Thoughts on Sustainable ecological systems:

Permaculture from the rural farmer to the urban gardener and

related subjects

This presentation is a extension of the following three

presentations:

Birds, Bugs and Wildflowers: organic Integrated Pest Management

for the home gardener

NENHC

April 2015

Springfield, Massachusetts

Bioeradication: research and insights on five

common invasive plants in central Pennsylvania

NENHC

April 2015 Springfield, Massachusetts

7500 American chestnut trees and counting, the research that ate my

summer in 2015

NENHC April 2016

Springfield, Massachusetts

Clean Air

Clean Water

Open Space

This presentation is broken into 5 sections:

1.) Introduction and key concepts

2.) Permaculture at our home

3.) Bioeradication

4.) Thoughts and research on Castanea dentata,

an important part of native landscapes and permaculture

5.) Awe, wonder, joy and surprise

Walk more

Tinker less

Original Proposal: The future of food production and ecology will be learning ways to work with ecosystems to develop sustainable agriculture which is a functioning part of the local ecologies, not destroy them as is being done at the present time. Land trusts are ideal organizations to develop these concepts into practical applications and serve as the leaders of this transformation.

Introduction and Key Concepts

Nature is not a product which can be packaged and sold from a store shelf. Therefore, it is not a

serious business, but life itself.

Biotech and bioengineering are engineering, not science. They do not seek to understand

the world, but change it without fully understanding the consequences of what they are doing, often with disastrous consequences.

Land trusts have the ability to move from simply preserving land to become the leaders in the transformation of agriculture into a cohesive part of native ecology across the American

landscape.

By taking the creative leadership role land trusts can transform the American practice of food

production from sterile ecological deserts into part of vibrantly alive and functioning native

based ecological systems.

ecosystems to each other

organisms in one ecosystem to those in another ecosystem

between groups of organisms in an ecosystem such as pollinators and flowers

the relationships between individual species

to each other (single flower species/single pollinator species)

the relationship between an

individual organism and another individual organism

(single flower/ single pollinator).

A hierarchy of mutualistic ecological relationships we need to account for when thinking about landscapes

One of the most important questions we need to answer is the difference between a native

plant and a non-native plant.

Hybridizing a native plant with another native plant creates a non-native plant.

In Invasive Plant Ecology we have the Enemy Release Hypothesis.

In part, this states that an overwhelming number of native organisms cannot use non-native plants because they did not coevolve

together.

Therefore, hybridizing a native plant with another native or especially a non-native creates

a non-native plant of little or no ecological utility.

By changing the gene structure of a native plant through hybridizing with a non-native in hopes of improving the plant or making it resistant to (introduced) diseases or pests is doomed to

be an ecological failure because few if any native organisms using the native plant will be adapted or adapt to use this hybrid due the unnaturally

rapid changes in the physical and chemical properties of the plant.

In other words, we do not want to create non-native plants because it destroys their ecological utility as a food source for pollinators, ceases to

be a food for larvae, changes their utility for decomposers and organisms that depend on this

relationship, may destroy their functionality with soil fungi and a long list of other negative

impacts.

Only generalist organisms, such as various insects, mammals and birds, can utilize non-

native plants and other non-native organisms.

This means the extinction of many native specialist organisms and their interrelationships

with other organisms.

Wild organisms, such as pollinators, within a species and between species have genetic

variability in size, shape, maturity rates, growth rates, food preferences, habitat preferences and

their ability to use different individuals within the same species of a plant population.

The differences may appear small to us, but can be large in the local ecology.

For mutualistic relationships to thrive such as pollinators and flowering plants, native flowering plants need heterogeneity within the species to

match the same heterogeneity within a pollinator species and among species using it.

These photos are examples of color heterogeneity within a wild azalea species, Rhododendron

periclymenoides, found within 100 yards of each other near home on May 19, 2016.

For example:

A large diverse meadow of flowers benefits from a large diverse group of pollinators in that

meadow.

Another example:

Last fall I watched a monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) migration on Blue Mountain near

home.

Of the dozens of butterflies I watched, one preferred the white flowered Boneset

(Eupatorium perfoliatum) while all the others preferred yellow flowered Goldenrod (Solidago)

species.

Limiting the phenotypic diversity of resource plants by reducing the sources of genetic material limits the number of (pollinator)

species and individuals within those species which can utilize a particular plant species.

The further from wild stock a native plant becomes the less ecological utility it has because we naturally collect seeds from what appear to

us to be the best looking plants within a defined time window. At the same time, plants which do well in cultivation may have lost the robustness and other traits necessary to survive in changing

wild and semi-wild conditions.

