paleogeography of late eocene to earliest miocene te kuiti group, central-western north island, new...

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Paleogeography of Late Eocene to earliest MioceneTe Kuiti Group, central-western North Island, NewZealandPJJ Kampa, ARP Tripathia & CS Nelsona

a Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of Waikato, Hamilton, NewZealandPublished online: 21 May 2014.

To cite this article: PJJ Kamp, ARP Tripathi & CS Nelson (2014) Paleogeography of Late Eocene to earliest Miocene Te KuitiGroup, central-western North Island, New Zealand, New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 57:2, 128-148, DOI:10.1080/00288306.2014.904384

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2014.904384

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RESEARCH ARTICLE

Paleogeography of Late Eocene to earliest Miocene Te Kuiti Group, central-western North Island,New Zealand

PJJ Kamp*, ARP Tripathi and CS Nelson

Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand

(Received 19 September 2013; accepted 21 February 2014)

We present a series of 13 paleogeographic maps representing development of the Waikato–King Country Basin through the Late Eoceneto Early Miocene in central-western North Island when the New Zealand platform was undergoing widespread marine inundation. Themaps are the end-point of a basin analysis of the Te Kuiti Group, which has included development of a revised lithostratigraphy,biostratigraphy, chronostratigraphy and the application of facies analysis. The new stratigraphic framework has identified six majorunconformity-bound sequences within the Te Kuiti Group and the paleogeographic maps are drawn for time-slices through unconfor-mities and systems tracts. A major unconformity between the Whaingaroa Formation and the Aotea Formation dated c. 29 Ma marks thestart of reverse faulting on the Taranaki Fault. At c. 27 Ma, reverse displacement on the Manganui Fault started. Several phases ofdisplacement on the Manganui Fault ensured that land persisted over part of the Herangi High throughout the Duntroonian (Ld) andWaitakian (Lw) Stages spanning the Late Oligocene and earliest Miocene.

Keywords: Te Kuiti Group; paleogeography; Waikato–King Country Basin; lithostratigraphy; sequence stratigraphy; Oligocene

Introduction

The Late Eocene (Kaitian Stage) to earliest Miocene (WaitakianStage) Te Kuiti Group comprises a non-marine (Waikato CoalMeasures) and overlying continental shelf-to-slope mixed carbon-ate–siliciclastic sedimentary succession up to 500 m thick, com-prising multiple formations within the Okoko and Castle Craigsubgroups (Nelson 1978; Tripathi et al. 2008). This successioncrops out extensively between Port Waikato in the north andAwakino in the south within the Waikato–King Country Basin,where the beds generally exhibit shallow dips (c. 5°) (Fig. 1). TheTeKuiti Group is one of the more extensive areas of marine sedimentsthat accumulated during the mid-Cenozoic peak of marine inunda-tion of the New Zealand platform and is accessible on land.

The purpose of this paper is to present a series of detailedpaleogeographic maps for the central-western North Islandregion for the period during which the Te Kuiti Group accumu-lated. In many respects, paleogeographic maps represent thefinal synthesis product of the analysis of a sedimentary basin –their preparation needs to be preceded by: (1) development of arobust lithostratigraphic framework; (2) development of a chron-ostratigraphic scheme or template; and (3) facies analysis ofinterrelated formations or sequences from which depositionalpaleoenvironments are inferred.

The paleogeographic map set presented here results fromrecent completion of a comprehensive analysis of the Te Kuiti

Group in the context of the Waikato–King Country Basin (Kampet al. 2008; Tripathi 2008; Tripathi et al. 2008), building uponearlier research (e.g. Nelson 1973, 1978; Nelson et al. 1994). Aseries of 13 paleogeographic maps representing the Late Eocene(Runangan) to earliest Miocene (Waitakian) development of theTe Kuiti Group are presented and interpreted.

The question around complete mid-Cenozoic marine inunda-tion of the New Zealand platform is topical and has substantialimplications for the history of New Zealand flora and fauna(Landis et al. 2008). To date, the Te Kuiti Group record and thepaleogeography that can be inferred from it, have not con-tributed significantly to this debate. Our paleogeographic inter-pretations and the stratigraphic record upon which they arebased, strongly suggest that parts of the Herangi structural highon the western side of the basin and east of the Taranaki Fault,and possibly also local structural highs to the east and southeastof the basin, remained above sea level throughout the LateOligocene–earliest Miocene interval of peak flooding of theNew Zealand platform and would have been a refugia forterrestrial flora and fauna.

Lithostratigraphic framework for the Te Kuiti Group

A reliable paleogeographic interpretation for any basin succes-sion clearly needs to be built upon a robust lithostratigraphy.

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] data available online at www.tandfonline.com/10.1080/00288306.2014.904384Supplementary file 1: Paleogeographic map set comprising 13 maps (A–M) showing development of the Waikato–King Country Basin during theLate Eocene to earliest Miocene. Key for all maps also given (N).

New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, 2014Vol. 57, No. 2, 128–148, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2014.904384

© 2014 The Royal Society of New Zealand

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mailto:[email protected]

http://www.tandfonline.com/10.1080/00288306.2014.904384

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00288306.2014.904384

Figure 1 Map of central-western North Island showing the distribution of the Te Kuiti Group and other units. Locations of several of the keystratigraphic columns for the group, reproduced in Kamp et al. (2008), are recorded.

Paleogeography of Late Eocene to earliest Miocene Te Kuiti Group 129

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We have comprehensively re-examined the stratigraphy of theTe Kuiti Group both in the surface and subsurface of central-western North Island, which has led to a revised lithostrati-graphic framework for the group (Tripathi et al. 2008), replacingprevious schemes (e.g. Kear & Schofield 1959; Nelson 1978;White & Waterhouse 1993). Previous miscorrelations are due toa combination of factors: (1) marked lithofacies variationswithin and between different stratigraphic units; (2) a lack ofexposure in key areas, e.g. Mt Karioi where the Te Kuiti Grouprocks are buried under Pliocene–Pleistocene Alexandra Groupvolcanics (Briggs 1983) (Fig. 1); and (3) limited areas overwhich most earlier stratigraphic investigations were undertaken.

The new lithostratigraphic scheme (Tripathi et al. 2008) isunderpinned by numerous (n = 109) detailed stratigraphic col-umns through the Te Kuiti Group (Fig. 1) (Kamp et al. 2008),including close attention to the nature of stratigraphic contactsand the sedimentologic character and vertical distribution offacies throughout the succession. Figure 2 shows a series ofcomposite stratigraphic columns arranged north–south illu-strating the thickness, distribution, lithology and stratigraphicnomenclature of the Te Kuiti Group in several key outcropareas.

At the broadest level, the Te Kuiti Group is subdivided intotwo subgroups, these being: (1) the Okoko Subgroup (new),named after Okoko Valley in inland Kawhia and previouslyknown as the Te Anga Subgroup (Barrett 1962, 1967; Hopkins1966, 1970) or Lower Te Kuiti Subgroup (Nelson 1973, 1978);and (2) the overlying Castle Craig Subgroup (Barrett 1962,1967; Hopkins 1966, 1970). The subgroups are separated by aprominent unconformity marking a pronounced change inlithofacies character from dominantly mixed carbonate–silici-clastic sediment below to dominantly carbonate sediment above.For the Waitomo area, the Okoko Subgroup has 48% averagecalcium carbonate content, whereas the Castle Craig Subgrouphas a carbonate content of 65–98% (Nelson 1978; Nelson &Hume 1987). The formations comprising the Okoko Subgroupshow successively higher positions of coastal onlap onto base-ment, consistent with continuing regional subsidence during thisinterval. Conversely, the base of the Orahiri Formation (CastleCraig Subgroup) shows a basinward step in the position ofcoastal onlap, inferred from the extent and degree of underlyingstratigraphic section removed at the unconformity between thetwo subgroups (Tripathi & Kamp 2008).

