part 2 agriculture and agro-industries€¦ · irradiation, high pressure processing, pulse light...

2.1 IntroductionAgriculture inevitably affects the landand, in many cases, shapes thelandscape itself. Natural processes,including the immensely complicatedrun-off patterns of surface waters, canbe disrupted by agricultural activities.The ability of a river system to satisfyall annual water supply needs can becompromised by the impact ofagriculture. Natural vegetation acts as a slow sponge, releasing water to streams over relatively long periodsfollowing major rainfall events. Theremoval of vegetation, thedevelopment of formalised drainagesystems and adjustments to groundlevels can seriously affect how quicklywater enters the river.

Furthermore, the use of fertilisers,herbicides and pesticides cancontaminate surface waters andgroundwaters to levels that breachwater quality standards. The wastefrom agriculture can pollute surfaceand groundwaters to such a degree thatsubsequent use for potable supplies iscompromised. Never benign,agricultural activities should ideally besanctioned on the basis of theacceptability of potential effect uponthe use of raw water sources forpotable supplies - but this rarelyhappens.

Agro-industries are those industrieswhose raw materials come fromagricultural production. The size ofthese enterprises varies widely from

home-based activities to small-scalecottage industries to large-scalefactories. Such industries are notlimited to the rural areas where the rawmaterials may originate; they are also tobe found in urban and developingurban areas. Agro-industries cover awide range of technical levels, employmany thousands of people worldwideand make use of both simple andsophisticated processes. This may beas basic as solar drying to removemoisture prior to storing foodstuffs, orthe use of the most advanced methodsand equipment required for the new oremerging technologies such as foodirradiation, high pressure processing,pulse light treatments and similar.

Not only are agro-industries diverse inscale, they are also diverse in nature.In Sonora Mexico, for example,technically advanced agro-industriesinclude the production of lowcholesterol oil, frozen processed meats,farm implements, canned sardines,spicy fruit snacks, beer, cannedvegetables and corrugated cardboardboxes. Because they are so diverse it isdifficult to classify agro-industries,however, the majority can beconsidered to come within one of thefollowing categories:

•Storage•Pre- and post-distribution•Packaging and marketing•Food and beverage industries•Fibres and textiles•Abattoirs, and associated

Part 2: Agriculture and agro-industries • 7

Part 2

Agriculture andagro-industries

meat processing and leathersindustries

•Transport•Farm and agro-industrial machinery•Animal feeds•Farm chemicals, including pesticides

and fertilisers

The supply of farm and agro-industrialmachinery manufacture deservesparticular attention, as it is essentiallydifferent from other agro-industries andprovides the services, products andequipment required for supporting themany other industries within the foodchain. A wide spectrum of machineryis available for both agriculture andagro-industries, from simple hand toolsto highly sophisticated machinery thatmay require skilled operation andmaintenance. In many industrialisedcountries, the results of research inagricultural sciences have made itpossible for agricultural production to exceed national food requirements,and parallel advances in engineeringhave made this a technical reality.However, the situation in manydeveloping countries is the reverse ofthis, and millions of impoverishedpeople labour at near subsistence level– and produce nothing for sale outsidethe needs of the family. For reasonsthat remain numerous and complex the improved designs of cultivationequipment, tool carriers, dryers,threshers, pumps and other agriculturalmachines - with the various new orimproved hand/pedal, biogas, wind,solar, animal and petro-chemical poweroptions - have not always beenreceived and adopted for use byfarmers and small-scale industries indeveloping countries.

The use of water by these industries –for processing - and the subsequentimpact on water quality varies widelyfrom industry to industry. The use andimpact of water by industries of whichthe only function is to store foods will

be small, but the same is not true of the food processing industries. Theseindustries may use large quantities ofwater in production and may require(but not always have available) accessto high quality water for the processesused. Almost inevitably theseindustries will contaminate the waterthat is used with organic, chemical andmicrobiological material that will havethe potential to adversely affect thereceiving water.

