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PA TheroyTRANSCRIPT
Yarmouk University
Faculty of Economics &Administrative Sciences
Public Administration Department
Public Administration Theory
Instructor:
Tamara Al- Yakoub
The Evolution of Management Theory
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Introduction
What do we mean by theory? Theory is essentially an idea or an explanation, which has not yet been
universally proven in practice. Over the years, ideas and theories is continuing to evolve to meet
changes, and challenges, in this case its called Modern Theory
Why we need to study Management Theories background? They help us to make sense of the real world, so we could solve practical
problems depending on the understanding of the reasons.
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Introduction
Important Note:
Although some theories at their times were considered effective andsatisfying; some of them were arousing to conduct more investigation,additions…Sometimes those theories were criticized so new concepts &theories emerged. But the most we can’t say that one theory is totally rightor wrong because they were under contingency and conditional. As aresult we need to study them to know the background of Management andhow we could benefits from those theories.
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The Evolution of Management Theory
The Background f the Theory: The study of organizations and the art of management considered
relatively recent with comparison with other studies or disciplines. The contributors to this field include: practicing mangers, sociologist,
industrial psychologists, mathematicians, biologists & organizationtheorists.
Due to such diverse field there is very little consensus of opinion about theprecise nature of “management” and “organization”. And some of thetheorists tried to generalize from their little experience.
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The Evolution of Management Theory
We could trace “The Evolution of Management Theory” from thosemain approaches:
Administrative Management (Henri Fayol)
Scientific Management (Frederick W. Taylor)
Bureaucracy Management (Max Weber)
Human Relation “Behavioral” Management (Elton Mayo)
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Henri Fayol (1841-1925)
Fayol considered as the founder of the classical management schoolbecause he was the first to investigate managerial behavior, and tosystematize it.
Fayol concentrated- on the managing director downward, he realized thatthe key to industrial success was the effective management of workers atall levels.
Believed that all managers perform five managerial functions:
1. Planning 2. Organizing
3. Commanding 4. Coordinating
5. Controlling
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Henri Fayol (1841-1925)Fayol’s 14 Principles of management
Fayol principles should be used as the situation demand:
1. Division of Labor. The more people specialize, the more efficiently theycan perform their work.
2. Authority & Responsibility. The power to compel people to do what you“as a manager” want them to do; the write to give orders.
3. Discipline. Members in an organization need to respect the rules andagreements that govern the organization. Discipline results from goodleadership at all levels of the organization, fair agreements, and judiciouslyenforced penalties for infractions.
4. Unity of Command. Each employee has one & only one immediate “boss”.
5. Unity of Direction. Those activities within the organization with the samebasic objective should be directed by only one manager using one plan.
6. Subordination of Individual Interest to the Common Good. The interestof the organization must come before the individual.
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Henri Fayol (1841-1925)Fayol’s 14 Principles of management
7. Remuneration. Compensation for work done should be fair to bothemployees and employers.
8. Centralization. There should be one central point in the organization thatexercises control overall the parts.
9. Scalar Chain/ chain of command. The chain of supervisors ranged fromthe highest to lowest level.
10. Order. Materials and people should be in the right place at the right time.People, in particular, should be in the jobs or positions they are mostsuited to.
11. Equity. Managers should be both fairness and justice.12. Stability or Tenure of Personnel efficiency will be promoted by a stable
work force.13. Initiative. Subordinates should be encouraged to conceive & carry out
their plans, even if its means a manager has to “sacrifice some personalvanity” to achieve. .
14. Regard of the Group. The moral of the employees must be fostered, andunity of purpose must be encouraged.
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Max Weber (1864-1920)
Organization: Weber used the term of organization to mean the ordering of social
relationships, the maintenance of which certain individuals took uponthem themselves as a special task.
Bureaucratic,
its meant a type of organization which is rational because they have aimsor goals to be achieved. Weber were most interested in the theory ofBureaucratic management that stressed the need for a strictly definedhierarchy governed by clearly defined regulations and lines of authority.
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Max Weber (1864-1920)
Elements of Bureaucracy1.Hierarchical organizational structures systematically orders
communication and authority among established positions; this is thescalar principle
2.Division of labor based on functional specializations built into the worker
3.A system of procedures, rules and regulations covering rights and dutiesin the workplace
4.Impersonality of interpersonal relations
5.Promotion & selection for technical expertise
6.Rational, systematic goal-oriented organizational processes
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Max Weber (1864-1920)
“Ideal-type“ Bureaucracy :– How Bureaucracy Functions
· Impersonal or dehumanizing, Formalistic, Rule-bound, Highlydisciplined
– Consequences
· Highly efficient, Powerful, Ever-expanding
– Individual is standardized
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Max Weber (1864-1920)
“Ideal-type“ Bureaucracy :
Criticisms– Reality is different
– specialized expertise is inherently at odds with formal hierarchicalauthority
– “Bounded rationality”
– Limited utility: cultural differences
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Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915)
He considered the father of the scientific management because of his
great contributions.
Scientific management focuses on ways to improve the performance of
individual workers. Taylor concentrated primarily on the operator or
worker level, from the bottom upwards.
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Frederick W. Taylor (1856-1915)
He believed that we could overcome some obstacles we may face suchas (inefficiency, slow work mod and overstaffing) by following his fourbasic principles:
The development of a true science of management, so that the bestmethod for performing each task could be determined.
