“Given” and “new” information

'standard' word order there is some psycholinguistic evidence to suggest that

second and foreign language learners acquire the standard word order before they acquire other sentence patterns.

In English, 'standard' word order: Subject + Verb + Object.

The cat ate the rat (subject + verb + object)

However, there are numerous other ways in which the semantic content of the sentence could be expressed. For example: 1. The rat was eaten by the cat. 2. It was the cat that ate the rat. 3. It was the rat that the cat ate. 4. What the cat did was ate the rat. 5. Ate the rat, the cat did. 6. The cat, it ate the rat.

One important consideration is whether the information has already been introduced into the discourse, or is assumed to be known to the reader or listener. Such information is referred to as given information.

new information is the one introduced for the first time. it is the speaker/writer who decides what information

should be considered given or new.

in English, the new information in a sentence or utterance generally comes last.

In the statement The cat ate the rat, the assumed knowledge is that the cat ate something and the new information is that it was a rat that got eaten.

There is a close relationship between discourse considera-tions and grammatical structuring in relation to given and new information.

if we provide questions to which the statement The cat ate the rat might be appropriate responses. We obtain:

QUESTION: What did the cat do? RESPONSE: It ate the rat. [Or, The cat, it ate the rat.]

QUESTION: What happened to the rat? RESPONSE: It was eaten by the cat.

QUESTION: Did the dog eat the rat RESPONSE: No, it was the cat that ate the rat.

QUESTION: Did the cat eat the mouse? RESPONSE: No, it was the rat that was eaten by the cat.

Theme and Rheme

It is essential to consider the prominence or importance that the speaker or writer wishes to give to different pieces of information.

Theme is a a formal grammatical category which refers to the initial element in a clause. It the element around which the sentence is organized, and the one to which the writer wishes to give prominence.

Rheme is everything that follows the theme. sentence Theme Rheme

The cat ate the rat. The cat ate the rat.

The rat was eaten by the cat. The rat was eaten by the cat.

It is essential to consider the prominence or importance that the speaker or writer wishes to give to different pieces of information.

Theme is a a formal grammatical category which refers to the initial element in a clause. It the element around which the sentence is organized, and the one to which the writer wishes to give prominence.

Rheme is everything that follows the theme. sentence Theme Rheme

The cat ate the rat. The cat ate the rat.

The rat was eaten by the cat. The rat was eaten by the cat.

It is essential to consider the prominence or importance that the speaker or writer wishes to give to different pieces of information.

Theme is a a formal grammatical category which refers to the initial element in a clause. It the element around which the sentence is organized, and the one to which the writer wishes to give prominence.

Rheme is everything that follows the theme. sentence Theme Rheme

The cat ate the rat. The cat ate the rat.

The rat was eaten by the cat. The rat was eaten by the cat.

It is essential to consider the prominence or importance that the speaker or writer wishes to give to different pieces of information.

Theme is a a formal grammatical category which refers to the initial element in a clause. It the element around which the sentence is organized, and the one to which the writer wishes to give prominence.

Rheme is everything that follows the theme. sentence Theme Rheme

The cat ate the rat. The cat ate the rat.

The rat was eaten by the cat. The rat was eaten by the cat.

Our dog, Rufus

Our dog, Rufus limped into the room. His back paw was red with infection, but he forgot all about it. When he was distracted by the snarling cat, he began to chase her, but his paw prevented him. It was throbbing painfully. He whimpered and turned to Sammy for comfort and attention.

Identify all the themes and rhemes

Theme/ topic (Starting point)

Rheme/ comment (new information)

Our dog, Rufus limped into the room.

His back paw was red with infection

but he forgot all about it.

When he was distracted by the snarling cat

he began to chase her

but his paw prevented him.

It was throbbing painfully.

He whimpered

and (he) turned to Sammy for comfort and attention.

Within the school of linguistics known as functional linguistics, three types of theme are identified - topical, interpersonal and textual.

Topical themes have to do with the information conveyed in the discourse. (e.g. the cat, the rat)

Interpersonal themes, on the other hand, reveal something of the attitude of the speaker or reader.

