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Report to the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation

Logic Models and Outcomes for Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

By

Jacinta Bronte-Tinkew, Ph.D.

Zakia Redd, M.P.P.

Project Director, Kristin Moore, Ph.D.

September 17, 2001

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Executive Summary................................................................................................................................... 3

Glossary of Outcome Measurement Terms.............................................................................................5

Introduction................................................................................................................................................ 6

Background................................................................................................................................................ 6Why and how are youth entrepreneurship and vocational programs important for youth development?. 7

Prior research: A framework for assessing the relationship between entrepreneurship programs and youth outcomes................................................................................................................................ 10

What are the pathways through which entrepreneurship may be influenced?.......................................10

DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation- Youth Entrepreneurship Programs............12Youth Entrepreneurship Conceptual Model.......................................................................................................12What youth outcomes are most often influenced by entrepreneurship and vocational programs?.........13Youth Entrepreneurship Logic Model- Analysis and Recommendations................................................17Outcome Measurement..........................................................................................................................17

Summary, Integration and Conclusions................................................................................................18

Table 3.1: Summary Table of Youth Entrepreneurship Programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation....................................................................................................................19Figure 3.1: Conceptual Model of Entrepreneurship Program Outcomes for Youth...................................24Box 3.1: Summary of Outcomes for Youth in Entrepreneurship Programs...............................................25Table 3.2: DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation Youth Entrepreneurship Program Logic Model......................................................................................................................................................... 26Table 3.3: Outcome Measures for Youth Entrepreneurship Programs......................................................31

References............................................................................................................................................... 37

Youth Entrepeneurship Programs

Executive Summary

The primary purpose of this report is to provide a revised logic model and measurable outcomes

for the youth entrepreneurship programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation

(DCCYIT). The logic model was revised from the initial draft of the Board of Directors of DCCYIT using

the framework and terminology developed by the United Way Foundation of America.1 The report

combines both an academic and applied research perspective on youth development, and is intended to

complement, not duplicate in any way, the work that has already been completed by the DCCYIT in this

program area.

The report focuses on youth entrepreneurship and contains a brief overview of the research

literature that informs our conceptualization of the logic model and proposed outcomes. The proposed

outcomes cover a range of domains. Valid measures may differ by age and by the purpose of the

program. This report can be used as a tool by individual programs to determine which outcomes and

measures are most pertinent.

We recommend that funders and practitioners embrace modest expectations for some of these program outcomes; no single program strategy can accomplish all of the outcomes that these programs have been implemented to address. Also, though progress made can be substantial

over the long-term, expectations should be tempered regarding immediate change for any one outcome.

We urge programs of the DCCYIT to track appropriate outcomes in order to assess program

effectiveness. This process should help to improve program quality.

The outcomes identified here are not exhaustive, and they can be measured in many ways. The

indicators we have suggested range from simple to advanced assessments. What is easiest to document

may not be the most meaningful and accurate measure. In addition, outcome monitoring must take into

consideration the issues regarding the different data collection strategies required for children. A large

part of the decisions regarding which outcomes are monitored will depend on this factor as well as the

costs associated with the various alternatives.

Youth Entrepreneurship ProgramsThe nine youth entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT have varying degrees of

entrepreneurial activities, but all of them provide career, vocational and personal development

experiences for youth between the ages of 12 and 21. Although some of the programs target specific

demographic groups (e.g., disabled youth, low-income youth, minority youth, high school dropouts, single

mothers age 14-21), these programs share at their core the desire to prepare adolescents for a

productive and independent adulthood. Several outcomes for programs in this area may be used by the

DCCYIT for performance tracking. Initial outcomes focus primarily on changes in participants’ knowledge

1 United Way of America (1996). Measuring Program Outcomes: A Practical Approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America Press. See glossary of outcome measurement terms for details.

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

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and attitudes. Intermediate and longer-term outcomes are related to new skills acquired, educational and

economic achievements, and positive behaviors.

Initial outcomes for youth in entrepreneurship programs are expected to include increases in knowledge

and changes in attitudes with regard to the following:

Entrepreneurship

Work readiness and employability

Civic engagement

Interpersonal skills

Academics

Intermediate/longer-term outcomes for youth in youth entrepreneurship programs include increases in:

Life skills

o Problem-solving skills

o Interpersonal communication skills

o Technology skills

Employability and work readiness

Employment and earnings

Academic achievement

Educational Attainment

Positive interpersonal relationships

Civic engagement

Health status

Reduction in risky behaviors

o Low rates of youth crime and delinquency activities

o Fewer arrests

Positive psychological well-being

o Low rates of depression, anxiety and other mental disorders

o High rates of optimism and positive sense of self

We have selected these outcomes using a combination of theory and pragmatism. Many of these

outcome measures have established scientific validity and reliability, and are sturdy enough to provide

guidance to the practitioners of DCCYIT funded programs who wish to use them for assessment.


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Glossary of Outcome Measurement Terms2

Inputs are resources that are dedicated to or consumed by programs. Examples include facilities, staff

time, volunteer time, money, and supplies. Inputs also include constraints such as laws and regulations.

Activities are what the program actually does, using inputs, in order to fulfill its mission. For example,

providing classes for youth in order to disseminate knowledge/information about job preparation skills, or

providing entrepreneurship activities for youth.

Outputs are the direct products of program activities. They are usually measured by the amount of work

accomplished, for example, the number of entrepreneurship classes taught, or the number of youth who

participated in vocational activities.

Outcomes are benefits for the people served by the program during or after participation. Outcomes

include changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behavior, and can be divided into three categories:

Initial outcomes are the first changes for participants, and are very closely influenced by the

program. Initial outcomes are often changes in knowledge, attitudes, or skills. For example, an initial

outcome for youth who participate in an entrepreneurship class might be an increase in knowledge about

the requirements for the establishment of a new business.

Intermediate outcomes are the step between initial outcomes and longer-term outcomes. They

can be changes in behavior that result from the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. To follow from

the previous example, an intermediate outcome might be that youth are establishing their own businesses

or are self-employed.

Longer-term outcomes are the ultimate outcomes a program wants to achieve. They can be

changes in participants’ condition or status. For example, if an intermediate outcome is that youth are

establishing their own businesses, a longer-term outcome might be that youth are employed have a

sense of mastery and self-reliance, and are economically independent.

Indicators are used to help a program know whether the desired level of inputs, activities, outputs, and

outcomes are being achieved. They are observable, measurable changes, and they must be

unambiguous. For example, terms such as “adequate” and “substantial” (i.e., “participants show

substantial improvement”) are not specific enough, but finding a change in the number and percent of

participants achieving an outcome is specific and measurable.

2 United Way of America (1996). Measuring Program Outcomes: A Practical Approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America Press.


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YOUTH ENTREPRENEURSHIP PROGRAMS

Introduction

This section of the report provides revised logic models and outcomes for youth in

Entrepreneurship Programs. We describe why and how youth program interventions focused on

entrepreneurship and vocational training are important for adolescent development. We also describe the

pathways through which entrepreneurial and vocational training impact youth development, as well as the

outcomes that are most likely to be affected by such intervention programs. This theoretical review

provides a basis for the identification of outcomes for entrepreneurship and vocational programs that can

be tracked and monitored over time by the DCCYIT.

Background

The research on school-to-work transitions and youth entrepreneurship has consistently

demonstrated the usefulness and importance of job-readiness and vocational programs for youth

development.3,4 Data show that about 50 percent of high school graduates continue on to college, and

that 25 percent of those that do, actually obtain college degrees.5 Without any goals or sense of what is

required to achieve such goals, many young people end up jobless or in low-wage jobs with little

advancement opportunities. It is important for youth to be able to recognize and to create opportunities

and to be prepared for them when presented. Increasingly, policy-makers have also recognized the need

for youth to attain employment- readiness skills, an education that covers basic skills and prepares youth

for work. Such initiatives as the Future Entrepreneurs of America Act 6, and the passage of the School-to-

Work Opportunities Act 7, have also been introduced to empower youth. Other relevant policy initiatives of

the school-to-work transition include Education for All Handicapped Children Act, Rehabilitation Act, Carl

D. Perkins Vocational Education Act, and the Job Training and Partnership Act (JTPA).8

According to the Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey data, unemployment rates for youth

are much higher than rates for other age groups. Fourteen percent to 20 percent of youth aged 15-19 are

currently unemployed. Low-income youth as well as Black and Hispanic youth also tend to have much

higher unemployment rates.9 DCCYIT youth entrepreneurship programs address this unemployment,

and work-readiness issues through training and preparing youth for work.