The scientific selection of workers, so that each worker would begiven responsibility for the task for which he or she was best suited.
The scientific training, education and development of the worker.
The constant and intimate cooperation between management andlabor.
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Elton Mayo (1880-1949)
The behavioral school emerged partly because the classical approachdid not achieve sufficient production efficiency and workplace harmony.To manager’s frustration, people did not always follow predicted orexpected patterns of behavior. Thus there was increased interest inhelping manager’s deal more effectively with the "people side" of theirorganizations. Several theorists tried to strengthen classical organizationtheory with the insights of sociology and psychology.
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Elton Mayo (1880-1949)The Hawthorne Studies
It began as an attempt to investigate the relationship between the level of lightingin the workplace and worker productivity the type of question Frederick Taylor andhis colleagues might well have addressed.
The researchers divided the employees into test groups and control groups, the
experiment were inconclusive, and no relationship was established betweenimprovement of light and increase productivity. So over years further studies wereundertaken to make better understanding of the results.
Conclusion from Mayo’s work Work is a group activity Workers they react as member of groups rather than individuals. These groups are informal groups. It follow, therefore that level of work are not set by physical abilities, but by group
attitudes.
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Douglas McGreggor, 1960’s
McGreggor’s Theory X, Theory Y is a framework of assumptions aboutpeople
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Employer beliefabout employees
Theory X Theory Y
View of work Dislike and avoid it As natural as Rest or Play
Ability to control Must be coerced,controlled,threatened
Exercise self-direction andcontrol
Attitude TowardResponsibility
Avoid it Seek FormalDirection
Accept it & Even Seek it
Attitude Toward Innovation Security Valued OverAmbition, So no Desire To
Do Anything New
Management is Not Theonly one Capable ofInnovation
Douglas McGreggor, 1960’s
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Introduction: organizations and governance
An organization (“hierarchy”) is a “system of consciously coordinatedactivities or forces of two or more persons”.
Organizations are social systems, hence complex.
Public organizations (“bureaucracies”) are the state’s agents for publiccollective action.
Studying public organizations goes to the heart of governance andcorruption issues:
public organizations deliver public services with more or less efficiency,equity, honesty, and accountability
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Theory X Theory YComments on
the Theory
The previous assumption ofthe theory it’s frommanger view.
If we treat people holdingthose assumptions,people may rebel againstsuch treatment.
Managers who tend to holdviews similar to thoseexpressed in Theory “X”,are called Theory “X”Managers.
Theory “Y” implies that poor performancelies with management methods oforganization and control.
The essential task of management is toarrange organizational conditions so thatopportunities are created for workers.McGregor suggested specific methods:Decentralization and delegation, jobenlargement, participation andperformance appraisal (management byobjectives)
This theory called sometimes “participativemanagement”
Public administration
Public administration can be broadly described as the development,implementation and study of branches of government policy .
Public administration is carried out by public servants who work in publicdepartments and agencies, at all levels of government, and perform awide range of tasks. Public administrators collect and analyze data(statistics), monitor budgets , draft legislation , develop policy, and executelegally mandated government activities. Public administrators serve inmany roles: ranging from "front-line" positions serving the public;administrators ; analysts; and managers and executives of governmentbranches and agencies
One approach to define Public administration is to identify how itsidentify how its relates to the there traditional branches of government :the executive, the legislative, and the judicial.
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Public Administration
Public administration is the enterprise by which governments and theirassociated private partners serve the public purposes through the deliveryof goods and services.
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Government
Political system by which a body of people is administered and regulated.
Body of people that sets and administers public policy, and exercisesexecutive, political, and sovereign power through customs, institutions,and laws within a state.
The legal entity that is charged by a constitution to make and enforce lawsand exercise the highest authority among human institutions.
The capacity of some political community to establish a forum withinwhich it can define purposes to be achieved using the power of the state.
The community real ability to achieve the public purposes it defines foritself using both governmental and private capacities to achieve thedesired result.
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Government in broad term
Executive: merit based (professional?)
Legislative: elected
Judicial: appointed
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Politics
It is concerned with “who gets what, when and how” It is concerned with government’s use of its legal authority to
distribute benefits and costs among members of a society.
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Political Definitions of Public Administration
Public administration is what government does.– As a profession, public administration has developed values and ethical
standards, but as an activity it merely reflects the cultural norms, beliefs, andpower realities of its society.
– Public administration is the totality of the working day activities of all the world’sbureaucrats – whether they are legal or illegal, competent or incompetent,decent or despicable.
– Public administration is both direct and indirect.
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Chapter 2
Theories ofPolitical Control of Bureaucracy
Introduction:What are Theories of Control of Bureaucracy?
What is Bureaucracy? Bureaucracy is the collective organizational structure , procedures ,
protocols, and set of regulations in place to manage activity. It isrepresented by standardized procedure (rule-following) that guides theexecution of most or all processes within the body; formal division ofpowers; hierarchy; and relationships, intended to anticipate needs andimprove efficiency.
A bureaucracy traditionally does not create policy but, rather, enactsit. Law , policy , and regulation normally originates from a leadership , whichcreates the bureaucracy to put them into practice.
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Introduction:What are Theories of Control of Bureaucracy?
