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Parental Influence and AcademicAchievement among Middle SchoolStudents: Parent PerspectiveBrian Trung Lam a & Elena Ducreux aa School of Social Work, California State University Long Beach ,Long Beach , California , USAPublished online: 24 May 2013.

To cite this article: Brian Trung Lam & Elena Ducreux (2013) Parental Influence and AcademicAchievement among Middle School Students: Parent Perspective, Journal of Human Behavior in theSocial Environment, 23:5, 579-590, DOI: 10.1080/10911359.2013.765823

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Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 23:579–590, 2013

Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

ISSN: 1091-1359 print/1540-3556 online

DOI: 10.1080/10911359.2013.765823

Parental Influence and Academic Achievement among

Middle School Students: Parent Perspective

Brian Trung Lam and Elena Ducreux

School of Social Work, California State University Long Beach, Long Beach,

California, USA

This study examined the effects of parental influence on middle school students’ academic achievement.

The sample included 32 parents of middle school students. The questionnaire measured: parental

pressure and support; parental help, monitoring, and press for literacy; and communication. There

was a relationship that approached significance between communication and academic achievement:

as communication increased, academic achievement increased. There was also a relationship that

approached significance between parental help, monitoring, and press for literacy and parents’ highest

level of education: the higher the level of education of parents, the more involved parents were. The

implication for school social workers is discussed.

Keywords: Parental involvement, middle school, academic achievement

INTRODUCTION

In these difficult economic times, schools have been forced to increase classroom sizes, lay

off employees, and reduce supportive services to students. Consequently, many students areexperiencing academic difficulties, which may increase the likelihood that they will drop out

of school (Chen & Gregory, 2010). In addition, one of the difficulties that middle school students

experience is the transition to the new educational format. The format of middle schools is very

different from elementary schools; middle schools are larger and more bureaucratic and havemany more teachers, students, and choices (Hill & Tyson, 2009). However, research has shown

parental involvement in students’ academic work positively affects student achievement (Fan &

Williams, 2010; Hong, Yoo, You, & Wu, 2010). In this study, the terms parental involvement and

parental influence are used interchangeably. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectsof parental influences on middle school students’ academic influence achievement.

MIDDLE SCHOOL TRANSITION

According to Hill and Tyson (2009), middle schools are large and complex, often making it

difficult for parents to figure out how to become effectively involved. Parents must now build

Address correspondence to Brian Trung Lam, School of Social Work, California State University Long Beach, 1250

Bellflower Blvd., Long Beach, CA 90840-4602, USA. E-mail: brian.lam@csulb.edu

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580 B. T. LAM AND E. DUCREUX

relationships with multiple teachers instead of one teacher. A factor that makes it difficult formiddle school teachers to connect with parents and maintain relationships is that middle school

teachers interact with many students throughout the day (Green, Walker, Hoover-Dempsey, &

Sandler, 2007). Furthermore, specialization of instruction by academic subjects limits the number

of interactions that teachers may have with individual parents and students (Hill & Tyson).During the middle school years, parents’ educational backgrounds may become more of a

factor in their effort to provide academic support. Parental school involvement during middle

school may decrease because parents feel that they can no longer assist their children with the

more challenging subjects and provide support that will improve their children’s knowledge orachievement (Hill & Taylor, 2004; Hill & Tyson, 2009). In general, as students move through

school, their parents become less and less involved in their education (Hong et al., 2010).

The quantity and type of home-based influence that previously produced effective results may

decrease during the middle school years (Hill & Tyson, 2009). Green et al. (2007) noted that eventhough parents’ academic values remain constant throughout their children’s educational years,

actual behavioral involvement decreases. Therefore, middle schools must place an emphasis on

assisting parents with school influence. The evidence strongly suggests the benefits of policies

and programs aimed at increasing parental school influence throughout a child’s school career(McBride, Dyer, Ying, Brown, & Sungjin, 2009). In their study of three middle schools and five

primary schools in the United States, Epstein and Dauber (1991, as cited in Hornby & Witte, 2010)

found that parental influence programs at middle schools were less comprehensive than parental

influence programs at elementary schools. For example, parents of middle school students receivedless information as well as less guidance about how to effectively be involved and participate in

their children’s schooling (Hornby & Witte, 2010). Suh and Suh (2011) stated that the connection

between schools and communities is important for students during the middle school years becausethese students often become more disengaged from school.