Table 2.1 provides estimates of howmuch water is used by a variety ofagro-industries. Although the rangesshown vary widely, in situations wherethere is insufficient water availablenecessity may reduce use. Other agro-industries that use more advancedequipment may have more modestprocess water requirements, but this isnot always the case. As water becomesmore expensive, so efficiency of usebecomes more important.

2.2 Impact of agriculture and agro-industries on water supplies

In general, agro-industries are capableof using large amounts of freshwaterand, as a result, can concentratesources of physical, biological andchemical contamination within surfacewater and groundwater catchments insensitive areas. These industries mayimpact on the quality of the raw wateravailable for potable water supplies.The fundamental factors that relate tothe production and distribution ofpotable water supplies are summarisedin descending order of importance as:

<>Coverage

<> Quantity<> Continuity

<> Quality<> Cost

Agro-industries, water resources and public health • 8


Relegation of “quality” to the fourthlevel within the model may come as aconsiderable surprise, but it should be remembered that the presence ofwater, the quantity available and its availability for 365 days a year are fundamental pre-requisites forsupporting stable communities; thusthe priority ratings as shown.

The potential impacts of agricultureand agro-industries on these factors aresummarised in Table 2.2. Agricultureand agro-industries clearly have the potential to adversely affect water supplies not only in terms ofcompetition for scarce water resources,but also in terms of their effect onwater quality, the cost of water andimpact on the environment. See Figure2.1, which shows intensive pig farmingin the United Kingdom. Stringentwaste control is undertaken at the farmto prevent waste from the pigspolluting a nearby stream which formsthe source of a small tributary withinthe catchment of the River Thames. An agreement allows liquid waste to bedischarged to the local communitysewerage system, and solid wastedisposal is by controlled compostingwith bed litter.

2.3 Case study: livestock slaughter andthe processing of hides and skins

The industrial-scale preparation ofhides and skins provides one exampleof a key agro-industry in manycountries that has enormous potentialto impact adversely on the quality ofthe receiving water.

Most countries use livestock principallyto provide meat, milk, draught poweror wool; most of the animals involvedare eventually slaughtered and thehides and skins produced are destinedmainly for the tanning industry (formanufacturing leather). Hides andskins from designated slaughteringoperations may originate from any oneof a range of places including streetand backyard killing, slaughter slabs,slaughter houses and abattoirs. Thefacilities, and therefore the potentialimpact on the environment, varyenormously from place to place andare frequently uncontrolled andunregulated in many developingcountries. Animals are often killedwithout any special facilities available,and with use of the most basic knivesor tools. By contrast, a purpose -builtkilling works or abattoir may beavailable with full mains services

Table 2.1 Typical Rates of Water Use for Selected Agro-Industries

Industry

CanneriesGreen beansPeaches and pearsOther fruits and vegetables

Food and beveragesBeerBreadMeat packingMilk products

Pulp and paperPulpPaper

TextilesBleachingDyeing

Range of Water Use(m3/tonne)

50 - 7115 - 204 - 35

10 - 162 - 4

15 - 2010 - 20

250 - 800120 - 160

200 - 30030 - 60


Figure 2.1 Intensive pig farming in the United Kingdom. More than 3 000 pigs are reared in anenclosed area of 3 ha on this farm, and care with waste disposal is essential.

Table 2.2 Impact of Agriculture and Agro-Industries on Water

Requirement

Coverage

Quantity

Continuity

Quality

Cost

Context

Water must be available locally tosupport life.Personal water allocation must beat least 20 l/h/d.Supplies must be available daily.

Physical, biological and chemicalcontamination must be belowhealth related quality target levelsto control water borne disease orillness.

Running costs of water treatmentand supply must be affordable forall the community to use.

Potential Impact of Agricultureand Agro-industries

• Point over-abstraction cancause related sources to dry up.

• Abstraction can depletedownstream or related sourcesor compete for use.

• Abstraction in dry seasons cancause sources to run dry.

• Large-scale agriculture canaffect rainfall and run-offpatterns.

• Agricultural activities andindustry can result in thedischarge of microbialpathogens that cause waterborne disease.

• Pollution by agro-chemicals andindustrial chemicals can exposepopulations to health-threatening chemicals.