We absolutely do not want to use cultivars (especially those from cuttings) because of the

lack of genetic variance in a planting, which destroys most of its ecological utility in addition to creating plants which are more vulnerable to

being destroyed by a single event such as a pathogen or herbivore infestation.

Simply put:

No matter how successful a hybrid or cultivar appears to be it is an ecological failure.

The operation was a success, but the patient died.

What we do not want in a plant species in a landscape or garden: homogeneity. The lack of different sizes, colors and shapes has very little ecological utility

because it attracts few species and may be useful to few members within the species it attracts.

What we want in a plant species in a landscape or garden: heterogeneity in size and shape to match the heterogeneity of size and shape in a species or species

utilizing the plant. The variety of different sizes and shapes in a plant species increases ecological utility because it is able to be used by members with

different sizes and shapes of the species utilizing it.

What we want in a landscape or garden: varying the general shape, sizes and colors of plant species so there is a lot of ecological utility, i.e. different species and

different members of the various species will utilize different shapes, sizes and colors for nectaring, egg deposition and similar.

Linking landscapes is a limited short term vision. Whereas, the transformation of the present

approach to agriculture and gardening is a long term philosophical and practical change

necessary to provide healthy food locally and for the world while preserving the diverse native

ecosystems which support our agriculture.

This radical paradigm shift away from sanitized landscapes to natural healthy ones full of diverse

native organisms is necessary for agricultural sustainability at all levels. Ecologically sound agriculture, whether small plots of the home

gardener (urbia, suburbia, exurbia) or large farms (rural), requires working with the local ecosystems to ensure long term sustainability with consistent sustainable yields using the least amount of effort

and resource expenditure.

The integration of native organisms at all trophic levels into ecologically sound landscapes will provide the

necessary ecosystem services to enhance not only food production but other aspects of a healthy environment

such breathable air, drinkable water, open space and aesthetic landscapes. In the process, dependence on agricultural and lawn chemicals will be eliminated as

environmentally sound methods and practices of meeting the needs of all stakeholders will be used. This will involve

radical changes in thought patterns and actions, but benefits will swiftly accrue to all stakeholders from the

tiniest organisms to the largest.

This is an ecological desert. There are few plant species with very little variation within the species. The soil has been depleted of microorganisms, insects and

other biologicals because of overuse, monoculture, herbicides, insecticides and other agriculture chemicals since it was first planted in the late 1700s.

Part of a diverse landscape with many species and forest interconnections between fields.

Simply put:

Agriculture at all scales instead of being ecologically destructive can function as an integrated part of natural systems through

understanding and working within the multiple levels and multiple dimensions of natural systems.

Permaculture at our home

This part of the presentation will discuss the concepts we developed, their application and

the results we obtained from the start in 2014 to today in 2016.

The ultimate goal in this part of the presentation is for participants to expand this concept into a

multidimensional landscape level version of what we are doing at home.

During the 2014 growing season we transformed our yard into a place for birds, pollinators and an

organic garden. The purpose of this transformation was threefold:

1.) to provide pollinator and bird habitat

2.) to increase the yield in our garden by attracting pollinators to the vegetables and native predators of herbivorous insects and

3.) to serve as a model microcosm for what can be done on a larger scale to not only produce healthy food, but to rebuild ecosystems which

sustain food production.

www.google.com/maps Mar. 9, 2016

This is our challenge: ensuring that pollinators and song birds migrate across this landscape to and from our home while encouraging others to make our home their home.

To do this we planted several wildflower beds, placed birdhouses throughout our yard, our

woodlot and the pasture next to it and avoided garden chemicals such as pesticides and

fertilizers.

The first two questions we need to ask and answer are:

1.) what are weeds?

2.) what ecological purposes do weeds serve?

The third question is:

How do we increase ecological services from native organisms while decreasing the numbers

and effects of non-native organisms?

Coming off these 3 questions is the question of how do we use native pariah organisms to

develop sustainable agriculture in harmony with local ecosystems?

Weeds are unwanted plants in any location; garden, lawn, pasture and elsewhere.

In our situation, weeds such as Solidago sp., Eutrochium maculatum, Rudbeckia sp., Verbesinia

alternifolia, Eupatorium perfoliatum, various Asclepius sp., Mentha sp. and many others were planted in our vegetable garden and around the

yard to attract native pollinators and insectivorous birds to increase the productivity of the vegetable

garden while increasing our excitement when walking around the yard through seeing the

wonderful diversity of pollinators, birds and other wildlife.

Sir Isaac Newton is in charge of mammal control.

Overall, the productivity of the garden was high given the circumstances of living in a rural area

with a high rodent, mostly groundhogs and rabbits, population. There were very few

problems with insects and disease. The diversity of pollinators and birds is continually exciting.

