palaeogeography, palaeoclimatology, palaeoecologysearg.rhul.ac.uk/pubs/wilson_2008 equatorial...

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology

j ourna l homepage: www.e lsev ie r.com/ locate /pa laeo

Global and regional influences on equatorial shallow-marine carbonates duringthe Cenozoic

Moyra E.J. Wilson ⁎Department of Applied Geology, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia

⁎ Tel.: +61 8 9266 2456.E-mail address: [email protected].

0031-0182/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. Aldoi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.05.012

A B S T R A C T
A R T I C L E I N F O
Article history:
The SE Asian carbonate reco Received 24 January 2008Received in revised form 18 May 2008Accepted 26 May 2008
Keywords:Coral reefClimate changeNutrientsCO2TectonicsOceanographyCenozoicCarbonate platform

rd allows insight into the poorly known response of equatorial marine systems toregional and global change during the Cenozoic. There is a marked change from larger benthic foraminiferato corals as dominant shallow-marine carbonate producers in SE Asia around the Oligo-Miocene boundary.The Early Miocene acme of coral development in SE Asia lags Oligocene coral development in the Caribbeanand Mediterranean, despite local tectonics providing apparently suitable habitable areas. Regional and globalcontrols, including changing CO2, oceanography, nutrient input and precipitation patterns are inferred to bethe main cause of this lag in equatorial reefs. It is inferred that moderate, although falling level of CO2, Ca2+

and Ca\Mg when combined with the reduced salinities in humid equatorial waters all contributed to reducedaragonite saturation hindering reefal development compared with warm more arid regions during theOligocene. By the Early Miocene, atmospheric CO2 levels had fallen to pre-industrial levels. Although this wasa relative arid phase globally, in SE Asia palynological evidence indicates that the Early Miocene experiencedeverwet, but more stable and less seasonal conditions than periods before or after. Tectonic convergencetruncated deep throughflow of cool nutrient-rich currents from the Pacific to Indian Ocean around thebeginning of the Miocene, thereby directly, and perhaps indirectly (though less seasonal conditions) reducingnutrients. It is inferred that aragonitic reefs were promoted where previously the waters had been moreacidic, more mesotrophic, more turbid, and less aragonite saturated. Extensive reefal development resulted inan order of magnitude expansion of shallow-carbonate areas through buildup and pinnacle reef formation inthe Early Miocene. Tectonics via increased habitat partitioning and reducing distances to other coral-richregions may also have contributed to enhanced reefal development. Declining reefal importance at the end ofthe Early Miocene resulted from uplift of land areas, enhanced oceanic ventilation, through thermohalinecirculation and narrowing of oceanic gateways as well as increased seasonal runoff, at least in SE Asiathrough initiation\intensification of the monsoons. Implications of this study are that with currentanthropogenically-induced environmental changes it will be the diverse reefs of SE Asia that are likely to beamongst the first and hardest hit as oceanic aragonite saturation decreases and terrestrial nutrient runoffincreases.

© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

The response of equatorial marine systems remains poorly knownto long-term global change spanning the Cenozoic. This is despiterecent realisation that equatorial regions have not remained staticduring global climatic shifts (Pearson et al., 2001), and that as well asbeing participants tropical oceans may be dominant drivers of climatechange (Kerr, 2001). Shallow-marine carbonates are known to behighly responsive to changing environmental conditions. The hypoth-esis here is that by evaluating spatiotemporal changes in equatorial

l rights reserved.

carbonates it should be possible to infer main controls on shallow-marine systems, and whether any trends are consistent with theoriesof how the tropics respond to global change. Major global trends in theCenozoic include the transition from greenhouse to icehouse condi-tions (Zachos et al., 2001), radical variations in atmospheric CO2 levels(Pearson and Palmer, 2000; Pagani et al, 2005), the development ofthe monsoons (Jia et al., 2003), and the evolution of modern reefs(Perrin, 2002). Additionally plate tectonic reorganization, eustasy,oceanography and trophic resources are all involved in environmentalfeedback loops, strongly influencing marine systems (Perrin, 2002;Halfar and Mutti, 2005). SE Asia has the most extensive and completerecord of equatorial carbonates spanning the last 50 My: the Eocene-Recent (Fulthorpe and Schlanger,1989;Wilson, 2002). The aims of thiswork are: 1) to present new data on spatiotemporal changes inCenozoic SE Asian carbonates, 2) to evaluate factors controlling

mailto:[email protected]

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.05.012

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/00310182

Fig. 1. Carbonate biofacies plotted onto simplified plate tectonic and palaeogeographic time slices of Hall (1996, 2002; after Wilson and Rosen, 1998). Time slices shown are a) LateEocene, b) Early Oligocene, c) Late Oligocene, d) Early Miocene, e) Middle Miocene, f) Late Miocene, and g) Present day. S=Setting, C=Coral.

1 Terminology defined in Wilson and Rosen (1998): 1) z-coral: species is still livingand known to be zooxanthellate, 2) z-like coral: species is extinct, but a) belongs to agenus whose living species are all z-corals and/or b) has skeletal characteristics foundonly in living z-corals (mainly stable isotopes, morphology); 3) z-like coral?: Species isextinct but a) occurs in warm, shallow carbonate facies and/or b) lacks skeletalcharacteristics consistently found in living z-corals and/or c) there is doubt aboutapplicability of other stronger lines of evidence (1 and 2 above).

263M.E.J. Wilson / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274

regional carbonate development, and 3) to assess if, and how theequatorial marine systems may be responding to regional and globalchange.

2. Methodology and data

The location, age, and components of all SE Asian carbonateformations analyzed by Wilson (2002) are plotted onto plate tectonicand palaeogeographic time-slices reconstructions (Fig. 1a–g andAppendix A, Hall, 1996, 2002; Wilson and Rosen, 1998). To determinelong-term trends the selected time slices fall within the majorsubdivisions of the Cenozoic and away from environmental short-term perturbations at epoch boundaries (Zachos et al., 2001).Although the reconstructions of Hall (1996, 2002) were used, plottingthe carbonates onto plate tectonic reconstructions by other workers(Rangin et al., 1990, Daly et al., 1991; Lee and Lawver, 1995) wouldyield a similar picture of spatial and temporal carbonate development.