• Agro-chemicals and industrialchemicals in water run-off cantrigger biological problems.

• Physical contamination canaffect the acceptability ofproduct water to the consumer.

• Physical, chemical andmicrobiological contaminationfrom agro-industrial sourcescan cause water treatmentproblems.

• Expensive treatment processesare required to remove agro-chemical pollution and to dealwith biological problems relatedto agro-chemical pollution.

(viz. electricity, steam, water, effluenttreatment and equipment) and highlytrained staff. Irrespective of the size ofthe establishment, the slaughterfacilities should conform to certainminimum standards in terms of beingof an appropriate design, properlysited, well maintained and wellmanaged. In all aspects of operationirrespective of scale, however, thekilling works should not impactadversely on the surroundingenvironment, and particularly on localwatercourses. Unfortunately, this is not always the case. In many countriesslaughtering is seen as an unsavouryactivity and it is often hidden away,and not given the attention it warrantson the grounds of animal and humanwelfare, public health andenvironmental impact – issues that areoften ignored. There are considerablehealth risks with neglect of this kind.Livestock can carry and transmit arange of diseases that can be fatal toboth animals and people. One of themost threatening is anthrax - theassociated pathogen can persist inhides, skins and many other animalproducts and can be contracted byworkers at the killing works or thetannery.

The preparation work required ofhides and skins is atypical of agro-industries in general, in that theamount of water needed to actuallyprepare the skins is relatively small.The use of water in the preparation ofthe animals before slaughter should belimited (despite being frequentlyrecommended) as this can be ofquestionable value. With very hairy ordense woollen skins, for example, itis best avoided and skins of this kind should not be rinsed under anycircumstances. Rinsing freshly flayedskins and hides in cold water will coolthe skin, but will not preventmicrobiological contamination iffleshing has been inadequate. In many

isolated rural areas there may be littleor no water available for rinsing hidesand skins. Since washing provides nomajor benefits and is often impractical,it can be omitted. One instance whenrinsing is desirable, however, is whenthe hides are heavily soiled or whenthe skins have dried too much forefficient preservation. The salt used forpreservation effectively limits theaction of the micro-organisms, nomatter that water may be present, andthus prevents proliferation and skindamage.

Although water itself is not an essentialpart of the skinning process it isessential for maintaining hygiene in thekilling works and particularly in thekilling and skinning rooms, whereconstant washing down helps toremoved wastes in solution from floors and walls. Workers should haveaccess to water at all times, to enablethem to maintain high levels ofpersonal hygiene. There is, therefore,a considerable wastewater flow atcertain times and from some sectors ofthe killing works. The organic loadingfrom the blood in the wastewater willbe considerable and, in conjunctionwith the risk to public health frommicrobiological contamination presenton the animal, makes the safe disposalof wastewater a priority. Water whichis used to wash down the area wherethe hides are salted will contain highlevels of dissolved salts, which hasimplications not only for the finaldisposal point but also for any wastetreatment system that is used. Becausethis is often done in an uncontrolledand indiscriminate fashion, the effecton public health and the waterquality of the receiving water canbe significant. Notwithstanding thedifficulties involved with organisedkilling of stock, the potential impact of this agro-industry - which is oftenviewed as a dirty and objectionabletrade - is significant in terms of its


perceived adverse impact on theenvironment, but also because of its highly beneficial socio-economicreturns to the community. Theproduction of hides and skins is aresource that is often under-valued andfrequently under-exploited for its realvalue to domestic livestock industriesin producer countries.

2.4 Economic value of agriculture andagro-industries

The economies of many developingcountries are based on the exploitationof agriculture and agro-industries that are correspondingly important inrelation to the economic stability ofmany villages, towns, cities andregions. Agro-industries contribute tothe economic strength of an area byincreasing the value of the rawmaterials, either by extending the“product life” of the materials or byconverting them into more desirablecommodities. In this way they stabilisethe economy by rendering the primaryproducts of a region into a moremarketable form. Such products canbe sold more steadily, consistently andreliably over a period, whereas theprimary products of agriculture maynormally sustain only a limited storageperiod and are generally seasonal innature.

