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515Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
• InCh.10.1wewill identify thecriteria for selectinga corerepertoireoforchestralworks.
• InCh.10.2wewillgiveguidelinesfortheprocessofbuildingthiscorerepertoireandcreatingastylegrid.
• InCh.10.3wewillsurveythedifferentstylesoftheorchestralrepertoireandexaminetheiruniquechallenges.
Part 10
Repertoire and Style
10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
Askanygroupofvioliniststoidentifythekeyworksofthesolorepertoire thatanaspiringviolinist shouldpracticeandmaster.Most likelytheywillcomeupwitha list similar tothosepub-lishedby eminentpedagogues, for instance, Sassmannshaus2009.Butaskthesamegroupabouttheessentialworksoftheorchestral repertoirethateveryaspiringorchestralviolinistshouldlearn;mostlikelytherewillbehardlyanyagreementatall.Nosuchlistshavebeenpublishedeither;theavailablelistsoforches-tralrepertoiremerelyincludepassagesinpopularexcerptcollec-tionsorworkssuitableforyouthorchestras( Smith1966, Biget1996, Adey1998,793–829, Hamann2003,219-20).
Table 10.1a suggests essential orchestral repertoire both forprivatestudyandforuseinconservatoryorchestrasandorchestra-repertoireclasses.Itincludes• 1 , thirdcolumn,or 2 ,first column( R1 – R39 ): acore
repertoire of roughly threedozen representative, instructiveworks,listedbelowbygenre
3 twenty-onesymphonicworks4 onesoloconcerto5 fouroperaovertures6 sevenoperas7 twooperettasormusicals8 twooratorios9 twoballets
• 2 ,secondcolumn:asecond tier,whichexpandsthereper-toiretoaboutthreetimesthesizeofthecorerepertoire
• 2 ,thirdcolumn:athird tier,whichexpandstherepertoiretoaboutfivetimesthesizeofthecorerepertoire
• 1 ,firstandsecondcolumns:aprimer repertoireofnineorsixteenpiecesforthoseplayerswhodonothavetimetolearntheentirecorerepertoireorwhowishtodosoinstages.
Thecorerepertoire(oratleasttheprimerrepertoire)includesthepiecesthatorchestralviolinistsshouldmaster,ideallybythetimetheyauditionforanorchestra.Thesecondandthirdtiersrepre-sentthepiecesthattheyshouldmasterafterabouttenandtwentyyearsofwork,respectively.
Asyoulearnthiscorerepertoire,youshouldshouldkeepthreemain goalsinmind:(1)Learntherepertoirethatbesthelpsyoubecomeawell-round-edorchestralmusicianandbuildyourstylegrid.(2)Learnthemostfrequentlyperformedorchestralrepertoire(3)Learnsomeofthemostfrequentlyusedauditionrepertoire.
(1)Thefirstgoalistolearnrepresentativepiecesthathelpyoutomasterthechallengesoftoday’sorchestralrepertoire—thesein-cludeawiderangeofcompositionalgenres,styles,techniques,andinterpretiveapproaches.Whichrepertoirehasthegreatestmusi-cal and technical benefitsandgreateststylistic significance,andisthereforemostessentialtothestylegrid?
Such questions are subjective in nature, and one can spendmuch time arguing whether learning Figaro, as suggested be-low, has greater benefits than learning Don Giovanni, whether
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
516 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
Beethoven’sEroica ismore instructive thanhisFifth,orwheth-erSacre ismore important thanFirebird.Feel free to substitutepiecesfromthesecondorthirdtiersforthoseinthefirsttierinthesamecategoryifyouseestrongreasonsfordoingso.Butdonot bypass pieces or entire genres on the sole ground that youbelieveyouwillneverplaythem.Becauseofthe“despecialization”oforchestralwork(tobedescribedinCh.11.3),itisimpossibletoknowwhatkindofrepertoirethefutureholdsforanyorchestraandanyorchestralmusician.Further,certainpieces—whetherornotyouwilleverperformthem—arehelpfulforlearningcertainorchestralskillsandstyles:
• ThoughWagner’s Siegfried is produced only at major operahouses,ithasbeenincludedinthecorerepertoirebecauseitcontainsmanytechniquesandstylesadaptedanddevelopedbygenerationsoflatercomposers.
• ThoughProkofiev’sBalletCinderellamightneverbeincludedintherepertoireofyourorchestra,studyingthepiecewillhelpyoutomastertheProkofievstyle(probablymoresothananysingleoneofhissymphonicworks).
Table 10.1a: The core repertoire: a list of suggested pieces for practice and study
Ch.10.3:essentialsecond-violinrepertoire• Tables11.4aand11.5–11.6:essentialrepertoireforconcertmastersandprincipals•http://www.orch.info/repertoire:markedparts1 Primer repertoire and core repertoire in progressive order
nine-piece primer
repertoire
sixteen-piece primer
repertoire
complete core
repertoire
Bach R1 Suite3R2 St. Matthew Passion
xx
Haydn R3 Symphony104 x x
Mozart R4 Symphony39R5 Ov.FluteR6 Figaro
x xx
xxx
Beethoven R7 Symphony3R8 Ov.Leonore3
x x xx
Rossini R9 Barber x
Verdi R10 Ov.ForzaR11 Traviata
x
x
xx
J.Strauss,Jr. R12 TalesWaltzandVergnügungszugPolkaR13 Fledermaus
xx
Weber R14 Ov.Oberon x
Mendelssohn R15 MidsummerR16 Elijah
x x xx
Schumann R17 Symphony2 x x
Brahms R18 Symphony4 x x
Berlioz R19 Romeo x
Tchaikovsky R20 Symphony4R21 Nutcracker
x x xx
Smetana R22 Ov.Bride x x x
Dvořák R23 Slavonic Dances x
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
517Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
nine-piece primer
repertoire
sixteen-piece primer
repertoire
complete core
repertoire
Wagner R24 TannhäuserR25 Siegfried