Warm-water, light-dependent biota predominated in all shallow-water limestones. Using only limestones (250 out of 299 formations)dominated by these components eliminated any variations due todepths below the photic zone, major eutrophication, or temperaturesbelow an annual average of 16 °C. The shallow-water limestones weresubdivided into three biofacies (Fig. 1 and Appendix A). These aredominated by: 1) aragonitic corals (and sometimes Halimeda),2) diverse calcitic larger benthic foraminifera (and sometimes coral-line algae, including rhodoliths), and 3) mixed biofacies containing

abundant corals and larger benthic foraminifera. Deposits reported ascoral-rich in the literature, or reefal with corals (with few largerbenthic foraminifera described), were plotted as dominated by corals.Zooxanthellae are not preserved in fossil corals. However, wheredescribed the solitary and colonial corals from all ages in SE Asia arealmost all z-corals, z-like or z-like?1 (Adams et al., 1990; Wilson andRosen, 1998), rather than azooxanthellate. Larger benthic foraminiferaare biostratigraphic indicators in SE Asia and their occurrence andabundance are often qualitatively recorded. Appendix A tabulates forthe first time the areas and biofacies types for each shallow-carbonateformation from the literature and geological maps. Where possible,entries (15% out of the 250 shallow formations) were validated by theauthor's independent field, sample and/or petrographic analysis toquantify biofacies types for each formation (Appendix A). The resultsof this independent biofacies analysis did not differ significantly fromthe published literature.

New data collected on temporal changes in the areas of carbonatebiofacies, numbers of extensive platforms versus localized shoals orbuildups are plotted against regional and global events to evaluate

Fig. 1 (continued).

264 M.E.J. Wilson / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 265 (2008) 262–274

possible main factors influencing equatorial carbonate development(Figs. 2 and 3). Shoals/buildups are defined as being less than ∼20 kmacross. The carbonates of SE Asia, particularly surface outcropswithout hydrocarbon potential, remain understudied. The biofaciesof only around 10% of the carbonate formations tabulated by Wilson(2002) have been documented in detail. There is little regionalsystematic data on the evolution and extinction of corals or thediversity of reefal deposits (Wilson and Rosen, 1998). Geochemicaldata such as O or C isotopes are sparse since Pre-Quaternary aragoniticcomponents have been altered, and the abundant tests of calcitic largerbenthic foraminifera may not be in equilibriumwith seawater. Futurestudy on these topics would to help elucidate short-term changes, butdespite limitations long-term trends are apparent (Fig. 2). Mostdeposits have been dated through their larger benthic foraminifera(using the East India Letter Classification; Adams, 1970), and/ormicrofossils if present. More workers are beginning to use strontiumisotope dating for Oligo-Miocene sections (Lunt and Allan, 2004).Although the detailed dates of individual formations may change withfurther dating, on the basis of recent redating it is unlikely that theoverall general trends will change significantly.

3. Results: patterns and trends

Long-term trends (Figs. 1, 2 and 3) are: 1) Shallow, warm-watercarbonates are present in SE Asia throughout the Eocene-Recent and∼10% are mixed biofacies in most periods. 2) Biofacies dominated bylarger benthic foraminifera are present throughout the Cenozoic, and

although corals are known from the Eocene, coral-dominated systemsare not reported until the Late Oligocene. 3) A change in the dominantbiota from larger benthic foraminifera to corals around the Oligo-Miocene boundary. 4) A minor gradual increase in the area of carbonateproduction from the late Eocene through the Oligocene, a markedincrease around the Oligo-Miocene boundary, followed by a decline tothe present. 5) A minor gradual increase then decrease in the number oflarge-scale platforms through the Cenozoic, whereas there is over anorder of magnitude increase in the number of buildups and shoalsaround theOligo-Mioceneboundary followedbyadecline to thepresent.

SE Asia has a complex tectonic evolution during the Cenozoic, beingthe site of convergence of the Indo-Australian and Philippine-PacificPlates with the stable Sundaland (Asian)mainland, all interacting withmany smaller microcontinental and oceanic fragments (Hall, 1996,2002). The tectonostratigraphic context was studied to help evaluatepossible regional or global influences on carbonate trends.

Paleocene and Early Eocene carbonates are rare in SE Asia. By theLate Eocene extensive carbonate platforms were common on micro-continental blocks in eastern SE Asia or along the margins of newlyformed marine extensional basins bordering eastern Sundaland (vandeWeerd and Armin, 1992; Wilson et al., 2000; Wilson, 2002). Duringthe Late Eocene and Early Oligocene extensive platforms formed inNew Guinea (Leamon and Parsons, 1986; Brash et al., 1991), as theAustralian craton and associated microcontinental blocks driftednorthwards, and also along the margins of the developing extensionalS China Sea Basin (Adams, 1965; Holloway, 1982; Hinz and Schlüter,1985). These Paleogene carbonates are dominated by diverse larger

Fig. 1 (continued).


benthic foraminifera and less commonly coralline algae (Adams, 1965;Brash et al., 1991; Wilson et al., 2000; Wilson, 2002). The larger benthicforaminifera are mostly perforate forms, and were variously adapted tooccupy the full range of habitats within the photic zone. Carbonates werenot extensive in western SE Asia as a consequence of a major land areaextending from mainland Asia, through Sumatra and Borneo during thePaleogene (Wilson, 2002). Localized, and often transient, carbonates onlyaccumulated on the narrow shelves when clastic input was insufficient tohinder production resulting mainly in mixed biofacies (Wilson, 2002).During theEoceneandmostof theOligocenecorals are rare,with solitaryorisolated colonial forms present in shallow and sometimes muddy coastaldeposits, such as those documented in the Tonasa and Tampur Limestones(de Smet, 1992; Wilson and Rosen, 1998; Wilson, 1999). Patch reefs, reefalbuildups or reef rimmedmargins only start to be reported from in the laterpart of the Oligocene (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989; Wilson and Rosen,1998). These develop in the marine backarc basins of Java and Sumatra(Sharaf et al., 2005), along the subsiding margins of the Sundaland craton,close to emerging islands in the Philippines (Porth et al.1989), and possiblyin New Guinea (Brash et al., 1991).