Biostratigraphy of the Te Kuiti Group

The drive to understand the biostratigraphy of the Te KuitiGroup, and hence how the formations and members relate to theNew Zealand Stages for the Late Eocene to Early Miocene,arises from our need to develop an appreciation about the dis-tribution of time within the group so that the paleogeography isfounded upon linked depositional systems across the basin.Foraminiferal records form a reliable basis upon which toidentify the New Zealand Stages within the Te Kuiti Group. Wehave synthesised a biostratigraphy for the group based chiefly,

but not exclusively, upon foraminiferal data extracted from theNew Zealand Fossil Record Electronic Database (FRED) (Fig. 3).

The Te Kuiti Group succession has been extensively sampledfor its floral and faunal content during the past 100 years. Bios-tratigraphic data and previous schemes have been developedprincipally from fossil collections made by Kear & Schofield(1959), Kear (1963) and Nelson (1973, 1978) with most for-aminiferal identifications from Hornibrook et al. (1989). Pocknall(1991) proposed a palynostratigraphic scheme for the Te KuitiGroup based on palynofloras he obtained from numerous out-crop and drillhole samples. Waterhouse & White (1994) madeadditional fossil collections in the Raglan–Kawhia area.

In the non-marine Waikato Coal Measures, spores andpollens are the most useful fossil groups. In the marginal marineto shallow marine sequence of the Mangakotuku Formation, acombination of spores and pollen, ostracods, molluscs andoccasionally foraminifera provide a stage determination. Themajority of useful biostratigraphic datums within the group arebased on planktic foraminiferal bio-events, the samples hav-ing been sourced from the terrigenous-enriched members(Hornibrook et al. 1989). Planktic bio-events mark the boundarybetween the Lower and Upper parts of the Whaingaroan Stageand the boundary between the Duntroonian and Waitakianstages within the group. Molluscs are more useful than for-aminifera for the assignment of biostratigraphic stages in theOrahiri Formation and Otorohanga Limestone. They containlarge calcite bivalves (oysters, pectinids), and other componentssuch as brachiopods and the epitoniid gastropod Cirsotrema.

Figure 3 shows the relationship between the Late Eocene–earliest Miocene New Zealand Stages and the formations andmembers within the Te Kuiti Group based principally uponplanktic foraminiferal bio-events and broken down into particu-lar areas (composite columns). In the following section, webriefly outline the stratigraphic extent of each stage. A fulldescription of the sample data is given in Kamp et al. (2014a).

The upper part of the Kaiatan Stage has been identified inthe lowermost part of the Waikato Coal Measures at Rotowaro(Edbrooke et al. 1994) based on the presence of the Halor-agacidites harrisii Zone (pollen) (Pocknall 1991). The WaikatoCoal Measures at Drury, Maramarua, Huntly and Rotowaro alsoextend into the Runangan Stage based on identification of theMyrtaceidites Subzone of the Nothofagidites matauraensisAssemblage Zone (Pocknall 1991). The Glen Afton Claystonealso accumulated in the Runangan Stage although other mem-bers of the Mangaokotuku Formation belong to the lowermostpart of the Lower Whaingaroan (Fig. 3). Planktic foraminiferaare moderately common in the Glen Massey Formation. Sub-botina angiporoides and Globigerina ampliapertura, bothLower Whaingaroan Stage index taxa (Hornibrook et al. 1989),are present in all Glen Massey Formation samples and hence theLower Whaingaroan is considered to extend to the top of thisformation (Fig. 3). The Upper Whaingaroan is defined as stratalacking S. angiporoides and containing the benthic foraminiferaNotorotalia stachei. The co-occurrence of Globigerina euaper-tura and Rotaliatina sulcigera is usually a reliable guide to the

130 PJJ Kamp et al.

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Figure 2 Correlation of composite stratigraphic columns for the Te Kuiti Group and basal Waitemata and Mahoenui groups. Solid lines markunconformities/sequence boundaries between each of the six sequences defined in Fig. 5. Other significant stratigraphic events are also highlighted.The columns are centred on the sub-Aotea Formation unconformity.


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Figure 2 (Continued)

132 PJJ Kamp et al.

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P P P

G J G

G J

G J G

? ?

J J J J

J P J P J J G J

G

G G

G G G

37.0

36.0

34.3

30.0

27.3

25.2

21.7

KA

IATA

N

(A

k)R

UN

AN

GA

N

(A

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HA

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N

(L

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Upper

Lower

DU

NT

RO

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(

Ld)

WA

I TA

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N

(Lw

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(Po)

N

Mangakotuku Fm

Ah Dn EL Ws Rw Pm Ga WCM MB

Ahirau SandstoneDunphail SiltstoneElgood LimestoneWaikaretu SandstoneRotowaro SiltstonePukemiro SandstoneGlen Afton ClaystoneWaikato Coal MeasuresMesozoic Basement

Glen Massey Fm

Stratigraphic abbreviations

No

tho

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Z

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rag

acid

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S14/f7630,f7631, f7633,f7658

S14/f574, f632,f634, f639, f646-650, f653-655, f661,f663-664

Cri

bo

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S14/f7671Can

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late

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S13/f9599

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lia o

koko

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S14/f7557-7559 R14/f6541-6542

R13/f8512S15/f6527S15/f6505

Are

no

do

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tip

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S14/f7551

Glo

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R13/8511

R14/f6544

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Mangiti Road-Raglan Harboure.g. TA-11, TA-12

Te Pahu - Karamue.g AK-6, AK-15

Hu

Orotangi Cliff-Aotea Harboure.g. AK-5, AK-8

Ah

Ah

Dn

DnDn

WsWs

MB

MB

Kt

Figure 3 Summary of biostratigraphy (New Zealand Stages) for the Te Kuiti Group and basal parts of overlying Waitemata and Mahoenui groups.Only the index and most common taxa are listed against Fossil Record Electronic Database (FRED) sample numbers. The positions of samples in thecomposite columns are approximate, as is the distribution of lithostratigraphic units against New Zealand Stages within the Late Eocene to EarlyMiocene.


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G J G G J G

G J G

P

G

J

Reworked fauna

PhosphateGlauconyBurrows

Interval missing /no outcrops

Prominent erosional contactTop eroded

S

Wt Tu Th

Ct Rg

Waikawau SandstoneTe Akau LimestoneTe Hara Sandstone

Waitemata Gp

Wst Ta Mt

Waitomo SandstoneTe Anga LimestoneMangaotaki Limestone

Orahiri Fm Mahoenui Gp TM

Pk Kh Hu Mi Wm Ng Aw Wk Kt

Patikirau SiltstoneKihi SandstoneHauturu SandstoneMangiti SandstoneWaimai LimestoneNgapaenga SiltstoneAwaroa LimestoneWaikorea SandstoneKotuku Siltstone

Whaingaroa Fm

Aotea Fm OtorohangaLimestone (OT)

OTC OTB OTA

Piopio LimestoneWaitanguru LimestonePakeho Limestone

Te Akatea Fm Carter SiltstoneRaglan Limestone

Taumatamaire Siltstone

Glo

big

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R15/f8531-8532

R15/f8507

Glo

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S16/f8522

S16/f6018-6019Cib

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S16/f6607

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R16/f8060-8062

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R16/f8700

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R16/f8613

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R16/8702R16/8704

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R16/9519R16/f6077R16/f6935R16/f8060

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R15/f8508

R15/f8533

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S 125 ?, S 177 ?

Rec

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stri

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S 186 ?, S 130

S164 ?, S 167 ? R17/f8705

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R15/f8509-8510

R16/f7559

S16/f6536-f6537

S16/f6524 ?