x x xx
Bruckner R26 Symphony4 x
Rachmaninoff R27 Paganini x
Puccini R28 Bohème x
Strauss R29 Don JuanR30 Rosenkavalier
x x xx
Mahler R31 Symphony5 x
Ravel R32 Daphnis2 x
Debussy R33 La Mer x x
Bartók R34 Concerto x x
Prokofiev R35 Cinderella x
Shostakovich R36 Symphony5 x
Stravinsky R37 Sacre x x x
Bernstein R38 West Side Story x
Schoenberg R39 VariationsOp.31 x x
2 The core repertoire and comprehensive repertoire: complete list (cf. the genre lists 3 – 9 )
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Bach R1 Suite3R2 St. Matthew
Brandenburg3,Christmas Oratorio Mass,St. John
Handel Messiah
Haydn R3 Symphony104 Symphony83Creation
Symphony103,TrumpetConcertoSeasons
Mozart R4 Symphony39R5 Ov.Flute
R6 Figaro
Symphonies38,40–41PianoConcerto23Don Giovanni/vn.2,Flute,Così
Symphonies35–36PianoConcerto27,ClarinetConcerto,Abduction
Beethoven R7 Symphony3R8 Ov.Leonore3
Symphonies7,5,9,6Ov.Egmont,PianoConcerto5Fidelio
Symphonies2,4,8,1PianoConcerto4Missa
Schubert Symphonies9,5,Ov.Rosamunde Symphonies8,3–4
Table 10.1a 1 cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
518 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Rossini R9 Barber Ov.Gazza,Ov.TellCenerentola
Ov.Scala,Ov.SemiramideTurco,L’Italiana
Bellini Norma
Donizetti L’elisir Don Pasquale,Lucia,Fille
Verdi R10 Ov.ForzaR11 Traviata
Rigoletto,Trovatore,Requiem Nabucco, Ballo,Aida,Forza,Otello,Falstaff
Nicolai Ov.Wives
J.Strauss,Jr. R12 TalesWaltzandVergnügungszugPolkaR13 Fledermaus
RosenWaltz,ÉljenPolka,Auf der JagdPolka
DanubeWaltz,EmperorWaltzTritschPolka,AnnenPolka,PizzicatoPolka
Hellmesberger Ball Scene
Delibes Coppélia
Offenbach Hoffmann
Suppé Ov.Poet, Ov.Cavalry Ov.Banditen,Ov.Morgen,Ov.Galathea
Léhar Merry Widow
Weber R14 Ov.Oberon Ov.Euryanthe,Freischütz
Mendelssohn R15 MidsummerR16 Elijah
Symphony4 Symphony3,Ov.HebridesViolinConcerto
Schumann R17 Symphony2 Symphony3,Ov.Manfred Symphonies1,4,PianoConcerto,CelloConcerto
Brahms R18 Symphony4 Symphonies1,3,HaydnVaria-tions,PianoConcertos1–2
Symphony2,ViolinConcerto,DoubleConcerto,Requiem
Chopin PianoConcerto2
Gounod Faust,Romeo
Franck Symphony
Grieg Peer
Berlioz R19 Romeo Symphonie fantastique Ov.Corsaire,Ov.Carnival
Saint-Saëns Carnival,CelloConcerto1
Bizet Carmen L’Arlesienne 1–2
Mussorgsky Pictures(Ravel) Night
Glinka Ov.Ruslan
Tchaikovsky R20 Symphony4R21 Nutcracker
Symph.5–6,Ov.Romeo,PianoConc.1Swan Lake
Suite3,ViolinConcerto, RococoVar.Onegin,Beauty
Table 10.1a 2cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
519Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Borodin Polovtsian
Rimsky-K. Scheherazade Capriccio esp.,TsarIII/1/Bumble
Smetana R22 Ov.Bride Moldau Bride
Dvořák R23 Slavonic Dances Symphonies8–9,CelloConcerto Symphony7,Ov.Carnival,ViolinConcerto
Liszt Préludes Faust
Wagner R24 TannhäuserR25 Siegfried
Tristan,Dutchman Siegfried Idyll,Walküre,Lohengrin,Meistersinger
Schoenberg Verklärte
Bruckner R26 Symphony4 Symphony7 Symphonies6,9,8
Humperdinck Hansel
Elgar EnigmaVariations Falstaff
Reger MozartVariations
Rachmaninoff R27 Paganini Symphony2,PianoConcerto2 SymphonicDances,PianoConcerto3
Scriabin Poéme de l’extase
Dukas Sorcerer
Puccini R28 Bohème Butterfly,Tosca Turandot
Mascagni Pagliacci
Leoncavallo Cavalleria
Strauss R29 Don JuanR30 Rosenkavalier
Till,ZarathustraSalome
Heldenleben,MetamorphosesElektra
Mahler R31 Symphony5 Symphonies1,4 Symphonies2,9
Ravel R32 Daphnis2 Rhapsodie espagnole La Valse
Debussy R33 La Mer Jeux Images 1–3
Enescu RomanianRhapsody1
Sibelius Symphony5,ViolinConcerto Symphonies1–2
DeFalla Hat(ballet)
Vaughan-Williams
Fantasia
Holst Planets
Walton Ov.Portsmouth
Table 10.1a 2cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
520 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Britten Guide BridgeVariations,WarRequiem
Ibert Escales
Honegger Symphonie liturgique
Milhaud Bœuf
Respighi Feste,Fontane,Pini
Martinů Symphony6
Janáček Sinfonietta,Jenůfa Taras,Vixen
Nielsen Symphony4
Bartók R34 Concerto Music Mandarin,PianoConcerto3
Kodály Galánta Hary Janos
Prokofiev R35 Cinderella Symphony1,Kijé,PianoConcerto 3,Romeo, Peter
Symphony5,Scythian,ViolinConcerto2,Symphony-Concerto
Shostakovich R36 Symphony5 Symphony10,PianoConcerto1 Symphony9,CelloConcerto1,ViolinConcerto1
Hindemith Mathis Symphony PhilharmonicConcerto,Metamorphorsis
Stravinsky R37 Sacre Firebird Petrushka,Pulcinella
Orff Carmina
Gershwin American
Copland Appalachian Spring,ClarinetConcerto Symphony3,Rodeo,Salón
Tippett ConcertoforDoubleStringOrchestra
Barber Adagio,Ov.School
Bernstein R38 West Side Story SerenadeforViolin,Ov.Candide
Schoenberg R39 VariationsOp.31 ChamberSymphony2
Webern VariationsOp.30
Berg PiecesOp.6,Wozzeck ViolinConcerto
Ives Unanswered,Three Places HolidaysSymphony,Central Park
Table 10.1a 2cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
521Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Carter Variations
Messiaen Turangalîla
Dutilleux Métaboles
Lutosławski Jeux,Funeral,Concerto
Ligeti Atmosphères
Berio Sinfonia
Varèse Amériques,Arcana
Penderecki Threnody
Cage PianoConcerto
3 Symphonic repertoire (cf. 2 )