Textual themes link a clause to the rest of the discourse.

Example: Frankly, the movie was a waste of money. However, you

should see it and make up.

When moving beyond the sentence to discourse, the issue of f thematization becomes particularly important as the writer has to arrange information in terms of given/new and also in terms of desired thematic prominence.

sentence Topical Interpersonal Textual

Frankly, the movie was a waste of money. the movie Frankly

However, you should see it and make up. you However

The importance of theme/rheme structuring is illustrated in the following extracts. From two versions of Peter Pan.

The importance of theme/rheme structuring is illustrated in the following extracts. From two versions of Peter Pan.

1. All children, except one strange little boy, grow up one day. Wendy, knew she would have to grow up when she was just two years old. She was playing in the garden and picked a flower for her mother. Mrs. Darling saw her daughter running towards her and smiled because Wendy looked so enchanting. ‗Oh why can‘t you remain like this for ever!‘ she cried. (J.M.Barrie Peter Pan).

2. One day, all children, except one strange little boy, grow up. It was Wendy who knew she would have to grow up when she was only two years old. What happened was that she was in the garden playing, and a flower was picked by her for her mother. Enchanting, Wendy looked, and smiled, her mother did, because Wendy looked so enchanting running towards her. ‗Remain like this forever, why can‘t you?‘ she cried.

The importance of theme/rheme structuring is illustrated in the following extracts. From two versions of Peter Pan. Theme/ topic

(Starting point)

Rheme/ comment

(new information) All children, except one strange little boy

grow up one day

Wendy knew [she would have to grow up] she would have to grow up when she was just two years old She was playing in the garden And [Wendy] picked a flower for her mother Mrs. Darling saw her daughter running towards her and [Mrs. Darling] smiled because [Wendy looked so enchanting] Wendy looked so enchanting Oh why ….you can‘t remain like this for ever she cried

Theme/ topic

(Starting point)

Rheme/ comment

(new information) One day, all children, except one strange little boy

grow up

It was [Wendy who [knew she would have to grow up]]

Wendy who [knew [she would have to grow up]] she would have to grow up when she was only two years old. What happened was [that she was in the garden playing] that she was in the garden playing and a flower was picked by her for her mother. Wendy Enchanting, …..looked and…. her mother …. smiled, ….. did Wendy looked so enchanting [running towards

her]. [when Wendy] [was] running towards her […………] Remain like this forever why …… you?‘ …… can‘t…… she cried

In the altered version, the writer appears to be answering questions which have not been asked, and presupposing knowledge on the part of the readers which they cannot be expected to have..

Genre

Genre

Genre means “ kind “ or “ form” and it refers to major types of literature: poetry, drama & epic.

different types of discourse can be identified, by their overall shape or generic structure.

In the field of Applied Linguistics, genre refers to different communicative events which are associated with particular setting and which have recognized structures and communicative functions.

A genre comprises a class of communicative events, the members of which share some set of communicative purposes. （Swales，1990）

Examples of communicative events: e.g. Wedding ceremony? Concert? Sales encounter? Class lecture? Academic conference?

Genre

These purposes are recognized by the expert members of the parent discourse community, and thereby constitute the rationale for the genre.

language exists to fulfil certain functions and that these functions will determine the overall shape or ‘generic’ struc-ture of the discourse.

Genre

Question to consider: 1. What are the purposes of Wedding ceremony? 2. What is the rationale of wedding ceremony? 3. Are Western ceremony similar as that of Arabic ones in terms of rationale?

Genre

different types of communicative events result in different types of discourse, and each of these will have its own distinctive

characteristics.

MARRIAGE IS A JOURNEY

Example of genres and their main generic characteristics Food recipes (procedural text): • Title • List of ingredients • Procedure (set of instructions in imperative) • Redundant items are eliminated Recounts • A sequence of events with am introduction and orientation and events

in the past Newspaper articles • Title • Authors • Location • Argument • Supporting details • Agentless passive (it was revealed…) • Emotionally charged words (sensation, bungle, mercy, plea)