S16/f6525

S16/f6521

S16/f6539-f6542

Vag

inu

lino

psi

s cr

iste

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Rec

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stri

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sim

aS

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ulv

ulin

a w

aita

kia

No

toro

talia

sp

ino

sa

S16/f6014-6015

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S16/f8502, f8507, f8514

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and

icu

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erin

a ra

ren

sis

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bo

qu

adri

na

deh

isce

ns

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tuvi

ger

ina

rare

nsi

sB

uen

ing

ia c

reek

i

G .

wo

od

i

Vu

lvu

lina

pen

nat

ula

R16/f8720-f8721

R18/f6808

S16/f8561 -f8563

S16/f8500S16/f8516-f8518 R17/f6678

R17/f8542

R17/f8809

Glo

bo

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deh

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G .

wo

od

i

Hae

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Hae

usl

erel

la t

exti

lari

form

is

Cib

icid

es m

acu

latu

s

Sem

ivu

lvu

lina

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itat

a

Hae

usl

erel

la t

exti

lari

form

is

No

toro

talia

sta

chei

Kh

Mt

Aw

Hautapu Hill-Kawhia Roade.g. C-4, S-13

Wm

TaWst

OTC

Okoko - Honikiwi- Waitomo Valleye.g. C-32, C-25

Ng

Ngapaenga- Marokopae.g. C-50, C-68

Te Kuiti-BerosLimestone Quarrye.g. 94-24

Awakino- Mahoenui- Mangaotaki Bridgee.g. C-166, C-191

TM

Dn

Dn

Dn Dn

Ah Ah Ah

El El El

MB MB MB MB

HuHu Hu

Aw

Kh

Mt

Mt

TMTM TM

OTC

OTB

OTA

OTA

OT

OT

Ta

Ng


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Upper Whaingaroan in deeper water settings, while in neriticenvironments Notorotalia stachei is a key taxon (Jenkins 1966,1971; Morgans et al. 2004). On this basis, the Upper Whain-garoan incorporates Whaingaroa Formation and the lower partof Aotea Formation, including Waimai Limestone Member,Mangaiti Sandstone Member and part of both the HauturuSandstone and Kihi Sandstone Members (Fig. 3).

The Duntroonian Stage is identified in upper parts of theAotea Formation by the occurrence of the large shallow-waterbivalve Athlopecten athleta, closely packed banks of thick-shelled Flemingostrea wollastoni and the benthic foraminiferNotorotalia spinosa (replacing the Whaingaroan index, N.stachei). North of Raglan Harbour, the upper part of the Pati-kirau Siltstone Member, the Raglan Limestone Member, lowerpart of the Carter Siltstone Member, upper parts of both theHauturu Sandstone and Kihi Sandstone Members, and theOrahiri Formation all lie within the Duntroonian Stage (Fig. 3).

The lowest occurrence of the planktic foraminifera Globo-quadrina dehiscens has become the most widely acceptedcriterion for defining the base of the Waitakian Stage (Horni-brook 1978). Another useful indicator is the disappearance ofthe large ribbed benthic foraminifera Vaginulinopsis at the topof the Duntroonian. The highest occurrence of the plankticforaminifera Globigerina euapertura is an important intra-Waitakian event. On this basis, the Otorohanga Limestone,middle to upper parts of the Raglan Limestone Member andupper parts of the Carter Siltstone Member accumulated duringthe Waitakian Stage. The common occurrence of Globoqua-drina dehiscens in samples from the lowermost part of theMahoenui Group mudstone (Taumatamaire Formation) and the

lithologically diversified members of the basal WaitemataGroup (Te Hara Sandstone Member, Te Akau Limestone Mem-ber and Waikawau Sandstone Member) all accumulated duringthe Upper Waitakian (Fig. 3).

Figure 4 illustrates the biostratigraphic stage model for theTe Kuiti Group as established here compared with the mostrecent published scheme (White & Waterhouse 1993). There isa significant difference between these models in the age adoptedfor the Whaingaroa Formation. We restrict the WhaingaroaFormation to the Upper Whaingaroan. White & Waterhouse(1993) and prior workers confused the Whaingaroa Siltstone(our Kotuku Siltstone Member) with a Lower Whaingaroansiltstone south of Kawhia (which we have mapped as DunphailSiltstone Member of the Glen Massey Formation) as a con-sequence of the lithostratigraphic model established by Kear &Schofield (1959) that placed all siltstone units south of Kawhiain the Whaingaroa Siltstone (Formation) and placed all sand-stone units in the Aotea Formation (some belonging withinGlen Massey Formation). Kear & Schofield (1959) and allsubsequent workers did not appreciate the extent of erosionbetween the Aotea Formation and the Glen Massey Formationas we have mapped it (Kamp et al. 2008; Tripathi et al. 2008).

Chronostratigraphy and sequences

The biostratigraphy for Te Kuiti Group provides critical input tothe development of a chronostratigraphy for the group. A chron-ostratigraphic scheme shows the distribution in time and spaceof the various formations and members, a useful step in estab-lishing the distribution of sequences and linked depositional

Olig

ocen

e

Mio

Eo

Po

Lw

Ld

UpperLwh

LowerLwh

Ar

Otorohanga Lst

Waitemata Gp - Mahoenui Gp

Waitomo Sst

Te Akatea Fm(incl. Carter Zst Mbr)

Orahiri Lst

Aotea Formation(incl. Waimai Lst Mbr)

Whaingaroa Fm(Incl. Kotuku Zst Mbr)

Glen Massey Fm(incl. Elgood Lst Mbr, Dunphail Zst Mbr)

Whaingaroa Fm(incl. Awamarino Lst Mbr)

Mangakotuku Fm

Waikato Coal Measures

Te Kuiti G

p

Age NZ Stage N S

Olig

ocen

e

Mio

Eo

Po

Lw

Ld

UpperLwh

LowerLwh

Ar

Otorohanga Lst

Waitemata Gp - Mahoenui Gp

Te Akatea Fm(incl. Carter Zst Mbr)

Orahiri Fm(incl. Waitomo Sst Mbr)

Aotea Formation(incl. Waimai Lst Mbr)

Whaingaroa Fm

Glen Massey Formation(incl. Elgood Lst Mbr, Dunphail Zst Mbr)

Mangakotuku Fm

Waikato Coal Measures

Te Kuiti G

p

Age NZ Stage N S

Biostratigraphy: White & Waterhouse (1993) Biostratigraphy : This study

No outcrop Basement

Figure 4 Two biostratigraphic schemes for the Te Kuiti Group, one by White & Waterhouse (1993) and that proposed herein. Stage nameabbreviations are defined in Fig. 3.


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systems within the group. The chronostratigraphic schemeshown in Fig. 5 has been built-up from the biostratigraphy estab-lished above together with the distribution of unconformitiesbetween formations and their correlative conformities (Fig. 2),and the determination of the numerical age of selected macro-fossils by strontium isotope dating, the details of which arereported in Nelson et al. (2004) and Kamp et al. (2014a).

In Fig. 5, six mixed carbonate–siliciclastic or pure carbonateunconformity-bound depositional sequences (TK1–TK6) ofthird- or fourth-order scale (2–4 Myr duration) have been iden-tified that can be correlated through the Waikato–King CountryBasin. The unconformity at the base of each sequence typicallyrepresents a period of base-level fall and subaerial or marineerosion, followed by wave planation, the overlying strata repre-senting the ensuing transgressive, highstand and regressivesystems tracts. In the more basinal positions in the northeast,unconformities pass into correlative conformities. The verticaland lateral distribution of members within sequences appearscomplex, but in a sequence stratigraphic framework the patternsare simplified as they represent facies associations within linkeddepositional systems (i.e. systems tracts), thereby providinginsight into the complex interplay of inherited basement topo-graphy, sediment supply, depositional processes and relative

sea-level change driven mainly by subsidence of the basin anduplift along its western margin.

Facies and depositional paleoenvironments

Having established a robust lithostratigraphic framework for theTe Kuiti Group together with an age model, the last element tobe established as the foundation for interpretation of the paleo-geographic development of the basin is an understanding of theenvironments of deposition of the group by application offacies analysis. Detailed descriptions of the Waikato Coal Mea-sures and Mangakotuku Formation and interpretation of theirdepositional environments have been previously made byEdbrooke et al. (1994). We have undertaken detailed faciesanalysis and paleoenvironmental interpretation of the GlenMassey Formation, Aotea Formation and Castle Craig Sub-group in a sequence stratigraphic framework as part of our widerinvestigation of the Te Kuiti Group, the details of which arereported in (Kamp et al. 2014a–d).