In developing countries post-production operations and agro-industries contribute more than 50percent of the added value to themanufacturing sector. Even if theproducts are only partly processed andsold in bulk, they can still make anessential contribution to the economyof a nation. In Italy, for example, INEA(1998) reported that the domestic agro-industrial system was estimated to beworth ItLire 289 000 billion (US$160billion) in 1997, equivalent to 14.8

percent of the gross domestic product(GDP). In this case, agro-industriessystems are defined as the series ofactivities in which agriculture interactswith other associated sectors such asfertilisers, pesticides, animal feed andfood, catering and distributionindustries.

The contribution made in Italy byagriculture and, by implication agro-industries, is higher than in otherindustrialised countries, especially interms of employment. Nevertheless,this example illustrates the importanceof agro-industries within a majorindustrialised European country.

Agriculture and agro-industries(together called the agricultural sector)have important direct and indirect rolesin generating economic and socio-economic growth. The importance ofthe agricultural sector can bedemonstrated in three ways:

•It provides food to consumers, andfibres and other raw materials fordomestic industry.

•It is a source of foreign exchangeearnings.

•It provides a market for industrialgoods.

In Pakistan, the agricultural sectorcontributes approximately 24 percentto GDP and employs about 47 percentof the domestic labour force. It followsthat a significant part of the economyremains dependent on farming -through production, processing anddistribution of the main agriculturalcommodities. Again, with foreigntrade, the agricultural sector dominatesthrough the exports of raw materialssuch as rice and cotton, and semi-processed and processed goods suchas cotton yarn, carpets and leatherproducts.

In Pakistan, as with many other



developing countries, a buoyantagricultural sector is essential formaking sustainable improvements tothe external and internal economy.The share of primary commodities,primary processes and semi-processedproducts constitute almost 60 percentof the total exports earnings. Inaddition, the agricultural sector playsan important part in the economy of the country by providing food to apopulation of 130 million people.Agriculture is the main source oflivelihood for the rural population; itprovides raw materials for manydomestic industries and provides themarket for many locally producedindustrial products.

Table 2.3 clearly shows that when theincome of a country increases – that is, when it become richer - then thepercentage of the total water used foragriculture declines and the percentageused for industry increases - sometimesdramatically. The proportionwithdrawn for domestic use appearsnot to increase after the middle incomegroup is reached, although overall theamount of water used increases of theorder two to three times.

It follows that the processes associatedwith the development of agricultureand agro-industries and theirrequirement for water and their effectupon the environment are matters ofgreat consequence. Difficult choiceshave to be made, for example, for the availability of water betweeninvestments in rural development andfor urban growth. Choices of this kindbecome more confused when issues ofpollution and/or global warming areconsidered, and when exploitation ofraw water sources leads to lowering ofquality.

2.5 Agro-industries as the engine ofdevelopment

The development of agro-industries isseen by many as an engine that drives development, allowing for the additional and consequentialdevelopment of other industries thatlead, in turn, to overall growth of thecommunity and the country. Attemptshave been made in the past to applythe rules of general industrialdevelopment to agriculture, when whatmay be needed is a new approach thattakes into account the special featuresof the industry.

Three main factors differentiate thedevelopment of agro-industries fromgeneral industry, viz.

•The nature factor.•Paths to industrialisation.•Locality.

Agriculture and, to some extent, agro-industries operate under the constraintsof the natural world - best described asthe nature factor. Nature dictates theproductivity limit of labour andeffectively restricts capital investment.There is no substitute (yet) for soil andsolar radiation on large-scale, and noway to speed up agricultural processesbeyond a certain limit; agriculture mustoperate with what the natural worldoffers on a day-to-day basis. Availablelabour cannot always be employedeffectively because of the seasonalnature of the industry, and this createsdifficulties for rural communities andparticularly for those who may belandless. There is limited continuitywith supplies of crops, which adverselyaffects local processing industries. Theseasonal production base that natureprovides affects the circulation ofcapital, as the production rate is notconstant throughout the year.