3 National Research Council (1998). Protecting Youth at Work. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.4 Kourilsky, M.L., & Esfandiari, M. (1997). Entrepreneurship education and lower socioeconomic black youth: An empirical investigation. The Urban Review, 29(3), 205-215.5 Panel on High-Risk Youth. (1993). Losing generations: Adolescents in high risk settings. Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.6 The Future Entrepreneurs of America Act (H.R. 1331) was introduced in the 106th Congress to promote entrepreneurship education in grades 7 through 12.7 The School-to-Work Opportunities Act was passed in 1994 with the goal of reinvigorating entrepreneurship and vocational education programs which include coops, youth apprenticeships, and mentoring programs in which students participate in paid employment.8 Lowry, C. M. (1990). Helping at-risk youth make the school-to-work transition. ERIC Digest. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education.9 U.S. Department of Labor. Report on the Youth Labor Force. Revised, November 2000. Washington, D.C.: Author.


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The nine youth entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT have varying degrees of

entrepreneurial activities, but all of them provide career, vocational and personal development

experiences for youth between the ages of 12 and 21. Although many of the programs target specific

demographic groups (e.g., disabled youth, high school dropouts, low-income youth, single mothers aged

14-21), these programs share at their core the desire to prepare adolescents for productive adulthood.

DCCYIT programs provide opportunities and supports that help its participants gain the competencies

and knowledge needed to make a successful transition from school to employment or self-employment.

These experiences form a basis of knowledge about the function and operation of a business, help young

people develop new attitudes towards business and some level of familiarity and comfort with the

business environment. In addition to providing youth with the tools and skills needed to start their own

businesses or to find gainful employment, many of the programs have the goal of empowering youth by

enabling them to provide needed goods and services to the distressed, underserved neighborhoods in

which they live. DCCYIT programs provide a combination of training and employment opportunities for

youth, such as business start-up training and apprenticeships. They offer youth opportunities to work and

interact with caring adults in professional settings. Detailed summaries of these programs are provided in

Table 3.1.

Why and how are youth entrepreneurship and vocational programs important for youth development?

The existing research, though limited, shows that school-to-work, entrepreneurship and

vocational programs provide a variety of opportunities for youth.10 The research findings on the impact of

such programs on youth are few, and many programs have met with mixed success. 11 There is evidence

however, that if these programs are well organized, they can work to positively benefit youth. While

anecdotal information is available on the effectiveness of many entrepreneurship programs, rigorous

evaluations of the effects of entrepreneurship program participation on youth have yet to be conducted.

However, it is clear that these programs provide many opportunities for young people: for example, they

provide an environment for youth to interact with caring adults in actual work settings; they incorporate

training and on-the-job learning experiences; and they focus on the present employment needs in young

people’s lives, as well as on long-term career and life goals. Youth entrepreneurship interventions also try

to nurture other skills in youth, including leadership skills (e.g., planning and implementing projects,

positive risk-taking, and problem-solving), self-esteem and efficacy (a sense of being able to make a

difference), and teamwork.

As stated above, few evaluations of entrepreneurship programs have been conducted. However,

there have been rigorous evaluations of other employment initiatives targeted towards youth. Many of the

DCCYIT have activities that are vocational or employment-based, so we feel that these studies are

relevant to the DCCYIT programs. It is important to note, for example, that vocational educators have

10 Kourilsky & Esfandiari, 1997.11 Rasheed, H.S. (2000). The Effects of Entrepreneurial Training and Venture Creation on Youth Entrepreneurial Attitudes and Academic Performance. College of Business Administration, University of South Florida: Florida.


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come to recognize that starting a business is a natural outgrowth of vocational skills training.12 There are

also longitudinal studies that have examined short-term and early adult outcomes of adolescent

employment. Experiences from the field have shown that youth who are involved in vocational and

entrepreneurial activities through programs or in education settings may experience a variety of positive

outcomes:

Improvements in academic performance . Early evidence from New York City’s Career Magnet

Schools13 indicates that the schools give students a career focus and improve their achievement in

core subjects including reading and math.14 Similar evidence of improved grades was found in other

school-based programs.15

Increased problem-solving ability .16

Educational expectations . Students participating in the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects had

a higher percentage than those in a comparison group reporting that they expected to finish high

school. However, the same proportion of youth in comparison and program groups reported that they

expected to attend a post-secondary institution.17

Educational attainment . Youth employment appears to be a predictor of high school graduation,

however, it is not clear if this relationship is causal or if people who are highly motivated tend to work

while in high school.18 Studies evaluating the effect of program participation on student educational

attainment outcomes have had mixed findings, yet some are able to positively impact high school

graduation, GED attainment and/or college enrollment.19 It is possible that programs increasing

employment among youth may have no effect or even a negative effect on educational attainment

outcomes. Several studies indicate a positive relationship between moderate amounts of work (20

hours per week or less), and higher levels of subsequent educational attainment. 20

School attendance . School-to-work and vocational programs have been effective in increasing

school attendance. 21

12 Ashmore, M.C. (1990). Entrepreneurship in vocational education. In Entrepreneurship Education: Current Development, Future Promises. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.13 Crain, R. Heebner, A. & Si, Y.P. (1992, April). The Effectiveness of New York City’s career magnet schools: An evaluation of ninth grade performance using an experimental design. Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education.14 Jobs for the Future. (1995). Promising Practices. A Study of ten school-to career programs. Cambridge, MA: Author.15 Elliot, M.N., Hanser, L.M., & Gilroy, C.L. (2000). Evidence of positive student outcomes in JROTC career academies. Santa Monica, CA: RAND; Hughes, K., Baily, & Mechur, M.J. (2001). School-to-work: Making a difference in education. New York: Institute on Education and the Economy, Teacher’s College, Columbia University.16 Leffert, N., Sairo, R.N., Blyth, D.A., & Kroenke, C. H. (1996). Making the case: Measuring the impact of youth development programs. Minneapolis, MN: The Search Institute.17 Farkas, G., Sit, D., Stromsdorfer, E., Trask, G., & Jerret, R. (1982). Impacts from the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects: Participation, work, and schooling over the full program period. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Farkas, G., Olsen, R., Stromsdorfer, E., Sharpe, L., Skidmore, F., Smith, D., & Merrill, S. (1984). Post-program impacts of the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.18 D’Amico, R. (1984). Does employment during high school impair academic progress? Sociology of Education, 57, 152-164; U.S. Department of Labor (2000, November). Report on the Youth Labor Force. Washington, D.C.: Author.19 Jekielek, et al. (2001).20 Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2000). The relationship of youth employment to future educational attainment and labor market experience. In Report of the Youth Labor Force. US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://www.bls.gov/opub/rylfhome.htm21 Valiquette, E. (1998). State Strengthening Community Project Overview. Available (On-line) http: www. Reeusda.gov/4h/cyfar/stst/ctcom5ov.htm; Kemple, J.J. & Snipes, J.C. (1999). Career academies: Building career awareness and


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Practical skills . Such programs also improve skills in teamwork, problem-solving, money

management, decision-making, personal responsibility and public speaking.22

Growth in the development of leadership .23

Job readiness . Evaluations of entrepreneurship and vocational programs have shown that such

programs can contribute to positive outcomes among youth, including life skills, employment

readiness and skills.

Improvements in student’s knowledge of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial attitudes .24 The New

Youth Entrepreneur is an experience-based program for middle and high school age youth with a

curriculum that is anchored by core entrepreneurship concepts including opportunity recognition, the

marshaling of resources, and initiating a business venture in the face of risk. Programs such as this

have been known to enhance self-esteem and build positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship

among youth.25

Short-term economic advantages . Programs that provide employment to those who would not be able

to find employment are important. Findings on the short-term and long-term earnings and

employment effects of evaluated employment initiatives are mixed.26 However, clear evidence exists

that programs are able to increase short-term and long-term employment and earnings for various

disadvantaged subgroups, although such outcomes vary by program and by subgroup.27

Consistent gains in factual knowledge related to the actual experience .28 This experience encourages

young people to think about their future occupational goals as well as encourage reflection on issues

of greater significance for vocational development.29

Social development . Such programs have been know to contribute to social development and

maturity (e.g., a sense of social responsibility and political efficacy). 30 The performance of work place

tasks, in cooperation with adults, can promote a sense of contribution, being “grown up” and

egalitarianism.31

work-based learning activities through employer partnerships. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Cave, G. & Quint, J. (1990). Career Beginnings impact evaluation: Findings from a program for disadvantaged high school students. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Elliot, M.N., Hanser, L.M., & Gilroy, C.L. (2000).22 Valiquette (1998).23 Hamilton (1990).24 Walstad, W.B. & Kourilsky, M.L. (1996). The findings from a national survey of entrepreneurship and small business. Journal of Private Enterprise, 11(2), 21-32.25 Ibid.26 Jekielek, S., Hair, E., Moore, K., & Cochran, S. (2001). Employment initiatives and youth development: A synthesis. Draft Report prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, DC: Child Trends; Panel on High Risk Youth (1993).27 Schochet, P.Z., Burghardt, J., & Glazerman, S. (2000). National Job Corp study: The short-term impact of Job Corps on participants’ employment and related outcomes. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor; Burghardt, J., Schochet, P.Z., McConnell, S., Johnson, T., Gritz, R.M., Glazerman, S., Homrighausen, J., & Jackson, R. (2001). Does Job Corps work? Summary of the National Job Corps Study. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc; Farkas, et al. (1984); Kemple, J.J., Poglinco, S. & Snipes, J.C. (1999). Career academies: Building career awareness and work-based learning activities through employer partnerships. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Cave, G., Bos, H., Doolittle, F., & Toussaint, C. (1993). Jobstart: Final report on a program for school dropouts. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.28 Hamilton, S. (1990). Apprenticeship for Adulthood. New York: Free Press.29 Mortimer, J. T., & Finch, M.D. (1995). Work, family and adolescent development. Annals of Child Development , 11, 131-166.30 Hamilton (1990).31 Mortimer, et al. (1996).