Thelistincludesconcertoverturesandballetmusicthatismostoftenperformedinsymphonyconcerts(forinstance,Stravinsky’sSacreorBartok’sMiraculous Mandarin).Itdoesnotincludegenreslistedbelow:concertos(2)andoperaovertures(3)and*balletsuites(6)
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Bach R1 Suite3 Brandenburg3
Haydn R3 Symphony104 Symphony83 Symphony103
Mozart R4 Symphony39 Symphonies38,40–41 Symphonies35–36
Beethoven R7 Symphony3R8 Ov.Leonore3
Symphonies7,5,9,6Ov.Egmont
Symphonies2,4,8,1
Schubert Symphonies9,5,Ov.Rosamunde Symphonies8,3–4
J.Strauss,Jr. R12 TalesWaltzVergnügungszugPolka
Rosen WaltzÉljen PolkaAuf der JagdPolka
Danube Waltz,Emperor WaltzTritschPolka,AnnenPolkaPizzicatoPolka
Hellmesberger BallScene
Mendelssohn R15 Midsummer Symphony4 Symphony3,Ov.Hebrides
Schumann R17 Symphony2 Symphonies3,Ov.Manfred Symphonies3–4
Brahms R18 Symphony4 Symphonies1,3HaydnVariations
Symphony2
Franck Symphony
Grieg Peer
Table 10.1a 2cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
522 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Berlioz R19 Romeo Symphonie fantastique Ov.Corsaire,Ov.Carnival
Saint-Saëns Carnival
Bizet L’Arlesienne 1–2
Mussorgsky Pictures(Ravel) Night
Tchaikovsky R20 Symphony4 Symphonies5–6,Ov.Romeo Suite3
Borodin Polovtsian
Rimsky-K. Scheherazade Capriccio esp.,TsarIII/1/Bumble
Smetana Moldau
Dvořák R23 Slavonic Dances Symphonies8–9 Symphony7,Ov.Carnival
Liszt Préludes Faust
Wagner Siegfried Idyll
Schoenberg Verklärte
Bruckner R26 Symphony4 Symphony7 Symphonies6,9,8
Elgar EnigmaVariations Falstaff
Reger MozartVariations
Rachmaninoff Symphony2 SymphonicDances
Scriabin Poéme de l’extase
Dukas Sorcerer
Strauss R29 Don Juan Till,Zarathustra Heldenleben, Metamorphoses
Mahler R31 Symphony5 Symphony1,4 Symphony2,9
Ravel R32 Daphnis2 Rhapsodie espagnole La Valse
Debussy R33 La Mer Jeux Images 1–3
Enescu RomanianRhapsody1
Sibelius Symphony5 Symphonies1–2
Vaughan-Williams
Fantasia
Holst Planets
Walton Ov.Portsmouth
Table 10.1a 3cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
523Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Britten Guide BridgeVariations
Ibert Escales
Honegger Symphonie liturgique
Milhaud Bœuf
Respighi Feste,Fontane,Pini
Martinů Symphony6
Janáček Sinfonietta Taras
Nielsen Symphony4
Bartók R34 Concerto Music Mandarin
Kodály Galánta Hary Janos
Prokofiev Symphony1,Kijé, Peter Symphony5,Scythian
Shostakovich R36 Symphony5 Symphony10 Symphony9
Hindemith Mathis Symphony PhilharmonicConcerto,Metamorphorsis
Stravinsky R37 Sacre Firebird Petrushka,Pulcinella
Gershwin American
Copland Appalachian Spring Symphony3,Rodeo,Salón
Tippett ConcertoforDoubleStringOrchestra
Barber Adagio,Ov.School
Schoenberg R39 VariationsOp.31 ChamberSymphony2
Webern VariationsOp.30
Berg PiecesOp.6
Ives Unanswered,Three Places HolidaysSymphony,Central Park
Carter Variations
Messiaen Turangalîla
Dutilleux Métaboles
Table 10.1a 3cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
524 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
complete corerepertoire
second-tierrepertoire(after 10 years)
third-tierrepertoire(after 20 years)
Lutosławski Jeux,Funeral,Concerto
Ligeti Atmosphères
Berio Sinfonia
Varèse Amériques,Arcana
Penderecki Threnody
4 Concertos andotherworksforsoloinstrumentsandorchestra(cf. 2 )
Haydn Trumpet
Mozart Piano23 Piano27,Clarinet
Beethoven Piano5 Piano4
Mendelssohn Violin
Schumann Piano,Cello
Brahms Piano1–2 Violin,Double
Chopin Piano2
Saint-Saëns Cello1
Tchaikovsky Piano1 Violin,RococoVariations
Dvořák Cello Violin
Rachmaninoff R27 Paganini Piano2 Piano3
Sibelius Violin
Bartók Piano3
Prokofiev Piano3 Violin2,Symphony-ConcertoforCello
Shostakovich Piano1 Cello1,Violin1
Copland Clarinet
Bernstein SerenadeforViolin
Berg Violin
Cage PianoConcerto
Table 10.1a 3cont.
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
525Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
5 Overtures to operas and musicals (cf. 2 )
Mozart R5 Ov.Flute
Rossini Ov.Gazza,Ov.Tell Ov.Scala,Ov.Semiramide
Verdi R10 Ov.Forza
Nicolai Ov.Wives
Suppé Ov.Poet, Ov.Cavalry Ov.Banditen,Ov.Morgen,Ov.Galathea
Weber R14 Ov.Oberon Ov.Euryanthe
Glinka Ov.Ruslan
Smetana R22 Ov.Bride
Bernstein Ov.Candide
6 Operas (cf. 2 )
Mozart R6 Figaro Don Giovanni/vn.2,Flute,Così Abduction
Beethoven Fidelio
Rossini R9 Barber Cenerentola Turco,L’Italiana
Bellini Norma
Donizetti L’elisir Don Pasquale,Lucia,Fille
Verdi R11 Traviata Rigoletto,Trovatore, Otello Nabucco,Aida,Ballo,Forza, Falstaff
Weber Freischütz
Gounod Faust,Romeo
Bizet Carmen
Tchaikovsky Onegin
Smetana Bride
Wagner R24 TannhäuserR25 Siegfried
Tristan,Dutchman Walküre,Lohengrin,Meistersinger
Humperdinck Hansel
Puccini R28 Bohème Butterfly,Tosca Turandot
Mascagni Pagliacci
Leoncavallo Cavalleria
Strauss R30 Rosenkavalier Salome Elektra
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
526 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
Janáček Jenůfa Vixen
Berg Wozzeck
7 Operettas and musicals (cf. 2 )
J.Strauss,Jr. R13 Fledermaus
Offenbach Hoffmann*
Lehár Merry Widow
Bernstein R38 West Side Story
*Thoughtechnicallynotanoperetta,forstylisticreasonsOffenbach’sTales of Hoffmannhasbeenclassifiedasanoperettahere.