What is Bureaucracy? In reality, the interpretation and execution of policy, etc. can lead to
informal influence. A bureaucracy is directly responsible to the leadershipthat creates it, such as a government executive . Conversely, theleadership is usually responsible to an electorate , shareholders ,membership or whoever is intended to benefit. As a matter of practicality,the bureaucracy is where the individual will interface with an organizationsuch as a government etc., rather than directly with its leadership.Generally, larger organizations result in a greater distancing of theindividual from the leadership, which can be consequential or intentionalby design.
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ةيطارقوريبال
ه وىهفي زش ىنإ قبطح اىقنا ةىقناب ف ثاعخجنا : (Bureaucracy) ةيطارقوريبال تشهجإلاب كناهو. تظنا. ذخعحو ذه تظألا ىهع ثاءازجالا ةذحىنا عسىحو ثانوؤسنا تقزطب تيزه، ذذعنا ي تهثيالا ىهع تطازقوزبنا تيذخخسنا :ايى ،ثايىكحنا ثاىقنا ،تحهسنا ،ثاكزشنا ىكاحنا
صراذناو.
G هو عح Bureau اهأ تىكي ي :عطقي لوألا Bureaucracy ىعنا ظفهنا تطازقوزبهن ، يأ ةىقنا The Strong اهاعيو Kratos هو تقخشي ي مصألا قزغإلا Cracy بخكي اثناوG تهكناو ف اهعىجي عح )ةىق بخكنا وأ تطهس بخكنا( حأو مصأ تهك تطازقوزب ي تسزفنا يG يأ ،بخكي شيزحو بحاكهن تيىكحنا خنا جاك ف زقنا ياثنا ،زشع يو (Bureau) تهك وزب
ةداسناو( ذقو جيذخخسا تهك تطازقوزبنا تنالذهن ىهع يأ ةىقنا )تطهسنا ، (Kratos) تاىنا ي تهكالجزنا ذنا ىسهج فهخ بحاكنا تيىكحنا ىكسو ىهذأب ،تطهسناب كنو عسىح اذه وىهفنا مشن
. ثاسسؤنا زغ تيىكحنا صراذناك ثافشخسناو عاصناو ثاكزشناو اهزغو
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Introduction:I. What are Theories of Control of Bureaucracy?
Control of Bureaucracy theory is an approach to Public Administrationtheory particularly associated with matters of compliance orresponsiveness.
Does the Bureaucracy comply with the law or with the preferences oflaw makers or elected executives?
The logic of political control of Bureaucracy is difficult, if not impossible,without assuming significant distinctions between political andadministrative phenomena in democratic Government.
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Introduction:I. What are Theories of Control of Bureaucracy?
First, The politics - administrative dichotomy traces to the origins ofmodern Public Administration
Woodrow Wilson set out the most formal and rigid version of thedichotomy by arguing in his seminal essay on Modern PublicAdministration that politics should not meddle in administration, andadministration should not meddle in politics.
Dwight Waldo and Herbert Simon challenged the dichotomy, each fordifferent reasons:– To Waldo, all administrative acts were political at a fundamental level.– To Simon, it was difficult empirically to unbundled politics from
administrative and vice versa.
From the 1950s – 1970s it was the received wisdom that there was nodichotomy. Then in the 1980s, the dichotomy reemerged and is now aliveand well and found in control of Bureaucracy theory.
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Introduction:I. What are Theories of Control of Bureaucracy?
The significance of Control of Bureaucracy theory is that it provides for theanalysis of Public Administration by making distinctions between eitherpolitical and administrative acts or actions and/or by making distinctionsbetween political and administrative actors.
These distinctions are useful analytically because they provide for theparsing of variables in the basis of politics (usually independent variables)and administrative (usually dependent variables) .
The second important assumption in the Control of Bureaucracytheory : in democratic self- government, elected officials, includinglegislators and executives, should control the decisions and actions ofappointed officials.
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II. The difference between Politics and administration andmatters of Bureaucratic control
The simple representation of the differences between policy andadministration, following Wilson (1887/1941) and Goodnow (1900)would like this:
GOALS MEANS
Policy Administration
The differences between policy and administration considered begs thequestion of the level of precision, specificity and detail in policy on theone hand and the level of discretion in administration on the other.
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II. The difference between Politics and administration andmatters of Bureaucratic control
The empirical critique of the differences between policy & administrationcould be represented this way:
GOALS MEANS
Policy
Administration
Empirically this model is more nearly accurate, the evidence being thatbureaucrats are often engaged in policy agenda setting and policymaking andthat elected officials are often engaged in what would originally be descried asmanagement or administration.
Therefore, the dichotomy has sometimes referred to as the policy-administrationcontinuum.
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II. The difference between Politics and administration andmatters of Bureaucratic control
This model does display clearly that there is in a general sense politicalcontrol over bureaucracy. But it also indicates that this control is limitedand contingent, and that there may be as much bureaucratic control overpolicy as there is political control of administration
The more empirically accurate model is still very much an ideal typebecause in different organizations, different policy arenas, and at differenttimes the diagonal line would have a different slope.
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Parsing the dichotomy: dimensions of Government process
Mission
Policy
Administration
Management
This figure represents the most commonly found patterns
Page 37of relationship between politics and administration
III. Are Bureaucracies out of Control?
As theories of political control of bureaucracy indicate, to unbundle politicsand administration is a key to understanding how politics controlsbureaucracy and how bureaucracy influences politics and policy.