Our yard and the pasture next to it in 2014 had:

22 song bird houses,

10 bat houses,

4 song bird nesting platforms in woodlot,

14 song bird nesting platforms under deck,

4 kestrel/screech owl houses,

2 barn owl houses

(and counting).

12 of the nesting platforms under deck were 8 long x 4 deep none had nests.

2 nesting platforms under deck were 8 long x 6 deep one had a nest made of moss.

None of the 4 nesting platforms in the woodlot had nests.

22 nesting boxes along pasture, around yard, along the edge of a swamp and in the woodlot 14 had nests of twigs, 2 had nests of moss and 1 had a moss nest over a twig nest for a total of 17 occupied song bird houses, 77%.

Both barn owl boxes had common grackle nests the first year and were empty the second year.

3 kestrel boxes were in the pasture and 1 in the swamp at the bottom of our woodlot but were unchecked for occupants. However, this year a kestrel was seen near one of the boxes. If it takes up residence it will be an important addition to controlling small rodents and large insects in our garden.

None of the 10 bat houses were occupied possibly due to less than optimal locations in and along the woodlot and/or white nose disease.

The bird houses were occupied in similar numbers and patterns in 2014, 2015 and

2016.

Continuing processes

Birds and bats The four small nesting platforms in woodlot were

given a roof and a fifth one installed. The roofs apparently did nothing to encourage nesting. We will give this one more season before they are removed.

The twelve 8x4 nesting platforms under deck were replaced last year by nine 8x7 and four 10x11-1/4 nesting platforms which filled all the possible locations under the deck. The results were the same both summers, just one nest.

Bat houses will be left alone until better locations can be determined and/or white nose syndrome resistant bats occupy them.

Garden We used bamboo poles tied with twine for trellising as it is

free and a good use for a non-native invasive plant. This will be changed to concrete reinforcement wire sheets out of convenience this year.

Fewer plants spaced further apart. (I doubt that is ever psychologically possible.)

Use or x 4 rebar to support peppers. We shrunk the wildflower section of the garden in the

second year to provide more space for vegetables. Yearly adding the prior years composted kitchen waste.

And leaves from our yard. This is tilled into the soil before planting vegetables.

We are changing a mint bed infested with Japanese stilt grass into a pollinator bed using local plants and seeds.

We are working on better proactive groundhog control.

Flower beds

Continue to encourage the growth and diversity of native flowers while discouraging non-native plants.

Seeded the driest flower bed between our garage and house with Big Blue Stem grass, Andropogon gerardi, (locally acquired and ordered seed). This was not successful. Goldenrod transplants did better. This will continue to be monitored.

Heavily seeded edges of yard and flower beds with locally acquired Common Milkweed, Asclepias syriaca and locally acquired Solidago sp. and other Asteraceae sp. . The milkweed seeds produced few plants. Local root stock will be used this year.

Better groundhog control.

Invasive plants

Continued invasive non-native plant removal. To this point Oriental Bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatis), honeysuckles (Lonicera maacki, L. morrowii and L. japonica), multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), Japanese stilt grass (Microstegium vimineum), mile-a-minute (Persicaria perfoliata) and Tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima) are being removed as much as time and energy allow.

Birds in 2014 and 2015* American robin Turdus migratorius

Baltimore oriole Icterus galbula

Blue jay Cyanocitta cristata

Carolina wren Thryothorus ludovicianus

Cat bird Dumetella carolinensis

Common grackle Quiscalus quiscula

Eastern phoebe Sayornis phoebe

Gold finch Spinus tristis

House finch Haemorhous mexicanus

Indigo bunting Passerina cyanea

Mocking bird Mimus polyglottos

Mourning dove Zenaida macroura

Northern cardinal Cardinalis cardinalis

Ruby throated hummingbird Archilochus colubris

Scarlet tanager Piranga olivacea

Warbling vireo Vireo gilvus

* 2016 there was a Tufted titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor) nesting in our yard, a Rose Breasted grosbeak male (Pheucticus ludovicianus) on a bird feeder and an American Kestrel (Falco sparverius) near a hawk/owl box.

Pollinators

Bumble bee Bombus ternarius

Painted lady butterfly Vanessa cardui

Eastern tiger swallowtail butterfly Papilio glaucus

misc. Apocrita species

misc. Lepidoptera species

Flowering forbs throughout our yard

Bee balm Monarda fistulosa Bee balm Monarda didyma Black-eyed Susan Rudbeckia hirta Boneset Eupatorium perfoliatum Butterfly weed Asclepius tuberosa Canada goldenrod Solidago canadensis Common milkweed Asclepius syriaca Cutleaf coneflower Rudbeckia laciniata Joe Pye weed Eutrochium maculatum Lance-leaf coreopsis Coreopsis lanceolata Marigolds Tagetes patula Mountain mint Pycnanthemum sp. New England aster Symphyotrichum novae-angliae Shasta daisy Leucanthemum superbum Thread-leaf coreopsis Coreopsis verticillata Wing stem verbesina Verbesina alternifolia misc. goldenrods Solidago sp. other misc. Asteraceae Asteraceae sp.