8 Oratorios and other choral works (cf. 2 )
Bach R2 St. Matthew Christmas Oratorio Mass,St. John
Handel Messiah
Haydn Creation Seasons
Beethoven Missa
Verdi Requiem
Mendelssohn R16 Elijah
Brahms Requiem
Britten War Requiem
Orff Carmina
9 Ballets (worksperformedprimarilyasconcertpiecesratherthanasballetssuchasStravinsky’sSacreorBartók’sMiraculous
Mandarinarelistedunder 3 )
Delibes Coppélia
Tchaikovsky R21 Nutcracker Swan Lake Beauty
DeFalla Hat
Prokofiev R35 Cinderella Romeo
(2) Naturally, a second goal in learning a core repertoire issimplytomasterpiecesthatareespeciallypopular.Unfortunately,statistics concerning frequency of performance are difficult tocompile.ThedatasummarizedinTable10.1b• coveronlytwocountries,theU.S.andGermany• includeonlyperformancesgivenbyaselectgroupofinstitu-
tionssuchasmemberorchestrasoftheLAOorcertainoperahousespolledforsurveys
• cover only certain segments of the repertoire, in particularsymphonicmusicandopera.
Largeportionsoftheorchestrarepertoirearenotaccountedfor(for instance, the repertoireof choral societies andballet com-panies), andneither themusicperformedby semi-professional
orchestrasnorrecordingsareconsideredhere.Further,inspiteoftheglobalizationoftheclassicalrepertoire,individualcountriesandregionsstillhavetheirspecifictastesandprofiles.BarberismorefrequentlyperformedintheU.S.,justasVaughanWilliamsand Reger are popular in England and Germany, respectively.Whenitcomestomusicbylivingcomposers,thetastesareevenmorediversefromcountrytocountry.Thisiswhythesuggestionsforpost-WorldWarIIrepertoireinTable10.1a/2 aretentative.
Neverthelesstheavailabledatasuggestthatthesimilaritiesbe-tweenrepertoireindifferentcountriesareconsiderable:compare,forinstance,theAmericanandGermanstatisticsforoperaticper-formances,juxtaposedinTable10.1b/4 –5 .
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
527Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
(3) The third goal of learning the core repertoire—learningrepertoire that is frequently required for auditions—is givenlessimportancehere.Thereisgreatinstructionalvalueinstudyingsomeoftheorchestralrepertoirerequiredforauditions,and,nat-urally,practicingpopularauditionexcerptsfrom Table11.6/Dislikelytohelpyoutowinauditions.Buttheworksfromwhichthemostpopularexcerptsaretakendonotadduptoabalancedrepertoirethatfillsthecriteriadescribedabove.
Whetheryouareplanningtoworkasafirstorsecondviolin-ist,practicethefirst-violinpartsformostpiecesandthesecond-violin parts forafewworks,particularlyClassicalpiecessuchasDon Giovanni.Onlyifyouarealreadyworkingasafirstorsecondviolinistanddeterminedtostayinthatpositionshouldyoulimityourpracticing to theappropriateparts.—Thecore repertoireofsolosforconcertmastersandprincipalsislargelyidenticaltotherepertoirerequestedtypicallyatauditions(Table11.6/A–C).
Table 10.1b: The most frequently performed orchestral repertoire
Baroquerepertoireisexcluded.Alllists,withtheexceptionof4 ,arebasedonthenumberofperformances.Alllistsareorganizedindescendingorderoffrequency.
1 Symphonic composers most frequently performed by American orchestrasThislistisbasedon LAO2000–10.Therankingwithineachofthesixgroupsisapproximate.
Beethoven,MozartTchaikovsky,BrahmsStrauss,Ravel,Dvořák,ProkofievHaydn,Stravinsky,Shostakovich,RachmaninoffMendelssohn,MahlerSibelius,Copland,Schubert,Schumann,Bartók,Berlioz,
Debussy,Bernstein,Janáček,Rimsky-Korsakov
2 Symphonic works most frequently performed by Ameri-can orchestrasThislistisbasedon LAO2000–10.
symphonic repertoireBeethoven:Symphonies3,5,7,6,9Tchaikovsky:Symphonies6,5,4Brahms:Symphonies2,4,1Dvořák:Symphonies9,8Mussorgsky(Ravel):PicturesRimsky-K.:ScheherazadeDebussy:La Mer
piano concertosRachmaninoff2Beethoven3–5Tchaikovsky1Grieg
violin concertosTchaikovskyBeethovenBrahms
3 –5 Most frequently performed operas (and operettas)Theworksaregroupedintiersaccordingtotheirpopularity.
3 Stages worldwide in 2005–9This list is based on the number of performances as listed athttp://www.operabase.com/top.cg?lang=en&.
Mozart:FluteVerdi:TraviataBizet:CarmenPuccini:BohèmeMozart:FigaroPuccini:ToscaMozart:Don GiovanniPuccini:ButterflyRossini:BarberVerdi:RigolettoMozart:Così
Donizetti:L’elisirVerdi:AidaHumperdinck:HanselPuccini:TurandotJ.Strauss,Jr.:FledermausVerdi:NabuccoTchaikovsky:OneginDonizetti:LuciaMozart:AbductionLehár:WidowVerdi:TrovatoreVerdi:FalstaffWagner:DutchmanVerdi:BalloMascagni:CavalleriaVerdi:OtelloRossini:CenerentolaOffenbach:HoffmannVerdi:MacbethStrauss:SalomeWagner:RheingoldBeethoven:FidelioGounod:Faust
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)
528 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.1 Selecting a Core Repertoire for Study and Practice: Goals and Criteria
4 North-American stages in 1981–2008Thislistisbasedontheaveragenumberofproductionsaslistedin
OperaAmerica1981-2007.