The Waikato Coal Measures accumulated in fluvial and over-bank depositional environments, marking the start of regionalonlap onto basement, and the Mangakotuku Formation marksthe start of marine onlap in transitional and restricted marine

INTNLAGE Ma NZ STAGE

/ AGESLITHOSTRAT-

IGRAPHY

EA

RLY

MIO

CE

NE

OL

IGO

CE

NE

LA

TE

EO

CE

NE

Pri

ab

on

ian

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pe

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nC

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ttia

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ita

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n

CA

ST

LE

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AIG

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ITEM

ATA

/MA

HO

ENU

IG

RO

UP

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kat

ea

FmA

ote

a Fm

Gle

n M

asse

y Fm

Man

ga-

kotu

ku F

m

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kat

o C

oal

Mea

sure

s

MESOZOICBASEMENT

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ain

g-

aro

a Fm

Ora

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i Fm

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roh

ang

a Li

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e

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37.0

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Lower

NORTH SOUTH TKGSEQ

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6T

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4T

K 3

TK

2T

K 1

No outcropsWaikawau SstWaikawau Sst

Te Akau LstTe Hara Sst

Carter Zst

Taumatamaire Mst

Awakino Lst

Piopio Lst

Waitanguru Lst

Pakeho Lst

Te Anga LstWaitomo Sst

Mangaotaki LstRaglan Lst

Patikirau Zst Kihi Sst

Hauturu SstWaimai Lst

Waikorea Sst

Mangiti Sst

Kotuku Zst Awaroa Lst Ngapaenga Zst

Erosional unconformity(truncation)

Depositional hiatus

Depositional hiatus

Ahirau Sst Ahirau Sst

Dunphail Zst

Dunphail Zst

Elgood Lst Elgood Lst

Rotowaro ZstPukemiro Sst

Glen Afton Clst

Waikaretu Sst

Figure 5 A new chronostratigraphic scheme for the Te Kuiti Group and the transition to Waitemata and Mahoenui groups showing the occurrence ofsix unconformity-bound sequences (TK1–TK6).

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environments (TK1) (Edbrooke et al. 1994). The Glen MasseyFormation (TK2) and Whaingaroa Formation (TK3) comprisetwo sequences resulting from distinct relative sea-level changes,both sequences comprising regular transgressive (TST), high-stand (HST) and regressive (RST) systems tracts that ac-cumulated in various parts of a continental shelf, albeit anepeiric seaway or embayment (Nelson 1973, 1978). The AoteaFormation (TK4) has diversified carbonate and terrigenouslithofacies and although they accumulated within a single se-quence, there are marked changes across the basin in the char-acter of the TST and HST because at the start of the sequencethere was (1) a basinward step in the position of coastal onlap,and (2), during accumulation of the sequence there was markeddeepening (subsidence) of the northern part of the basin toupper bathyal depths. The Orahiri Formation (TK5) and Otor-ohanga Limestone (TK6) represent a dramatic change to car-bonate sedimentation at shelf depths in the southern part of thebasin, which ramped down to upper bathyal depths in the north-ern part of the basin where marl accumulated (Carter SiltstoneMember).

Paleogeography

Paleogeographic reconstructions for the Te Kuiti Group in theWaikato–King Country Basin between Port Waikato and Awakinoare presented for 13 intervals (Fig. 6; Supplementary file 1) duringthe Late Eocene to earliest Miocene. These are based uponintegration of the li-thostratigraphy, biostratigraphy and chronos-tratigraphy for the Te Kuiti Group, together with facies analysis andinterpretation of paleoenvironments for the succession (Nelson1973; Kamp et al. 2008, 2014a–d; Tripathi 2008; Tripathi et al.2008), as well as interpretations about contemporary faults andpaleotopography. The maps are drawn for key phases in theaccumulation of the succession and development of the basin (Fig.6A–6M). A legend for the maps is shown in Fig. 6N. The present-day coastline and grid coordinates have been used for referenceonly in the maps and it is evident that the shape of the underlyingcrustal blocks changed during the Late Oligocene and earliestMiocene (Kamp et al. 2012). In each of the next sections,successive maps are described, in effect summarising the geolo-gical development of the basin, its margins and adjacent areas.

Map 1: Late Eocene (Runangan) Waikato Coal Measures

The Waikato Coal Measures accumulated upon Triassic andJurassic basement following Late Cretaceous–Middle Eoceneerosion and landscape development (Kamp & Liddell 2000),reaching thicknesses that vary between 1 and 300 m. The coalmeasures comprise dark grey to brownish grey carbonaceousmudstone (75%), intercalated muddy sandstone (12%), coalseams (12%) and conglomerate (1%) (Edbrooke et al. 1994).The rare conglomerate facies are inferred to have been depositedadjacent to locally active fault scarps (Kear & Schofield 1978;Edbrooke et al. 1994). Potentially active normal faults at this

time (Hall et al. 2006) are shown in Fig. 6A. The fine-grainedlithofacies dominating the Waikato Coal Measures were sourcedfrom deeply weathered basement regolith (Nelson & Hume1987), transported south to north via a fluvial system (Edbrookeet al. 1994) and deposited in meandering river and floodplainenvironments in the northern Waikato region between basementridges to the west and east.

The eastern limit of coal measure deposition is poorly con-strained because of uplift and erosion of the Te Kuiti Groupprior to deposition of the Waitemata Group, but a few preservedremnants suggest depositional thinning to the east (Edbrookeet al. 1994). Coal measures occur in the Te Rapa-1 well sectionnear Hamilton but their age is poorly known (Katz 1968). Astriking feature of the regional sedimentation pattern is theabsence of Runangan sedimentation in the southern part of theWaikato region.

The Turi Formation in Taranaki Basin is age equivalent tothe Waikato Coal Measures (Fig. 6A). In Turi-1, this formationcomprises Late Eocene calcareous siltstone with common ben-thic foraminifera that accumulated in shelf to upper bathyalenvironments. It also contains recycled Mesozoic pollen indic-ative of a Murihiku basement source east of the Taranaki Fault(King & Thrasher 1996). Prior to the Late Eocene, TaranakiBasin was a major depocentre compared with the land area inthe Waikato–King Country region, but it is unclear if the easternmargin of the Taranaki Fault was faulted or non-faulted at thattime due to the amount of Late Oligocene and Early Miocenebasement over-thrusting that has subsequently overprinted thisbasin margin.

Map 2: Latest Eocene (Runangan–Whaingaroan boundary)Waikato Coal Measures and Mangakotuku Formation

During the latest Eocene, sedimentation extended into the south-ern Waikato and northern King Country regions, indicatingmore extensive regional subsidence (Fig. 6B). There, WaikatoCoal Measures accumulated in narrow valleys separated bybasement highs. The Waikato Coal Measures in the Te KuitiCoalfield (Edbrooke et al. 1994) thins eastward onlapping base-ment presently forming the Rangitoto Range. The Piopio Highseparated western from eastern areas of coal measure accumu-lation; the eastern limit being poorly constrained, but drill holeseast of the Tihiroa Coalfield intersected thin coal measuresindicating eastward thinning onto basement (Kirk 1985). Thelack of exploratory drill holes between the Te Kuiti and Manga-pēhi Coalfields (Edbrooke et al. 1994) means that the paleogeo-graphy is poorly constrained, although coal measure depositionis known to have occurred in isolated fault-controlled depres-sions in the vicinity of Benneydale (Edbrooke et al. 1994). Inmost of these coalfields shallow marine siltstone, sandy siltstoneand shellbed facies are interbedded with thin coal seamssuggesting that non-marine and marginal-marine environmentswere in close proximity (Edbrooke et al. 1994).