One certain way to expand productionin an agricultural area is to bring more

land into productive use, selectcomplementary crops and varieties and extend the growing and harvestingseasons, but even then seasonal factors will continue to apply. It is notpossible to apply more capital at asingle site to expand or intensifyproduction. It is difficult to react to market forces quickly in theagricultural sphere as land is a fixed,limited and heavily marketed resource.

These markets are further affected by local social conditions. Small familyunits are flexible within a limitednumber of constraints. Families areable to adapt to uneven labourdemands because non-commodityrelations prevail in production. InItaly, for example, 83 percent of themembers of farm families work on the family farm and/or in off-farmactivities (INEA, 1998). Of thispercentage, over two-thirds work full-time on the farm, while 31 percenthave an off-farm remunerative activitywhich is either their sole or mainoccupation. Family units are also ableto adjust consumption to subsidencelevel during times of low market valuesand prices. The impact of agricultureconducted by small family units on the local environment is generallylimited. However, under exceptionalcircumstances, such activities can causeproblems and the water cycle can beadversely affected. For example, evenon small-scale the use of agro-chemicals in an uncontrolled mannercan lead to the chemical contaminationof surface waters and groundwaters in

surrounding areas.

In industrialised countries there arefirm trends underway to reduce theamount of pesticides and fertilisersused, partly because of regulations andpartly due to public pressure. Forexample in Italy in 1997, the use offertilisers dropped by 3.5 percentcompared with the previous year, andthe use of pesticides fell by threepercent (INEA, 1998). However, theuse of agricultural chemicals continuesand it is likely to remain stable atcurrent levels of use, or to decline onlymarginally.

In the shift from farm production to agro-industries there are two mainstages on the path to industrialisation.Firstly, farm processes aregradually assimilated into factory based industries. The processes arerationalised, mechanised andintensified beyond what is possible onthe farm. Secondly, traders andmanufacturers attempt to reduce farmproducts to more simple and controlledindustrial inputs. As the pace ofindustrialisation gathers momentum,manufacturers eventually seek toreplace agricultural products withindustrially produced alternatives.

The agricultural sector (includingagriculture and agro-industries) isdiverse in both its products and theareas from which the productsoriginate. Because of the inherentvariability produced by biologicalprocesses, it is practically impossible


Table 2.3 Annual Sectoral Water Withdrawals by Country Income Groups

Percent withdrawals(percent)

Volume withdrawals(m3/capita)

CountryIncomeGroup

Totalwithdrawal(m3/capita) Agriculture Industry Domestic Agriculture Industry Domestic

LowMiddleHigh

3864531167

916939

51847

41314

351312455

1982

548

1559

163


for industrial capital to categorise andstandardise agricultural production. Inaddition, household producers varyenormously in terms of use of externallabour markets, strategic behaviour,gender relations and inter-generationrelationships. In Italy in 1995, theaverage number of days for employingexternal labour on a farm was fourdays (INEA, 1998). The number ofdays of external labour employment isdependent on the size of the farm withlarger farms – as expected - employingmore labour.

Each commodity chain has its ownindustrial sector with its own policiesand practices and, it follows, that each industry has its own policies and practices. State policies affects thepath to industrialisation throughinfluence over land use patterns,choice of crop, production techniques,technological advances, trade policiesand environmental legislation. Despitea general trend towards labour division and the dominance of largerfirms, there is no single route to industrialisation. Market-drivendevelopment moves in many directionsat different speeds to produce anheterogeneous agricultural landscapetypical of an area or region.

Pakistan is a striking example of acountry where the development ofwater resources gave rise to thedevelopment of the agricultural sector.In 1947, the Indus Basin was irrigatedwith an extensive system of canals,cultivated land was sown with low-yielding traditional seed varieties,fertilised mainly with animal manureand cultivated by means of animaldraught power and by hand. In theearly 1960s conditions that favouredrapid growth were put in place, theIndus Waters Agreement was signedand the Indus Basin DevelopmentFund established, and tube wellsbecame a viable investment. This

encouraged rapid intensification ofcrop production and the expansion ofassociated agro-industries.

