only two bones

8

Tricky! List three bones, but not the

tarsals

TYPES OF BONE AND CARTILAGE

EXAM TIP

Your examiner is not going to directly test you on the detail of types of bone and cartilage. However,

you will need to have a basic understanding of the structure and growth of a long bone to appreciate

the condition of osteoporosis and to understand the occurrence of growth plate disorders. You will

also need to understand the role that articular cartilage plays in the degenerative disease of

osteoarthritis.

Bone is made of collagen fibres filled with minerals, mainly calcium salts. There are five types of

bone in the skeleton that are classified according to their shape. One of these types is the long

bone, which is longer than it is wide and consists of a shaft, called the diaphysis and two ends,

each called the epiphysis. The epiphysis is covered by articular cartilage that acts as a cushion to

absorb shock and also prevents friction during joint movement. It is one of the three types of

cartilage that we have in our bodies.

Children and young adults have a region between the diaphysis and each epiphysis called the

growth plate, which is responsible for promoting longitudinal bone growth until physical maturity.

Bones also contain cavities that are filled with bone marrow, which generates new blood cells.

Long bones have a large cavity in the diaphysis and a network of small cavities in each epiphysis.

TASK 2

1. A long bone is one of the five types of bone found in the skeleton. Identify and give

examples of the other four types of bones.

2. Articular cartilage is one of the three types of cartilage found in the human body. Identify,

outline the function and give examples of the other two types of cartilage.

REMEMBER

All bones of the limbs, except the patella and the bones of the wrist and ankle are long bones.

Even the bones of your hands and feet (metacarpals, metatarsals and phalanges) are long bones.

KEY TERMS

COLLAGEN

A fibrous protein with great strength that is the main

component of bone.

CALCIUM

The mineral stored in bone that keeps it hard and strong.

99% of the body’s calcium is stored in bone.

CLASS OF JOINT MOBILITY STABILITY EXAMPLES FROM THE SKELETON

DIAGRAM

FIBROUS

NO MOVEMENT

MOST STABLE

Joints between the bones of the

skull and between the

fused bones of the sacrum and

coccyx.

CARTILAGINOUS

LITTLE MOVEMENT

STABLE

Joints between the bodies of

adjacent vertebrae in the

cervical, thoracic and part of the

lumbar spine.

SYNOVIAL

FREE MOVEMENT

LEAST STABLE

Joints between the bones of the

arms and legs

KEY TERMS

DIAPHYSIS

The shaft or middle part of a long bone

EPIPHYSIS

The end portion of a long bone

BONE MARROW

Connective tissue found in the spaces inside bone that is the site of blood cell production

and fat storage.

GROWTH PLATE

The area of growing tissue near the end of long bones in children and adolescents, often

referred to as the epiphyseal plate. When physical maturity is reached, the growth plate

is replaced by solid bone.

ARTICULAR CARTILAGE

A thin layer of glassy-smooth cartilage that is quite spongy and covers the end of bones

at a joint.

JOINTS

Joints are links between the bones of the skeleton. They act to allow movement but also

work to stabilise areas of the body. Consider the action of kicking a football. The Knee of

one leg is allowing the lower part of the limb to swing freely while the knee of the

supporting limb is keeping the leg stable to maintain balance during the execution of the

skill.

REMEMBER

Freely movable joints are located in the limbs of the appendicular skeleton, while

immovable and slightly movable joints are more commonly found in the axial skeleton.

Joints are classified in three ways according to the balance that they allow between

stability and mobility.

EXAM TIPS

As PE specialists, we are mainly interested in joints that allow free movement as they

allow us to perform skills and techniques during physical activity. In preparation for your

exam, be familiar with all classes of joint but focus your study on synovial joints.

SYNOVIAL JOINTS

THE STRUCTURE OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

Synovial joints have four main distinguishing features, shown and analysed in the table.

FEATURE STRUCTURE FUNCTION

Ligament A band of strong fibrous tissue To connect bone to bone

Synovial fluid A slippery fluid the consistency of egg-whites that is contained within the joint cavity

To reduce friction between the articular cartilage in the joint

Articular cartilage Glassy- smooth cartilage that is spongy and covers the ends of the bones in the joint

To absorb shock and to prevent friction between the ends of the bones in the joint

Joint Capsule A tough fibrous tissue that has two layers, with the fibrous capsule lying outside the synovial membrane

The fibrous capsule helps to strengthen the joint, while the synovial membrane lines the joint and secretes synovial fluid

Ligament

A

P

P

L

Y

KEY TERM

JOINT CAVITY A space within a synovial joint that contains synovial fluid.