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Chapter 3
Theories ofBureaucratic Politics
Introduction:What are Theories of Bureaucratic Politics?
Theories of Bureaucratic Politics seek to explain the policy making role ofadministration and bureaucracy. Such framework typically reject the politicsadministration dichotomy underpinning theories of bureaucratic control, viewingthis division as an analytical convenience that imposes a too-steep a cost ontheoretical development.
Since bureaucracies and bureaucrats routinely engage in political behavior, theneed to account theoretically for the bureaucracy’s political is justified.
Politics is generically defined as the authoritative allocation of values, or theprocess of deciding “who gets what, when and how”
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Introduction:What are Theories of Bureaucratic Politics?
Numerous studies confirm that bureaucracies and bureaucrats routinely allocatevalues and decide who gets what, that bureaucracies logically engage in “politicsof the first order”.
Theories of bureaucratic politics therefore begin by accepting what has long beenempirically observed; that is, in practice, administration is not a technical andvalue neutral activity separable from politics. Administration is politics, (Waldo,1948).
Accordingly, theories of bureaucratic politics seek to breach the orthodox dividebetween administration and politics and attempt to drag the former into asystematic accounting with the latter.
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Introduction:What are Theories of Bureaucratic Politics?
The traditional theoretical frameworks poorly account for bureaucracy'sobvious and repeatedly observed political role has long been recognized.
Other scholars, have different argument about the “politics-administration”divide, which influenced by the surrounding circumstances and culture attheir time.
Nevertheless, numerous studies have confirmed the need for systematicframeworks accounting for the political role of bureaucracy. Severalresponses to this need have provided importance insight into the politicalrole of the bureaucracy, and in doing so, significantly expanded ourunderstanding of public administration.
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II. Administrative theory as Political theory
Dwight Waldo’s has justified the need for a theory of bureaucraticpolitics.
Waldo made two critical contributions that have supported all subsequenteffort construct a theory of bureaucratic politics:
First: he undertook a devastating critique of the extant research literature.He argued that public administration scholars revolved around a core setof beliefs that cumulatively served to constrain theoretical development.
– Key among these were the beliefs that efficiency and democracy werecompatible, and that the work of government could be cleanly dividedinto separate realms of decision and execution.
– These beliefs led public administration scholars to champion efficiencyas the central goal of public agencies, to develop a “science” ofadministration to maximize that efficiency, and to ignore the politicalramifications of these beliefs and the prescription they implied.
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II. Administrative theory as Political theory
Second: Waldo argued that administrative scholarship was itself drivenby particular philosophy of politics.
In his book “the administrative state” he examined the scholarly publicadministration literature through the lens of five key issues in politicalphilosophy:1. The nature of the good life, or a vision of what the “good society”
2. the criteria of action, or the procedures for determining how collectivedecisions should be made
3. The question of who should rule
4. The question of how the powers of the state should be divided theapportioned.
5. The question of centralization versus decentralization
Waldo concluded that public administration scholarship was anchored bywell-developed responses to all of these issues.
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II. Administrative theory as Political theory
Waldo have several argument and suggestion to the pre-mentionedissues.
Waldo bestowed this grand and sweeping question upon the disciplinerather provide its answer, but the question is surely enough to justify theneed to meld administrative theory with political theory, to motivate thesearch for a theory of bureaucratic politics.
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III. Allison’s Paradigm of Bureaucratic Political
In the two decades following the publication of “the administrative state-1948” an embryonic theory of bureaucratic politics began to emerge from aseries of studies examining decision-making in the executive branch.
The significant claim generated by these studies was the governmentdecisions were products of bargaining and negotiation among interestedpolitical actors.
The best-known studies of this early bureaucratic politics literature include:Warner Schilling’s 1962 – Richard Neustadt’s 1960. These studies steadilybuilt a case for a general theory of bureaucratic politics centered onbargaining games in the executive branch.
The first serious comprehensive attempt to produce such a framework wasundertaken by Graham Allison in his book “Essence of Decision” 1971
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III. Allison’s Paradigm of Bureaucratic Political
Allison’s immediate focus in “Essence of Decision” was explainingwhy government do what they do?. In other words, how is policy made, andhow determines or influences it?
To provide general answers to these questions, Allison articulated threetheoretical models:
– The first model: the rational actor model (the classical model)· This model proposes that government decisions can be understood by viewing
them as the product of a single actor in strategic pursuit of his own self interest
– The second model: is the organizational process paradigm· This model argues that numerous actors are involved in decision-making, and
decision-making processes are highly structured through standard operatingprocess (SOP’s)
– The third model: the bureaucratic politics paradigm· This model explains the government actions as the product of bargaining and
compromise among the various organizational elements of the executive branch.Page 47
III. Allison’s Paradigm of Bureaucratic Political
When a problem occurs, Model I assumes that the government willidentify the potential response to that problem, assesses theconsequences of those actions, and choose the action that maximizesbenefits and minimize costs.
In contrast, Model II assumes that the government will rely onorganizational routines instead of rational cost-benefit calculus to makethat decision.
Rather than search for all potential responses, the various components ofgovernment will act according to SOP’s that, in effect, say, “when Xhappens, do Y”.