The development of water resourceshas been critical in the development ofagriculture and agro-industries inPakistan (FAO, 1998). Since the 1960sthe development of Pakistan’sagricultural sector has had a somewhatchequered career, and some importantstructural changes have taken place.Livestock, forestry and fishing areincreasing in importance and cottonhas become as important as wheat interms of value added earnings. Theacknowledgement of the importance ofwater as being crucial to long termdevelopment is recognised in futureplans for the country. Water has beendesignated a most important area of concern for Pakistan in thedevelopment of the agricultural sector.Issues such as water-logging andsalinity in irrigated areas, inequality ofwater distribution, loss of water storagecapacity in existing reservoirs, drainageprogrammes and their evaluation andan increasing reliance on groundwaterare crucial factors. The economy of thecountry is based on agriculturalproduction, and access to sufficientwater remains a decisive factor in alldecision-making.

Many factors should be taken intoaccount when planning developmentprojects. In many countries women arein a comparatively disadvantagedposition regarding access to food,health education and economicresources. Besides working in theagricultural sector they also bear themain responsibilities for family welfare,housekeeping and home management.The role of women in cottageindustries and small-scale enterprisedevelopment is also important, for theynormally comprise the greaterproportion of the (low paid) labourforce. Much depends on traditions in

the community but, generally, ruralwomen are responsible for collectingfodder, fuelwood and water, vegetableproduction, poultry and livestockrearing and agricultural activities suchas weeding, crop harvesting, and pre-and post-harvest activities. In Pakistan,processing of fruit is also women’sactivity. The use of a participatoryapproach in development projectshelps to empower women by helpingthem to raise their consciousness - aswell as their collective voice - abouttheir needs, rights and capabilities,which is essential to ensure the longterm viability of the community.

In an illuminating example from apoverty alleviation project in Schag, Egypt when villagers fromdifferent socio-economic strata wereinterviewed, the Egyptian Governmentbecame aware that the priorities of women and the poorest were notthe same as that of the village leaders(FAO, 1998). Initially the leadersemphasised activities mainly of interestto themselves, whereas the top

priorities for women and the landlesswere small livestock and off-farmincome generating activities. Whendeveloping rural projects it is essentialthat the interests of women and thepoor are included from the outset.Failure to do so will jeopardise thesuccess of the project longterm.

The sporadic development patterns ofagriculture are not subject to the usualindustrial dynamics, but also to thefunction of these dynamics within the constraints of the locality. Peoplecreate localised differences in farmingpractices, social relations, land tenurepatterns, agro-industrial links, labourmarkets and state policies. Capitaldeployment in agriculture isgeographically specific and localconditions erect powerful barriers toindustrial transformation.

The Midwest region of the USAprovides a graphic illustration of thedynamics of agro-industrial growth inan industrial country (Gates, 1962).During the nineteenth century the farm


Figure 2.2. Castries Harbour, St. Lucia. A wharf for banana exports faces a new tourist duty freecentre across the harbour.


sector was rapidly expanding andeconomically healthy with risinginvestment in manufacturing. Farmerswere highly commercialised and wereintegrated into the economy throughland acquisition. Farmers were eagerto compete and expand and,consequently, productivity rose alongwith total output to keep pricesdepressed. This depression sentfarmers into debt as they struggled tokeep pace with the need to buy thenewest and best equipment or moreproductive breeding stock.

Family-run concerns acted as theepicentre of a rapidly expandingdivision of labour surrounding thisbuoyant resource utilisation. Marketswere standardised, for example, by the formation of the Chicago Board of Trade, and this led to an increasein trade. This was further fuelled by the railroad network expandingthroughout the Midwest, thecentralisation of stockyards and thedevelopment of a grain storage systemthat rationalised the movement ofgoods from rural to urban areas.

These developments ensured that the conditions favourable forindustrialisation took hold. Thisprocess was further aided by numeroustechnical innovations of that time,including roller mills, mechanicalslaughtering, pasteurisation andrefrigeration. Farm success andexpansion created many new marketsfor manufactured goods, which in turn created a huge number of linksbetween agriculture and industry. The dynamic relationship betweenagriculture and agro-industries fuelledthe engine of market development andplaced new products on the shelves ofretail outlets.