PARENTAL SCHOOL INFLUENCE

According to Hill and Taylor (2004), parental influence may consist of the following activities:

parents will volunteer at school, communicate with their children’s teachers, help their children

with educational activities at home, attend their children’s school events, and attend parent-teacherconferences. In addition, an important component of parental influence is the value parents place

on the importance of education, including their aspirations, expectations, and attitudes about

education (Hong et al., 2010). Hornby and Witte (2010) examined 11 aspects of parental influence.

These included the following: “encouraging parents into school, policy formation, acting as aresource, collaborating with teachers, sharing information on children, channels of communication,

liaison with school staff, parent education, parent support, involving diverse parents, and teacher

professional development” (Hornby & Witte, p. 59).

Parental school influence can also be grouped into the following categories: home-based influ-ence, school-based involvement, and academic socialization. Home-based involvement includes

reinforcing the information taught at school; providing help with homework; setting a homework

routine, including visits at learning locations (museums and libraries); and increasing motiva-

tion (Hill & Tyson, 2009). Home-based involvement also includes strategies such as increasedcommunication between parents and children about education, school engagement, and creating a

positive learning atmosphere at home (e.g., making educational materials accessible, such as books,

newspapers, and educational toys; Hill & Tyson, 2009). According to Mellon and Moutavelis

(2009), home-based involvement activities are positively associated with school achievement.However, research findings about the benefits of providing homework assistance are inconsistent;

homework help has been shown to be effective as well as ineffective in accelerating academic

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PARENTAL INFLUENCE AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 581

achievement (LaRocgue, Kleiman, & Darling, 2011). Instead of helping with homework, parentscould focus on creating good study habits by removing distractions such as televisions, radios,

and video games while children are studying (Wong, 2008).

School-based involvement includes participation in school activities such as the Parent-Teacher

Association and open houses, inclusion in school decision making, volunteering at school, andcommunication with teachers (Hill & Tyson, 2009). Driessen, Smit, and Sleegers (2005) noted

that there are a variety of school activities for parents, such as assisting in the classroom with

learning activities, attending back-to-school nights, helping with extracurricular activities such as

sporting events or fundraising, and formal involvement on school councils and school boards. Inmiddle school, school-based involvement shifts more from helping teachers in the classroom to

attending school events (Gonzalez-DeHass,Willems, & Doan Holbein, 2005).

The most important type of parental school involvement is academic socialization. Academic

socialization includes the following activities for parents: to communicate to children the impor-tance of receiving an education, to set clear educational expectations, to link school work with

current events, to foster children’s educational aspirations, to discuss strategies for learning with

children, and to make plans for their children’s future (Hill & Tyson, 2009). Academic socialization

“represents developmentally appropriate strategies of involvement, as it fosters and builds uponthe development of internalized motivation for achievement, focuses on future plans, and provides

a link between school work and future goals and aspirations” (Hill & Tyson, 2009, p. 745). Parents

can convey the value of education and its connection to future financial and social well-being.

They can then support these values by being aware of their children’s strengths and weaknessesand identifying school and community resources to assist student learning (Gonzalez-DeHass

et al., 2005).

THE IMPACT OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT

It is well documented that the role of parents in children’s primary and secondary education isrelevant to both children’s educational success and positive school experiences (Taliaferro, DeCuir-

Gunby, & Allen-Eckard, 2009). Developmentally appropriate parental involvement is associated

with positive student outcomes throughout the middle school years (Hornby & Witte, 2010).