Puccini:ButterflyPuccini:BohèmeVerdi:TraviataBizet:Carmen
Rossini:BarberMozart:FigaroPuccini:ToscaVerdi:RigolettoMozart:Don GiovanniMozart:FluteJ.Strauss,Jr.:Fledermaus
Donizetti:LuciaMozart:CosìPuccini:TurandotGounod:FaustVerdi:AidaLeoncavallo:PagliacciDonizetti:L’Elisir
Offenbach:HoffmannRossini:CenerentolaLehár:WidowVerdi:TrovatoreGounod:RomeoHumperdinck:HanselDonizetti:Don PasqualeSullivan:MikadoStrauss:SalomeGershwin:PorgyVerdi:FalstaffMascagni:CavalleriaWagner:Dutchman
5 German stages in 2000–5Thislistisbasedontheaveragenumberofperformancesaslistedin Mertens2006and MIZ2008.
Mozart:FluteHumperdinck:HanselBizet:CarmenMozart:AbductionMozart:FigaroVerdi:TraviataPuccini:BohèmeMozart:CosìWeber:FreischützMozart:Don GiovanniRossini:BarberPuccini:ButterflyVerdi:RigolettoOffenbach:Hoffmann
Puccini: ToscaBeethoven:FidelioWagner: DutchmanRossini: CenerentolaMascagni: CavalleriaVerdi: AidaLeoncavallo: PagliacciStrauss: RosenkavalierVerdi: Don CarloSmetana: BrideWagner: TannhäuserPuccini: TurandotDonizetti: Lucia
Ch.3.4/ G5 :establishingperformancegoalsbymeansofthestylegridLearning strategies•Learneachpiecethoroughlyaccordingtothe seven-step schemedescribed inCh. 3.3–3.10 and summa-rizedinTable3.2(p.18).Learneachpieceentirelyon your own.Indoingthis, testandrefineyourpracticestrategiesandmakethem as efficient as possible. Consult an experienced musicianonlyafteryouhavefirsttriedbyyourself.
Order•Thebestorderforbuildingyourcorerepertoireandstylegridistheprogressiveorderofcomposersandgroupsofcom-posersshowninTable10.1a/2 andpresentedinCh.10.3.Thesuggestedpathbeginswith theBaroque style; each consecutiveselectionintroducesacertainnumberofnewtechnicalandmusi-cal elements for study andmastery.The suggestedorder strikes
abalancebetweencompositionalchronology,on theonehand,andthestyleofinstrumentalwriting,ontheother.Forinstance,becausethestringwritingofRossini,Verdi,orJ.Strauss,Jr.,isdi-rectlyderivedfromVienneseClassicism,itmakessensetopracticeworks by these composers immediately after practicing Haydn,Mozart,Beethoven,andSchubert.Forthesamereason,itcanalsobeefficienttopracticeworksofdifferentgenresside-by-side:forex-ample,youshouldpracticeaMozartopera( R5 – R6 )rightafteroneofhis symphonies ( R4 ),andaTchaikovsky’sballet ( R21 )rightafteroneofhissymphonies( R20 ).
Style grid •Askanexperiencedorchestralmusician, for in-stance, about Schubert’s early symphonies, Tchaikovsky’s bal-lets, or theVerdi’smiddle-period operas. This will immediatelyevokeclearimagesinhisorherhead—apreciseideaofhowthese
10.2 Building Your Core Repertoire and Style Grid
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52910 Repertoire and Style • 10.2 Building Your Core Repertoire and Style Grid
compositions sound and feel, of the challenges they pose, andoftherangeofcommonperformancestyles.Howdoyouestab-lishsuchaclear,refinedstylegrid?—Whileyouworkyourwaythroughthecorerepertoire,filleachindividual“tile”or“coordi-nate”ofyourstylegridwiththefollowinginformation:• elementsofcompositionalstyle:typicalmelodic,harmonic,and
rhythmic patterns, typical colors (including instrumentation,dynamics,articulation,andsoon),typicalformsandstructuralcharacteristics (including motivic development and melody-plus-accompanimenttextures),typicalexpressivecharacters
• technicalchallenges• elementsofperformancestyle:typicaltempos(tempogrid,p.
344),rhythmicmodifications,ornaments,dynamics,articula-tion,andtimbres(seetherepresentativeexcerptsinEx.5.1c–dand5.2i–m).
Thegoalinestablishingsuch“tiles”istounderstandthemusi-cal craft and spiritof eachcomposerand tohaveaclear ideaofhowperformers generally approach each style.There is noshortcut to thiswork. It requires spendingagreat amountoftimewith scores (including scoresofpieces innon-orchestralgenres), recordings, books, articles, and web documents. Fol-low the reading suggestions in Chapter 12.4 and look foressentialmaterialsathttp://www.orch.info/parts, for instance,downloadableeditionsofthecorerepertoire.
Two examples shall illustrate how the material from Parts5–9ofthisbookaswellasotherresourcescanaidinthisprocess(pp.21–23).Ex. 3.4a•Figaro( R6 )exemplifiesanespeciallyimportant“tile”:
Mozart’s mature style. Read both Einstein’s authoritativemonograph( 1945)andRatner’sstudyonClassical formand phrase structure ( 1985), and review the sections inChapters9.11–9.15and9.20aboutClassicalornamentationandarticulation.Oneoftheprincipalcompositionalelementsofthisstyleisaphrase structurethatrequiresappropriateshap-ingfromtheperformer(Ex.9.20k–l).EachofthetwophrasesinEx.3.4a/3–4and5–6showsacharacteristicshapewithanapexon thedownbeatof the secondmeasure: this iswhereyouhearthemost intenseharmonies—a4–3suspensioninm.4anda2–1suspensioninm.6.Theperformerisexpectedtoexpresssuchshapeswithvibrato,bowspeed,andbowpres-sure—eveniftherearenomarkingsinthepartandeveniftheconductordoesnotexplicitlyrequestsuchshapes.AnothercharacteristicofMozart’smaturestyleishishighlydif-ferentiatedarticulations,whicharenotatedmorepreciselythaninother18th-centurypartsbutstillrelyconsiderablyontheper-former’sknowledgeandfeelingforstyle.Usegentlearticulationforthetwo-noteslursinmm.34–35,andshortenallindividuallong-notevaluesinmm.1,7,9,and13–14,addingdiminuendi.ButinlateMozartsuchmodificationsmustbenomorethanslight,forthecomposeralreadyusedacomparativelypreciseno-tation:compare inm.1to inm.2andcompare inm.25to inm.13.Ingeneral,allarticulationmustbegentlebecauseanythingelsewasdifficulttoachievewiththebowsofthelate18thcentury.Thenoteswithdotsinm.10,forinstance,requireasmooth,portato-likequality.
StillanothercomponentofMozart’smaturestylewasaspe-cifictypeofornamentation.
• Theupbeattrillsinmm.7and9areonthesamepitchesasthepreviousnotesandthereforeshouldstartwiththeuppernote.