In the twentieth century farm inputs toindustry were shaped by the use oftechnology. The driving force for thiscame from the manufacturers whoresearched and developed manybiological, chemical and mechanicalinnovations including the use of hybrid varieties, fertilisers, pesticidesand antibiotics. Total output andproductivity rocketed and agriculturecame to be dependent heavily upon

Figure 2.3 Small-scale banana cultivation in new settlements near Nyabwishongwezi, Rwanda.

these technical innovations.

Food manufacturers and retailersincreased the importance of their rolethrough the introduction of brandedhigh value foods, food wholesaling andretailing in large supermarket chains -and by the growth of corporate fastfood chains. Farmers are now caughtin a persistent cost/price squeezeassociated with this technological cycle of dependency, leading towidespread consolidation and to adecline in rural populations. There hasbeen a rise in pollution, groundwaterdepletion and use of chemicals. Manykey urban farm-related industries such as equipment and implementmanufacturing and packing have beenrestructured, leading to rationalisation,job losses and relocation. Other farm-related industries have expanded, such as seed production and pesticidemanufacture. A key element in theprocess of rural industrialisation is the ever-changing links betweenagriculture and industry, and the needto consider flexibility within thedifferent investment opportunities thatmay arise within a community or aneconomy. (See Figure 2.2).

2.6 Agro-industries and urbanisationUrbanisation is the process ofincreasing the urban area, that is thearea covered by, and dependent upon,the town or city. Urbanisation isgenerally linked to migration from ruralareas to urban areas. There is a lagbetween the reproduction rate of arural labour force and the growth of opportunities for work in theagricultural sector. This has been thedriving force for migration in thedeveloping world. For instance in the1970s in Brazil, over 15 million peoplemigrated from rural to urban areas(Chase, 1999). The tempo of these

mass migrations was not simply due topoverty in rural areas, but was alsoa function of the introduction ofmodern agricultural techniques andthe shift from subsistence farming to commercial production. Subsistencefarming in many regions is no longertenable, and is being replaced bymodern capital intensive systems thatrequire a smaller labour force for the area of land farmed. Accordingly,people are encouraged to shift and tofind work in the cities. Much of thiswork is on agro-industries, with thefarm worker becoming the agro-industrial worker.

As populations grow the search for employment becomes morewidespread, especially when linked tothe introduction of techniques that reduce the size of the ruralworkforce. In most industrial countriesthe proportion of the workforceemployed in agriculture is 10 percentor less, whilst in developing countriesthis proportion is often significantlyhigher at 60-70 percent. Populationgrowth leads to a reduction in the land-to-person ratio, reduced access to landand an increased incidence of poverty.If the available land can be increasedthen the problems of a decline in land-to-person ratios can be avoided. Anapproach of this kind has successfullybeen employed in the Philippines andThailand, but in many countries land isscarce.

Rapid industrialisation that leads tostable or declining numbers employedin agriculture and/or dependent onagriculture will also help to avoid theproblems of uncontrolled populationexpansion. Taiwan and South Koreaare example of countries that havesuccessfully used this strategy.However, developments of this kind inthe industrial geography of a countrywill rarely entail a significant increasein agro-industries, as the area of land



available to agriculture cannotnormally be increased.

Certain food plants such as plantains,tubers and roots are typically grown inthe developing world (Figure 2.3). Forexample, in sub-Saharan Africa these foods make up 40 percent of thediet for approximately half of thepopulation. Other areas in Africa, theCaribbean and Latin America alsodepend mainly on these types of food, which are highly perishable andlabour intensive – for production,preservation, transformation and use.On small-scale constraints of labour in rural communities can be easilyovercome but, as urbanisationincreases, people have neither the timenor the physical resources toaccommodate these needs – andproblems of food security becomegreater.