There was a marked increase in the extent of carbonates, and achange from larger foraminifera to coral dominance around the Oligo-Miocene boundary (Fig. 2). Corals were widespread, abundant anddiverse throughout the region during the Neogene. Many moderngenera or species and all the growth forms typical of themodern Indo-West Pacific are present in these Miocene reefs (Wilson and Rosen,1998). The accompanying biota is also closely comparable with

modern reefs, with diverse benthic foraminifera, echinoderms,molluscs, coralline algae and Halimeda. During the Early Miocenereefal carbonates, with buildups and pinnacle reefs, were common inall the marine basins bordering mainland SE Asia (Fulthorpe andSchlanger, 1989; Grötsch and Mercadier, 1999; Wicaksono et al., 1995;White et al., 2007). To the east, reefal production occurred onmicrocontinental blocks, despite some collision-related uplift (Hall,2002). The Early Miocene was a major phase of carbonate depositionboth in SE Asia and throughout much of the tropics and subtropics,with reef corals occurring in higher latitudes than today (Fulthorpeand Schlanger, 1989). During the mid-Miocene, the area of carbonatedeposition, though still extensive and diverse, had been reduced, dueto the emergence of land areas, resulting in part from microconti-nental collisions (Hall, 1996) and the associated shedding of clastics.This trend of reduced areal extent of high diversity carbonatescontinues to the present day. Neogene foraminifera-dominated andmixed biofacies are generally in coastal areas receiving terrestrialrunoff, in areas of upwelling associated with oceanic currents, orperforate foraminifera dominate over corals in deeper photic areas(Wilson and Vecsei, 2005).

4. Discussion: controls on equatorial carbonates

Possible controlling influences must be consistent with the maintrends inequatorial carbonates and theirexceptionsasoutlinedabove. Thepaucity of corals in most Paleogene deposits also needs explanation,

Fig. 1 (continued).


particularly during the Oligocene when corals and reefs are common inother tropical areas such as theCaribbean andMediterranean (Wilson andRosen, 1998; Edinger and Risk, 1994; Budd, 2000; Perrin, 2002).

4.1. Tectonics and biogeography

Regional tectonics via plate tectonic movement, extensional basinformation and uplift was the dominant control on the location ofcarbonates during the Cenozoic in SE Asia (Wilson and Hall, submittedfor publication). These processes controlled movement into the tropics,emergence and disappearance of shallow-marine areas. Locally, thecreation of faulted highs, volcanic edifices, microcontinental blocks, andbasins trapping siliciclastics influenced the location of carbonateinitiation. The extent of large-scale platforms, increasing slightly intotheMiocene thendecreasing (Fig. 2), is related to the tectonic formation,drift, and subsequent subaerial exposure through tectonic uplift of large-scale, shallow-water areas. Although there was widespread subsidenceof basins around the Oligo-Miocene boundary, local tectonics cannot bethe cause of themajor change in biota around this time. A biogeographiccause may help explain the paucity of corals during the Paleogene in SEAsia, since the tectonic context resulted in geographical isolation fromother coral-rich areas (Wilson and Rosen, 1998). However, additionalenvironmental factors are inferred since corals were present in thePaleogene, but other than locally did not becomedominant contributorsuntil around the Oligo-Miocene boundary.

4.2. Eustasy

There is no positive correlation between the area of SE Asiancarbonates and periods of global highstands or late transgressivephases on the scale of the Cenozoic, as might be predicted fromsequence stratigraphic principles. Eustasy was therefore not thedominant control on the regional extent of carbonates. As anexception, a period of eustatic high, together with subsidence ofmany basins during the Early Miocene may have partially influencedthe areal extent of carbonates (Greenlee and Lehmann,1993), but doesnot explain the change in biota. Glacio-eustatic fluctuations of sealevel are a major feature of the Neogene. Corals may have beenpromoted at this time because they are able to ‘keep-up’ with therapid rises, and because suitable lithified substrates for colonizationwere provided via meteoric cementation from repeated subaerialexposure. However, corals are also capable of colonizing shells orpebbles in soft substrates. Also this ‘fluctuations’ hypothesis cannotexplain why corals are common in other tropical regions outside SEAsia during much of the Oligocene. Smaller-scale buildups or shoalsare mainly of Neogene age in SE Asia, and the increase in areal extentof carbonates in the Early Miocene was only possible through theirdevelopment (Figs. 2 and 3). Whatever the cause, the change to coraldominance would have enhanced the potential for buildup formationthrough framework development and faster accumulation rates thanthe larger benthic foraminifera (Fig. 3; Wilson, 2002).

Fig. 1 (continued).


4.3. Temperatures

The high temperatures of the early Paleogene (Pearson et al., 2001)may have inhibited corals in the equatorial tropics, through processessuch as coral bleaching (Sheppard, 2003; Scheibner et al, 2005). Largerbenthic foraminifera are much less susceptible to symbiont expulsiondue to increased temperature (Hallock, 2000). However, coralcommunities can become acclimatized to higher temperatures(Hallock, 2005). The SE Asian data does not support temperaturebeing the prime limiting factor since corals are often present in veryshallow, near coastal deposits during the Paleogene where seawatertemperatures would have been at a maximum. Rises of ∼4–6 °C(Zachos et al., 2001) in deep-sea and low latitude surface tempera-tures around the Paleocene Eocene Thermal Maximum are inferred tohave hindered coral growth (Scheibner et al., 2005). However, by thelate Eocene (when the main Cenozoic SE Asian carbonates recordbegins) sea surface temperatures (SST) in low latitudes were b2–4 °Chigher than today. SE Asia has probably always been a region ofdepressed SST due to oceanic throughflow (Kuhnt et al., 2004) andpast temperatures of up to 34 °C (today 26–30 °C; Gordon et al., 2003)are unlikely to have hindered corals. A warm phase may have allowedthe expansion of reefal corals during the Early Miocene into muchhigher latitudes than today (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989). This wasfollowed by global cooling in the Middle Miocene perhaps related toorganic-carbon-rich deposition, resulting in drawdown of atmo-spheric CO2 and East Antarctic ice-sheet growth (the ‘Monterey

Hypothesis’; Vincent and Berger, 1985; Flower and Kennett, 1993;1994). Pomar and Hallock (2007) speculated that during the EarlyMiocene high summer temperatures and exposure to full sunlight viaclear skies in the Mediterranean may have caused loss of symbionts inshallow-water corals, resulting in few reefs building to sea level.Available data from SE Asia suggests that corals reefs built to sea levelthroughout the Neogene. If elevated temperatures were an issue inother regions, the presence of an active oceanic gateway and thecommonly cloudy skies in SE Asia may have maintained temperaturesbelow the threshold for symbiont expulsion.