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Enhanced social psychological development (self-esteem, ego development, self-efficacy) . Such

programs can not only help students see the relevance of what they are studying, but also helps them

gain the self-confidence many youth lack though their capability to accomplish tasks.32

Improvements in interpersonal relationships . Such programs can reduce the negative influence of

peers by exposing young people to constructive adult peer groups.33

Perceived health status . Early evidence from the National Job Corp program indicates that program

participants had significantly fewer reports of being in poor or fair health.34

In sum, there is substantial evidence that entrepreneurship, school-to-work and vocational

programs can positively influence youth development. Such programs can promote positive economic,

intellectual, social and psychological outcomes. These types of programs can have positive influences on

academic success as a result of “hands-on” experiences which help build self-esteem, feelings of self-

efficacy, leadership skills, interactions with others, and promoting an overall decrease in problem

behaviors.35 Youth entrepreneurship programs can also encourage career exploration, decrease overall

youth unemployment, and improve self-confidence.36 Although there is evidence programs have been

able to improve youth outcomes, much of the evidence of the effectiveness of past evaluated programs in

doing so is mixed. That is, the evaluated programs vary in their effectiveness in improving outcomes of

their youth and young adult participants in comparison to non-participants, and these programs vary in

their activities and in their target populations. It is also important to emphasize the point that longitudinal

youth employment studies can demonstrate a predictive relationship between such programs and youth

outcomes, but cannot prove causality.

Prior research: A framework for assessing the relationship between entrepreneurship programs and youth outcomes

What are the pathways through which entrepreneurship may be influenced?

The question of how youth entrepreneurship and job-readiness interventions affect adolescent

development is embedded within a broader set of issues about the nature of youth development, and the

growth of competence and responsibility during this phase of life.37 Employed teens may feel themselves

to be more dependable and responsible than those who are not employed and are perceived to be more

independent. 38 In general, vocational education during adolescence has generally been felt to be a

32 Lerman, R.I. (1999). Improving links between high schools and careers. In D.J. Besharov (Ed.), America’s Disconnected Youth: Towards a Preventative Strategy. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, CWLA Press.33 Lerman, R. (1996). Building hope, skills, and careers: Making a U.S. youth apprenticeship system. In I. Garfinkel, J. Hochschilld, & S. McLanahan (Eds.), Social Policies for Children (pp.136-172). Washington DC: The Brookings Institute.34 Burghardt, et al. (2001).35 Leffert, et al. (1996). 36 Leffert, et al. (1996).37 Steinberg, L. & Cauffman, E. (1995). The impact of employment on adolescent development. Annals of Child Development , 11, 131-166.38 Brown, B. (2001). Teens, jobs and welfare: Implications for social policy. Washington, DC: Child Trends.


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character-building exercise, and youth who work during this phase of life evidence changes in domains

such as self-reliance, self-esteem, and practical knowledge, while showing reductions in problem

behaviors such as delinquency and alcohol use. There are three major avenues through which potential

entrepreneurship may be influenced: self-perception as a potential entrepreneur; educational preparation;

and socialization.

Self Perception as a Potential Entrepreneur: One avenue through which entrepreneurship may be

encouraged among youth is through the creation of positive perceptions of entrepreneurship. Once young

people perceive themselves as having the potential to be an entrepreneur, the foundation for becoming

an entrepreneur is laid. Social psychological models39 have emphasized that a necessary preexisting

condition for becoming an entrepreneur is to be prepared to accept an opportunity. Some researchers

have found that preparation is the key element for developing potential entrepreneurs because

opportunities can be seized by individuals who are prepared to seize them. 40 One pathway, therefore, for

increasing the number of entrepreneurs is to increase the pool of youth who see themselves as “potential”

entrepreneurs. The supply of entrepreneurs can, therefore, be strongly affected by providing youth at

early ages with positive and self-enabling perceptions about their potential to be an entrepreneur. This

supports the realization that entrepreneurship may be feasible as well as personally and socially

desirable. 41

Educational Preparation: Entrepreneurship education is important at the pre-college ages and is

an important avenue for achieving impacts on potential entrepreneurs.42 Such programs provide a

business-management –oriented curricula and “hands-on” experience. The participants often construct

their own knowledge, make decisions, and bear the consequences of their decisions; to enable these self-

actuated processes, students are often guided through firsthand, real-world entrepreneurship experiences

by an instructor, who takes on a facilitator roles for the curriculum.43 Models of entrepreneurial potential

emphasize that education improves the perceived feasibility of entrepreneurship by increasing

knowledge, building confidence, and promoting self-efficacy 44. Such education and exposure also

improves the perceived desirability for entrepreneurship by showing youth that this activity is highly

regarded and socially desirable. When conducted at younger age groups in a supportive environment, it

increases youth interest in entrepreneurship, their preparation for it, and enhances self esteem.45 This

39 Shapero, A. & Sokol, L. (1982). Social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In C. Kent, D. Sexton, & K. Vesper (Eds). The encyclopedia of entrepreneurship (pp. 72-90). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 40 Krueger, N.F. & Brazeal, D.V. (1994). Entrepreneurial potential and potential entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18(2), 91-104.41 Walstad & Kourilsky (1996).42 Ibid43 Ibid.44 Krueger & Brazeal (1994).45 Kourilsky, M.L. (1995). Entrepreneurship education: Opportunity in search of curriculum. Business Education Forum, 50(10), 11-15.


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educational exposure is particularly important for at-risk and disadvantaged youth since in many cases it

provides entrepreneurial role models and opportunities to prepare youth to start a business. 46

Socialization: Career theories 47 emphasize that socialization plays an important role in

contributing to entrepreneurial careers. The schooling years provide a key opportunity to introduce

students to entrepreneurship as a career option and as an alternative to more traditional occupations.48

Socialization and education in entrepreneurship may therefore be of great value because they highlight

career options that may not be usually realistically considered. For at-risk youth, it may develop the skills,

knowledge, and attitudes that make youth more productive citizens, regardless of what occupation is

eventually chosen.49

DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation- Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Conceptual Model

Youth entrepreneurship and vocational education programs are built on validated models derived

from learning theory and based on the premise that education can be used as an intervention tool to

influence youth attitudes toward entrepreneurship as a career option.50 While research in this area is

limited, the foundation for the design of entrepreneurship and vocational programs are grounded in the

notion that if students can improve their motivation to achieve, their locus of control and self-esteem, as

well as demonstrate creativity, the more likely they are to avoid self-destructive behaviors such as teen-

age pregnancy, drug-abuse, violence and gang participation.51 Therefore, to be effective in preparing

youth for a changing society, vocational education and entrepreneurship education must be

complementary. Such programs offer students an incentive for thinking creatively about an industry, and

broadening their understanding of career opportunities.52 Entrepreneurship and vocational education

therefore provide students with the opportunity to learn that (1) although a job may be successfully

accomplished one day by performing a given set of tasks, different skills and strategies may be required

to tackle a new set of tasks the next day; and (2) because businesses are always changing, workers need

to find new ways to do a given job or new ways to do a given job better.53

The conceptual model that provides a simple framework of how program participation may lead to

positive outcomes is provided in Figure 3.1. As aforementioned, evidence exists that many program

goals are able to be achieved through the delivery of key training and services to youth and young adults.

46 Development Associates, Inc. (1993). Awareness and attitudes of minority youth and young adults towards business ownership. Report of the Minority Business Development Agency, U.S. Department of Commerce.47 Dyer, W.G. (1994). Toward a theory of entrepreneurial careers. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 19(2), 7-21.48 Kourilsy (1995).49 Walstad & Kourilsky (1996).50 Rasheed (2000).51 Ibid.52 Eric Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education. (1991). Vocational Education and Small Business Development. Digest No.118. (On-line) Available: www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed338899.html53 Ashmore, M.C. (1989). The power of entrepreneurial vision. Vocational Education Journal, 64(8), 28-29.