Parents who are involved in their children’s education develop more strategic methods for workingwith their children and schools to support academic achievement when compared to parents who

are not involved (Hill & Taylor, 2004). The parent–teacher relationship is a crucial component of

parental involvement. Parents and students benefit when teachers are available and nonjudgmental

about what parents want for their children (Vellymalay, 2010). Unfortunately, many parents becomeinvolved only when there are problems at school and they are required to meet with school officials

to discuss disciplinary actions (Ghazi, Ali, Shahzad, & Khan, 2010).

The types of relationships children develop with their parents will predict their future attitudes

about themselves and their interactions with others (McBride et al., 2009). Teenagers developtheir self-concept through interactions with relevant individuals in their lives (Sehee, Sung-

Kyung, Sukkyung, & Chih-Chun, 2010). The involvement and support of parents in adolescents’

school lives can directly influence their personal and social growth in addition to their academic

performance (Sehee et al., 2010). Previous research has shown that effective parental involvementpositively impacts adolescents’ sense of psychological well-being, self-esteem, and self-evaluation

(Mellon & Moutavelis, 2009). Students with low psychological well-being tend to develop less

desirable self-evaluations, which impact their happiness and satisfaction (Cripps & Zyromski,

2009).One dimension of parental involvement that has a strong effect on students’ motivation is

parents’ educational aspirations for their children (Fan & Williams, 2010). “Motivation can be

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582 B. T. LAM AND E. DUCREUX

broadly defined as the forces acting on or within a person that cause the arousal, direction,and persistence of goal-directed, voluntary effort; motivation is a value and desire for learning”

(Ghazi et al., 2010, p. 94). When parents promoted educational aspirations for their children,

students experienced significantly higher levels of academic self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation

(Fan & Williams, 2010). Students who have a greater sense of self-efficacy are better equippedto face academic obstacles and work through challenges (Fan & Williams, 2010). Students also

benefit when parents participate in targeted services aimed at providing assistance with student

deficiencies (Driessen et al., 2005).

According to Gonzalez-DeHass et al. (2005), research has shown that parental involvementis positively associated with student academic achievement and school adjustment. Perception of

greater parental involvement is associated with higher standardized achievement scores, higher

teacher-rated competence, and better school grades (Green et al., 2007). Stronger parental support

is associated with higher GPA scores, improved teacher–student relationships, increased moti-vation, and a strong vocational identity (Niemeyer, Wong, & Westerhaus, 2009). In addition,

higher levels of perceived parental support and communication when paired with high parental

aspirations are associated with improved resiliency in children and youth (Lagacé-Séguin & Case,

2010). Research studies have also shown that when students have a greater perception of parentalinvolvement and autonomy support, they are more successful in self-regulating and maintaining

control, which predicts better academic achievement and improved classroom behavior and less

disciplinary problems (LaRocque et al., 2011). The benefits of parental involvement may also be

seen in the quality of the relationships between teachers and students. Students whose parentsstressed getting good grades and expected academic excellence had higher GPA scores, were

considered to be more focused and engaged by their teachers, and experienced more support and

care from their teachers (Chen & Gregory, 2010).Parental involvement has also been found to improve student behavior, academic motivation,

social competence, relations between staff and students, and relations between students themselves

(Régner, Loose, & Dumas, 2009). The decrease in negative student behaviors is just as important as

the increase in positive student behaviors. Research has shown that higher parental involvement isa factor in lowering school truancy, aggressive student behavior, and defiance in school (Carranza,

You, Chhuon, & Hudley, 2009). Parental involvement is positively associated with student self-

control, which in turn lowers incidents of classroom disruptive behavior (McBride et al., 2009).

Parental involvement is also associated with fewer behavioral issues at school, better class atten-dance and preparation, better course completion, and lower dropout rates (Fan & Williams, 2010).

When parents are involved in their adolescents’ schooling, adolescents are more likely to

develop good study habits. For example, students in middle school and high school spend more

time on homework and complete more homework when parents are involved in their schooling(Hill & Taylor, 2004). According to Régner et al. (2009), when parents are actively involved

in their children’s academics, the message communicated to students is that their parents value

education; this message may, in turn, motivate students to become more engaged in school and

succeed academically. There are several reasons why students may do their school work. Accordingto Wong (2008), some students complete their work to avoid punishment by parents or to gain

approval from their peers. Some students do the work because school is important to them and

they want to learn; these students often perform better than students who do their work to avoidpunishment (Wong, 2008).