The Mangakotuku Formation conformably overlies theWaikato Coal Measures (Kear & Schofield 1978). It comprises


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Pio

pio

Hig

h

Wai

pa

Fau

lt

Taranaki

Fault

Ahirau Sandstone Member

Dunphail Siltstone Member

Dunphail Siltstone Member

Turi Fm

MAP 4 EARLY OLIGOCENE (Lower Whaingaroan) Glen Massey Fm (Ahirau Sst Mb and Dunphail Zst Mb)

Ahirau Sandstone

Member

Oparau Fault

Marokopa Fault

38°S

39°S

37°S

174°

E

175°

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176°

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173°

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38°S

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Mangapehi CF

Wai

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pio

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h

Taranaki

Fault

condensed Glen Masseydeposition

ElgoodLimestoneMember

DunphailSiltstoneMember

MAP 3 EARLY OLIGOCENE (Lower Whaingaroan) Glen Massey Fm(Elgood Lst Mb and Dunphail Zst Mb)

Oparau Fault

Marokopa Fault

Port Waikato High

DunphailSiltstoneMember

Mangapehi CF

Turi Fm

He

ran

gi

H

igh

Hamilton sub-basin

Wai

pa

Fau

lt

Mangapehi CF

Pio

pio

Hig

h

Waikaretu Sst Mbr

WCM

MAP 2 LATEST EOCENE (earliest Whaingaroan) Waikato Coal Measures and Mangakotuku Formation

Oparau Fault

Marokopa Fault

Taran

akiFau

lt38°S

39°S

37°S

174°

E

175°

E

176°

E

173°

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Mangakotuku Fm

Te KuitiCF

Turi Fm

TihiroaCF

Kawhia CF

Taranaki

Fault

Wai

pa

Fau

lt

WCM

Turi Fm

MAP 1 LATE EOCENE (Runangan) Waikato Coal Measures

Marokopa Fault

Oparau Fault38°S

39°S

37°S17

4°E

175°

E

176°

E

173°

EDrury CF

Waikare CF

Huntly CF

Rotowaro CF

Glen Massey CF

MaramaruaCF

A B

C D

Figure 6 Paleogeographic map set comprising 13 maps (A–M) showing development of the Waikato–King Country Basin during the Late Eocene toearliest Miocene. The key for all maps is given in panel N.

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Patikirau SiltstoneMember

Kihi SandstoneMember

Hauturu SandstoneMember

Otaraoa Fm

MAP 8 LATE OLIGOCENE (Upper Whaingaroan to lower Duntroonian) Aotea Fm - upper units

Kih

i San

dst

oneM

ember

Pio

pio

Hig

h

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Hauturu Sandstone Member

KihiSandstone

Mbr

He

ran

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Hig

h

Otaraoa Fm

MAP 7 LATE OLIGOCENE (Upper Whaingaroan) Aotea Fm - lower units

Waimai Limestone

Mbr

Waimai Limestone Member

Mangiti Sandstone

Member

Mangiti Sst

Member

38°S

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pa

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ult

Taranaki

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ult

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MAP 6 MID-OLIGOCENE (mid-Whaingaroan) Extent of sub-Aotea unconformity

Kotuku Siltstone Member

Whaingaroa Fmcompletely eroded

Wai

pa

Fau

lt

Taran

akiF

au

lt

Pio

pio

Hig

h

Waikorea Sandstone Member

Awaroa Limestone

Member Ngapaenga SiltstoneMember

Ngapaenga SiltstoneMember

MAP 5 EARLY OLIGOCENE (uppermost-Lower Whaingaroan) Whaingaroa Formation

Kotuku Siltstone Member

38°S

39°S

37°S17

4°E

175°

E

176°

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173°

EE F

G H

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Taumatamaire Formation

Taimana Fm

MAP 12 EARLY MIOCENE (uppermost Waitakian) Extent of sub-Waitemata - Mahoenui Gp unconformity

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Otorohanga Limestone

Carter Siltstone Member

Tikorangi Fm

MAP 11 LATE OLIGOCENE to earliest Miocene (Waitakian)Upper part of Castle Craig Subgroup

Man

gan

ui

Fa

ult

Wai

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Te Ku

iti

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away

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175°

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Wai

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Pio

pio

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hMangaotakiLimestone Member

Raglan LimestoneMember

Carter SiltstoneMember

Tikorangi Fm

MAP 10 LATE OLIGOCENE (Duntroonian) Lower part of Castle Craig Subgroup

Taran

akiFau

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ult

Te Anga LimestoneMember

38°S

39°S

37°S

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Man

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i

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MAP 9 LATE OLIGOCENE (lower Duntroonian)

Aotea Fmpartly

eroded

Fau

lt

Man

gan

ui

Pio

pio

Hig

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Sub-Castle Craig Subgroup unconformity

38°S

39°S

37°S17

4°E

175°

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176°

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173°

EI J

K L


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claystone (Glen Afton Claystone Member), non-calcareoussiltstone (Rotowaro Siltstone Member), glauconitic muddy sand-stone (Pukemiro Sandstone Member) and shelly sandstone facies(Waikaretu Sandstone Member), interpreted as having accumu-lated in a marginal- to shallow-marine embayment (Kear 1963;Hornibrook et al. 1989; Edbrooke et al. 1994; Tripathi 2008).The degree of marine influence within the Mangakotuku Forma-tion increases up-section (Kear & Schofield 1978) and in theWaikato region there was clearly coastal onlap to the south andwest during the latest Eocene and earliest Oligocene (Fig. 6B).In the area south of Port Waikato a sandy shoreline facies(Waikaretu Sandstone Member) oversteps the Waikato CoalMeasures onto basement.

Map 3: Early Oligocene (Lower Whaingaroan) Glen MasseyFormation (Elgood Limestone and Dunphail Siltstonemembers)

During the Lower Whaingaroan, marine conditions becameestablished across most of the basin (Fig. 6C). There wasmarked coastal onlap in the west onto basement of the northernextension of Herangi High, as well as onto basement in the southand east. A striking feature of the paleogeography is the devel-opment of a carbonate inner-shelf (Elgood Limestone Member)along the western basin margin, representing a transgressive

systems tract (TST) (Kamp & Tripathi 2008). The ElgoodLimestone passes eastward in outcrop into sandy glauconiticlimestone or glauconitic calcareous sandstone (outer-shelf) andthen into greensand facies in drill hole sections of the HuntlyCoalfield (Kear & Schofield 1959, 1978; Edbrooke et al. 1994),interpreted as condensed outer-shelf to upper slope deposits.Calcareous sandy siltstone (Dunphail Siltstone Member) accu-mulated as highstand system tract (HST) deposits at shelfdepths, reflecting basin-wide deepening at this time (Kamp &Tripathi 2008).

A 10–40 km-wide embayed, variably carbonate, inner-shelfenvironment extended along the western margin of the southernpart of the basin. The Elgood Limestone, including distinctiverhodolith-bearing facies (Nalin et al. 2008), accumulated uponand about structural highs and in shoal areas above submergedbasement knolls. Elsewhere, calcareous siltstone (DunphailSiltstone Member), variably glauconitic and occasionally shellytowards the base, accumulated at mid- to outer-shelf depths.Coal measure facies continued to be deposited in the Mangapēhiarea (Edbrooke et al. 1994). The Piopio High in the south wasemergent at this time, as well as small islands east of present-day Raglan, Aotea and Kawhia Harbours. The Herangi Highmay have been a continuous feature lying between the TaranakiBasin and the Waikato–King Country Basin at this time, with theTuri Formation accumulating in the Taranaki Basin (Fig. 6C).

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Map 4: Early Oligocene (Lower Whaingaroan) Glen MasseyFormation (Ahirau Sandstone and Dunphail Siltstonemembers)

Accumulation of the Ahirau Sandstone Member reflects east-ward progradation of an inner- to mid-shelf calcareous sand-stone facies belt across western parts of the basin due to arelative sea-level fall. The main area of Ahirau Sandstone depos-ition lies between Onewhero in the north and Awamarino southof Kawhia Harbour (Fig. 6D). The sandstone facies transitionseastward into calcareous siltstone of the Dunphail SiltstoneMember, which accumulated in outer-shelf to upper bathyalenvironments. In the vicinity of Te Akau and Raglan Harbour,the Ahirau Sandstone Member is only 1 m thick and the sand-stone is highly glauconitic, indicating condensed sedimentationin an outer-shelf setting.

The Ahirau Sandstone Member is very poorly developed toabsent along the western margin of the basin south of Awamar-ino where the Dunphail Siltstone Member accumulated in itsplace. In Awakino Gorge, Dunphail Siltstone facies are 140 mthick without any evidence of regressive sandstone facies in itsupper parts (Nelson et al. 1994). This suggests that there wasprobably a marine strait between the Waikato–King CountryBasin and Taranaki Basin at this time, where Turi Formationaccumulated.