Vegetables over the last couple years

Asparagus beans* Peas* Beets Peppers hot and sweet*

Broccoli* Pole beans* Brussel sprouts Scarlet Runner beans

Bush beans* Spinach Cabbage Snow peas* Collard greens Swiss chard

Cucumbers bush and vining Tomatillo* Kale Tomatoes eating, cherries and paste*

Lettuces Yellow squash*

Onions (for greens this year)* Zucchini*

* Vegetables we intend to grow this year.

Herbs we have grown

Basil*

Borage

Cilantro*

Dill*

Garlic*

Lemon grass

Oregano*

Parsley*

Sage*

Thyme*

* Herbs we intend to grow this year.

This is how the approach to our home and gardens look to pollinators and birds across a minimally maintained pasture.

our home

Our home with vegetable garden on this side, next to the pasture.

Google Earth Feb. 15, 2015

Our home, Spring 2014

Google Earth May 11, 2016

Our home, late Summer 2015

vegetable gardens wildflower bed

road

pasture

woodlot

red = wildflower beds light blue = house white = sun deck with nesting platforms under it dark blue = garage brown = vegetable gardens yellow = mint and shrub beds black = driveways

swamp s = songbird houses b = barn owl boxes k = kestrel/screech owl boxes

k

s

s/b

lawn

electric fence w/ wood posts

north

100 downhill

slope

This design has not worked.

This year we are switching from bamboo trellises to steel remesh sheets, 7x3-1/2 with 6x6 openings, to cut down on the amount of work needed to trellis tomatoes, beans and cucurbits

while increasing ease in harvesting. We will still be using twine to tie the plants to the trellis and rebar to hold up the trellises and stake the pepper plants.

The big question is how do we do the same in large landscapes as we did at home?

1.) take the necessary time to study the local ecosystems to understand how/why they function and all the micro ecosystems around you

2.) stop using insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and other (non-organic) garden chemicals

3.) collect as much wild local native seed as possible

4.) use several different and distinct sources of seeds from vendors to mimic at a minimal level natural wild plant genetic heterogeneity

5.) leave open spaces around fields such as wide borders to serve as reservoirs for native plants, pollinators and birds

6.) leave strips of native plants through fields to facilitate the movement of pollinators and insectivores into fields and across the landscape

7.) alternate fallow and cultivated fields

8.) leave meadows around water sources and irregularities in the fields to act as reservoirs for native organisms

9.) make multiple diverse corridors for birds, insects and other animals to migrate through the landscape

For early season pollinators and other insects plant native non-hybridized American Chestnut

(Castanea dentata) trees along with other native trees and shrubs such as elderberry (Sambucus pubens), choke cherry (Prunus virginiana) oaks, maples and similar as sources of early season nectar/pollen*, food for Corvids, a source of

organics (mast) and a source of the native organisms which are part of a healthy ecosystem.

*From my experience, many native high pollen/nectar forbs such as members of the Asteraceae family do not bloom until early to mid-July, whereas many

trees and shrubs bloom from late winter to early summer.

Bioeradication

Bioeradication is the use of native organisms to eradicate non-native organisms.

From experience and observation systems of multiple organisms are more apt to develop to

eradicate a non-native organism rather than single magic bullet organisms.

One important aspect of healthy native landscapes with agriculture integrated into them

is that they provide ways for native bioeradicants/bioeradicant systems to move

across landscapes. By this process native habitats are preserved and enhanced while the

non-native organisms are eradicated.

This eliminates non-native issues from the landscape, enhancing ecosystem services while

removing the need for pesticides.

For example, the Brown Marmorated Stink Bug (Halyomorpha halys) levels around our home

decreased significantly in the last 2 years, from thousands to low hundreds. There are reports that

passerine (song) birds such as American robins (Turdus migratorius) are eating them and

from my observations a pathogen is killing them. Since we live only a few miles from their probable importation site, Allentown, and where they were

first discovered, Kutztown University, this is significant.

Instead of insecticides, a healthy agricultural system integrated into a healthy ecosystem will

provide ample resources for the insectivore passerine birds to live. They will control this pest

and eliminate the need for insecticides.

Most of my experience with bioeradication is in the area of non-native invasive plants. Ailanthus

altissima and Rosa multiflora are good examples.

Common name: Tree-of-heaven Scientific name: Ailanthus altissima

Origin: China

Local habitat: prefers the edge of wooded areas and open fields even though it will

grow in wooded areas where light reaches the forest floor.