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III. Allison’s Paradigm of Bureaucratic Political
Model III came in the articulation of an alternative to Model I and Model II
Allison’s model of bureaucratic politics is constructed from four basicproposition:
1. The executive branch is composed of numerous organizations andindividuals having divergent objectives and agendas.
2. No preponderant individual or organization exists; in other words, no oneactor in the executive branch is able to act unilaterally.
3. The final decision is a “political resultant”; in other word what thegovernment decides to do is the outcome of bargaining and compromise,the product of a political system.
4. There is a difference between making policy and carrying it out.
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III. Allison’s Paradigm of Bureaucratic Political
With these as a starting point, a policy analyst’s attention is immediatelyfocused on power and politics within and between executive branchbureaucracies. Within the confines of the executive branch, Allison’smodel combines and makes little distinction between politics andadministration.
From its general premises Model III systemically goes about explainingspecific policies by seeking the answers to a few basic questions:
– Who play?
– What determine each player’s stand?
– How are players stand aggregated to yield governmental decisions and actions?
Allison’s model of bureaucratic politics has had a significant impact onhow bureaucracies are studied.
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III. Allison’s Paradigm of Bureaucratic Political
Allison's main assumption: Government actions are the product ofbargaining between the organizational components of the executivebranch.
Some subsequent scholarship has raised doubts about the empiricalvalidity of these hypotheses and the conceptual structure that supportthem.– Studies have concluded that assumptions of Model III are not generally
applicable– Other writers argue that Model III is extraordinarily complex.
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IV. Politics, Power, and Organization
Allison's Model III was, too limited in scope rather than overly ambitious (it wasalmost exclusively focused on the executive branch).
Politics, Power, and Organization, assumes that: the nature and context of thebargaining power structure, and the role and the relative influence ofbureaucracies within it, is heavily dependent upon organizational issues
There are two key organizational dimensions to bureaucratic politics theory:
1. The first deals with behavior. (the primary goal is to explain why bureaucratsand bureaucracies do what they do).
2. The second deals with institutional structure and the distribution of the power.(the primary goal here is to understand how a bureaucracy's formal lines ofauthority, its relationship to other initiations).
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IV. Politics, Power, and Organization
Wilson concluded that successful bureaucracies are those in whichexecutives have created a clear sense of mission, identified tasks thatmust be achieved to fulfill that mission, distributed authority within theorganization according to those tasks, and provide subordinates withenough autonomy to achieve the task at hand.
Neither Wilson nor Seidman (the most contributor to this trend) argumentsconstitute fully developed theoretical frameworks.
The bottom line is that organization theory has provided an important lensfor workers such as Wilson and Seidman, and in doing so has givenample justification for pursuing comprehensive explanations of the politicalrole of bureaucracy. As yet, however, organization theory has notprovided that comprehensive explanation.
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V. Representative Bureaucracy
The theory of Representative Bureaucracy is perhaps the most explicitattempt to address the central problem of democratic administrative theoryraised by Dwight Waldo.
Waldo, Allison, Wilson and Seidman strongly suggests that bureaucraciesare political policy-making institutions.
The theory of Representative Bureaucracy focuses on finding a way tolegitimate the bureaucracy's political power in the context of democraticvalues. The central tenet of the theory is that a bureaucracy reflecting thediversity of the community it serves is more likley to response to theinterests of all groups in making policy decisions.
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V. Representative Bureaucracy
The key to Representative Bureaucracy’s attempt to build a bridgebetween orthodox public administration theory and democratic theoryrests to no small extent in the ability of future empirical studied to supportthe theory’s central hypothesis that passive representation will lead toactive representation.
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Chapter 4
Public Institutional Theory
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Introduction:
Like all complex subjects, public organizations are more easilyunderstood, after being unbundled, examined part by part, andreassembled for an assessment of their whole condition.
The two essential parts to the modern study of public organizations are:
1. The organization and management of contained and bounded publicinstitutions, now generally comprehended by institutional theory;
2. Inter-institutional, inter-jurisdictional, and third-party couplings andlinkages, now generally comprehended by network theory orgovernance theory,
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Institutional Theory
As we enter the 21st century, a new public administration hegemony baseon a broadly accepted institutionalism is emerging.
institutionalism is not a theory in the formal sense; is instead theframework, the language, and the set of assumption that hold and guideempirical research and theory building in much of public administration.
It begins with an argument about the salience of collective as a basis forunderstanding political and social institutions, including formal politicaland bureaucratic organizations.
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Institutional Theory
Modern institutional theory is not limited to the study of governmentbureaucracies and has, then moved well beyond the traditional study ofjurisdictional public administration.
The perspective and tone of institutionalism in public administration wasset in 1989 with the publication of the foundation documents, Wilson’s(Bureaucracy) and March and Olsen’s (Rediscovering Institutions).These authors point to the limitations of economics and market logic astheory that accounts for institutional behavior, and instead build theirtheories on the consideration of structure, particularly hierarch, andindividual and group behavior in institutional contexts
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Institutional Theory – The Basic Idea
In simplified form, institutionalism sees organizations as bounded socialconstruct of rules, roles, norms, and the expectations that constrainindividual and gorup choice and behavior.
March and Olsen describe institutions as “the beliefs, paradigms, codes,cultures and knowledge that support rules and routines”
Institutionalism also includes core ideas about contemporary publicadministration: results, performance, outcomes and purposefulness –concepts of less interest to organization theorists.