4.4. Ocean/atmosphere interactions

High CO2 levels and/or low Mg/Ca ratios in the early Paleogene mayhave both hindered the recovery of aragonitic corals following the endCretaceous extinction event. Aragonite saturation in surface watersdecreases as both pCO2 and Ca/Mg increase, and under these conditionscalcitic organisms are promoted (Stanley and Hardie, 1998; Kleypaset al., 1999; Hallock, 2005). Fine and Tchernov (2007) have shown thataragonitic corals decalcify when seawater pH is reduced whereincreased oceanic acidification is related to elevated CO2. Totaldecalcification occurredwhenpH valueswere reduced from8.3 (today'svalue) to 7.4 (postulated to occur within the next 300 years). During theEocene, pCO2 values varied around 1000–2000 ppm (Pagani et al., 2005;Fig. 2) with a likely associated reduction of 0.3 to 0.5 of a pH value(Caldeira andWickett, 2003). The global predominance of calcitic larger

Fig. 1 (continued).


benthic foraminifera and coralline algae over aragonitic corals andcalcareous green algae in shallow waters during the Eocene has beenrelated to these elevated CO2 and/or Ca/Mg values (Stanley and Hardie,1998; Hallock, 2005).

Althoughfluctuating, valuesof atmosphericCO2, togetherwithoceanicCa2+ and Ca/Mg ratios were all falling through the Oligocene (Stanley andHardie, 1998; Pagani et al., 2005). Aragonite hypercalcification needed forreef framework formation, is promoted by low atmospheric CO2 levels,Mg/Ca ratios N3, increased temperatures and additionally normal toelevated salinities (Stanley and Hardie, 1998; Kleypas et al., 1999). Due tohigh equatorial runoff the surface waters of SE Asia have significantlyreduced salinities (30–34‰) comparedwith global averages (36‰). This istrue around coasts of everwet islands (such as Borneo), or those with aseasonalmonsoonal climate (suchas Sulawesi or Java;Gordonet al., 2003;Wilson and Vecsei, 2005). Moderate CO2 levels during the Oligocenecombinedwith reduced salinities in SE Asiamay have hindered aragoniticreef formation and promoted calcitic larger foraminifera. Although thediversity of corals may have recovered, their ability to hypercalcify washindered by lowaragonite saturations,meaning that although coralswerepresent reef development was patchy, indicating a geochemical control(anonymous referee, pers. comm.. 2008). In comparison with SE Asia,more arid areas outside the equatorial region, such as the Caribbean andMediterranean, are likely to have had higher aragonite saturations,promoting earlier extensive reef growth (Kleypas et al., 1999, 2001).Simulations of ocean chemistry related topostulated risingCO2 levels overthe next century show that the aragonite saturation in equatorial regions

(and SE Asia in particular) will drop below those suitable for reefdevelopment (Ω-arag N4) significantly earlier than for the Caribbean(Kleypas et al., 1999). Due to reduced salinities, SE Asian waters typicallyshow aragonite saturations of ∼0.5–1 less than those for the Caribbean orRed Sea, translating to ∼10% reduction in calcification rates.

The Indo-West Pacific is the largest coral-reef province and maypartially ‘swamp’ the perceived trend of Cenozoic coral reefs with aglobal acme in the late Oligocene to Early Miocene (Perrin, 2002;Hallock, 2005). Although difficult to make direct comparison due to thelack of diversity data on corals from SE Asia, reefs are abundant anddiverse in the Caribbean and Mediterranean during the late Oligoceneand decline in importance in the Early Miocene (Perrin, 2002; Edingerand Risk, 1994; Budd, 2000; Pomar and Hallock, 2007). Reasons for thisEarly Miocene decline in the Caribbean and Mediterranean includeclosure of the Tethys seaway resulting in a reduced dispersal pool andincreased upwelling, together with increased turbidity and cooling inthe Caribbean (Edinger and Risk, 1994, Budd, 2000; Perrin, 2002). Hightemperatures and exposure to full sunlight may have also limitedshallow reef growth in the Mediterranean (Pomar and Hallock, 2007).

4.5. Nutrification

Factors influencing the distribution of Neogene foraminifera-dominated carbonates are indicative that periods of siliciclastic runoffand/or elevated nutrients causing reduced water clarity associatedwith plankton blooms may also have strongly influenced Cenozoic

Fig. 1 (continued).


carbonate producers (Pomar et al., 2004; Wilson and Vecsei, 2005). SEAsian modern and Miocene perforate foraminifera biofacies arepromoted in areas of terrestrial runoff or upwelling, with an indicationthat nutrients (high oligotrophy to mesotrophy rather than eutrophy)may be influencing Cenozoic development of this biofacies (Renemaand Troelstra, 2001; Wilson and Vecsei, 2005). Corals, whenassociated with terrestrial runoff, may occur as mixed deposits, butare restricted to the shallower parts of the photic zone (Titlyanov andLatypov, 1991; Wilson and Lokier, 2002; Sanders and Baron-Szabo,2005; Hallock, 2005; Wilson, 2005). Although larger benthic for-aminifera and corals are associated with oligotrophic conditions, bothcan switch from dominantly photoautotrophy to increasing hetero-trophic mixotrophy under increasing mesotrophy (Anthony andFabricus, 2000; Mutti and Hallock, 2003). Among larger benthicforaminifera, nummulitids and alveolinids are increasing mixotrophicr-strategists (Scheibner et al., 2005), and both are common in SE Asia.Although excessive nutrients may hinder both corals and largerbenthic foraminifera (Hallock, 2001), it is the reduced water clarityassociated with plankton blooms during nutrient increases that maybe influential in SE Asia (Wilson and Vecsei, 2005, cf. Mutti andHallock, 2003, Hallock, 2005). Many hermatypic corals containdifferent photosynthetic symbionts from perforate larger benthicforaminifera that restrict them to shallower levels in the photic zone(Falkowski et al., 1990; Lee and Anderson, 1991). Larger benthicforaminifera may also have an advantage over corals under meso-trophy because they are shorter lived and canperhaps cope betterwith

a seasonal lack of light than corals (anonymous reviewer, pers. comm.,2008). There is a strong global correlation between increased depth ofabundant coral development with reduced nutrients and increasedwater clarity (Fig. 4). Coral growth in SE Asia is abundant to depths of20 m, where nutrient levels are elevated due to high terrestrial runoffand oceanic upwelling. This compares with abundant coral growth todepths of 100 m in clearer, lower nutrient regions.