Identifying features: Dioecious tree with odd pinnate compound leaves with blade-like

leaflets which are opposite. Leaflets have one pair to several pairs of teeth

toward the proximal end. Each tooth has a gland on the distal end of the point.

The odor is unmistakable. Clusters of seeds are attached throughout the winter.

Bark has a grey harlequin pattern to it.

Reproduction: wind borne seeds and root clones when injured

Bioeradication system:

insects - Atteva aurea, the Ailanthus webworm, is a native moth whose larvae

feed on Simaroubaceae family members in the American south and Aculops

ailanthii, an eriophyoid mite. Both are specialists to Ailanthus altissima in

temperate areas.

diseases Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. perniciosum , Fusarium lateritium, Fusarium

solani , Verticillium nonalfalfae, and other diseases.

flowers A. aurea prefers compact inflorescences such as Asteraceae

and Lamiaceae.

The key to encouraging the system is to encourage native wildflowers, trees and forbs, which have inflorescences close to stands of

Ailanthus to serve as nectar sources for adult A. aurea. In central Pennsylvania trees such as

Castanea dentata and forbs such as Solidago sp., Verbesinia sp. and Rudbeckia sp. are good nectar

sources which bloom successively from early summer to hard frost.

My understanding is that A. ailanthii is primarily spread phoretically (hitchhikes) on A. aurea and

secondarily by wind. Besides feeding on Ailanthus, A. aurea and probably A. ailanthii

carry diseases which harm and/or kill Ailanthus.

Once a disease such as F. oxysporum or V. nonalfalfae infects one tree in a stand, others

will be infected through the extensive network of interconnected root grafts common to stands

of Ailanthus.

Ailanthus altissima trees

female tree in winter with some of the seeds still attached

glands

Disease is characterized by chlorosis, bare branches and later by peeling bark. Eventually

the trees fall.

diseased trees

chlorotic leaves

Aculops ailanthii

1.) claw shaped leaves

2.) distorted rumpled looking leaves

3.) spotted chlorosis which is usually yellow but sometimes looks dusty white

4.) mites can be seen with a strong hand held magnifier or a highly magnified macro setting on a camera as small brown dashes on the underside of leaves.

Aculops ailanthii

claw shaped leaves caused by A. ailanthii

Atteva aurea

webs

chlorosis

heavily infested with A. aurea larvae

tree with chlorotic leaves

Multi-generation webs which will eventually defoliate these

young trees.

chlorosis

eggs

larva going into the pupa phase

chew marks made by

larvae

Atteva aurea with the probable presence of Aculops ailanthii

Complexity

A. ailanthii

A. aurea larva

A. ailanthii

A. aurea larva web

A. ailanthii

other herbivory, possibly grasshopper

chlorotic leaves

Ailanthus trees with dozens of A. aurea webs, A. ailanthii in proximity, disease, half dead

trees from prior year and Rudbeckia laciniata nearby as a nectar source for adults.

Common name: Multiflora rose Scientific name: Rosa multiflora Origin: Asia Local habitat: it prefers fields and field edges even though it will grow in wooded areas Reproduction: seeds and stems cloning Identifying features: the only rose I know of where the thorns curve towards the center of plant Bioeradication system: Rose rosette disease, an Emaravirus, Phyllocoptes fructiphilus - an eriophyoid (gall) mite, and a fungal pathogen in the Colletotrichum genus appear to be killing multiflora rose in the local area. The mites are supposedly transported by wind, but more probably phoretically by birds such as the Northern Mockingbird, Mimus polyglottos, which feed on the seeds and nest in the branches, pollinators and other insects. Other: The witches broom associated with rose rosette disease is supposed to be disease caused. However, since P. fructiphilus is a gall forming mite, there is a strong possibility that much of the deformity is caused by this mite or as a combination of rose rosette disease and the mite. CAUTION: When working with multiflora, thorns shatter into small slivers with skin contact which remain in the skin indefinitely. Therefore check scratches and pricks for pieces of thorns.

Rose rosette disease tends to be found areas with full or partial sun such as in and along fields .

Colletotrichum is found on plants in the understory.