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Institutional Theory – The Basic Idea
Institutionalism, then, could be said to account for how institutions behaveand how they perform.
Institutionalism also combines the structural or organizational elements ofinstitutions and their managerial and leadership characteristics.
Institutionalism is not limited to formal governmental organizations.
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Institutional Theory
Institutionalism includes the empirical and theoretical considerationsconcerning the full range of sp-called “third sector” organization and fullyrecognizes the fuzzy distinction between public and private institutions.
Institutionalism assumes that policy preferences are molded throughcollective experience, institutions, education, and particularly professional.
Institutionalism assumes the centrality of leadership, management andprofessionalism.
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Institutional Theory
Institutionalism is particularly useful in the disarticulated state because itsassumptions do not rest primarily on sovereignty and authority; they restinstead on the patterns of politics, order, and shared meaning found ingovernmental as well as nongovernmental institutions.
Finally, Institutionalism lends itself to forms of modeling based onsimplifying assumptions of rational self-interest or competitive markets
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From Organizations to Institutions
Organization theory is the body of knowledge to which scholars turn tounderstand the structures and relationships between structures andoutcomes.
There is a possible confusion and ambiguity associated with the two terms(organization and institution), but in the same time they have similar points
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From Organizations to Institutions
The term “institution” is used to include public organizations that standon a special relationship to the people they serve. They can invoke theauthority of the state and can, thereby enforce their decisions.
Public Organizations can claim legitimacy because of what theypresumably contribute to a largest, often indivisible and difficult tomeasure public interest. Such organizations, particularly at the level of thenational state or its subdivisions, often have deep cultural identitiesassociated with language, ethnicity, religion, custom, and geography.
Institutions, also means broadly agreed-upon customs , practices andallegiances
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From Organizations to Institutions
Institutions, (from sociology perspective; W. Richard Scott) defines as“cognitive, normative, and regulatory structures and activities that providestability meaning to social behavior.
There are, Scott contends, three pillars of institutions
– The Regulative pillar of institution includes common elements oforganization theory such as, rules, law, a distinct inclination towardperformance or results, a workforce depends on experiences, standardoperating procedures (SOP’s)…..
– Public administration embodies one especially important feature ofScott’s regulative pillar – the constitutional and legal basis of authorityand power.
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From Organizations to Institutions
There are, Scott contends, three pillars of institutions
– The Normative, pillar of institution includes the logic of appropriatenessas against rational goal-driven choice making, social expectations andobligations based on expectations, patterns of certification andaccreditation, and an emphasis on conformity and the performance ofduty.
– Especially important to public administration are values and legitimacyof the public service in carrying out the democratic moral order
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From Organizations to Institutions
There are, Scott contends, three pillars of institutions
– The Cognitive, pillar of institution includes patterns of behavior basedon established categories and routine patterns of institutionaladaptation, innovation based on mimicking, a decided tendency towardinstitutional isomorphism, and tendencies to risk-aversion andorthodoxy.
– The legitimacy of cognitive patterns in public administration traces tobroad-based political and even cultural support.
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Hierarchy
The explanation for the persistence of hierarchy and why the search foralternatives to it have proved fruitless is,– First, that work is organized by task, and tasks are increasingly complex
and tend to separate into discrete categories of increasing complexity.– Second, the mental work of management increases in complexity and
also separates in discreet categories
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Hierarchy
A well-functioning hierarchy:
- structures people in a way that meets these organizational needs;
- to add value to work moving through the organization;
- to identify and fix accountability at each stage;
- to place people of necessary competence at each organizational level
- to build a general consensus and acceptance of the unequalsegmentation of work and the necessity for it.
The complexity of tasks increases as one goes higher in an organizationshierarchy, but the complexity of mental tasks increases even more.
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Hierarchy
Managerial hierarchy, or layering, is the only effective organizational formfor deploying people and tasks at complementary level, where people cando the tasks assigned to them, where the people in any given layer canadd value to the work of those in the layer below them, and, finally wherethis stratification of management strikes everyone as necessary andwelcome.
Thompson argued that “uncertainty appears to be the fundamentalproblem for complex organizations. And coping with uncertainty, is theessence of the administrative process”
If uncertainty is the dominate contextual problem for institutions,Interdependence is the primary internal problem.
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Alternative to Hierarchy
Ostrom, schroeder, and Wayne concluded that: The real theoretical issue is notwhether alternative services are provided by government or by private companies,but whether governments have effectively matched their service responsibilitiesand appropriate methods of delivery.
Much of institutional theory is based on the study of the most commoncharacteristics found in public institutions and the logic and reasoning that followsfrom that study. Central to this logic and reasoning are concepts of:
-Bounded rationality -Trial-and-error
-Incremental adaptation -Resource scarcity-Mixed scanning -Political management
-Loose coupling -Micromanagement
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High- Reliability Systems
There is, however, a very different category of public institutions, the High-Reliability Systems. HRS and why they work– First, the physical technologies (radar, nuclear generating plants, …) of
these systems are tightly coupled, meaning that an importantbreakdown anywhere along the production process may cause theentire system to fail.
– Second, this tight coupling is characterized by fixed and relatively rigidstandard operating system (SOP’s), or procedure protocols, that do notordinarily vary; this means that administrative discretion is sharplyreduced.
– Thirds, humans operating at any point in the production process of HRSrequires extensive technological training and constant retraining.