It is inferred that nutrient influx to the seas of SE Asia decreased inthe early Miocene related to changes in terrestrial runoff andupwelling, and that this may have promoted reef development.Globally, the Early Miocene is thought to have been a relatively dryperiod with restricted polar glaciation related to reduced precipita-tion, perhaps linked to low greenhouse gas levels (Zachos et al., 2001)and oceanographic change (Dumai et al., 2005). Although early worksuggested that many areas including SE Asia (Morley, 2000) and theMediterranean (Alvarez Sierra et al., 1990; Cabrera et al., 2002) weredrier during the Early Miocene, recent studies reveal a more complexpicture (Morley et al., 2003; Hamer et al., 2007). Palynological dataindicates that areas on the equator including Borneo remainedeverwet during the Cenozoic (Morley, 2000). However, adjacentregions such as Malaysia and Java had everwet climates in the EarlyMiocene, but seasonal climates prior to, and following this interval(Morley, 2000; Morley et al., 2003). In the warm tropics, althoughorganic productivity is high under everwet conditions, runoff is morestable and cumulatively there is less siliciclastic and nutrient runoffthan under seasonal conditions (Cecil and Dulong, 2003; Cecil et al.,

Fig. 2. Carbonate biofacies, numbers of platforms/buildups in SE Asia plotted against regional and global events during the Cenozoic.

270M.E.J.W

ilson/Palaeogeography,Palaeoclim

atology,Palaeoecology265

(2008)262

–274

Fig. 3. Changes in morphology and accumulation rates of SE Asian carbonates during the Cenozoic. On the upper diagram Neogene buildups plot in the field shown, but to aid claritynot all are shown.Maximumvalues for carbonate accumulation rates for formations shown in the lower diagrams are fromWilson et al. (2000), Adams (1965), Cucci and Clark (1993),Saller et al. (1993), Dunn et al. (1996), Park et al. (1992) and Jones and Desrochers (1992).


2003, Milliman, 1997). Paradoxically, a humid but stable climateduring the Early Miocene compared with strongly seasonal ones mayhave resulted in less nutrient input, clearer waters and thereforepromoted reef growth.

Today, SE Asia remains as the only equatorial gateway for majoroceanic throughflow (from the Pacific to the Indian Ocean), withQuaternary changes in the Indonesian Throughflow shown toinfluence global climate (Gordon et al., 2003; Visser et al., 2003).The formation of bathymetric barriers in the Philippines around theOligo-Miocene boundary due to the Australian Plate impacting on thePhilippine Sea Plate restricted the deep to intermediate, nutrient-richpart of this major oceanic throughflow (Kuhnt et al., 2004). It isinferred that this change in trophic resources of decreased nutrientspromoted increased coral development in the EarlyMiocene in SE Asiathrough expansion of the photic zone. A positive feedback mechanismlinking changes to the regional oceanic currents and precipitation

(both reducing nutrient influx) has been suggested (Morley et al.,2003; Morley, 2006). Restricting the deep throughflow reduced theinput of cool deepwaters (Kuhnt et al., 2004). The resultant increase insea surface temperatures would promote evaporation and thedevelopment of humid, but stable conditions (Morley et al., 2003).Independent evidence for changes in nutrient partitioning in theoceans around the Oligo-Miocene boundary come from a positive δ13Cexcursion in the deep oceans (Fig. 2; Zachos et al., 2001), variations inthe δ13C signature from the deep to intermediate waters of the Indiancompared with the Pacific Oceans (Kuhnt et al., 2004), but a paucity oforganic rich rocks of Early Miocene age in SE Asia (Howes, 1997).

Corals continue to be important framework producers during thelater Neogene in SE Asia with diversity perhaps influenced byincreased habitat partitioning due to continued tectonic convergence.Overall however the areal importance of corals diminishes post EarlyMiocene likely due to increased uplift of land areas and increased

Fig. 4. Depth of abundant coral growth (from Schlager, 1992) plotted against satellite-derived chlorophyll a: a nutrient and water clarity proxy (after Halfar et al, 2004). Oligotrophicand mesotrophic fields are delimited according to Hallock (2001).


seasonal runoff/nutrient input due to development or intensification ofthe East AsianMonsoon (Jia et al., 2003). Nutrient upwelling due to globalintensification of oceanic ventilation (Halfar and Mutti, 2005) combinedwith constriction of ocean currents due to continued closure of the Indo-Pacific ‘ocean gateway’ may have also contributed to post Early Miocenereduced extent of corals in SE Asia (Fulthorpe and Schlanger, 1989).

5. Summary

This study highlights that there are strong spatiotemporal differ-ences in the development of shallow-water reefs and carbonates duringthe Cenozoic influenced by both global and regional factors. Althoughcorals and larger benthic foraminifera are present in SEAsian carbonatesthroughout the Cenozoic coral-dominated facies are only apparent fromthe Late Oligocene, and their importance together with the areal extentof carbonates increases markedly around the Oligo-Miocene boundary.Corals would have enhanced the potential for buildup developmentthrough framework development and faster accumulation rates thanlarger benthic foraminifera. The EarlyMioceneacmeof reefal carbonatesin SE Asia lags a Late Oligocene peak in other regions such as theCaribbean and the Mediterranean. Although the areal extent ofcarbonates declines after the Early Miocene in SE Asia, coral-dominatedfacies continue to be important to the present day.

Major factorsmost likely to be linked to these changes are: 1) globalCO2 levels, togetherwith 2) regional oceanographic change, 3) nutrientinflux and 4) precipitation. In SE Asia, as in many other regions, localtectonics provided the template allowing carbonate development. Theinundation of a number of basins by marine waters around the Oligo-Miocene boundary likely contributed to Early Miocene expansion ofcarbonates. However, a marked increase in small-scale buildups andassociated increase in areal extent of carbonates in the Early Miocenein SE Asia was only possible through promoted coral development.Tectonic, eustatic or temperature changes are not dominant controlsinfluencing this biota change, instead global CO2 levels, together withregional oceanographic change, nutrient influx and precipitation areconsidered major factors.

Moderate, although falling levels of CO2, Ca2+ and Ca\Mg whencombined with the reduced salinities in equatorial waters probably allcontributed to reduced aragonite saturation hindering reefal devel-opment compared with warm, more arid regions during theOligocene. It is inferred that aragonitic reefs were promoted by theEarly Miocene in SE Asia where previously the waters had been moreacidic, more mesotrophic, more turbid, and less aragonite saturated.These changes relate to lowatmospheric CO2 levels, greaterwater claritythrough reduced nutrient runoff (year-round everwet precipitation

compared with more seasonal conditions) and reduced nutrient-richupwelling (through tectonic truncation of deep oceanic currents).

With predicted anthropogenically-induced rising CO2 levels andcontinued high, deforestation-linked runoff in equatorial regionswhat does the future hold for SE Asia's reefs? If the Cenozoic record isa good analogue for the future, then this century's postulateddecimation of reefs due to reduced aragonite saturation (Kleypaset al., 1999) together with changes towards mesotrophication willlikely hit themost globally diverse reefs of SE Asia earliest and hardest.