Parental school involvement has a positive impact on the relationship between parents and

teachers. Benefits include establishing trust, sharing the goal of ensuring the children’s best

interests, having more open communication, and working together and problem solving versusblaming (Bakker, Denessen, & Brus-Laeven, 2007). More specifically, for teachers, parental

involvement improves relationships between parents and teachers, the morale of teachers, and

school climate (Hornby & Witte, 2010). For parents, participation in their children’s schooling

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PARENTAL INFLUENCE AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 583

is associated with increased parental confidence, satisfaction, and valuing their own education(Hornby & Witte, 2010).

The study attempted to answer the following research questions:

1. What are the perceived levels of parental influence among parents of middle school students?2. Is there a relationship between the parental influence and children’s academic performance

(grade point average [GPA])?

3. What is the impact of parents’ education on perceived levels of parental involvement?

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

A descriptive-exploratory research design was utilized for this study. The design was selected in

order to describe the relationship between two or more variables. The dependent variable wasacademic achievement, and the independent variable was parental influences. The relationship

between academic achievement and parental influence was examined. The survey method was

quantitative. The data were collected using a self-administered questionnaire. The advantages of

using this survey method were that it facilitated the participation of more subjects, allowed formore flexibility in the analysis of the data, improved reliability, and greatly eliminated observer

subjectivity.

Data Collection

The data were collected by distributing a self-administered questionnaire. The researcher obtained

written permission from the school’s administrator to administer the survey to parents of middle

school students. The researcher consulted with school personnel as to the most appropriate meansof identifying parents to complete the survey. The researcher began by providing parents with a

consent form explaining the purpose of the survey and requesting parental consent to access their

children’s middle school grades.

Sample

The study utilized a non-probability purposive sampling method. The subjects were parents of

middle school students at a school located in Los Angeles County. The school was selected basedon its large size, location in the Los Angeles area, and diversity. The sample size was 32 parents.

Instrument and Measures

In this study, parental influence was measured by the Inventory of Parental Influence (Parent

Version; Campbell, 1994). This instrument measured (1) levels of parental pressure and support;

(2) parental help, monitoring, and press for literacy; and (3) communication between parent and

student. The survey was divided into three parts, each measuring one of the above-mentioned areas.Part I of the survey measured levels of parental pressure and support by asking 26 questions on a

five-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Part II of the scale

measured the frequency of parental help, monitoring, and press for literacy by asking 13 questions

on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from never to always. Part III of the scale measured thefrequency of communication by asking 12 questions on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from

never to always. The researcher translated the survey in Spanish.

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584 B. T. LAM AND E. DUCREUX

The demographic section of the survey asked participants for their child’s name, gender, dateof birth, and grade level and parents’ ethnicity and highest level of education completed. The

dependent variable of academic achievement was measured by a review of students’ GPAs as

reported on their report cards. Grades were scored: 4 D A; 3 D B; 2 D C; 1 D D, and 0 D F.

RESULTS

Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

The demographic characteristics of the respondents and their children are reported in Table 1.

Almost two-thirds of the respondents’ children (n D 21, 65.6%) were male. The grade level

of the students was evenly distributed between sixth grade (n D 13, 40.6%) and seventh grade(n D 13, 40.6%), with the remainder of the students in eighth grade (n D 6, 18.8%). Almost all

of the respondents (n D 30, 93.8%) were Latino/Hispanic, followed by Native American (n D 1,

3.1%) and Caucasian/White (n D 1, 3.1%). The largest number of respondents (n D 10, 31.3%)

reported their highest level of education as eighth grade or less, and the next largest number ofrespondents (n D 9, 28.1%) reported some high school. The mean GPA of students was 2.53,

with a standard deviation (SD) of 0.93.