Both appear to be fatal to Rosa multiflora.

rose rosette disease

chlorotic leaves are symptomatic of the fungal pathogen Colletotrichum

Thoughts and research on Castanea dentata, an important

part of native landscapes and permaculture

Abstract

During the summer of 2015 in reaction to the questionable concept I continually heard about the American Chestnut (Castanea dentata) going extinct I decided to do a census of the American Chestnut on the Appalachian Trail from the Rausch Gap to the Lehigh Gap and other local trails. Over 38 days were spent on the census using a GPS equipped camera with many more days gathering data on American Chestnut reproduction and how the Chestnut Blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) affected the trees. A total of over 80 miles of Appalachian Trail was walked along with at least another 40 miles on other trails. More than 7500 trees of various sizes from seedlings to mature adults were found along two trail systems separated by about 25 miles. In three separate locations a total of forty-four trees were found bearing seeds. The limiting factor in American Chestnut reproduction was clearly shown to be access to direct sunlight, not disease. The obvious conclusion derived from this time in the field is that the American Chestnut is coming back without our interference. Attempts to hybridize it with non-native chestnut species to make blight resistant trees are unnecessary and is detrimental to the ecology of the Appalachian forest. This study will be continued in 2016 by walking additional trails.

This study was conducted throughout the spring, summer and fall of 2015 with additional data from

spring 2016.

The American Chestnut Federation: proudly tinkering since 1989. Still clueless.

Me: walking for one year. Issue resolved.

The American Chestnut is not a problem to be solved but rather a fascinating study in a human mediated ecological disaster and the biological

response.

The ecological damage which the American Chestnut Federation can cause is due to:

a lack of study and understanding of the Eastern Forests,

inherently flawed paradigms about how natural systems function and how human interference

can cause them to function better and

the common human almost demonic drive to tinker.

As an ecologist I continually see where introductions of magic bullet plants to solve

non-existent ecological problems cause problems: Sawtooth Oak, Russian/Autumn

Olive, Multiflora Rose, Chinese Lespedeza and etcetera.

Sawtooth oak, Quercus acutissima, a PGC failure

Autumn olive, Elaeagnus umbellata, another PGC gift

Cleora sublunaria on a mature C. dentata tree, April 19, 2016

It is better to patiently study the system to understand what is happening and determine if

the apparent crisis is a real crisis.

If the crisis is real, then develop strategies which have minimal or no ecological impact such as

looking for resisting/resistant plants.

In the case of the American Chestnut, the answer was always there, but those with power

never looked for it.

7,551* American Chestnuts total were found in the spring, summer and fall 2015 on two sets of trails

separated by @ 25 miles at their closest.

*If there was 6 or 8 between stems in a cluster unless obviously a clone, the stems were counted as separate trees. This is in line with the concept that animals such as squirrels and corvids made non-recovered caches of seeds which produced

multiple trunks in the same location.

7,251 American Chestnut trees found on the Appalachian Trail and related trails from Rausch Gap

to Lehigh Gap, @ 80 miles linear distance.

118 American Chestnut trees found on trails in the Birdsboro Reservoirs area in a quick incomplete

survey to confirm data from the Hamburg Reservoir area of the Appalachian Trail. (182 trees found at

French Creek, a related trail set, but unrelated study.)

Maryland Delaware New Jersey

our home

Appalachian Trail study area 7,251 C. dentata trees

Downloaded from Google Maps 4/2/2016

Birdsboro and French Creek study area 300 C. dentata trees

25 miles

New York

www.google.com/maps Mar. 9, 2016

Appalachian Trail on Blue Mountain

Birdsboro Reservoirs and French Creek State Park

@ 25 miles between points

our home

Molasses Hill Lake Ontelaunee

Middle Creek Wildlife Management Area

Mt. Penn

Expected locations of American Chestnut trees

Hamburg Reservoir

Known groves of American Chestnut trees

Second and Sharps Mountains

Copied from Google Maps on Mar. 2, 2016

Topographical map showing distance between Blue Mountain and the Birdsboro Reservoirs/French Creek State Park with other relevant information

Appalachian Trail

Rausch Gap

Lehigh Gap

Birdsboro Reservoirs and French Creek State Park

Left to right, top: Dauphin, Schuylkill and Carbon counties; bottom: Lebanon, Berks and Lehigh counties

Non-native Chestnut

Lehigh Gap

Rausch Gap

Blue Mountain: Rausch Gap to Lehigh Gap 2015 chestnut survey

Hamburg Reservoir

Dans Pulpit

Allentown Shelter

Roundhead

yellow indicates C. dentata groves

Lehigh Valley Nature Center

One of the two most interesting discoveries is that the Appalachian Trail is a refuge and a corridor for the

spread of the American Chestnut tree.

Other trails in Pennsylvania such as the Mason Dixon, Conestoga, Mid State, Brandywine River,

Bartram and Laurel Highlands probably serve the same purpose. I will exploring sections of these this

summer.

Another apparent correlation is that wider parts of the AT and other trails serve as a corridor for the local spread of the trees in that they provide an easy low friction route for birds such as blue jays to fly along,

turkeys to run down and small mammals to use.

This needs more work as it was not an absolute correlation, but an apparent one.