• Thetrillsinm.14,bycontrast,servetointensifyprominentpitch-esonastrongbeatandthereforeshouldstartonthemainnote.Finally, even thoughMozart’smatureworks are character-izedbyadepthof emotionand strongdramaticqualities,theyneverleavetherealmofClassicalexpression.Eventhefshouldneverbeharsh.Thesoundmayneverloseitsnoble,polished,smooth,crystallinequality,especiallybecausethetransparenttexturesexposeandmagnifyeveryblemish.Lis-tentoperformancesandrecordingsofMozart’slateoperas,symphonies,concertos,andchambermusicinordertogainabetterunderstandingofthismusicalworld.
Ex. 3.4b • The style of Strauss’s tone poems and operas( R29 – R30 ) represents another important “tile” in thestylegrid.StudythefullscoreofDon Juan,readLenau’spoemthatprovidedtheprogramforthepiece,andread DelMar1962/I,65–77.Analyzethestructureandtextureofthepieceandgetafeelingforitsspiritandcharacter.Strauss’sstyleshowsamixtureofenergy,brilliance,exuberance,andelegance—witha slight irony characteristicof thefin de siècle.TheharmonyinDon Juan,asinmostofStrauss,isstilltonalbutliesonthefringeof themajor-minor system—which createsoneof themaintechnicalchallengesofhismusic.Thecharactersarealsoextremeandsometimesrequiregreatcreativity fromtheper-former:flebile(plaintive)inm.48ismatchedbyheuchlerisch schmachtend(fakepining)orkeifend(scolding,cackling)inthefamousviolincadenzainHeldenleben/23 +4and30 +6.TheperformerofStraussisinaverydifferentpositionthanthe performer of Mozart. The appropriate performancetradition is still aliveand isdocumentedonnumerous re-cordings.AfterexploringDon Juanonyourown, listentosome performances and recordings. Compare R. Strauss’sown1929 recordingoroneofhisother recordings to thelandmarkrecordingsofthelasthalf-century,particularlytoKarajan’s(perhapsunsurpassed)1974readingwiththeBer-linPhilharmonic(andlistentorecordingsofStrauss’sothersymphonic poems and operas). Analyze the technical fea-turesoftheseperformances,andexaminehowtheperform-erscopewiththeextremelycomplex,layeredtexturesofhismusic. In the most convincing renditions, Strauss’s musicsoundslusciousandsensuousbuttransparent—eveninthethickesttexture.Exuberanceandbrillianceneverturnintolackofpolish.Inspiteofthewealthofdetailsandbreath-takingorchestralvirtuosity,Strauss’sownrecordingshaveacertainsimplicityaboutthemandanabsenceofindulgence,coupled with nobility and elegant irony. He performedhismusicatabriskpace—h =92inthefirstsectionofDon Juan—and his tempo was “more flexible than the metro-nomemarkings in the score.”As a conductor, Straussputgreatemphasisonstrongarticulation:“TheopeningofDon Juan isplayedwithimpressiveclarityofrhythmcomparedwithmanyrecordingsofthe1920s.Thedottedrhythmsare
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530 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.3 Individual Styles of Orchestral String Writing and Their Challenges
generallyquiteclearandincisive,”andthehalfandquarternotesinmm.29–31areclearlyseparated( Philip1992,31and83).Incidentally,thesamequalitiesthatStraussstressedinhisownperformancesarealsoevidentinPreucil’sbrilliantplaying,whichprovidesstillanothermodelforyourStraussperformance( 1998).Thisbrillianceisgeneratedparticu-
larlywithstrongleft-handarticulation,goodbowcontact,andstrong“clicks.”
Studyotherpiecesinthecorerepertoireinthesamemanner.Thiswillallowyoutobuildupastylegridthatwillhelpyoutodefineperformance-practicegoalsforyourorchestralrepertoireandtoplaythemintheappropriatestyle.
10.3 Individual Styles of Orchestral String Writing and Their Challenges: A Brief Historical Survey
Part9:performancepractice• Ch.12.4/d–h:literatureThefollowingoverviewisintended• tomapout thebest order for building your core repertoire
andstylegrid• toidentifythecharacteristicsandchallengesofeachimpor-
tantstyle• tohelpyouseetheindividualpiecesofthecorerepertoirein
theproperhistoricalcontext.(ComposerswhosenamesappearinboldfaceareincludedintherepertoirelistsinTable10.1a.)
MusicoftheBaroqueposesfewchallengesforthelefthandbutdemands a very specific bowing technique adapted to the Ba-roque bow (Ch. 9.14). Most importantly, it requires intimatefamiliarity• withvariousissuesofperformancepractice:phrasingandar-
ticulation,metricandrhythmicmodification(hemiolas,dou-ble-dotting, assimilation of dotted to triplet rhythms), andornaments(Ch.9.7,9.11–9.15,and9.20)
• withcertaintypicalidioms:forinstance,Frenchoverturestyleandvariousdances inBach’sorchestral suites ( R1 ),or thechoralestyleandaccompanied-recitativestyleintheSt. Mat-thew Passion( R2 ).
Foranyindividualviolinistaswellasforanystringsection,theViennese Classical repertoireistheprovinggroundthatallowsyoutotrainandtestyourtechniqueandplayingstyle.Thoughthemusicrarelyascendsbeyondthefifthposition,thechallengesforthebowarmareconsiderableandremainedunsurpassedduringthe19thcentury:therepertoirerequiresawiderangeofoff-the-string strokes and infinite nuances of articulation. The greatestchallengeisachievingthenecessarycrystallineclarity:thetrans-parent writing mercilessly exposes the slightest intonation slip,anyinsecureoroilyshift,thetiniestrhythmicunsteadinessoren-sembleproblem,thesmallesttraceofunpolishedsoundquality,andtheslightestlackofclarity,elegance,orhomogeneoussection-alsound.ThisiswhymostworksofHaydn,Mozart,Beethoven,Schubert,andtheircontemporariesremainchallengingevenafterasectionhasrehearsedandperformedthemmanytimes.
Mozart’sstyle—theepitomeofthisclear,elegantidiom—canbestudiedbestinhisoperas( R5 – R6 ),whichofferawidervari-etyofexpressivecharactersandmorevirtuosicwritingthanfoundin the symphonies ( R4 ). Similar virtuosity is also requiredbysomeofhisdivertimentosandserenadesandbymanyofHaydn’sfirst-violinparts( R3 ).