REMEMBER

Synovial fluid is also found within the articular cartilage. When the joint is moved

or compressed it seeps out to reduce friction between the cartilages. When

movement stops, the synovial fluid is reabsorbed into the articular cartilage. This is

called the weeping lubrication theory. It suggests that the articular cartilage acts a

little like a sponge in water.

APPLY IT

Discuss the importance of mobilising each of your synovial joints as part of a warm up

routine before physical activity.

As well as the four features in the previous table. Some synovial joints have additional

features which are shown below.

Shoulder joint –bursa

Knee joint – meniscus

Elbow joint – pad of fat

TASK 3

Synovial joints require a fine balance between stability and mobility. From your knowledge

of the general structure of synovial joints:

1. List two features that increase joint stability, giving a specific function for each.

2. List two features that increase joint mobility, giving a specific functionfor each.

TASK 4

Look at the shapes of the articulating surfaces of the types of joint explained in the table

above. Comment on the degree of stability and mobility in each type, giving reasons for

your answer. The information given in Table 4 on page 10 about joint stability might be a

usefulway to check your answers.

KEY TERMS

BURSA

A flattened fibrous sac lines with synovial fluid that contains a thin film of synovial

fluid. Its function is to prevent friction at sites in the body where ligaments,

muscles, tendons or bones might rub together.

MENISCUS

A wedge of white fibrocartilage that improves the fit between adjacent bone

ends, making the joint more stable and reducing wear and tear on joint surfaces.

PAD OF FAT

A fatty pad that provides cushioning between the fibrous capsule and a bone or

muscle.

TYPES OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

As we have seen, synovial joints have many common structural characteristics. However,

the shapes of the articulating surfaces within the joint capsules vary considerably and this

determines how much movement is allowed at a particular joint.

EXAM TIP

As well as the two synovial joints found in the spine, pivot and gliding, there is also a

cartilaginous joint found between the bodies of the adjacent vertebrae. You will need to

remember all three types of joint found in the spine for your exam and be able to give

examples.

MOVEMENTS OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS

The movements at any particular joint are possibly because of its structure and the skeletal muscles

that contract to pull the bone into a different position. It is important to understand that every

skeletal muscle is attached to bone at a minimum of two points on opposite sides of a joint. When

the muscle contracts across a joint, one point of attachment is pulled towards the other, causing

joint movement.

To allow us to describe the movements of synovial joints during physical activity, it is essential that

we have knowledge of the universally accepted initial reference position. This is the anatomical

position, which is the upright moves the same joint in the opposite direction and are standing

position with the arms by the sides and palms facing forwards. Movements have an accompanying

movement that moves the same joint in the opposite direction and are therefore best listed in pairs.

KEY TERM

PLANES OF MOVEMENT

A flat surface running through the body within which different types of

movement can take place about different types of synovial joint. There are

three main planes that describe the movement of the human body.

APPLY IT

See if you can find out the names and positions of the

three planes of movement.

Explain why the gliding joints and cartilaginous joints in

the in the spine allow only restricted movement in these

planes.

Discuss the potential dangers of forces acting on these

joints that would drive them beyond their normal range

of movement and suggest the types of physical activity

during which this might be more likely to happen.

TYPE OF SYNOVIAL

JOINT

EXAMPLES FROM THE SKELETON

DESCRIPTION MOBILITY

Ball and Socket

Shoulder (head of

humerous with glenoid fossa of

scapula)

A ball shaped head of one bone articulates with a cup like socket of an adjacent bone.

Movement can occur in three planes. This

joint allows the greatest range of movement.

Hinge Elbow Knee Ankle

A cylindrical protusion of one bone articulates with a trough-shaped depression of an adjacent bone.

Movement is restricted to

one plane. This joint allows bending and straightening

only.

Pivot Radio – ular Spine

(atlas/axis at the top)

A rounded or pointed structure of one bone articulates with a ring-shaped structure of an

adjacent bone.

Movement is restricted to

one plane. This joint allows

rotation about its longitudinal

axis only.

Condyloid Wrist Similar to a ball and socket joint but with much flatter articulating surfaces forming a much

shallower joint.

Movement can occur in two planes. This

joint allows the second greatest

range of movement.

Gliding Spine (between the

bony processes of the vertebrae in the cervical, thoracic and part of the

lumbar regions)

Articulating surfaces are almost flat and of a similar size.

Gliding allows movement in three planes,

but it is severely limited.

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