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As is outlined in the conceptual model, DCCYIT youth entrepreneurship programs provide entrepreneurial

training, vocational training, employment preparation and career services, academic support, and

opportunities to work with community business leaders and workers in a given field through shadowing

and mentoring relationships, and hands-on work experience. Through the provision of these services,

youth may be enabled to increase their 1) knowledge of how to start a business; 2) tools for searching,

gaining, and maintaining employment; 3) work readiness skills and employability; and, 4) educational

credentials and basic academic preparedness necessary for working successfully.

What youth outcomes are most often influenced by entrepreneurship and vocational programs?

There are a limited number of studies that have examined outcomes for youth in

entrepreneurship and vocational programs, although many proponents of vocational education have

argued that such experiences are generally positive for adolescents. The limited number of experimental

studies in this area makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions, however several domains that may be

influenced by such programs can be identified. In an effort to identify outcomes for youth that may be

influenced, we also borrow extensively from the literature on work and adolescent development. The

outcomes that we have identified may be short term or longer term in nature for youth.

Entrepreneurial Skills

Some studies have indicated that entrepreneurial training among youth can change the

psychological tendencies and propensities associated with business ownership.54 Students receiving

entrepreneurial training have been found to have significantly higher motivation to achieve, a higher

sense of personal control, a higher self-esteem, are more innovative, have more personal control and

higher achievement motivation. Studies have also show that actually starting a business as well as

experiencing entrepreneurial education increases creativity in students.55

Job-Readiness Skills

Research findings concerning work and practical skills indicate that young people may learn

practical skills and work habits from vocational programs as well as exposure to work. These are often

skills that are not usually acquired in schools, and include the development of interpersonal

competencies-a stronger sense of personal responsibility, learning how to deal with customers, how to

get along with co-workers, how to follow directions—and those involving knowledge of the world of work,

such as being able to find a job.56 Findings concerning work and money management are mixed.

Although some studies have shown that exposure to work may help speed the development of knowledge

54 Rasheed (2000).55 Walstad & Kourilsky (1996). 56 Steinberg & Cauffman (1995).


13

about money management and personal finances,57 in some cases, such wages may be spent on drugs

and alcohol.58

In the 1990s, the U.S. Department of Labor sponsored the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving

Necessary Skills (SCANS) to define the skills needed for employment, and propose acceptable levels of

proficiency.59 The development of these necessary skills among youth has become the focus of many

entrepreneurship programs. Work entails an interplay among a three-part foundation and five

competencies. The three-part foundation consists of basic skills, thinking skills, and personal qualities:

Basic Skills : Reading, writing, performing arithmetic and mathematical operations, listening

and speaking.

Thinking Skills : Thinking creativity, making decisions, solving problems, visualizing, knowing

how to learn and reasons.

Personal Qualities : Displaying responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management,

integrity and honesty.

The five competencies are:

Resources : The ability to identify, organize, plan and allocate resources (e.g., time, money,

materials, facilities and human resources).

Interpersonal skills : The ability to work with others (e.g., leadership, negotiation, work with

diversity).

Information : The ability to acquire and use information (e.g., acquire and evaluate

information, organize and maintain information).

Systems : The ability to understand complex relationships (e.g., to understand systems,

monitor and correct performance, improve and design systems).

Technology : The ability to work with a variety of technologies (e.g., select technologies, apply

technology to task).

At this point, it is still too early to determine the success rate of programs that have attempted to achieve

these outcome among youth in their programs.60 However, efforts in this direction are promising.

Economic Outcomes and Subsequent Labor Market Experience

Some studies have indicated that there is a positive relationship between youth employment and

subsequent labor market experiences. Outcomes in this domain are mainly short-term and are often

visible in the first few years immediately following graduation from high school.61 There is ample evidence

57 Jonston, Bachman, & O’Malley (1982).58 Greenberg, E. & Steinberg, L. (1986). When teenagers work: The psychological and social costs of adolescent employment. New York: Basic Books.59 U.S. Department of Commerce (2000). What work requires of schools: A SCANS report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, U.S. Department of Labor.60 Lerman (1999).61 Steinberg & Cauffman (1995).


that adolescents who acquire more work experience earn higher wages in subsequent years.62 For

example, the lack of work experience among young black males accounts for about half of the differences

between their wages and those of young white males, five years after graduating from high school.63

Other research has also pointed to the fact that first school year employment is associated with short-term

economic advantages, both with respect to earnings and the likelihood of employment immediately

following high school.64 In a recent study that assesses the impact of the Job Corp program, it was also

found that youth in this program generated employment and earnings gains. Impacts were found to be

similar for both males and females.65

Psychological Well-Being

There are inconsistent findings on the effects of work and job-readiness programs on youth

feelings about themselves and their competencies. Some studies report that work negatively affects self-

reliance and self-esteem,66 while others report different and positive effects for males and females.67

Several writers have suggested the impact of such programs on adolescent psychosocial development

may vary as a function of the characteristics of the adolescent’s employment.68 Some findings also show

that adolescent’s sense of mastery is influenced by the quality of work, although effects are different for

males and females. 69

Education and Academic Achievement

The early research on the effects of working on the educational outcomes of adolescents in

school has yielded mixed findings.70 In some cases, such programs reduce study time and school

aspirations for youth. 71 In other cases, such work programs have been found to foster high achievement

orientation in boys.72 Findings from the High School and Beyond73 study for example have shown that

work during the last years of high school affects such outcomes as going to college, high school

attendance, parent involvement, senior educational aspirations, and standardized test scores. Of 22

62 Pergamit, M.R. (1995). Assessing school to work transitions in the United States. Discussion Paper. Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (Report: NLS 96-32).63 Mortimer, J.T., Finch, M.D., Ryu, S., Shanahan, M.J., & Call, K.T. (1996). The effects of work intensity on adolescent mental health, achievement and behavioral adjustment: New evidence from a prospective study. Child Development, 67(3), 1243-1261.64 Mortimer et al. (1996).65 Burghardt (2001).66 Steinberg, L., Fegley, S. & Dornbusch, S. (1993). Negative impacts of part-time work in adolescence: Replication and elaboration. Developmental Psychology, 17, 304-313.67 Yamoor, C. & Mortimer, J. (1990). Age and gender differences in the effect of employment on adolescent achievement and well-being. Youth and Society, 22, 225-240.68 Greenberger, E., & Steinberg, L.D. (1986). When teenagers work. New York: Basic Books.69 Mortimer et al. (1992). 70 Bachman, J. G., Bare, D.E., & Frankiew, E.I. (1986). Correlates of employment among high school seniors. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.71 Mihalic, S.W. & Elliott, D. (1997). Short and long term consequences of adolescent work. Youth and Society, 28(4), 464-498.72 Stevens, C.J., Ruchtell, L.A., Ryu, S., & Mortimer, J.T. (1992). Adolescent work and boys’ and girls’ orientation to the future. The Sociological Quarterly, 33(2), 153-169.73 Marsh, H.W. (1991). Employment during high school: Character building or a subversion of academic goals? Sociology of Education, 64, 172-189.


outcomes examined in this study, 17 were significantly affected by working; all but one of these outcomes

were negative. In a recent study that examines the influence of the Job Corps74 vocational training

program on youth, it was found that this intervention increases educational attainment. Participants in this

program exhibited improvements in literacy and numeracy skills. Involvement in this program also

increased the receipt of GED and vocational certificates, although the program had no effects on college

attendance.

Risky Behaviors

Studies of the effects of work and mental health do not find strong effects on internalized distress

for youth.75 In general, youth who are exposed to work are neither more nor less depressed than non-

workers, once pre-existing psychological states are accounted for. Drug and alcohol use has however

been found to be higher among working than non-working youth, especially among those who work long

hours. 76 Several studies suggest that working may also be associated with increases in antisocial

behavior such as aggression,77 school misconduct, and minor acts of delinquency. This behavior may

also be a consequence of menial, repetitive, unchallenging work that is done in the absence of close adult

supervision.78 In a recent study that assesses the impact of the Job Corp program on youth, it was found

that this program significantly reduces involvement with crime. Participants had reduced convictions,

incarcerations resulting from a conviction, and crimes committed.79

Social Relationships

Little research has examined the effects of adolescent work on social relationships. However,

some studies have shown that working long hours distances adolescents from their parents and results in

diminished emotional closeness. 80 However, it is difficult to know whether these findings signify that

adolescents who seek autonomy tend to self-select into jobs that require long working hours, or if working

long hours, especially in settings where the young people are working mostly with adults, actually leads to

premature independence and decreased parental control.81 Also, we cannot assume that working and

participating in a youth entrepreneurship or vocational program will lead to the same outcomes. DCCYIT

programs that have young people participate in entrepreneurial training or activities in a group setting with

peers may have somewhat different effects on social relationships. These programs may encourage

parental involvement or try to enhance parental knowledge so that they may assist their children in finding

74Burghardt, J., Schochet, P.Z., McConnell, S., Johnson, T., Gritz, R.M., Glazerman, S., Homrighausen, J., & Jackson, R. (2001). Does Job Corps work? Summary of the National Job Corps Study. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.75 National Research Council (1998).76 Ibid.77 Ibid.78 Ibid. 79 Burghardt (2001).80 Manning, W.D. (1990). Parenting employed teenagers. Youth and Society, 22, 184-200.81 Steinberg & Cauffman (1993).


employment opportunities. In contrast, it may be expected that these programs would improve parent-

adolescent relationships if parent involvement in their child’s activities is increased.