Beethoven’sversionoftheClassicalstringidiomshowsanin-creasingdisregardforrewardinginstrumentalwritingandfortheplayer’s comfort. Challenging dynamics, awkward articulation,andarhythmicstructurethatmakesensembleplayingextremelydifficultalwaystendtoleavetheimpressionthataperfectrendi-tion of Beethoven is near-impossible, even for the best orches-tras and conductors ( R7 – R8 ). Because the string parts wereconceivedwithoutmuchconsiderationforcontemporaryplayingtechnique, violinists should not hesitate to apply playing tech-niques that some period-instrument specialists might consideranachronistic—anuancedarticulationtechnique,avarietyofoff-the-stringbowings,andasophisticatedvibratotechnique.
SchubertaddedmorevirtuositytotheClassicalstyle,particu-larlyinthetarantellafinalesofSymphonies3and9.
The19th century•ThemodelforSchubert’sorchestralvir-tuositywasRossini,thefirstmajorcomposerofthebel cantostyle.WhatRossini( R9 ),Bellini,Donizetti,andVerdi(R10 – R11 )addedtotheClassicalViennesestyleofstringwritingwasbril-liance (especially in fast, high passages that require great left-handfacility)—incombinationwithrhythmicdrive,extremelycrisparticulation,andravishinglyricism.Butatthesametime,their music still demanded the same crystalline quality as themusicofVienneseClassicalcomposers.Onefactorthatmakestheiroperasrelativelyeasytolearn,however,isthattheyrarelyabandoned the regular phrase structure and diatonic basis ofClassicism—eventhoughVerdiaddedsomechromaticspiceinhis lateoperas.—Among themanycomposers influencedbyRossini’s stringwritingwere theprotagonistsofGerman lightopera(Lortzing,Nicolai,Flotow).
Another direct extension of the Classical style is the style of19th-centuryViennese ländler,waltzes,polkas,marches, andop-erettas ( R12 – R13 ). In themusic ofLanner, the Strauss fam-ily,Zeller,andMillöcker,wefindthesameelegance,clarity,andexposed writing as in Haydn, Mozart, and Schubert. A specialchallenge inall theseworks is rendering thearticulationgracefulyetnotharshortinny—adifficulttaskwiththesmallstringsec-tionscommonlyusedforthisrepertoire.Theviolinistfacessimilarchallengesintheoncepopularopéras comiquesbyBoieldieu,Auber,Hérold,andAdam,inFrenchballets(Delibes),andintheoperettasofOffenbach,whichprecededtheirViennesecounterparts.SuppéimbuedtheVienneseoperettastylewithRossini’sbrilliance,andinthe20thcenturyLehármergeditwithPuccini’slusciousmelodiesandharmonies,whichmakesformorerewardingstringwriting.
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53110 Repertoire and Style • 10.3 Individual Styles of Orchestral String Writing and Their Challenges
Using Viennese Classicism as their model, German Ro-mantic composersadoptedacleanstringwritingstyle,addingvirtuosic andexpressive elements.Weberdemandedespeciallyhigh facility from his violinists ( R14 )—a style continued byMendelssohn ( R15 – R16 ). Schumann ( R17 ) and Brahms( R18 )builtonthisidiom,but,astheywerenotstringplayers,theywrotemanypassagesthatareawkwardfortheviolin—Schu-mannespeciallyinhisfastrepetitionsandBrahmsintrickyleft-handpatternsandjumps.Additionally,Brahms’smusicrequiresa delicate balance between clarity and expressivity: the dangersofsoundingtoodryandthinorsoundingtooslushyareequallystrong.ThestringwritingofGermanRomanticcomposersinflu-encedespeciallyChopin,Gounod,Franck,andGrieg.
AtthebeginningofFrench Romanticismstandsauniquefig-ure,Berlioz,whoemulatedBeethovenbothinhissearchfornewmodesofexpressionandinhisdisregardforinstrumentalcomfort( R19 ).AllofBerlioz’smusic includesnovel,unidiomatic, andoftenextremeinstrumentaleffectsthatrequireingenuityandex-perimentationfromtheplayerandpavethewayforfuturecom-posers (suchasMussorgsky).Berliozalsobegantoexploreele-gant,lightstringcolorsthatbecametypicalofmanyotherFrenchcomposerswhootherwiseadheredtothestring-writingidiomofVienneseClassicism,Rossini,andMendelssohn.IntothisgroupbelongparticularlySaint-SaënsandBizet.
Beginning with Glinka, most Slavic Romantics were in-spiredintheirstringwritingbytheVienneseClassicalcompos-ers,too,aswellasbytheGermanRomanticcomposersandItal-ianopera.Tchaikovsky’srewardingviolinpartsaddednonewright-hand challenges, while the extremely fast, high passages(particularlyinhisballets)requiregreatleft-handfacility( R20– R21 ).The samebrilliancealsocharacterizes the stringwrit-ingofBorodinandRimsky-Korsakov.EvenmoredemandingfortheviolinsaretheworksofSmetana ( R22 )andDvořák.WorkssuchastheSlavonic Dancesarefullofexposedpassageswithtrickyleft-handpatterns( R23 ).
Except for that of Berlioz, the 19th-century instrumentalstyles considered so far were largely derived from theVienneseClassicism. The composer who turned string writing in a newdirectionwasWagner ( R23 – R25 ),whosepointofdepartureweremainlythecompositionsofBeethoven,Berlioz,andMeyer-beer(andwhosharedsomestring-writingtechniqueswithLiszt).The complex pitch patterns of Wagner’s operas, resulting fromtheexplorationofchromaticism,bringthedifficultyofhisviolinpartstoanextremelevelinwhichitisnearlyimpossibletoplayallthenotescleanly.Noristhisevenalwaysintended:theidealWagneriansoundisasmoothblend,asdiscussedinChapter3.11.
Legionsoflate-Romanticcomposers,includingyoungSchoen-berg,wereinspiredbyWagner’stonallanguageandstringwriting.ThemusicofBrucknerrequiresthesamekindofchromaticplay-ingyetusuallyatslowerspeeds;heoftenextendsWagner’stremolopassagestoextremelengths( R26 ).HumperdinckandElgarputWagnerianchromaticpatternsintoamorerevealing,challengingtexture. Reger carriedWagner’s chromaticism and counterpointtoextremes.AlsothekeyfiguresoflateRussianRomanticism—Rachmaninoff( R27 ),Glazunov,Scriabin—showedWagnerian
influenceintheirlusciouschromaticism,butotherwisecontinuedTchaikovsky’sandRimsky-Korsakov’sstyleofstringwriting.AlsomanyFrenchcomposers—notablyDukasandChabrier—werein-fluencedheavilybyWagnerintheirstringwriting.Italianverismocomposers, particularly Puccini ( R28 ), Mascagni, and Leon-cavallo,mergedchromaticharmonywithrewarding,opulentlyri-calwriting,inatexturethatdemandsutmostrhythmicflexibility.Theirstylebecamethemodelforthelowerspectrumoftheaes-theticsphere—lateoperettas,musicals,andmanyfilmscores.