Parental Pressure and Support

The respondents’ responses to perceived parental pressure and support items are presented in

Table 2. Means could range from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The highest meanwas for “I am proud of my child” (M D 4:81, SD D 0:74). The lowest mean was for “I am only

pleased when my child gets 100% on a test” (M D 2:59, SD D 1:56).

TABLE 1

Demographic Characteristics of Sample (N D 32)

Characteristic f (%) M (SD)

Gender (student)

Male 21 65.6

Female 11 34.4

Grade level (student)

Sixth 13 40.6

Seventh 13 40.6

Eighth 6 18.8

Ethnicity (parent)

Caucasian/White 1 3.1

Hispanic/Latino 30 93.8

Native American 1 3.1

Highest level of education

completed (parent)

Eighth grade or less 10 31.3

Some high school 9 28.1

High school diploma/general 6 18.8

equivalency diploma

Some college 3 9.4

Bachelor’s degree 1 3.1

Other 3 9.4

GPA (student) 2.53 0.93

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PARENTAL INFLUENCE AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 585

TABLE 2

Respondents’ Perceived Parental Pressure and Support (N D 32)

Item M SD

I am never satisfied with my child’s grades. 2.97 1.64

The more self-disciplined a person is the more successful he/she will be in life. 4.28 0.99

I think my child can do better in school than he/she does. 4.31 1.00

My child does well in school mostly because of my help. 4.06 1.08

My child should only miss school when absolutely necessary. 4.56 1.01

I do not feel that my child does his/her best in school. 3.25 1.50

I think my child doesn’t get enough homework. 3.00 1.39

My child is afraid to come home with a poor grade. 2.84 1.37

I’m satisfied if I know my child does his/her best. 4.41 0.95

My child is smarter than he/she thinks. 4.22 1.01

I have doubts when my child says that he/she has no homework. 3.00 1.44

I have much patience with my child when it comes to his/her education. 4.31 0.93

I will be upset if my child doesn’t make the top of the class. 2.81 1.47

I help my child with school work only when asked. 3.78 1.24

It is important to me that my child selects friends from classmates who are the better students in

school.

4.03 1.20

I am enthusiastic about my child’s education. 4.41 1.27

School would be more pleasant for my child if I were not as strict. 3.41 1.50

I want my child to go to a “good” college. 4.53 1.11

I don’t feel my child does his/her best in school. 3.03 1.71

I take a big interest in my child’s schoolwork. 4.56 0.84

I get along well with my child. 4.59 0.95

I am only pleased when my child gets 100% on a test. 2.59 1.56

I feel children need parental guidance when it comes to schoolwork. 4.63 0.55

I expect my child to go to college. 4.75 0.76

When my child needs help I hire a tutor. 4.03 1.31

I am proud of my child. 4.81 0.74

Note. Scale: 1 D strongly disagree, 2 D disagree, 3 D uncertain, 4 D agree, 5 D strongly agree.

Parental Help, Monitoring, and Press for Literacy

The respondents’ responses to perceived parental help, monitoring, and press for literacy itemsare presented in Table 3. Means could range from 1 (never) to 5 (always). The highest mean was

for “I insist that homework be completed each day” (M D 4:91, SD D 0:30). The lowest mean

was for “I help my child select books to read” (M D 3:44, SD D 1:24).

Communication between Parent and Student

The respondents’ responses to perceived communication between parent and student items are

presented in Table 4. Means could range from 1 (never) to 5 (always). The highest mean was for

“Before leaving to school I ask if my child has everything needed (homework, books, reports)”(M D 4:88, SD D 0:34). The lowest mean was for “When my child is absent, I tell him/her to

telephone a friend to get the homework” (M D 3:31, SD D 1:79).

Internal Consistency of Scales

The means, standard deviations, and Cronbach’s alphas of the scales are reported in Table 5.

For parental pressure and support, the Cronbach’s alpha was .59, indicating moderate reliability.