It is important to note that youth entrepreneurship and vocational programs, such as those

sponsored by the DCCYIT, try to provide enriching experiences for young people in which they are

exposed to workers in the field who are caring adults who sought to work with or volunteer to teach young

people. DCCYIT programs provide mentors and shadowing opportunities for young people. Through

these mentoring and shadowing relationships, young people will be exposed to new opportunities and will

develop their personal contacts, which are important for attaining employment. Furthermore, research

has shown that caring relationships with non-parental adults can lead to positive outcomes for youth.

Young people who seek to participate in the youth entrepreneur programs may be considered to be

motivated, so participation in the program may improve the peer networks by connecting them with other

young people who are interested in participating in productive activities, such as learning entrepreneurial,

global employment, and academic skills. Although it may be expected that peer relationships outside of

work or outside of the program may be affected by program participation, the effect that a program may

have is unclear. One study, for example, found that working had little effect on the quality or quantity of

adolescents’ time with friends. 82 Again, we cannot assume that working and participating in a youth

entrepreneurship or vocational program will lead to the same outcomes.

Youth Entrepreneurship Logic Model- Analysis and Recommendations

The Youth Entrepreneurship logic model has been revised using the framework provided by the

United Way of America83 and is theoretically driven. The DCCYIT provided us with preliminary logic

models to which we added inputs, activities, outputs, and outcomes. Additional information required to

revise the logic model was obtained from DCCYIT program descriptions. Readers are advised to refer to

the glossary of outcome measurement terms for an understanding of the terms used in the logic models.

Similar to what was done for the identification of early childhood outcomes, and out of school time

outcomes, we have used a combination of theory, research and pragmatism to guide our choice of

outcomes and measures. In these models, youth outcomes are linked to program activities, goals and

objectives. The development of outcome measures in this field of research is rudimentary at best, so we

have identified few measures that have been evaluated (not using rigorous randomized trials.) The

revised logic model for youth entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT is presented in Table 3.2.

Outcome Measurement

The measures selected reflect the goals of the programs. Wherever possible, we have selected

measures with established validity and reliability, and for which norms are available. While some of these

82 Greenberger et al. (1980).83 United Way of America (1996). Measuring program outcomes: A practical approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America Press.


measures are currently being used in local and national studies, others are not. However, we recommend a wide range of measures, ranging from simple to more advanced assessments. What is easiest to document in terms of time and cost (e.g., knowledge and attitude changes concerning

youth skills, measured through the use of paper-and-pencil questionnaires) may not be the most

meaningful or the most accurate measure. For example, tracking changes in youth knowledge or attitudes

about entrepreneurship may not be as important as monitoring changes in entrepreneurial activity. We

therefore recommend outcomes that require various techniques for assessment, including standardized

tests, and youth reports of their own behaviors or attitudes. The measurement of outcomes may include

youth self-administered questionnaires, interviews with teachers, instructors and mentors, observations of

youth activities and interactions with peers/co-workers, and reports by independent observers.

Assessments of youth outcomes may include standardized tests, as well as multiple measures or sub-

scales of a single test. The more precise the measurement technique, the more valid and reliable, the

more well-known in the research literature, and usually the more costly. A description of selected outcome

measures is provided in Table 3.3.

Summary, Integration and Conclusions

The workplace represents an important setting for the development of youth. Vocational and

youth entrepreneurship programs represent an essential vehicle through which the economic self-

sufficiency of youth may be improved. Research on this topic is relatively new, and clearly further

empirical research is need to clarify some of the mixed result reported in many studies. It is challenging to

identify outcomes for performance tracking based on mixed findings. Our review of the small number of

evaluations of youth entrepreneurship programs provides preliminary support for the identification of

outcomes in the following domains: entrepreneurial skills; job-readiness; academic

achievement/performance; psychological well-being; risky behaviors; service activities; and social

relationships.

These outcome measures are consistent with the program’s overall objectives and the

mechanisms that are targeted for change. For outcome monitoring, we suggest combining information

from standardized assessment tools, staff (mentors) assessments, and participant feedback, to assess

outcomes.


18

Table 3.1: Summary Table of Youth Entrepreneurship Programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation

Program Program Objective Activities Population Served

Type of Intervention

Length/Intensityof Intervention

East of the River Community Development Corporation

To provide entrepreneurship training and employment for youth

Summer program offers: Training and employment in the fresh

produce market

Ward 8 youth Classes Field trips Buying and selling of

produce

6 week summer program

Chinatown Service Center

To provide services to Asian immigrant families. To teach students about computer basics, maintenance. To assist students with job searches and interviews.

Training in computer basics (word processing, spreadsheet and graphic presentations and applications)

Training in computer maintenance (troubleshooting, maintaining, upgrading of personal computers and small-scale local networks)

Training in job search and interview skills

Asian immigrant families and children. Families with limited English proficiency and low financial resources Goal of 20-25 students at a time, serving 140 students over the course of a one year period

Classes in computer labs. Job Skills/Interview Skills course (4 weeks).

WVSA Arts Connection To provide youth with disabilities training in applied arts, fine arts, basic technical skills. To provide training that improves functional literacy and that helps them to master employment skills and independent living skills. To enhance parents of program participants’ capacity to support their children in finding employment. To improve academic performance and work-readiness. To support community needs.

Develop Individual Objectives Plans Training in global work behavior,

work-readiness, and technology-oriented skills.

Fine arts training Business start-up training Apprenticeships Parent involvement Mentors Follow-up career planning and

placement services Business plan development (to sell

and distribute participant artwork) Assisted employment opportunities

within the WVSA cottage enterprise.

Youth with disabilities Ages 14-21 Up to 40 youth

TrainingApprenticeships with entrepreneurs and in businessesAssisted employmentPart-time employmentOne-to-five ratio (instructor-participant)One-on-one mentors

Intense 12 week training 12 week apprenticeships and 10 week part-time employment experiences Follow-up employment services

Brain Food, Inc. To improve academic Food Venture, a small-scale youth 10-40 students Classroom lessons Academic year


19




performance and to increase entrepreneurial and vocational skills and knowledge about food, nutrition, and cooking. To provide youth with a sense of belonging in the program and the community.

entrepreneurial food business, offers: Hands-on training in the food

business Business planning and business

development activities

Students ages 14-18 taught by local entrepreneurs using curriculum designed to teach entrepreneurial skills Hands-on experience

Summer Year round

Covenant House of Washington

To equip at-risk youth with transferable, marketable work knowledge, skills, and experience to increase their global employability and self-employment readiness. To increase educational attainment, academic achievement, community involvement, and health and well-being. To decrease crime and violence among youth. To contribute to economic development of the Anacostia/Congress Heights community

Woodworking classes Apprenticeship programs Formal entrepreneurship training Business planning and writing classes Placement of some youth in apprenticeship programs Developing strategic business and marketing plans for the CHW woodworking enterprise

Youth in Southeast (Anacostia/Congress Heights) Youth ages 16-21

Courses Training Job placement

Year round


20




Marshall Heights Community Development Corporation

To improve the economic, educational, and social status of the Ward 7 community and their inhabitants. To develop and expand employment/career/ business/ entrepreneurship opportunities. To create business development opportunities. To increase access to employment support networks, employment services. To increase employment skills and to improve job readiness. To increase employment and business startups among participants. To decrease involvement in risky behaviors.

Assessment On the job training (OJT) Job shadowing mentoring Business skills development Community service Vocational skills development Job readiness training Job placement Academic support or enhancement activities Arts exposure College preparatory services Entrepreneurial exposure.

Ward 7 youth (serving youth in Lincoln Heights, Benning Terrace, East Capitol Dwellings, Stoddert Terrace, Marshall Heights neighborhoods so far) Ages 14-21 200 youth

Classes Training Mentoring Hands-on

experience

Year round

Columbia Heights Youth Club

To provide a safe, nurturing environment to youth enhancing their social, physical, and intellectual growth. To expose youth to health careers and health practitioners. To enhance reading skills, comprehension, critical thinking, verbal presentation skills. To increase high school completion, college readiness, college entrance. To increase knowledge of youth and their families about health related topics.