Map 5: Early Oligocene (uppermost-Lower Whaingaroan)Whaingaroa Formation

Widespread accumulation of calcareous siltstone facies (KotukuSiltstone Member) in mid- to outer-shelf environments occurredduring the uppermost-Lower Whaingaroan (Fig. 6E), associatedwith a relative rise in sea level. This member contains abundantplanktic foraminifera such as Globigerina euapertura and Glo-bigerina labicrassata (Hornibrook et al. 1989). Late in its accu-mulation, the bathymetry became shallower, particularly in thePort Waikato–Waikaretu area, where the upper part of the mem-ber contains calcareous silty sandstone with interbeds of massivesandy siltstone (Waikorea Sandstone Member). These sandyfacies represent a regression driven by a relative fall in sea level.

In southern parts of the basin, particularly inland of Aoteaand Kawhia Harbours, there was marked erosion of the Whain-garoa Formation following its accumulation, resulting in strati-graphic juxtaposition of the underlying Glen Massey Formationand the overlying Aotea Formation (Fig. 2). The Awaroa Lime-stone Member constitutes a TST at the base of the WhaingaroaFormation and represents coastal onlap. Basement ‘islands’previously east of the Herangi High became submerged. Glau-conitic sandstone and siltstone accumulated in place of AwaroaLimestone over parts of the previously established shelf (e.g. inthe Kawhia Coalfield, Edbrooke et al. 1994), forming an import-ant stratigraphic marker in many coal exploration drill holes inthis area (Phelps 1985). These condensed facies are overlain bysandy siltstone (Ngapaenga Siltstone Member), which accumu-lated in mid- to outer-shelf depth environments as an HST. Thismember is slightly coarser-grained than its correlative in the

northern part of the basin (Kotuku Siltstone Member), reflectingproximity to sediment source areas (Fig. 6E). Turi Formationaccumulated in Taranaki Basin at this time in outer-shelf toupper bathyal environments (King & Thrasher 1996).

Map 6: Mid-Oligocene (mid-Whaingaroan) extent ofsub-Aotea unconformity

The most extensive unconformity within the Te Kuiti Groupoccurs at the base of the Aotea Formation (Figs 2, 6F). Thisunconformity is developed across western parts of the basin,forming a zone about 30 km wide east of the Taranaki Fault.The unconformity passes eastward into a correlative conformitywhere calcareous sandstone and siltstone lithofacies accumu-lated. The evidence for unconformity development is the degreeof removal of the underlying Whaingaroa Formation (Fig. 2),which had previously accumulated in mid- to outer-shelf envir-onments. Hence a phase of uplift and erosion of the westernmargin of the basin, focused on the Taranaki Fault, is inferred,starting at c. 29 Ma at, or soon after, the Lower to UpperWhaingaroan boundary (Cooper 2004). It is envisaged that thebasin inversion accompanied the start of reverse displacementon the Taranaki Fault, caused by the start of crustal shorteningacross this central part of North Island as the Australia–Pacificplate boundary system began to transition from extension tooblique shortening (Tripathi & Kamp 2008; Furlong & Kamp2013). Subaerial erosion of formations beneath the unconform-ity was followed by wave planation, which developed theobserved sharp planar surface during coastal onlap of the lowerpart of the Aotea Formation. In Taranaki Basin, the start of over-thrusting of a basement block of Murihiku Terrane into theeastern margin of the basin helped construct a shelf-slope breakalong the eastern margin of the block. Subsequently, the OtaraoaFormation accumulated on the slope east of the contemporarytip of the basement block (Tripathi & Kamp 2008).

Map 7: Late Oligocene (Upper Whaingaroan) AoteaFormation – lower units

Development of the sub-Aotea unconformity led to a basinwardstep in the position of coastal onlap, with the subsequentrelative sea-level rise producing highly diversified deposi-tional environments in the lower part of the Aotea Formation(Fig. 6G). The Hauturu Sandstone Member accumulated asshoreface to inner-shelf sandstone facies east of the HerangiHigh in the southern part of the basin. This well-sortedcalcareous quartzofeldspathic sandstone is mineralogically dis-tinctive and was sourced from a granitic terrane well beyond theWaikato–King Country Basin, having been transported north-ward via longshore drift on a shoreface hinged to the easternside of the Herangi High. The thickness distribution of theHauturu Sandstone Member suggests that at the northern end ofthe Herangi High sand was fed westward into the easternmargin of Taranaki Basin, possibly forming submarine fandeposits, as well as northward where it grades into the Waimai

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Limestone Member in the northern part of the basin (Fig. 2). Inan eastward direction, the member thins and grades laterallyinto bioturbated muddy sandstone facies of the Kihi SandstoneMember, which accumulated in mid- to outer-shelf environ-ments. Farther east, the Waimai Limestone Member accumulatedon the eastern and northern margins of the Piopio High as pebblyand sandy limestone facies, having been sourced from skeletalcarbonate components, chiefly benthic foraminifera (e.g. Amphis-tegina) and calcareous red algae forming on adjacent rocky plat-forms fringing the basement high (Nelson 1973, 1978; Nalinet al. 2008).

In northern parts of the basin, carbonate sediments are moresignificant in the lower part of the Aotea Formation than in thesouthern parts of the basin. A carbonate shelf platform compris-ing the Waimai Limestone Member formed extensively alongthe northwestern margin of the basin between Port Waikato andWaimai Valley, north of Raglan Harbour (Fig. 6G). Its lowerparts have characteristic large-scale tabular crossbeds formed bythe migration under tidal currents of carbonate banks at inner- tomid-shelf depths (Anastas et al. 1997). The upper part of thelimestone is more weakly bedded and becomes glauconiticreflecting deeper water conditions of accumulation. The car-bonate was derived from shoals fringing a low-lying basementridge and islands east of the Taranaki Fault. To the south, theWaimai Limestone Member grades southward into MangitiSandstone Member, which accumulated in mid-shelf depthsnorth of the Herangi High.

In Taranaki Basin, the Tariki Sandstone Member accumu-lated at this time as a submarine fan deposit within the OtaraoaFormation (de Boek et al. 1990). Tariki Sandstone has the samemineralogy and source as the Hauturu Sandstone Memberand it is envisaged that the component sand was transportednorthward via longshore drift along the western margin of thePatea–Tongaporutu–Herangi High as sand sourcing the Hau-turu Sandstone Member was being transported via longshoredrift along the eastern margin of the same high.

Map 8: Late Oligocene (Upper Whaingaroan to LowerDuntroonian) Aotea formation – upper units

In the northern part of the basin there was widespread founder-ing of the carbonate shelf comprising the lower part of AoteaFormation during the Upper Whaingaroan–lowermost Duntroo-nian, together with a gradational transition to condensed sedi-mentation (Fig. 6H). Patikirau Siltstone Member is a thin(few m) glauconitic and phosphatic siltstone where it overliesthe Waimai Limestone Member. This stratigraphic interval ishighly condensed and accumulated at outer-shelf to upperbathyal depths. The low sedimentation rates reflect drowningof the carbonate shelf and the distance of the northernarea from any sources of carbonate or terrigenous sediment.To the south, Patikirau Siltstone Member grades into HauturuSandstone Member and southeastward into Kihi SandstoneMember.

In southern parts of the basin, the Hauturu SandstoneMember grades upward into heavily bioturbated, variably cal-careous, muddy sandstone lithofacies of the Kihi SandstoneMember. This indicates basinwide deepening, albeit that thiswas more significant in the north and migrated toward thesouth. The retrogradation that led to finer-grained and deeper-water facies of the Kihi Sandstone Member (mid- to outer-shelf)supplanting accumulation of Hauturu Sandstone Member (shore-face to inner-shelf) is best evident in the vicinity of Waitomoand Honikiwi, to the north of Piopio High (Fig. 6H). In theseareas the uppermost part of Kihi Sandstone Member comprisesfossiliferous glauconitic sandstone (Nelson 1973, 1978).