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586 B. T. LAM AND E. DUCREUX

TABLE 3

Respondents’ Perceived Parental Help, Monitoring, and Press for Literacy (N D 32)

Item M SD

I go over my child’s mistakes when he/she brings home a test. 3.59 1.39

I encourage my child to read right before going to sleep. 4.13 1.07

I don’t allow my child to go out and play until he/she finished his/her homework. 4.44 1.01

I help my child with his/her math homework. 3.72 1.42

I encourage my child to go to the local library. 4.19 1.20

I keep track of the amount of time my child gives to homework. 3.91 1.25

I help my child with schoolwork he/she doesn’t understand. 3.81 1.20

I help my child select books to read. 3.44 1.24

I check my child’s homework. 4.59 0.71

I encourage my child to read books. 4.53 0.95

I help my child study before a test. 4.28 1.02

I set definite rules regarding the kinds of television programs my child can watch. 4.53 0.72

I insist that homework be completed each day. 4.91 0.30

Note. Scale: 1 D never, 2 D rarely, 3 D sometimes, 4 D usually, 5 D always.

For parental help, monitoring, and press for literacy, the Cronbach’s alpha was .70, indicatinggood reliability. For communication between parent and student, the Cronbach’s alpha was .70,

indicating good reliability.

Correlations between GPA and Parental Influences

Pearson’s r correlations were used to determine associations between GPA and each type ofparental involvement. As shown in Table 6, results of Pearson’s r indicated that there was a non-

significant relationship between parental pressure and support and GPA .r D �:120; p D :512/.In addition, Pearson’s r indicated that there was a non-significant relationship between parental

help, monitoring, and press for literacy and GPA .r D :002; p D :993/. Finally, Pearson’s r

indicated that there was an approaching significant relationship between communication between

parent and student and GPA .r D :306; p D :088/.

TABLE 4

Respondents’ Perceived Communication between Parent and Student (N D 32)

Item M SD

When my child watches too much TV we restrict his/her TV time. 4.47 0.92

I want my child to bring home test papers to see how well he/she did. 4.66 0.83

I help my child with his/her school reports. 4.22 0.98

I expect my child to do his/her homework at the same time each night. 4.50 0.88

Before leaving for school I ask if my child has everything needed (homework, books, reports). 4.88 0.34

I insist my child set aside a certain time for reading. 4.44 1.08

I encourage my child to spend time in bookstores. 4.16 1.11

I supervise my child’s homework. 4.50 0.95

I buy books for presents. 3.59 1.27

When my child is absent, I tell him/her to telephone a friend to get the homework. 3.31 1.79

We supply lots of reading material for my child. 4.19 0.90

I determine how much television my child can watch. 4.38 0.91

Note. Scale: 1 D never, 2 D rarely, 3 D sometimes, 4 D usually, 5 D always.

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PARENTAL INFLUENCE AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 587

TABLE 5

Means, Standard Deviations, and Cronbach’s Alphas of Scales

Scale

Possible

Range

Respondents’

Range M SD

Cronbach’s

Alpha

Parental pressurea 1–5 3.1–4.6 3.89 .36 .59

Parental monitoringb 1–5 3.5–4.9 4.51 .55 .70

Parental communicationb 1–5 3.3–4.8 4.27 .58 .70

aScale: 1 D strongly disagree, 2 D disagree, 3 D uncertain, 4 D agree, 5 D strongly agree. Higher

scores indicate a higher level of parental support.bScale: 1 D never, 2 D rarely, 3 D sometimes, 4 D usually, 5 D always. Higher scores indicate

a higher level of parental monitoring and parental communication.

TABLE 6

Correlations between GPA and Parental Involvement

GPA

Variable r p

Parental pressure �.120 .512

Parental monitoring .002 .993

Parental communication .306 .088*

*p < :10, approaching significance.

Correlations between Parents’ Highest Level of Education and Parental Influence

Pearson’s r correlations were used to determine associations between parents’ highest level of

education and each type of parental influence. As shown in Table 7, results of Pearson’s r indicated

that there was a non-significant relationship between parental pressure and support and parents’highest level of education .r D :180; p D :325/. In addition, Pearson’s r indicated that there was

an approaching significant relationship between parental help, monitoring, and press for literacy

and parents’ highest level of education .r D :325; p D :072/. Finally, Pearson’s r indicated that

there was a non-significant relationship between communication between parent and student andparents’ highest level of education .r D :143; p D :435/.