Focus on Health programs: Development and implementation of health promotion and/or disease prevention project. Shadowing health professional

25 youth Ages 14-18 Columbia Heights youth

ShadowingHands-on experience

Rigorous 5 week exposure programs


21




Lydia’s House To provide technology-based entrepreneurial training, personal development experiences. To provide students with access to technology and business support. To expose youth to career options. To increase employability, work and self-employment. To improve student self-esteem, reduce youth violence and school absenteeism, increase educational attainment into post-secondary education. To increase entrepreneurial opportunities among youth with disabilities.

Tech Zone program offers: Biz Tech: online learning system teaches entrepreneurship, information technology and workplace concepts. Technology training (basic computer literacy, resume and job preparation, operating systems, networks, hardware, computer productivity, HTML website design, internet project). Youth leadership training with a focus on school to work transition Training on the principles of economics Develop business plans

Ages 14-21 180 Youth

20 students in each training session.Classroom with computers

Two training sessions are held per quarter

Class held from 8:30-12:00 and from 6:30-8:30

Wider Opportunities for Women

To help low-income, disadvantaged young women with children achieve economic independence and equality of opportunity.To place participants in high-wage employment.

Keys to the Future program offers: Intake and assessment Skills assessment Career services Pre-vocational training Job placement, retention, follow-up services Stipends for books and college tuition Individual Development Accounts/ financial literacy training MELD/Even Start services Crisis intervention and consultation Access to T-PACE, abuse prevention and parenting program 23 hour child care program

Fort Totten area youth At-risk youth (low literacy skills, school dropouts, homeless, runaways, foster children, pregnant teenagers, offenders) Low-income single parents Young women ages 14-21 and their families Group of 50 receives different services

Individualized support T-PACE, abuse prevention program lasts for 10 weeks.

Source: Program descriptions from the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust corporation website (www.cyitc.org)


22

Conceptual Model of Entrepreneurship Program Outcomes for Youth

The model presented in Figure 3.1 identifies outcomes for youth participating in Youth Entrepreneurship Programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation.

The large circle in the model represents program elements that are provided to youth by the various Youth Entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT.

The two smaller rectangles in the model represent short/intermediate and long-term outcomes for youth.


23


24


25

Box 3.1: Summary of Outcomes for Youth in Entrepreneurship Programs

Initial/ Intermediate

Work readiness and employability attitudes and skills

Civic engagement attitudes

Interpersonal skills

Academic attitudes and knowledge

Longer-term

Life skills

o Problem-solving skills

o Interpersonal communication skills

o Technology skills

Employability and work readiness

Employment and earnings

Academic achievement

Educational Attainment

Have positive interpersonal relationships

Civic engagement

Health status

Reduction in risky behaviors

o Low rates of youth crime and delinquency

o Fewer arrests

Positive psychological well-being

o Low rates of depression, anxiety and other mental disorders

o High rates of optimism and positive sense of self


26

Table 3.2: DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation Youth Entrepreneurship Program Logic Model

Bolded items are from the original DC Trust model. Non-bolded items are Child Trends’ additions.


27

Inputs Activities Outputs OutcomesInitial Intermediate Longer-term84

Program staff, materials, equipment, and other non-personal services

Youth ages 14-21 from low-income families

Funding, resources

Infrastructure in place (e.g., space in buildings)

Mentors

Health and business professionals (for shadowing)

Tutors/Trainers

Constraints on the program:

Language barriers

Outreach to bring youth into the program

Assessment of the needs and interests of youth in the program

Education and training to youth in how to develop and operate a small business

Connecting youth with supportive services in the community

Providing mentoring and guidance from local business leaders

Providing seed grants or micro business loans to youth for starting their own businesses

Instructing youth in personal financial planning

Entrepreneurial training

Apprenticeships/job shadowing opportunities

Classes on financial management, principles of economics

Training in research, product development, and marketing

Youth are brought into the program through outreach efforts

Youth are instructed in how to develop and operate a small business

Youth participate in mentoring sessions with local business leaders

Small business are started by youth individually or as a group

Seed grants and loans are provided to youth to start their own businesses

Youth are instructed in personal financial planning

Number of sessions conducted on entrepreneurship program activities

Number of participants served in entrepreneurship program activities; and percentage of activities attended

Number of sessions conducted on the planning and operation of a small business

Number of participants served in sessions on the planning and operation of a

In-school youth in the program:

Youth increase the hours that they are in a safe environment during out-of-school time

Out-of-school youth in the program:

Youth increase the hours that they are participating in an educational or career developmental activity

All youth in the program:

Youth participate in the planning and operation of a small business

Youth increase their knowledge of starting and operating their own business

Youth increase their knowledge of personal finance

Youth are knowledgeable about how to develop a businesses

Youth are knowledgeable about how to write a business plan

Youth are knowledgeable about financial management

In-school youth in the program:

Youth are getting better grades in school

Youth school attendance is improved

Out-of-school youth in the program:

Youth increase enrollment in GED or other education programs

All youth in the program:

Youth plan and start their own businesses

Youth career competencies are enhanced and SCANS85 skills are improved

Youth are participating more in civic life

Youth exhibit an increase in customer service skills, interpersonal communications skills

Youth exhibit an increase in employment and self-employment

Youth experience an increase in earnings

Youth experience a decrease in unemployment levels (increased employment and job retention)

Increased enrollment in GED or other educational programs

Decreased youth crime, as evidenced by contact with juvenile justice system

Increased school attendance (for in-school youth)

Improved school grades and standardized test scores (for in-school youth)

Increased school advancement from grade to grade (for in-school youth)

Decreased teen pregnancy

Youth are self-employed, develop their own strategic business, marketing plans, and start their own businesses

Youth exhibit a healthy work self-concept

Youth are economically self-sufficient

Youth are psychologically well-adjusted

Youth have improved health status

Youth possess practical skills and job readiness characteristics—--SCANS skills ( possess the knowledge, skills and experience necessary to increase their employability)

85 U.S. Department of Commerce. (2000). What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, U.S. Department of Labor.


28

Inputs Activities Outputs OutcomesInitial Intermediate Longer-term

small business; and percentage of activities attended


29

Inputs Activities Outputs OutcomesInitial Intermediate Longer-term

Training in business planning and writing

Training and hands-on experience in specific trade or business field (health, woodworking, technology, arts)

Community service and involvement activities

On-the-job training (providing hands-on experience)

Classes on computers (word processing, etc.)

Parental involvement and training

Career/ employment services (job search, job placement, interview skills)

Classes on work concepts, employment skills (promptness, professionalism, etc.)

Academic assistance for youth in school to ensure competency in basic skills

Provision of stipends for school/ training

Number of participants attending sessions on employment activities; and percentage of activities attended

Number of sessions conducted on employment activities

Number of sessions conducted on youth employment/ entrepreneurship training activities

Number of participants served in youth employment/ entrepreneurship training activities; and percentage of activities attended

Number of youth served in sessions on business planning and writing and the development of strategic business and marketing plans; and percentage of activities attended

Number of sessions conducted on business planning and writing and the development of strategic business and marketing plans

Number of sessions conducted on computer basics, maintenance and job search and interview skills

Number of youth

Youth have knowledge of work-related concepts (professionalism, etc.)

Youth have knowledge of social networks and community resources (business networks, contacts)

Parents of participants are knowledgeable about and involved in youth activities

Youth are knowledgeable about employment opportunities in the health field, fresh produce market and other fields to which they are gaining exposure

Youth are knowledgeable about classes in computer basics, maintenance and training and job search and interview skills

Youth are knowledgeable about training opportunities in youth employment/ and entrepreneurship training activities

Youth are knowledgeable about training opportunities in technology, fine arts, business start up, follow-up career planning and placement, global work behavior, and work readiness

Youth are knowledgeable about training and employment opportunities in the fresh produce market, food, and

Youth experience an increase in basic academic skills

Youth exhibit an increase in computer skills

Youth exhibit an increase in interview skills

Youth exhibit an increase in employability/ work readiness (SCANS skills)

Youth exhibit an increase in positive risk-taking skills

Youth are increasing their associations with positive peers involved in productive activities

Youth exhibit an increase in motivation

Youth exhibit an increase in leadership skills

Youth have increased earnings (for programs offering paid training and hands-on experience)

Youth experience increased levels of employment

Youth are becoming involved in their communities

Youth are taking advantage of employment opportunities in the fresh produce market

Youth increase their use of computers, training, job search and interview skills

Youth are increasing their use of relevant support networks

Youth are developing healthy social relationships

Youth are performing academically and have improved educational outcomes

Youth exhibit reduced risky behaviors

Youth exhibit self-esteem, a sense of mastery and self-reliance

Youth complete high school

Youth are employed; employable and economically independent

Youth use the necessary channels to be used in seeking employment; and becoming self-employed

Youth use relevant job search and interview skills to obtain employment

Youth are involved in community service

Youth are preparing for college


30

Program activities were based on information from the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation web site (www.cyitc.org).