Acknowledgements

Supports from the SE Asia Research Group, UK and its fundingcompanies, together with the Geological Survey of Indonesia areacknowledged. I thank H. Armstrong, D. Bosence, N. Deeks, K. Johnson,R. Hall, S. Lokier, B. Park, W. Renema, B. Rosen and three anonymousreviewers for helpful comments.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, inthe online version, at doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.05.012.

References

Adams, C.G., 1965. The foraminifera and stratigraphy of the Melinau Limestone,Sarawak, and its importance in Tertiary correlation. Quarterly Journal of theGeological Society, London 121, 283–338.

Adams, C.G., 1970. A reconsideration of the East Indian Letter Classification of theTertiary. British Museum of (Natural History). Geology 19, 87–137.

Adams, C.G., Lee, D.E., Rosen, B.R., 1990. Conflicting isotopic and biotic evidence fortropical sea-surface temperatures during the Tertiary. Palaeogeography, Palaeocli-matology, Palaeoecology 77, 289–313.

Alvarez Sierra, M.A., Daams, R., Lacomba, J.I., Lopez-Martinez, N., Van der Meulen, A.J.,Sese, C., de Viser, J., 1990. Paleontology and biostratigraphy (micromammals) of thecontinental Oligocene–Miocene deposits of the north-central Ebro Basin (Huesca,Spain). Scripta Geology 94, 1–77.

Anthony, K.R.N., Fabricius, K.E., 2000. Shifting roles of heterotrophy and autotrophy incoral energy budgets under varying turbidity. Journal of Experimental MarineBiology and Ecology: 252, 221–253.

Budd, A.F., 2000. Diversity and extinction in the Cenozoic history of Caribbean reefs.Coral Reefs 19, 25–35.

Brash, R.A., Henage, L.F., Harahap, B.H., Moffat, D.T., Turner, R.W., 1991. Stratigraphy anddepositional history of the New Guinea Limestone Group, Lengguru, Irian Jaya.Indonesian PetroleumAssociation, Proceedings 20th Annual Convention, pp. 67–84.

Cabrera, L., Cabrera,M., Gorchs, R., de laHeras, F.X.C., 2002. Lacustrine basin dynamics andorganosulphur compoundorigin in a carbonate-rich lacustrine system (LateOligoceneMequinenza Formation, SE Ebro Basin, NE Spain). Sedimentary Geology 148, 289–317.

Caldeira, K., Wickett, M.E., 2003. Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH. Nature 425, 365.Cecil, C.B., Dulong, F.T., 2003. Precipitation models for sediment supply in warm

climates. Climate Controls on Stratigraphy. SEPM Special Publication, 77, pp. 21–27.

http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.05.012


Cecil, C.B., Dulong, F.T., Harris, R.A., Cobb, J.C., Gluskoter, H.G., Nugroho, H., 2003.Observations on climate and sediment discharge in selected tropical rivers, Indonesia.Climate Controls on Stratigraphy. SEPM Special Publication, 77, pp. 29–50.

Cucci, M.A., Clark, M.H., 1993. Sequence stratigraphy of a Miocene Carbonate Buildup,Java Sea. In: Loucks, R.G., Sarg, J.F. (Eds.), Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy, RecentDevelopments and Applications. American Association of Petroleum Geologists,Memoir, vol. 57, pp. 291–303.

Daly, M.C., Cooper, M.A., Wilson, I., Smith, D.G., Hooper, B.G.D., 1991. Cenozoic platetectonics and basin evolution in Indonesia. Marine and Petroleum Geology 8 (1),2–21 (Special Issue: South-east Asia).

de Smet, M.E.M., 1992. A Guide to the Stratigraphy of Sumatra, Part 2: Tertiary. LondonUniversity, Research in SE Asia Internal Report, vol. 108. 79 p.

Dumai, T.J., González-López, J.A., Juez-Larré, J., 2005. Oligo-Miocene age of aridity in theAtacama Desert revealed by exposure dating of erosion-sensitive landforms.Geology 33, 321–324.

Dunn, P.A., Kozar, M.G., Budiyono, 1996. Application of Geoscience technology in ageologic study of the Natuna gas field, Natuna Sea, Offshore Indonesia. IndonesianPetroleum Association, Proceedings 25th Annual Convention 117–130.

Edinger, E.N., Risk, M.J., 1994. Oligocene–Miocene extinction and geographic restriction ofCaribbean corals: roles of turbidity, temperature and nutrients. PALAIOS 9, 576–598.

Falkowski, P.G., Jokiel, P.L., Kinzie III, R.A., 1990. Irradiance and corals. In: Dubinsky, Z.(Ed.), Coral Reefs. Elsevier, New York, pp. 89–107.

Flower, B.P., Kennett, J.P., 1993. Relations between the Monterey Formation depositionand middle Miocene global cooling: Naples Beach section, California. Geology 21,877–880.

Flower, B.P., Kennett, J.P.,1994. ThemiddleMiocene climatic transition: East Antarctic icesheet development, deep ocean circulation and global carbon cycling. Palaeogeo-graphy, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 108, 537–555.

Fine, M., Tchernov, D., 2007. Scleractinian coral species survive and recover fromdecalcification. Science. 315, 1811.

Fulthorpe, C.S., Schlanger, S.O., 1989. Paleo-oceanographic and tectonic settings of earlyMiocene reefs and associated carbonates of offshore Southeast Asia. AmericanAssociation of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 73, 729–756.

Gordon, A.L., DwiSusanto,R., Vrane,K., 2003. Cool IndonesianThroughflowasa consequenceof restricted surface layer flow. Nature 425, 824–828.

Greenlee, S.M., Lehmann, P.J., 1993. Stratigraphic framework of productive carbonatebuildups. In: Loucks, R.G., Sarg, J.F. (Eds.), Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy, RecentDevelopments and Applications, vol. 57. American Association of PetroleumGeologists, Memoir, pp. 267–290.

Grötsch, J., Mercadier, C., 1999. Integrated 3-D reservoir modeling based on 3-D seismic:the Tertiary Malampaya and Camago buildups, offshore Palawan, Philippines.American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 83, 1703–1728.

Halfar, J., Godinez-Orta, L., Mutti, M., Valdez-Holguín, J.E., Borges, J.M., 2004. Nutrientand temperature controls on modern carbonate production: an example from theGulf of California, Mexico. Geology 32, 213–216.