Extrapolating from a reference*, crows during the fall migration may be spreading seeds along the ridgeline

the AT uses locally.

*American crow http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/647/articles/migration

Fall migration

Over the length of the AT, the apparent southward spread of seeds during the fall crow migration and

northward spread of pollen during the spring pollinator migration are two of the most important

ways for the American Chestnut to maintain its genetic heterogeneity. As part of this process disease resistance genes spread between groves and widely

spaced trees.

Pollinators and crows maintaining genetic heterogeneity and spreading disease resistance along Blue Mountain

Pollinators move pollen north during spring migration as the trees bloom

Crows move seeds south during fall migration

tree

nut

Within a set location, the seeds are spread by rodents such as red squirrels, gray squirrels and

corvids such as blue jays.*

*Heinrich, B. 2014. American Chestnut Seed Dispersal and Regeneration. Northeastern Naturalist 21(4):619-628.

Heinrich, B. 2014. American Chestnut by Red Squirrels. Northeastern Naturalist 22(4):N19-N23.

tree

Seed spread by blue jays with red and gray squirrels

squirrels

blue jays

This is part of the process of basic Darwinian evolution the more resistant trees reproduce at a higher rate because they are healthier than the less resistant. (Eventually, the less resistant tree lineages go extinct by continually losing the competition for

sunlight and other resources.)

Diseases and pests such as Bacterial Leaf Scorch (Xylella fastidiosa), Emerald Ash Borer (Agrilus

planipennis), Gypsy Moth (Lymantria dispar dispar) the Hemlock Wooly Adelgid (Adelges tsugae) and the Elongate Hemlock Scale (Fiorinia externa) are opening

up the canopy.

Which means the American Chestnut may soon again become the dominant tree in our eastern hardwood forests as trees mature and reach the forest canopy.

Diagrams of how I think the American Chestnut and how its genes are being

spread.

gypsy moth larva

gypsy moth laying eggs

elongate hemlock scale

hemlock wooly

adelgid

Trees

Seedlings

AT north of Auburn Overlook

tree from AT north of Auburn Overlook transplanted at home

Sand Spring trail near Shartlesville

AT south of Lehigh Gap

Disease

The Chestnut blight was found in Brooklyn, NY in 1904. It spread to Pennsylvania a few years later.

When a tree becomes infected it fights back by one of three strategies:

1.) coppicing, sending up new shoots from the top of the root crown of the dead main trunk to produce multiple small trunks with high levels of disease*

2.) coppicing with moderate levels of disease in multiple locations on the new medium trunks.*

3.) a single (mildly) diseased trunk with normal growth habit

*Multiple trunks appear to be a common growth habit among some trees in our area such as silver maple. This may be a

common defense against disease and other physical insults.

coppicing, sending up new shoots from the top of the

root crown of the dead main trunk to produce

multiple small trunks with high levels of disease,

strategy 1

Disease on American chestnut

trees in multiple locations on

coppiced trunks, strategy 2

Disease on a American chestnut

tree, a single (mildly) diseased

trunk with normal growth habit,

strategy 3

Silver maple (Acer saccharinum) with multiple trunks.

Acer saccharinum

One question which needs resolving is the difference between multiple trunks from nut

caches vs. coppicing from disease. The following two photos are most likely due to caching.

Castanea dentata

Quercus alba

Trees show lack of disease resistance in all age classes and stem size.

Multiple areas of infection are common on mature trees. Besides American Chestnuts this pattern was found locally on oak, choke cherry,

birch and other species.

Disease on American chestnut, Castanea dentata

American dogwood (Cornus florida) was supposed to go extinct due to dogwood anthracnose. It came back from the disease

without human interference.

disease on red oak trees, Quercus rubra

disease on black birch tree, Betula lenta

disease on choke cherry, Prunus virginiana

disease on white birch, Betula papyrifera

disease on silver maple, Acer saccharinum

Flowers

The second important discovery this past summer is that the limiting factor in tree reproductive success is

not the Chestnut Blight (Cryphonectria parasitica), but rather access to direct sunlight on the apical ends

of branches.

All mature trees which received direct sunlight had flowers, burrs and nuts.

Chestnut flowers are a good source of nectar and pollen for insects such as bees at a time before many non-tree flowers bloom. This gives pollinators early

season flowers to feed on as part of a continuous food supply from mid-spring to frost.

Burrs and Nuts

Despite the blight, the trees are surviving to reproduce.

46 trees have burrs in several distinct locations along the areas of Blue Mountain surveyed.

40 of these trees are between Rt. 183 and Port Clinton

1 is on the Appalachian Trail on the top of the ridge at the northern edge of the Hamburg reservoir watershed

@ 600 yards left of Gold Spring,

1 is on a trail near the Berks County highest point,

3 are near Round Head and the old AT and

1 is on the south side of the Lehigh Gap just north of the AT.