31

Table 3.3: Outcome Measures for Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

OUTCOME MEASURE DESCRIPTION

INITIAL OUTCOMESYouth gain knowledge and competency in the following domains:Entrepreneurship Enumeration of youth knowledge of entrepreneurial

principles and processes.Measures youth perception of small business; knowledge about competitive markets and government; comparisons between small and large businesses; interest in starting a business; and comparisons between small and large businesses; know how to write a business plan, conduct a market search, etc.; self report

Career service resources Enumeration of knowledge of career services resources

Measures knowledge of career services resources; self report

Finance Enumeration of youth knowledge of various facets of economics and finance

Measures personal finance knowledge, knowledge of business financial management, and knowledge of economic principles; self report

Safety Measure of perceived safet.Source: Add Health Survey

Measures feelings of safety during out-of-school hours; self report

Productive use of time Enumeration of time spent in productive activities; Source: National Household Education Survey (NHES), Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC)

Measures the number of hours spent in productive activities (educational, work preparation, community service, work); self report

Employment readiness (knowledge of workplace concepts)

Measure of knowledge of workplace concepts Measures how prepared they are for entering the workforce given their knowledge of workplace concepts and job expectations. Measures knowledge about steps needed to take to reach goals (work experience, ed. requirements, training); self report

Community network resources Measure of knowledge of community resources; Source: Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC)

Measures knowledge about community resources and knowledge of business networks; self report

Job search skills Measure of knowledge of how to conduct a job search Measures how to research jobs, prepare for interviews, fill out applications, interview techniques; self report

Community needs for goods and services

Measure of knowledge of community needs for goods and services.Source: Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC)

Measures knowledge of community needs for goods and services; self report

Training and employment opportunities

Measure of knowledge of training and employment opportunities

Measures knowledge of training and employment opportunities that are available; self report

Opportunities for academic support or academic enhancement

Measure of knowledge of academic support and enhancement activities opportunitiesSource: Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC)

Measures knowledge of academic support or enhancement activities available in a certain region; self report

Computer basics Measurs of knowledge of basic computer functioning.Source: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) Functional Information Technology Test and Computer Attitude Test (FITT)86

Measure given to 14 year olds to measure practical computer knowledge; self-administered

Social services Measure of knowledge of the availability of social services

Measures knowledge about family and social services available in a certain region (about financial aid, parenting and other courses offered, child care services, crisis services); self report

Leadership training opportunities Measure of knowledge of leadership training opportunities

Measures knowledge of leadership training opportunities; self report

Knowledge about specific field of training

Measure of knowledge about the specific field in which they are being trained

Measures knowledge about the specific field in which they are being trained (technology, health, woodworking, food produce/ markets); self report

86 Redd, Z. (2001). Computer technology skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.

32


INTERMEDIATE/LONGER-TERM OUTCOMESENTREPRENEURSHIP/JOB- READINESS SKILLS: Youth are developing their own strategic businesses, marketing plans, and starting their own businessesEntrepreneurship participation Measure of youth participation in entrepreneurial

activities Measures youth participation in a small business or youth business ownership; self report

Initiative Measure on Initiative.Source: Response Decision Instrument (RDI)

Measure of youth perception of initiative; self report

Motivation Measure on motivation.Source: Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI)

Measure of intrinsic motivation; self report

Self-reliance Measure of self-reliance.Source: Perceived competence scale (PCS).

Measure of perceived competence; self report

Goal setting skills Measures of goal setting.Source: Perceived competence scale (PCS).

Measure of perceived competence and goal-setting; self report

Analytical thinking skills Measures of youth perception of their analytical skills; opportunities for use of analytical skills

Self-report

Self-efficacy Measures of self-efficacy.Source: Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ)

Measure of self-efficacy; self report

Self-concept of ability Measures of self-concept.Source: Self Perception Profile of Ability (SPPAI)

Measure of self-concept; self report

Autonomy Enumeration of youth perception of their autonomy; opportunities to be autonomous

Self report

Time management skills Enumeration of youth perception of their management skills; opportunities to manage

Self report

Leadership skills Enumeration of youth perception of their leadership skills; opportunities for use of leadership skills

Self report

Financial management skills Enumeration of youth perception of their financial management skills; opportunities for use of financial management skills

Self report

Problem-solving skills Enumeration of youth perception of their problem solving skills; opportunities for use of problems solving skills

Self report

Positive risk-taking Enumeration of youth perception of their risk-taking skills; opportunities for risk taking

Self report

Critical Thinking skills Enumeration of youth perception of their critical thinking skills; opportunities for critical thinking

Self report

Computer skills Measures of computer skills.Sources: International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) Functional Information Technology Test and Computer Attitude Test (FITT)87

Measure given to 14 year olds to measure practical computer knowledge; self report

Computer use Enumeration of youth access and use of computers88: location-school, home, otherfrequency-number of days used in past week, month; purpose-homework completion, research, games, etc. type-internet, word processing, etcSource: Census October Current Population Survey (CPS)

Measure given to youth to provide information on access to and use of computers; self report

Work habits (professionalism) Enumeration of promptness, proper dress, hygiene, behavior in workplace setting

Self-report and ratings by program staff or person supervising the young person’s work in apprenticeship, internship, etc.

Mastery and Coping Measure of coping skills.Sources: Mastery and Coping Sub-scale (MCS), from the Self Image Questionnaire for Young Adolescents

Attitudinal measure of self-worth and self confidence; self report

Work experience Enumeration of youth of years or months of prior work experience

Self report of young adults

Employment Enumeration of youth of their employment status (employment status, number of months, years working or unemployed)

Self report of young adultsThe employment measures are appropriate for all adults’ aged 16 and older, regardless of school or work status.

87 Redd, Z. (2001). Computer technology skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.88 Redd, Z. (2001). Computer technology skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.

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Job search skills (resume/cover letter writing, interviewing skills, research skills)

Enumeration of youth use of resumes, cover letters, interviews and job search skills to obtain employment


Self-employed/ business owner Enumeration of youth who are self-employed Self-report of young adultsEarnings Enumeration of youth earnings Self report of young adults (Earnings: Wages,

salary, fringe benefits gained through employment)

Productive activity Enumeration of youth currently working, in school, and/or in jobs and routine activities


PRACTICAL SKILLS- Youth Exhibit SCANS skills89

Basic Skills: Reading, writing, performing arithmetic and mathematical operations, listening and speaking; Thinking Skills: Thinking creativity, making decisions, solving problems, visualizing, knowing how to learn and reasons; Personal Qualities: Displaying responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management, integrity and honesty.Basic SkillsReading Enumeration of youth beliefs about reading ability Measure of perceived ability, natural talent,

value/interest, performance, expectations; self report

Writing Enumeration of youth beliefs about writing ability Measure of perceived ability, natural talent, value/interest, performance, expectations; self report

Performing mathematical operations Enumeration of youth beliefs about mathematics Measure of perceived ability, natural talent, value/interest, performance, expectations; self report

Thinking SkillsCreativity Measure of youth beliefs about creativity; Participation

in creative activities (music, theater, and other activities)

Measure of perceived ability, natural talent, value/interest; self report

Decision making Measure of youth beliefs about decision making; Attitudes about being involved in decision-making

Measure of perceived ability to make correct decisions; self concept of ability; self report

Solving problems Measure of youth beliefs about the ability to solve problems

Measure of perceived ability to solve problems; self concept of ability; self report

Personal QualitiesResponsibility Enumeration of youth beliefs about their levels of

responsibility; management of tasks/choresMeasure of responsibility; Time log; self report

Self-esteem Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory;Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

Measure of youth self-esteem; self report

Sociability Enumeration of youth who have difficulty working with other children; Knowledge of and respect for other groups

Self report of youth behavior

Self-management Measure of youth beliefs about their perceived self-management

Measure of perceptions of self management; self report

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT/PERFORMANCE:Youth exhibit improved academic performance and educational outcomes; complete high school and prepare for collegeEducational Attainment Educational Attainment Measure;

Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 199790 Measure assesses school enrollment status, number of years of school completed, attainment of certificates and higher degrees; school records; self report

Arts participation, skills, and knowledge

Measure of arts assessment covers participation, skills and knowledge.Source: National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP).91

From the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), measure developed to track arts skills, knowledge and exposure to arts education among school-aged youth; self report

Academic achievement Academic achievement.Source: Metropolitan Achievement Test92

An assessment of school achievement. Tests in reading, comprehensive, mathematics, and language. For grades K-12. Examiner administered; grades

Academic skills Academic skills and achievement.Source: Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills93

For K-12th graders, covers basic academic subjects and is used to measure skills of students within states.