Halfar, J., Mutti, M., 2005. Global dominance of coralline red-algal facies: a response toMiocene oceanographic events. Geology 33, 481–484.

Hall, R., 1996. Reconstructing Cenozoic SE Asia. In: Hall, R., Blundell, D.J. (Eds.), TectonicEvolution of Southeast Asia, vol.106. Geological Society of London, Special Publication,pp. 153–184.

Hall, R., 2002. Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE Asia and the SWPacific: computer based reconstructions, models and animations. Journal of AsianEarth Sciences 20, 353–431.

Hallock, P., 2000. Symbiont-bearing foraminifera: harbingers of global change.Micropaleontology 46, 95–104.

Hallock, P., 2001. Coral reefs, carbonate sediments, nutrients, and global change. In:Stanley, G.D. (Ed.), The History and Sedimentology of Ancient Reef Systems. KluwerAcademic and Plenum Publishers, New York, pp. 387–427.

Hallock, P., 2005. Global change andmodern coral reefs: newopportunities to understandshallow-water carbonate depositional processes. Sedimentary Geology 175, 19–33.

Hamer, J.M.M., Sheldon,N.D.,Nichols,G.J., 2007.Global aridity during theEarlyMiocene?Aterrestrial paleoclimate record from the Ebro Basin, Spain. Journal of Geology 115,601–608.

Hinz, K., Schlüter, H.U., 1985. Geology of the dangerous grounds, South China Sea, andthe continental margin off southwest Palawan: results of Sonne cruises SO-23 andSO-27. Energy 10, 297–315.

Howes, J.V.C.,1997. Petroleumresources andpetroleumsystemsof SEAsia, Australia, PapuaNew Guinea, and New Zealand. In: Howes, J.V.C., Noble, R.A. (Eds.), Proceedings of anInternational Conference on Petroleum Systems of SE Asia & Australasia. IndonesianPetroleum Association, pp. 81–100.

Holloway, N.H., 1982. North Palawan Block, Philippines— its relation to Asian mainlandand role in evolution of South China Sea. American Association of PetroleumGeologists Bulletin 66, 1355–1383.

Jia, G., Peng, P., Zhao, Q., Jian, Z., 2003. Changes in terrestrial ecosystems since 30 Ma inEast Asia: stable isotope evidence from black carbon in the South China Sea.Geology 31, 1093–1096.

Jones, B., Desrochers, A., 1992. Shallow platform carbonates. In: Walker, R.G., James, N.P.(Eds.), Facies Models, Response to Sea Level Change, pp. 277–302.

Kerr, R.A., 2001. The tropics return to the climate system. Science 292, 660–661.Kleypas, J.A., Buddemeier, R.W., Archer, D., Gattuso, J.-P., Langdon, C., Opdyke, B.N., 1999.

Geochemical consequences of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide on reefs.Science 284, 118–120.

Kleypas, J.A., Buddemeier, R.W., Gattuso, J.-P., 2001. The future of coral reefs in an age ofglobal change. Geologishe Rundschau 90, 426–437.

Kuhnt, W., Holbourn, A., Hall, R., Zuvela, M., Käse, R., 2004. Neogene history of theIndonesianThroughflow. In: Clift, P.,Wang, P., Kuhnt,W., Hayes, D.E. (Eds.), Continent–

Ocean Interactionswithin the East AsianMarginal Seas. AGUGeophysicalMonograph,vol. 149, pp. 299–320.

Leamon, G.R., Parsons, G.L., 1986. Tertiary carbonate plays in the Papuan Basin. SEAPEXProceedings VII, 213–227.

Lee, T.-Y., Lawver, L.A., 1995. Cenozoic plate reconstruction of Southeast Asia.Tectonophysics 251, 85–138.

Lee, J.J., Anderson, O.R., 1991. Symbiosis in foraminifera. In: Lee, J.J., Anderson, O.R.(Eds.), Biology of Foraminifera. Academic Press, New York, p. 157-22.

Lunt, P., Allan, T., 2004. Larger foraminifera in Indonesian biostratigraphy, calibrated toisotopic dating. Geological Research and Development Centre Workshop onMicropalaeontology. 109 p.

Milliman, J.D. 1997. Fluvial sediment discharge to the sea and the importance oftectonics. In: Ruddiman, W.F., (ed). Tectonic Uplift and Climate Change. New York,Plenum Press, 240–257.

Morley, R.J., 2000. Origin and Evolution of Tropical Rainforests. Wiley. 302 p.Morley, R.J., 2006. Cretaceous and Tertiary climate change and the past distribution of

megathermal rain forests. In: Bush, M., Flenley, J.R. (Eds.), Tropical RainforestResponses to Climatic Change. Praxis-Springer, pp. 1–32.

Morley, R.J., Morley, H.P., Restrepo-Pace, P., 2003. Unravelling the tectonicallycontrolled stratigraphy of the West Natuna Basin by means of palaeo-derivedmid-Tertiary climate changes. Proceeding of the 29th Indonesian PetroleumAssociation, pp. 264–288.

Mutti, M., Hallock, P., 2003. Carbonate systems along nutrient and temperature gradients:some sedimentological and geochemical constraints. International Journal of EarthSciences 92, 465–475.

Pagani, M., Zachos, J.C., Freeman, K.H., Tipple, B., Bohaty, S., 2005. Marked decline inatmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations during the Paleogene. Science 309, 600–603.

Park, R.K., Siemers, C.T., Brown, A.A., 1992. Holocene carbonate sedimentation, PulauSeribu, Java Sea — the third dimension. In: Siemers, C.T., Longman, M.W., Park, R.K.,Kaldi, J.G. (Eds.), Carbonate Rocks and Reservoirs of Indonesia, a Core Workshop.Indonesian Petroleum Association, pp. 2–1–2-15.

Pearson, P.N., Ditchfield, P.W., Singano, J., Harcourt-Brown, K.G., Nicholas, C.J., Olsson, R.K.,Shackleton, N.J., Hall, M.A., 2001. Warm tropical sea surface temperatures in the LateCretaceous and Eocene epochs. Nature 413, 481–487.

Pearson, P.N., Palmer, M.R., 2000. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations over thepast 60 million years. Nature 406, 695–699.

Perrin, C., 2002. Tertiary: the emergence of modern reef ecosystems. In: Keissling, W.,Flügel, E., Golonka, J. (Eds.), Phanerozoic Reef Patterns: SEPM Special Publication,vol. 72, pp. 587–621.