Strauss’s tonepoemsandoperas( R29 – R30 ),whilebasedon Wagner’s chromatic language, carried the virtuosity of thestring writing to an unprecedented level and required a clarity,brilliance,anddiversityofcolorsnotfoundintheworksofanyofhispredecessors.AnadditionalchallengeoftheorchestralscoresofStrauss,hiscontemporaries,andhisfollowersarethefrequentsolopassagesassignednotonlytotheprincipalsbuteventoindi-vidualsectionplayers.
The20th century•AcombinationofWagnerianwritingwithaforward-lookingexplorationofnewtimbrescharacterizesbothMahler’ssymphoniesandtheorchestralmusicofRavelandDe-bussy.Mahler required extremes indynamics and colors, oftenchallenging for the violinist ( R31 ). The French impressionistsRavel ( R32 )andDebussy ( R33 )createdaworldofdelicate,magicalhues—antitheticaltoGermanicmonumentalism.ThesecolorsdominatedmuchofFrenchmusicthroughMessiaen.Theconcern with timbre brought composers to forge a new, moreacribicnotationalstyle:Debussy’shabittoaddsignsfordynam-ics,articulation,andexpressionvirtually toeverynote inmanypassagesrequiresfromtheplayersafargreaterprecisionfortheperformanceofthesecompositionalaspects.ThisnotationalstylewasadoptedbycomposersasdiverseasSchoenbergandEnescu.
Inaddition to theexplorationof timbre, the second inno-vation of post-Wagnerian music—especially challenging forthe orchestral string player—was the increased individualiza-tion of tonal language. True, many composers continued tocultivate more accessible harmonic styles based on traditionalnational idioms—among them Sibelius, Spanish and Latin-AmericancomposerssuchasDe Falla,Britishcomposerssuchas Vaughan-Williams, Holst, Walton, and Britten and neo-Classical composers such as Ibert, Honegger, Milhaud, Res-pighi,andMartinů.Butanumberofcomposersorgroupsofcomposerscreatedtheirown,adventuroustonalsystems,devi-ating substantially frommajor-minor tonality anddemandingtheir own left-hand techniques—often virtuosic or even awk-ward.ParticularlychallengingarethepitchpatternsinthemusicofJanáček,Nielsen,Bartók( R34 ),Kodály,Prokofiev( R35 ),Shostakovich( R36 ),andHindemith.
A third challenge emerged with the exploration of rhythm.IrregularmeterswereexploitedinthemusicofStravinsky(R37 )andhavesincebecomeacommonplaceinClassicalandpopularmusic.AmericanandBritishcomposersmergedthisstylewithjazz rhythms—in particular, Gershwin, Copland, Tippett,Barber,andBernstein( R38 ).
Meanwhile,theemancipationfromthetraditionaltonalsys-tem reached extremes. Especially far removed from traditional
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532 10 Repertoire and Style • 10.3 Individual Styles of Orchestral String Writing and Their Challenges
string technique were compositions in free atonality from the1910s and early 1920s by Schoenberg, Webern, and Berg, aswellastheirlatertwelve-toneworks( R39 ).
Theextremelycomplex,densestructureisthemainchallengein many 20th-century compositions. This is true not only forSchoenberg’sfollowerswhoextendedserialtechniquestorhythmandtimbre(Nono,Boulez,Dallapiccola)butalsoformanyothercomposers who wrote without comparable “systems.” Ives andCarter increased especially the level of rhythmic complexity totheextreme.Othercomposersintroducedasimilarcomplexitytoallcompositionalparameters:Messiaen,Dutilleux,Lutosławski,Ligeti,andBerio.
Acompletebreaknotonlywithtraditionalstringtechniquebutalsowiththetraditionalaestheticsof“beautiful”stringsoundcameinthemusicofVarèseandinavant-gardeworksofthepost-WorldWarIIera.Stockhausen,Penderecki,andahostofothercomposersbegantoexplorenon-traditionalplayingstyles.Theyalsopromotedanothernew trend: theybrokewith theClassic-Romanticconceptofthe“workofart”byintroducingimprovisa-tionalandaleatoricelements,whichrequiretheplayerstoplayamoreactiveroleinimportantperformancechoices.Thistendencywascarriedevenfurtherincompositionsassociatedwithindeter-minacy,notablythosebyCage.
Duringthepastdecades,however,othercomposershavere-introducedamoretraditionalconceptofperformanceandmoretraditionalstylesofstringwriting,lesschallengingfortheplayer.
Theyinclude:• minimalistcomposers(Glass,Reich,Adams,Pärt,Taverner)• composers associated with “neo-romanticism” (Del Tredici,
Corigliano,Rouse,Higdon)or“newsimplicity”(Rihm)• composers who cultivate a moderate form of modernism
(Birtwistle,Harbison)• “polystylists”(Schnittke)• composers who abandoned experimental styles in favor of
more accessible idioms (Takemitsu, Penderecki, Davies,Lachenmann).
Musicals,film scores,“pops” pieces,andcommercial musichavelargelybeenbasedontraditionalstyles(forinstance,PucciniandStravinsky),aswellasonjazzidiom.Themainchallengeofthismusic is rathermundane:manyparts arehandwritten anddifficulttoread(Ch.9.1).
The second violins were still largely relegated to repetitiveaccompanimentsinmanyClassicalworksaswellasinbel cantooperas,Viennesewaltzes andoperettas, andmanyballet scores.Someaccompanimentalpatterns—notablythoseinMozart’sDon Giovanni, Figaro, and Così, and in Rossini’s operas—require apolishedspecializedbowingtechnique.Extendedpassagesonthelowerstringsrequiretrickystringcrossingsandcoordination.Thisposesspecialchallenges:• youmust achieve the smoothness that is expected fromanac-
companyingpartwithoutsacrificingclarity(Ex.5.30a,k–m,dd)• youmustcopewithexhaustingliftsforyourrightarm(Ch.4.14).Duringthe19thcentury,however,thesecondviolinsweregrad-ually emancipated and elevated to an equal position with thefirsts.Oftentheywereassignedanindependentorleadingrole.InmanyscoressinceBrahms,Wagner,Mahler,andStrauss,thechallengesforthesecondshavebeensimilartothoseofthefirsts(exceptfortheexplorationofthetopregister).
©Martin Wulfhorst, The Orchestral Violinist’s Companion, 2012 (To order the book visit www.orch.info)