Academic achievement Academic achievement. Covers basic subjects and used to measure

89 U.S. Department of Labor. (2000). What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. Washington, DC: Author.90 Redd, Z. (2001). Educational attainment. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.91 Redd, Z. (2001). Arts participation, skills, and knowledge. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.92

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Source: Stanford Achievement Tests 9th Series edition (SAT-9 or Stanford 9)94

skills of students within states

Grade Repetition Measure of grade repetition.Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health

A survey designed to measure a wide variety of health related and other factors among adolescents in grades 7-12. Data are collected from parents, students, and schools administrators.

Grade Repetition Measure of grade repetition.Sources: National Household Education Survey (NHES);Panel Study of Income Dynamics-Child Supplement (PSID-CS).95

Data are collected from parents, students, and school administrators. Includes questions on whether a student repeated a grade in school.

Suspended/Expelled Enumeration of suspensions and expulsions. Parent/teacher/child report.School records.

School functioning School functioning.Source: Child classroom adaptation Index (CCAI)

An 11-item rating scale measuring children’s functioning and performance in the classroom. Teacher self-administered.

School Engagement School Engagement Scale.Source: National Survey of American Families (NSAF)96; Survey of Program Dynamics (SPD)

Revised scale of the Rochester Assessment Package for the National Survey of America’s Families (parent report) and the Survey of Program Dynamics (child report); for children 6 to 17 years of age; four items assess degree to which student cares about and puts effort into his or her schoolwork

Homework Completion Questions on whether the child always does his or her homework; questions on number daily and weekly hours spent on homework in each week, youth completion of homeworkSource: Rochester assessment package for school students (RAPS-S)97

RAPS-S includes a parent report variable on whether the child always does his or her homework; school engagement scales measure quality of homework and other schoolwork.

Academic Self Concept Questions on specific subject and general academic self-concept.98

Source: Harter’s Self-perception profile for Adolescents

This four-item questionnaire assesses individuals’ perceptions about the competence within a given academic domain. The scale can be used to assess academic self-concept in any academic subject (e.g., math, English, science). The responses are provided on a six-point Likert scale ranging from True to False. It has been used with children in grades 7-12, but may be adaptable. Self report

Harter’s Self-perception profile for Adolescents assesses students’ general academic self-concept. It is recommended for use with 9th to 12th graders

Suspended/Expelled Enumeration of suspensions and expulsions. Parent/teacher/child report of suspensions/ expulsions.School records.

College Preparation Measure of participation in college preparation activities and readiness

Measures participation in college preparation activities; measures steps taken to prepare for college; self report

Parental involvement in adolescent learning

Enumeration of parents who have contacted their children’s teachers of schools for any reason having to do with their children

Parent/ teacher/child interview

PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING:Youth exhibit increases in self-esteem, a sense of mastery, self-reliance and positive identity formationSocial identity Social Identity subscale.

Source: Multigroup Ethnic Identity MeasureMeasure to assess the positivity of one’s social identity

Self-esteem Measures of self-esteem.Source: Rosenberg Self- Esteem Scale

Self report

Ego identity Measure on ego identity.Source: Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status (EOM-EIS)

Measures 8 domains: Occupation, religion, politics, philosophical life-styles, friendship, dating, sex roles, and education. Has been used with adolescents, young adults, and adults.

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Optimism Optimism scale .Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97)

Scale measures optimism, an indicator of mental well-being. Has been used with adolescents and young adults.

Social behavior Adaptive Social Behavior Inventory.Source: Child Behavioral Checklist (CBCL)

Checklist provides profile of behavioral problems (eight or nine scales) and social competence (three scales). Provides standard scores. 100-item version of ages 2 to 3. 113-item version for ages 4 to 16 with separate norms for ages 4 to 5, 6 to 11, and 12 to 16 by gender. Parent interview.

RISKY BEHAVIORS:Youth exhibit reduced risky behaviors: drugs, alcohol use, violent behaviors, crime and delinquency

Substance Use Alcohol, tobacco, and drug use.Sources: Substance Use in the Past 30 Days Index; Monitoring the Future (MTF)

Measures six categories of self-reported health risk behaviors among adolescents: behaviors contributing to intentional and unintentional injuries: tobacco use, alcohol use, drug use, and frequency of use

Problem Behaviors Measures of problem behavior.Source: Problem Behaviors Index

Measures problem behaviors such as running away from home, damaging property, theft, and physical fights; self report

Parental Limits Measures of youth obedience (parents).Source: Breaking Parental Limits Index

Measures youth assessments of limits set in home and frequency of breaking such limits/rules; self report

Adolescent Violence Measures on adolescent violence.Source: Youth Risk Behavioral Survey

Measures general violence (fighting, hitting, etc.), school violence, weapon carrying

Delinquency Measures of delinquency.Source: The Self-Reported Delinquency Measure

Measures truancy, and participation in delinquent behavior; self report

Health status Enumeration of youth perceptions of health status; Access to health services

Measures perceived health status; self report

SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS:Youth develop healthy social relationshipsSocial relationships Measures of social relationships.

Source: Inventory of Parent and Peer RelationshipsMeasure of connectedness that assesses the quality of the social support network; self report

Peer support Peer support measures.Source: Friendship Quality Scale

Measures companionship, help/support, security, closeness; self report

Negative peer social context Peer social context measures.Sources: The Peer Orientation Scale and The Peer Delinquency Scale

Measures whether peers negatively influence them and measures peer attitudes, values, beliefs, and behavior; self report

Peer relationships Enumeration of youth who have friends and are a part of a positive social network.

Self report of youth peer behavior

Parent-child relationship Measures of parent-child relationship.Sources: Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory

Lax Control subscale (56 item) of the amount of discipline and permissiveness or laxness occurring in the home. Also measures parent-adolescent conflict and connectedness. Self report.

Parent adolescent communication Measures of parent-adolescent communication.Source: The Parent-Adolescent Communication Form

Measures the emotional support that adolescents seek and receive from parents; self report

93 Redd, Z. (2001). Basic academic/cognitive skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.94 Redd, Z. (2001). Basic academic/cognitive skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.95 Redd, Z. (2001). Grade repetition. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.96 Brooks, J. (2001). School engagement. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.97 Brooks, J. (2001). School engagement. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.98 Brooks, J. (2001). Academic self-concept. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.

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Social Skills Measures of social skills.Source: Social Skills Rating System

Measure of perceived social skills; teacher report

Adult-Youth Relationships Youth behave and relate to other youth and adults (better, slightly less well, or much less well) than other children their own agePerceived Social Support from Friends and from Family

Self report of youth behaviorSelf-reported perceived amount of support received from friends, family, teachers, and others

Conflict negotiation skills Measures knowledge of and use of conflict negotiation skills

Measures ability to use communication tools for avoiding and negotiating conflicts; self report

Resiliency Measures resiliency Measures ability to overcome difficult circumstances; self report

Social dilemmas Youth use problem-solving skills to address social dilemmas with peers

Measures children’s behavior with adults; self report

SERVICE ACTIVITIES/COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT:Youth are increasingly involved in community serviceCivic Engagement Enumeration of youth who participate in school and

community activities, community service, social and political action activities

Self report

Volunteering Enumeration of youth involved in productive activities during non-school hours

Enumeration of youth activities.Time use log. Self report

Productive Use of Non-school time An enumeration of youth involvement in productive use of non-school time

Self report

Community Involvement An enumeration of youth involvement in volunteering; community service; youth groups

Self report

Other Sources: DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation web site (www.cyitc.org). (Program Objectives).Eccles, J. Templeton, J. & Brown, B. (forthcoming). A developmental framework for selecting indicators of well-being during adolescent and young adult years. Draft Report.Networks for Youth Development. (1998). The handbook of positive youth outcomes. Second Edition. New York: Youth Development Institute, Fund for the City of New York.Ripke, M., Huston, A.C., Eccles, J., & Templeton, J. (2001). The assessment o psychological, emotional and social development indicators in middle childhood. Prepared for Conference on Key Indicators of Children’s Well-Being: Completing the Picture conference, June 14-21.Roth, J.L., Borbely, C.J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2001). Developing indicators of confidence, character, and caring in adolescents. Prepared for Conference on Child and Youth Indicators: Accomplishments and Future Directions. New York: Center for Children and Families, Teachers College, Columbia University.Stagner, M.W. & Zweig, J.M. Indicators of youth well-being: Taking the long view. Paper Prepared for Conference on Key Indicators of Children’s Well-Being: Completing the Picture, June 14-15. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute.U.S. Department of Labor. (1991). What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. Washington, D.C.: Author.Note: Many descriptions of outcomes scales and measures, including those from the footnoted compendium prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, were abstracted directly from their respective websites.

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