Two trees near home which produced burrs in 2015. Left Berks County, PA highest point trail lat. 40:31:15 long. -76:14:47 DBH:10.3 Height: @34 feet Right Hamburg Reservoir, Appalachian Trail in PA lat. 40:36:20 long. -75:56 :51 DBH:7.0 Height: @36 feet

3 feet between orange tape and tree base, 6 feet

between green tape and tree base

Location: Berks County, PA on the trail to the highest point in Berks county, SGL80, lat. 40:31:15, long. -76:14:49 DBH = 10.3 Height: @ 34 feet

3 between green and orange tapes x 2 = 6 between green tape and base of tree

Location: Hamburg Reservoir, Appalachian Trail in PA, lat. 40:36:20, long. -75:56 :51 DBH = 7.0 Height: @ 36 feet

Location: Berks County, PA, Rt. 183 north, SGL110, lat. 40:32:22, long. -76:10:21 Chestnut cluster # 1, 3 trees, DBH L to R, 7 trunks total Tree 1 = 4.8, 3.0 Tree 2 = 3.3, 5.7, 6.5 Tree 3 = 5.3, 5.9 Height: tree 1 = @ 38 feet, other trees not calculated

Location: Berks County, PA, Rt. 183 north, SGL110, lat. 40:32:21, long. 76:10:23 Chestnut cluster # 2, 2 trees, L to R DBH Tree 1 = 7.1 Tree 2 = 7.3 Height: @ 30 feet, 32 feet

Location: Berks County, PA, Rt. 183 north, SGL110, lat. 40:32:21, long. 76:10:25 Chestnut cluster # 3 DBH = 6.2 Height: @ 36 feet

40 trees with burrs Rt. 183 north to near Port Clinton

Port Clinton

Rt. 183

Burrs appear to open just after rain.

Rain swells the burrs causing them to open.

Burrs appear to open on both the tree and the ground. Open burrs on trees can become food for crows, blue jays and squirrels. On the ground they

can be food for mice, chipmunks, squirrels and turkeys.

Wet soil makes it easier for corvids and rodents such as squirrels to cache nuts in the ground which

enhances germination success.

Swelled burrs are soft from the absorbed moisture which makes them a good food source for bacteria,

fungi, protists and insects moist, nutritious, easy to burrow in and easily digestible.

This allows the nutrients in the burr to be swiftly recycled into the soil while creating a community of organisms which benefit from the tree while giving

benefit to the tree.

Benefits to the tree may include increasing disease resistance, lowering the load of pathogens and

predators near the tree, moving nutrients into the soil close to the tree, etcetera.

Nut dispersal

Nuts in burrs had 3 basic shapes: spoon shaped (spatulate), egg shaped (ovate) and house

shaped (truncate).

Most burrs had 3 nuts, often 1 ovate with 1 spatulate on both sides or a mixture of spatulate

and truncate shape.

wt. (g) height (cm)

width (cm)

thickness (cm)

3.7 2.2 2.0 1.4

Average dimensions of seeds dehisced on their own

wt. (g) height (cm)

width (cm)

thickness (cm)

3.5 2.1 1.8 1.5

Average dimensions of seeds manually dehisced

The following is measurements of the egg shaped (ovate) seeds.

*No measurements were taken for the other shapes.

Path forward:

2016 1. finish survey in the Birdsboro/French Creek areas

2. extend the ends of the survey to the Susquehanna River and the Delaware River

3. survey other relevant trails within 90 minutes of home 4. start looking at reservoirs to find fruiting trees as they

should have more open areas than trails 5. continue looking for seedlings in danger from trail

maintainers and hikers to transplant at home 6. continue collecting nuts to grow at home

7. identify and document pollinators and other nectarivores on American chestnut flowers.

I plan to use a quadcopter (drone) with camera this year to better understand and document what I see.

Our ultimate goal To grow 2 successive generations (F2 generation) of burr bearing American Chestnuts from seeds in our

yard.

Anyone who wants to join me is welcome to grab a camera, their shoes, a day pack and do so.

Awe, wonder, joy and surprise

Richard Gardner

rtgardner3@yahoo.com

410.726.3045

http://www.slideshare.net/rtgardner3

https://independent.academia.edu/RichardTGardner

We live in northern Berks County, PA.

Anyone who wants to visit us is welcome to.

mailto:rtgardner3@yahoo.comhttp://www.slideshare.net/rtgardner3http://www.slideshare.net/rtgardner3https://independent.academia.edu/RichardTGardnerhttps://independent.academia.edu/RichardTGardnerhttps://independent.academia.edu/RichardTGardner