Production of traditional staple foodscan reasonably be expected to increaseas populations expand (and thusmarkets grow and demand expands)with rate of production matching thatof demand. However, if urbanisationincreases dramatically the increase indemand for these foods cannot be met.This may be due to a decrease inland availability and the inability ofthe processing procedures to developto maintain adequate processing beforethe foods perish. This leads to adecrease in the rate of consumption per capita of these foods and anincrease in reliance on other foods,such as imported grains. However, inthe medium term the demand fortubers, roots and plantains will remainhigh, as imported grains are unlikely tobe available in sufficient quantities toallow them to become a major foodgroup. Care is needed to avoid policyreforms causing prices to rise orlimiting the amount of imported foodaid available if a decline inconsumption rates is to be avoided.

2.7 Alternative sources of water foragro-industries

It is not always technically oreconomically feasible to exploitpreviously untapped sources of waterto supply the rising demands ofdeveloping agro-industries, and othersources must be considered.

Wastewater has been used foragriculture in the industrialisedcountries for many years, in particularin dry areas with high waterconsumption such as California in theUSA. Uses included agriculturalirrigation (including pasture, orchards,vineyards and harvested feed, fibre and seed crops), landscape irrigation(schools, playgrounds and parks),wildlife habitat enhancement, industrial use (cooling water and,where applicable, processing water)and groundwater recharge. Similarly,wastewater use in Tunisia has beenpractised for many decades and is nowan integral part of the national waterresources strategy. Use of the water is seasonal in Tunisia (spring andsummer) and the effluent is oftenmixed with groundwater before beingapplied to irrigate citrus and olive trees, forage crops, cotton, golf coursesand hotel lawns. Wastewater irrigation of vegetables that are eaten raw is prohibited. Similar practices arefollowed in Kuwait and Mexico.Wastewater is used in aquaculture inCalcutta, and India is the largest userof wastewaters for aquaculture in theworld. Ownership of the ponds inCalcutta is in the hands of about 160city dwellers, who employ nearly 400families.

In all these cases the protection andpromotion of public health remains apriority. Stringent measures are takento avoid microbial contamination of the agricultural products and theagricultural workers. This protectionof public health is of paramount

importance in the development ofpotential sources of used water, and inthe disposal of wastewater from agro-industries.

2.8 Watershed management and agro-industries

The importance of agro-industriesin national development planning isfirm. The need for adequate waterresources, either from scarce newresources or from re-use of wastewateris apparent throughout the worldacross a range of economic, climaticand political situations. Two examplesof exceptional projects from Pakistanconfirm that the development of agro-industries rests on the development of water resources - the success ofwhich rests on the participation andmotivation of the communitiesinvolved.

In the Mithawan WatershedManagement Project, the mainobjective was to introduce the conceptof integrated watershed managementwith the direct participation of localcommunities (FAO, 1998). The projectaimed to change attitudes throughsocial mobilisation in order to improvethe living conditions of the localpeople. In this participatory approach,more emphasis was given to involvingthe local people in all phases of the development process fromidentification of problems andcharacterisation to implementation.Grassroots institutions such as villageorganizations and women’sorganizations were strengthened.There was a change in the attitudes of local people towards sustainable use and conservation of naturalresources, including water. Animportant result was recognition thatlocal people were quick to takeadvantage of the appropriate

technologies that best exploited naturalresources in a sustainable manner.

The Balochistan Watershed Planningand Management Project was started in1993 with the aim one of developingthe technical capabilities of theProvincial Forest Department forwatershed planning and management,for the preparation of a managementplan for the Quetta Valley, and forbeginning a watershed rehabilitationprogramme in the vulnerable andimportant watersheds of north-westernBalochistan (FAO, 1998).

Balochistan Province has a hyper-aridto dry climate with limited surfacewater resources. Groundwater is themain source of domestic water as well as providing for irrigationrequirements. However in the past,continuous overgrazing and cutting ofnatural vegetation for fuelwood by thelocal population and nomads resultedin the denudation of the catchmentareas. The watershed rehabilitationactivities of the project involved.

•construction of small earth dams,ponds and check dams;

•establishment of plantations,adopting water harvesting andconservation techniques; and

•establishment of rural forests.

This resulted in the recharging of theground water aquifer, control of flashfloods and an increased productivity offuelwood and fodder.


part 2 agriculture and agro-industries€¦ · irradiation, high pressure processing, pulse light...

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