– Fourth, efficiency is much more important than economy in the world ofhigh reliability.
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High- Reliability Systems
HRS
– Fifth, such systems are highly redundant
– Sixth, these systems are highly networked, meaning that manyorganizations are in the production chain
– Seventh, these systems are composed of a marvelous mix ofgovernmental, nongovernmental, and commercial organizations, thevery definition of high functioning public-private partnership
– Eighth, when the systems are working properly, error reporting isencouraged and not punished
– Ninth, ordinarily such systems are rather hierarchal, both within thesystem and within the organization making up the system.
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Comparing Institutional forms Government can be divided in various ways, (each country have its own
system) Its related to how power and control are dividing among other authorities
and parties.
The diffusion of Innovation The study of the diffusion of institutional Innovation (change) is a core
body of research in institutional theory.
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Chapter 5
Theories of Public Management
38
Introduction:
Scientific Management theory, in its original Taylorist sense and itsmodern TQM sense, is generally in the family of decision theory.
The purposes and characteristics of decision theory are essentiallyproblem definition and problem solving.
Sophisticated decision theoretic model deal with goal ambiguity, resourcelimitations, incomplete information, and satisfying.
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Introduction:
Theories of public management are described in four categories:
First: traditional public management
Second: current popularity of leadership as public management
Third: the theory derived form the longer-standing practice of conductingpublic management by contract.
Fourth: theories of governance that explain important features of publicmanagement
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First: Traditional public management
The principle of Scientific Management by Frederick Taylor, its originin (1911)
Taylor principle are based on : precise measurements of work processes, as well as outcomes; on the scientific selection of workers; on the optimal placement or workers in describable work role; in the division and sequencing or work process and so enhance
productivity; and on the cooperation of the workers in achieving the organizational
objectives.The application of these principles, Taylor believed, would leadmanagers and worker to the one best way.
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First: Traditional public management
The principle of Scientific Management These concepts soon colonized government. The become a central part
of the progressive era and the movement to reform government, and theywere highly influential in the development of civil service systems ingovernment at all levels.
Examples in hiring, job description, promotion, and performanceappraisal.
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First: Traditional public management
Luther Gulick, one of the founders of modern public administration,embraced the orthodoxy of scientific management, applied it togovernment, and introduced the most famous mnemonic in the field –POSDCORB, which represent his theory of the seven major functions ofmanagement. (Planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating,reporting, and budgeting)
These principles of management (during 1937) had a kind ofcommonsense quality that was appealing to practicing public administrationas well as to those studying the field or preparing for practice
Early criticism of the principles said they were top-down, they wereessentially perspective, and they underemphasized natural forms ofcooperation – but they formed the core of the field.
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First: Traditional public management
PLANNING is working out in broad outline the things that need .tobe done and the methods for doing them to accomplish the purposeset for the enterprise;
ORGANIZING is the establishment of the formal structure ofauthority through which work subdivisions are arranged, defined andcoordinated for the defined objective;
STAFFING is the whole personnel function of bringing in andtraining the staff and maintaining favorable conditions of work;
DIRECTING is the continuous task of making decisions andembodying them in specific and general orders and instructions andserving as the leader of the enterprise;
CO-ORDINATING is the all-important duty of interrelating thevarious parts of the work;
REPORTING is keeping those to whom the executive is responsibleinformed as to what is going on, which thus includes keeping himselfand his subordinates informed through records, research andinspections;
BUDGETING, with all that goes with budgeting in the form of fiscalplanning, accounting and control
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First: Traditional public management
From the 1930s – 1950 s, important modifications and adaptations were made to theprinciples of scientific management.
Chester Barnard identified and set out the acceptance theory of authority, which arguesthat authority does not depends as much on persons of authority or having authority as itdepends on the willingness of others to accept or comply with directions or commands.
Barnard authority theory grounded in seven essential rules: The channels of communication should be definite; Everyone should know of the channels of communication; Everyone should have access to the formal channels of communication; Lines of communication should be as short and as direct as possible; Competence of persons serving as communication centers should be adequate; The line of communication should not be interrupted when the organization is
functioning; Every communication should be authenticated. Thus, what makes a communication authoritative rests with the subordinate rather than
with his superior
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First: Traditional public management
The Hawthorne studies describe the Hawthorne effect (1927 - 1932) byElton Mayo, which explains worker productivity as a function of observersattention rather than physical of contextual factors.
Subsequent interpretations of the hawthorne effect suggest that mereattention b observers is too simplistic, and what workers saw in theexperiments altered forms of supervision that they preferred and thatcaused productivity to increase.
Scientific Management theory was challenged by human relationapproach and Barnard theory and Mc, Gregor’s theory.
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First: Traditional public management
McGreggor’s Theory X, Theory Y is a framework of assumptionsabout people
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First: Traditional public management
Following these assumptions, theory X managers emphasize elaboratedcontrol and oversight, and they motivates by economic incentives,
Theory Y managers seek to integrate individual and organizational goalsand to emphasize latitude in performing tasks; they seek to make workinteresting and thereby encourage creativity.