TABLE 7

Correlations between Parents’ Highest Level of Education and

Parental Influence

Parent Education

Variable r p

Parental pressure .180 .325

Parental monitoring .325 .072*

Parental communication .143 .435

*p < :10, approaching significance.

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588 B. T. LAM AND E. DUCREUX

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between parental influences and student

academic achievement (GPA). This section addresses the significant findings, the limitations, the

implications for social work practice, and the implications for future research.

Significant Findings

Almost two-thirds of the respondents’ children were male. Almost all of the respondents wereLatino/Hispanic with only one Caucasian/White respondent and only one Native American respon-

dent. Almost 60% of the respondents had an educational level of some high school and below.

The students had an average GPA of 2.53.

The results of the study did not show any significant relationship between parental pressure andsupport and academic achievement. Similarly, the results of the study did not show any significant

relationship between parental help, monitoring, and press for literacy and academic achievement.

However, there was a relationship that approached significance between communication between

parent and student and academic achievement. This indicates that as levels of communicationbetween parent and child increased, academic achievement also increased. Cripps and Zyromski

(2009) noted that children whose parents create a nurturing environment through communica-

tion tend to have increased self-esteem and are achievement-oriented. A component of parental

communication is conveying the value and importance of education. Studies have indicated thatwhen parents have communicated that they value education and have high expectations, students

are more interested, motivated, and confident in their academic achievement (Fan & Williams,

2010).The results of the study did not show any significant relationship between parental pressure and

support and parents’ highest level of education. Similarly, the results of the study did not show any

significant relationship between communication between parent and student and parents’ highest

level of education. However, there was a relationship that approached significance between parentalhelp, monitoring, and press for literacy and parents’ highest level of education. This finding is

inconsistent with the literature. According to Bakker et al. (2007), parents with a higher level of

education are perceived by teachers to be more involved in the education of their children than

parents with a lower level of education. Research indicates that parents with different levels ofeducation do not report different levels of influence in the school careers of their children (Bakker

et al., 2007).

Limitations

One of the limitations to this study was that there was a limited sample size and, therefore, the

results cannot be generalized to the population at large. In addition, with the small sample size,level of significance might not be detected. Another limitation is that the sample consisted of

93.8% Hispanic/Latino respondents whose children attended one middle school in Los Angeles.

As a result, the data may be biased because of the homogeneous makeup of the sample.

Implications for Social Work

Though it appears that there is a connection between parental influences and academic achieve-

ment, parental influence is often low at many schools. Social workers may explore the factors thatcontribute to low parental participation as well as factors that may increase parental participation.

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PARENTAL INFLUENCE AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT 589

Social workers need to fulfill the role of educator and advocate when working with familiesand their children. Social workers play an important role in motivating parents to collaborate

with schools, educating parents on the benefits of parental involvement, and creating innovative

activities and workshops that will empower parents.

Social workers play a key role in understanding and eliminating cultural barriers to parentalparticipation. As noted by the literature, parental influence is important for minority groups.

Strengthening the cooperation between schools and parents appears to be critical in improving the

school careers of disadvantaged groups, such as ethnic minority and low socioeconomic status

students (Driessen et al., 2005).Social workers need to improve their knowledge about the different types of parental influence

and which types have proven to be more effective. With this knowledge, social workers may

empower students, staff, and parents to create a more effective collaboration. School social workers

and educational administrators may unite to create a positive school climate in order to instillpositive attitudes in students, parents, and teachers. Social workers could also train parents on

educational models and parenting techniques that parents could follow at home.

Implications for Future Research

More research is needed to explore the impact of parental influence on the academic achievement

of middle school children. Research should use larger samples that include diverse ethnic groupsfrom a variety of geographic areas. There could also be a long-term research study where levels

of parental influences are measured during elementary school, middle school, and high school for

the same students and then compared with academic achievement. Future research should also

focus on the most effective ways schools could increase parental participation.

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