Pomar, L., Brandano, M., Westphal, H., 2004. Environmental factors influencing skeletalgrain sediment associations: a critical review of Miocene examples from thewestern Mediterranean. Sedimentology 51, 627–651.

Pomar, L., Hallock, P., 2007. Changes in coral-reef structure through the Miocene in theMediterraneanprovince: adaptive versus environmental influence.Geology35, 899–902.

Porth, H., Muller, C., von Daniels, C.H., 1989. The sedimentary formations of the VisayanBasin, Philippines. In: Porth, H., von Daniels, C.H. (Eds.), On the Geology andHydrocarbon Prospects of the Visayan Basin, Philippines. Geologisches Jahrbuch,vol. 70, pp. 29–87.

Rangin, C., Jolivet, L., Pubellier, M., 1990. A simple model for the tectonic evolution ofsoutheast Asia and Indonesia region for the past 43 m.y. Bulletin de la SociétéGéologique de France 8 (VI), 889–905.

Renema, W., Troelstra, S.R., 2001. Larger foraminifera distribution on a mesotrophiccarbonate shelf in SW Sulawesi (Indonesia). Palaeogeography, palaeoclimatology,palaeoecology 175, 125–146.

Saller, A., Armin, R., Ichram, L.O., Glenn-Sullivan, C., 1993. Sequence stratigraphy ofaggrading and backstepping carbonate shelves, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. In:Loucks, R.G., Sarg, J.F. (Eds.), Carbonate Sequence Stratigraphy, Recent Develop-ments and Applications, vol. 57. American Association of Petroleum Geologists,Memoir, pp. 267–290.

Sanders, D., Baron-Szabo, R.C., 2005. Scleractinian assemblages under sediment input:their characteristics and relation to the nutrient input concept. Palaeogeography,Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 216, 139–189.

Scheibner, C., Speijer, R.P., Marzouk, A.M., 2005. Turnover of larger foraminifera duringthe Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum and paleoclimatic control on theevolution of platform ecosystems. Geology 33, 493–496.

Schlager, W., 1992. Sedimentology and Sequence Stratigraphy of Reefs and CarbonatePlatforms: A Short Course. American Association of Petroleum Geologists.Continuing education course note series, 34, 71 p.

Sharaf, E., Simo, J.A., Carroll, A.R., Shields, M., 2005. Stratigraphic evolution ofOligocene–Miocene carbonates and siliciclastics, East Java basin, Indonesia.American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 89, 799–819.

Sheppard, C.R.C., 2003. Predicted recurrences of mass coral mortality in the IndianOcean. Nature 425, 294–297.

Stanley, S.M., Hardie, L.A., 1998. Secular oscillations in the carbonate mineralogy ofreef-building and sediment-producing organisms driven by tectonically forcedshifts in seawater chemistry. Palaeogeography, PalaeoclimatologyPalaeoecology144, 3–19.

Titlyanov, E.A., Latypov, Y.Y., 1991. Light-dependence in scleractinian distribution in thesublittoral zone of South China Sea Islands. Coral Reefs 10, 133–138.

van deWeerd, A.A., Armin, R.A., 1992. Origin and evolution of the Tertiary hydrocarbon-bearing basins in Kalimantan (Borneo), Indonesia. American Association ofPetroleum Geologists Bulletin 76, 1778–1803.

Vincent, E., Berger, W.H., 1985. Carbon dioxide and polar cooling in the Miocene: theMonterey Hypothesis. In: Sundquist, E.T., Broecker, W.S. (Eds.), The Carbon Cycleand Atmospheric CO2: Natural Variations Archean to Present. American Geophy-sical Union, Washington DC, pp. 455–468.


Visser, K., Thunell, R., Stott, L., 2003. Magnitude and timing of temperature change in theIndo-Pacific warm pool during deglaciation. Nature 421, 152–155.

White, J.V., Derewetzky, A.N., Geary, G.C., Hohensee, V.K., Johnstone, E.M., Liu, C.,Pierce, A.C., Stevens, J., 2007. Temporal controls and resulting variations in Oligo-Miocene carbonates from the East Java Basin, Indonesia: examples from the CepuBasin. Proceedings of the 31st Annual Indonesian Petroleum AssociationConference, pp. 106–116.

Wicaksono, P., Wight, A.W.R., Lodwick, W.R., Netherwood, R.E., Budiarto, B., Hanggoro,1995. Use of sequence stratigraphy in carbonate exploration: Sunda Basin, JavaSea, Indonesia. In: Caughy, C.A., Carter, D.C., Clure, J., Gresko, M.J., Lowry, P., Park,R.K., Wonders, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the International Symposium onSequence Stratigraphy in Southeast Asia. Indonesian Petroleum Association,Jakarta, pp. 197–229.

Wilson, M.E.J., 1999. Prerift and synrift sedimentation during early fault segmentationof a Tertiary carbonate platform, Indonesia. Marine and Petroleum Geology 16,825–848.

Wilson, M.E.J., 2002. Cenozoic carbonates in Southeast Asia: implications for equatorialcarbonate development. Sedimentary Geology 147, 295–428.

Wilson, M.E.J., 2005. Equatorial delta-front patch reef development during theNeogene, Borneo. Journal of Sedimentary Research 75, 116–134.

Wilson, M.E.J., Bosence, D.W.J., Limbong, A., 2000. Tertiary syntectonic carbonateplatform development in Indonesia. Sedimentology 47, 395–419.

Wilson, M.E.J., Hall, R., submitted for publication. Tectonic influence on SE carbonatesand their reservoir development. SEPM Special Publication.

Wilson, M.E.J., Lokier, S.W., 2002. Siliciclastic and volcaniclastic influences onequatorial carbonates: insights from the Neogene of Indonesia. Sedimentology49, 583–601.

Wilson, M.E.J., Rosen, B.R.R., 1998. Implications of the paucity of corals in the Paleogeneof SE Asia: plate tectonics or Centre of Origin. In: Hall, R., Holloway, J.D. (Eds.),Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE Asia. Backhuys Publishers, Amster-dam, Netherlands, pp. 165–195.

Wilson, M.E.J., Vecsei, A., 2005. The apparent paradox of abundant foramol facies in lowlatitudes: their environmental significance and effect on platform development.Earth Science Reviews 69, 133–168.

Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E., Billups, K., 2001. Trends, rhythms, andaberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present. Science 292, 686–693.

palaeogeography, palaeoclimatology, palaeoecologysearg.rhul.ac.uk/pubs/wilson_2008 equatorial...

Documents