Map 9: Late Oligocene (lower Duntroonian) Sub-Castle CraigSubgroup unconformity

An erosional unconformity is developed at the base of theCastle Craig Subgroup between Aotea Formation and OrahiriFormation west of Herangi High between Awakino andAwamarino and in some areas to the north (Waitomo–Honikiwi)(Fig. 6I). In the vicinity of the Awakino Tunnel the unconform-ity is a scoured erosion surface overlain by a pebble bandincluding basement clasts and bored calcareous lithoclasts(Nelson et al. 1994). To the northeast (Mangaotaki Bridge sec-tion near column H in Fig. 2) the unconformity is a sharp wave-planed surface. In the vicinity of Awamarino, erosion at thisunconformity has removed all the Aotea Formation and OrahiriFormation rests upon Glen Massey Formation (column G inFig. 2). Farther north in the Aotea–Kawhia area the contactbetween the Aotea Formation and overlying Orahiri Formationappears to be gradational. Uplift associated with this uncon-formity is related to reverse displacement on the ManganuiFault and tilting of the basement to the east that underlies thearea of unconformity development (Tripathi & Kamp 2008).

In the northern part of the basin, a correlative conformitymarks the contact between the Aotea Formation and Te AkateaFormation. It is a paraconformity characterised by an intenselyburrowed glauconitic and phosphatic zone some 30–50 cmthick. The nature of this contact indicates that regional subsid-ence occurred in the northern part of the basin while uplift,erosion and subsequent wave planation occurred in the southernregion of the basin.

Map 10: Late Oligocene (Duntroonian) lower part of CastleCraig Subgroup

Following inversion in the southern part of the basin, subsid-ence resumed and following coastal onlap led to accumulationof the lower part of the Castle Craig Subgroup (Fig. 6J). Thepaleogeographic conditions that had introduced the quartzo-feldspathic sand (Hauturu Sandstone Member) to the basinduring accumulation of the Aotea Formation had clearly chan-ged, shutting off this sediment supply. This was a substantialfactor that enabled extensive carbonate production along arocky shoreline along the eastern margin of Herangi High. The


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carbonate sediment produced along the shoreline and inner-shelf was remobilised during storms to form an extensivecarbonate shelf in a tidal seaway east of Herangi High. Terri-genous sand mixed with the carbonate components formed theMangaotaki Limestone Member, some of the sand derived fromerosion of the Hauturu Sandstone. This seaway experiencedstrong tidal currents, which together with storm waves, wereimportant mechanisms for fragmenting and dispersing thebioclasts dominated by bryozoan, benthic foraminiferal and ech-inoid material (Nelson 1973, 1978; Anastas et al. 1997). Theoverlying Te Anga Limestone Member includes beds of largeoysters amongst pebbly, micritic, bryozoan–bivalve–benthicforaminiferal limestone (Nelson 1973; Nelson et al. 1983).

In the northern part of the basin the rate of subsidenceexceeded the rate of sediment accumulation, which led to aramp profile developing instead of a shelf–slope break betweenthe area south and north of Kawhia Harbour. Orahiri Formationaccumulated at shelf depths south of Kawhia Harbour, whereascrudely bedded marl (Carter Siltstone Member) accumulated atupper bathyal depths to the north. Raglan Limestone Member,which reaches maximum thickness of about 18 m aroundRaglan Harbour, forms a transitional interbedded micritic lime-stone and marl facies between the shelf and upper bathyal partsof the ramp (Fig. 6J). The marl facies are comprised of twocomponents: the breakup of skeletal material by variousphysical and biological processes on the shelf region in thesouth, and planktic foraminifera. Paleocurrent directions inOrahiri Formation (Anastas et al. 1997) indicate a northwardsediment transport direction in support of the interpretation of anorthward paleoslope.

The Tikorangi Formation accumulated in Taranaki Basin onthe slope immediately west of the Taranaki Fault. It comprisesmixed carbonate and siliciclastic sediment, the carbonate com-ponents having formed on a narrow west-facing shelf atop theHerangi High (Hood et al. 2003, 2004).

Map 11: Late Oligocene to earliest Miocene (Waitakian) upperpart of Castle Craig Subgroup

Otorohanga Limestone accumulated at shelf depths during theWaitakian in the southern part of the basin, with progradation ofthe carbonate sand eastward across northern parts of the PiopioHigh and to the east of Te Kuiti (Fig. 6K). Throughout thelower Waitakian there was continuing uplift of the HerangiHigh giving rise to unconformities with limited extent betweenthe Orahiri Formation and Otorohanga Limestone and betweenmembers of the Otorohanga Limestone. For example, the marine-cemented micritic oyster-bearing top of the Te Anga LimestoneMember (Orahiri Formation) is truncated by an irregular surfaceveneered by iron-stained basement and/or limestone clasts, andoverlain by well-flagged Otorohanga Limestone (Nelson 1978;Nelson & James 2000). These unconformities are related toreverse displacement on the Manganui Fault, tilting of basementeast of the fault and minor inversion of the basin margin(Tripathi & Kamp 2008).

In the northern part of the basin the sea floor lay at upperbathyal depths and calcareous siltstone accumulated (CarterSiltstone Member). The extent of the Otorohanga Limestone ismore limited than the limestone within the Orahiri Formation,despite eastward progradation of limestone facies in the south.The uppermost part of the Otorohanga Limestone in the Aotea–Kawhia Harbour area transitions from limestone to fossiliferoussilty sandstone, which is age equivalent with the Carter SiltstoneMember, signalling retrogradation of the depositional system tothe south. The Tikorangi Formation continued to accumulateduring the Waitakian in Taranaki Basin on the continental slopewest of the Taranaki Fault.

Map 12: Early Miocene (uppermost Waitakian) extent ofsub-Waitemata–Mahoenui Group unconformity

During the mid-Waitakian there were substantial changes in thepaleogeography of the basin due to tectonic movements(Fig. 6L). The northern part of the basin was inverted witherosion of parts, and in some areas all, of the Te Kuiti Group(Kear 1963; Kear & Schofield 1978). The Waitemata Grouprests on progressively older Te Kuiti Group formations in anortheastward direction, with deposition on basement in theHunua Range where the Te Kuiti Group was completely eroded.Figure 6L shows how uplift in the Waitakan was focused to thenortheast. Erosion of the Te Kuiti Group was least marked alongthe present (western) coastline. This basin inversion carriedthe Carter Siltstone Member from upper bathyal depths into thezone of wave erosion, leading to its planar truncation. Theamount of erosion of Carter Siltstone in the coastal sections isdifficult to estimate, but probably only involved 10 m or so.

In contrast to uplift in the north, except in sections close tothe Herangi High, the southern part of the basin subsided dra-matically during the mid-Waitakian, leading to accumulation ofthe Mahoenui Group, which is dominated by bathyal terrigenoussiltstone (Taumatamaire Formation) (Nelson & Hume 1977).This subsidence, and especially the introduction of the rapidlydeposited siltstone, terminated accumulation of the OtorohangaLimestone. The Piopio High, which was already subsiding priorto the start of Mahoenui Group deposition, was almost com-pletely overtopped by the end of the Waitakian. A shorelineexisted along the eastern margin of the Herangi High whereshelfal silty sandstone of the Taumatamaire Formation accumu-lated (Kamp et al. 2002, 2004).

Map 13: Early Miocene (uppermost Waitakian to Otaian)basal Waitemata Group and Mahoenui Group

Following the uppermost Waitakian uplift and erosion of the TeKuiti Group in the northern part of the Waikato–King CountryBasin, this area subsided to form the southern part of a newbasin known as Waitemata Basin, which is best known in theAuckland region (e.g. Edbrooke 2001). The basal sediments ofWaitemata Basin between Port Waikato and Raglan appear to beof uppermost Waitakian or Otaian age (Hornibrook & Schofield

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1963; Hayward & Brook 1984), so the prior inversion anderosion phase was short-lived. The lowermost sediments in theWaitemata Group comprise different lithologies in each of thecoastal sections, reflecting diversified basal facies includingthe Papakura Limestone Member (Fig. 6M) (Hayward & Brook1984). It may be that sedimentation at the base of the WaitemataGroup started in the west and onlapped eastward, but there arevirtually no constraints on this pattern, which is inferred inFig. 6M. Within a few tens of metres of the lower contact, thesedimentary environment deepened to bathyal conditions inwhich the Gibson Siltstone (Waitemata Group) accumulated.

In the southern part of the basin, the Mahoenui Groupaccumulated conformably upon Otorohanga Limestone at bath-yal depths. However, in the vicinity of Awakino Gorge, Tauma-tamaire Formation (Mahoenui Group) unconformably overliesthe Te Kuiti Group indicating onlap of the Herangi High, whichwas being uplifted by reverse movement on the Manganui Fault(Kamp et al. 2002). At two levels, the Awakino Limestoneand Black Creek Limestone members (Happy 1971; Cochrane1988), which accumulated as carbonate shelf facies east of theHerangi High, are intercalated with Taumatamaire Formationmudstone, possibly as a result of cyclic sea-level changes. Nar-row parts of the Herangi High persisted through the uppermostWaitakian as a basement high (Fig. 6M), but any previous highto the east became completely submerged during the OtaianStage.

Along the eastern margin of Taranaki Basin, the TikorangiFormation is overlain by bathyal Taimana Formation, compris-ing calcareous siltstone or marl with varying proportions of finesandstone and thin limestone. Taimana Formation is a correlat-ive of the Mahoenui Group but it has a higher carbonate content,reflecting its accumulation at locations more distant from themain sources of terrigenous sediment.

Discussion

Stratigraphic analysis of the Te Kuiti Group shows that it has aretrogradational stacking pattern, resulting from long-term(second or third order) subsidence of its basin in unison withsubsidence of the rest of the New Zealand platform during theLate Paleogene (e.g. King et al. 1999). Although there wasemergence of parts of the basin at the end of accumulation ofeach of the six sequences (Fig. 5), by the end of the long-termphase of submergence in the uppermost Waitakian there wereonly small areas of land remaining in the parts of the basininvestigated here (Fig. 1). South and east of this area, the TeKuiti Group has a patchy distribution beneath the MahoenuiGroup (Hay 1967; Edbrooke 2005) and it can reasonably beinferred that there was more extensive land in southern parts ofKing Country during the Late Oligocene–Early Miocene (Cart-wright 2003). Land must have existed to source the terrigenoussiltstone in the Mahoenui Group, and recent work indicates thata fold–thrust belt formed along the eastern margin of TaranakiBasin from 29 Ma (Upper Whaingaroan) (Kamp et al. 2012),which likely built topography.

The Late Eocene start of submergence of the Waikato–KingCountry Basin, and indeed the wider New Zealand platform,was due to the development of a continental rift system throughNew Zealand from c. 40 Ma (Kamp 1986a; Furlong & Kamp2013). This rift system was caused by the eastward propagationof the Southeast Indian Ocean spreading ridge into the SouthTasman Sea, forming new sea floor in Emerald Basin west ofCampbell Plateau (Kamp 1986b; Cande & Stock 2004; Hayeset al. 2009). Continental rifting through the New Zealand plat-form led to pervasive thinning of the lithosphere, isostaticsubsidence and hence marine inundation over much, but evi-dently not all, of the platform. From c. 29 Ma, crustal shorteningstarted along the eastern margin of Taranaki Basin building aneastern Taranaki fold–thrust belt (Kamp et al. 2012).

Paleogeographic maps 6–13 (Fig. 6F–6M) consistentlyshow the mobility of the Herangi High concurrent with sedi-mentation in the basin to the east. Tripathi & Kamp (2008)proposed a model in which the Herangi High lies at the northernend of the eastern Taranaki fold–thrust belt, which to the southwould include the Patea–Tongaporutu High. This belt resultedfrom crustal shortening as described above, which includeddisplacement on the Taranaki Fault from c. 29 Ma (Fig. 6F) andformation of the Manganui Fault at c. 27 Ma (Fig. 6I). Upliftand tilting of the basement block east of the Manganui Fault,concurrent with coastal onlap across part of it, is well docu-mented (Cochrane 1988; Nelson et al. 1994; Kamp et al. 2002),reflecting development of the leading edge of the piggy-backbasin in which Mahoenui Group accumulated during the EarlyMiocene (Otaian). At this time, there may have been 1200 m ofreverse displacement on the Manganui Fault, which maintainedtopography along the part of the block immediately east of thefault. Hence, the evidence from the Te Kuiti Group in theWaikato–King Country Basin indicates that New Zealand wasnot totally submerged during the Late Oligocene and EarlyMiocene and refugia were available for terrestrial flora andfauna habitation.

Summary

A time series of 13 paleogeographic maps has been interpretedfor the Waikato–King Country Basin based on a revised lithos-tratigraphy and chronostratigraphy of the Late Eocene to earliestMiocene Te Kuiti Group, a temperate-latitude mixed carbonate–terrigenous shelf to upper bathyal succession. The chronostrati-graphy is based mainly on planktic foraminiferal bio-events andthe distribution of unconformities between formations and theircorrelative conformities. This approach has identified six mixedcarbonate–siliciclastic or pure carbonate unconformity-bounddepositional sequences (TK1–TK6) of third- or fourth-orderscale that can be correlated throughout the basin. Depositionalpalaeoenvironments within the six sequences and their com-ponent systems tracts have been established from the applica-tion of facies analysis.

The Late Eocene (Kaiatan) to Early Oligocene (Lower–Upper Whaingaroan) part of Te Kuiti Group comprises three


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sequences (TK 1, Waikato Coal Measures; TK2, Glen MasseyFormation; and TK3, Whaingaroa Formation) that accumulatedin non-marine to shelf paleoenvironments, in which each se-quence successively oversteps to a higher level onto basementto the west and south, progressively enlarging the marine extentof the basin. During the mid-Oligocene (Upper Whaingaroan),at c. 29 Ma, crustal shortening started at the latitude of thebasin, which was expressed as basement block overthrustinginto the eastern margin of Taranaki Basin on the Taranaki Fault.At that time, the whole of the western margin of the Waikato–King Country Basin was inverted, resulting in widespreaderosion that removed much of TK3. Accumulation of TK4(Aotea Formation) during the Late Oligocene (Upper Whain-garoan) was marked by a basinward step in the position ofcoastal onlap, wave planation of underlying formations, andaccumulation of diversified carbonate and siliciclastic faciesacross the basin. At this time, the northern part of the basinsubsided to upper bathyal depths, while a shelf environmentpersisted in the south. The Manganui Fault initiated as a reversefault at c. 27 Ma causing uplift and tilting along the southwestmargin of the basin, which led to marked unconformity devel-opment between TK4 and TK5 (Late Oligocene (Duntroonian)Orahiri Formation). Carbonate sedimentation became wide-spread during TK5 and TK6 (Late Oligocene–earliest Miocene(Waitakian) Otorohanga Limestone) with a ramp formingbetween the epeiric shelf sea in the south to upper bathyaldepths north of Raglan where marl accumulated. Displacementscontinued on the Taranaki and Manganui Faults during the LateOligocene and into the Early Miocene, with uplift of basementon the tilted block east of the Manganui Fault ensuring thatsome land persisted above sea level.

Supplementary file

Supplementary file 1: Paleogeographic map set comprising 13maps (A–M) showing development of the Waikato–King Coun-try Basin during the Late Eocene to earliest Miocene. Key forall maps also given (N).

AcknowledgementsWe thank the many land owners in Waikato and King Country forprovision of access to their properties. We acknowledge the Geos-ciences Society of New Zealand and GNS Science for helpful access tothe Fossil Record Electronic Database. We thank Betty-Ann Kamp forcartographic assistance, and Steve Edbrooke and an anonymous journalreviewer for their helpful assistance. This work was supported by theNew Zealand Ministry for Business, Innovation and Employment[UOWX0902].

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stratified calcaerenites from New Zealand: subacqueous dunes in acool-water, Oligo-Miocene seaway. Sedimentology 44: 869–891.

Barrett PJ 1962. The Te Kuiti Group in the Waitomo-Te Anga area.Unpublished MSc thesis. Auckland, New Zealand, University ofAuckland.

Barrett PJ 1967. Te Kuiti Group in the Waitomo-Te Anga area. NewZealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics 10: 1009–1026.

Briggs RM 1983. Distribution, form, and structural control of theAlexandraVolcanicGroup,North Island,NewZealand.NewZealandJournal of Geology and Geophysics 26: 47–55.

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paleogeography of late eocene to earliest miocene te kuiti group, central-western north island, new...

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