Its important to point out that the work if Chester Barnard, the Hawthornestudies, and McGreggor’s was behavioral, which is to say that it wasbased on field research
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Employer beliefabout employees
Theory X Theory Y
View of work Dislike and avoid it As natural as Rest or Play
Ability to control Must be coerced,controlled, threatened
Exercise self-direction andcontrol
Attitude TowardResponsibility
Avoid it Seek FormalDirection
Accept it & Even Seek it
Attitude Toward Innovation Security Valued OverAmbition, So no DesireTo Do Anything New
Management is Not Theonly one Capable of
Innovation
First: Traditional public management
Max Weber : Bureaucracy theory (1930s-1940s)
Weber concerned about “ideal-type” and “rationality”
Weber focused on dividing organizations into hierarchies, establishingstrong lines of authority and control. He suggested organizations developcomprehensive and detailed standard operating procedures for allroutinized tasks.
Weber’s bureaucracy was more popular with academics than withpractitioners, and it is a theory of management only in the sense that itdescribes what he identifies as characteristics commonly found in largeand complex organizations that have endured.
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First: Traditional public management
The critique of Weber’s work is well established. The ideal type ofbureaucracy tends to inertia, resists change, is mechanistic rather thanhumanistic, is subject to goal displacement and to trained incapacity.
Bureaucracy, in the present day, has become the object of a politicalderision that blames the problems of government on the people andorganizations that operate public programs.
Despite all this criticism, Max Weber is acknowledged to have developedone of the most empirically accurate and universal descriptions of thelarge-scale complex organization in its time, a description that is oftenaccurate even today
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First: Traditional public management
No criticism of the principles of public administration was so devastatingas Herbert Simon critique – dismissed them as proverbs (1945).
He demonstrated that the principles of public administration werecontradictory, had little ability to be generalized as theory, and were fuzzyand imprecise.
From the late 1950s through the mid-1980s, little serious theoretical workwas done on management in public administration.
During that period, a strong interest in management theory in sociology,social psychology, and business administration continued. Much of thiswork was in the so-called middle range theories, particularly group theory,role theory, and communication theory.
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Group Theory
Theories of groups are primarily theories of organizations rather thantheories of management, but group theories has important implications forpublic management.
Most of these implications have to do with contrasting approaches tomanagerial control.
In classical management theory, control is exercised by policy, rules,regulations and oversight. In group theory, the effective group willdeveloped shared goals and values, norms of behavior, custom andtraditions.
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Group Theory
Effective management in the context of group theory nurtures, cultivates,and supports group goals and norms that are compatible with andsupportive of institutional purposes and missions.
Most aspects of group theory are now embedded in the publicmanagement literature, and many public managers seek to develop thekinds of group goals, motivation, and commitments that support publicmanagement goals.
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Role Theory
Social psychologists tend to define all human organizations as rolesystems.
In role theory, each office or position is understood to be relational; that is,each office is defined in its relationship to others and to the organizationas a whole, and often to the organization's purposes.
Persons in roles exhibit essential persisting feature of behavior, such asthe behavior of school superintendents, prisons wardens…much of the studies in roles theory in public sector was about “thebehavior of school superintendents”
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Role Theory
Role theorists observe and measure the persisting patterns of behavior ofpersons in common roles; they especially study the relations betweenpersons in particular roles, both inside and outside the organizations.
Role theorists have consistently demonstrated that role occupants, tendto misperceive the role expectations of others. Ordinarily, thismisperception exaggerates the strength, duration, and specificity of thepositions of others and results in excessive managerial caution andorganizational inertia.
Higher levels of management tend to be associated with multiple roles,and sometimes role overload.
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Role Theory
Higher levels of management tend to be associated with multiple roles,and sometimes role overload. Mangers, however, tend to find greater jobsatisfaction as roles increase.
The more roles a manager takes on, the grater the tendency to seekgeneralized, overall solutions, programmed solutions, one size-fits-aanswers. The greater the number of roles the greater the tendency to useauthority and sanctions and to search for one generalizable efficiency-often a short-term efficiency at that.
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Role Theory
Henry Mintzberg used theconcept of role theory toidentify the three primarymanagerial roles, a set ofcategories now widely usedin management theory forbusiness but equallyapplicable to managementin public administration.
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Role Theory
FIGUREHEAD: the manager performs ceremonial and symbolic duties as head ofthe organization;
LEADER: fosters a proper work atmosphere and motivates and developssubordinates;
LIASION: develops and maintains a network of external contacts to gatherinformation;
MONITOR: gathers internal and external information relevant to the organization; DISSEMINATOR: transmits factual and value based information to subordinates; SPOKESPERSON: communicates to the outside world on performance and
policies. ENTREPRENEUR: designs and initiates change in the organization; DISTURBANCE HANDLER: deals with unexpected events and operational
breakdowns; RESOURCE ALLOCATOR: controls and authorizes the use of organization
resources; NEGOTIATOR: participates in negotiation activities with other organization and
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Communication Theory
Interpersonal communication process
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Communication Theory
Much of what understood to be public management depends uponeffective communication.
Communication theory is a mix of cybernetics, linguistics, and socialpsychology.
The language of communication theory resembles the language ofsystems theory: inputs, throughputs, outputs, feedback loops, entropy,homeostasis.
The theory of communication found in public administration argues thatmost downward communications, or communication with subordinates,emphasizes task directives and organizational policy and procedures.
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Communication Theory
The communication of agency mission and performance feedback areoften neglected, the result being low morale, preoccupation with routinetasks, and indifferent to agency performance.
Public managers overestimate the power of communication throughmemoranda, email, telephone and other such channels, and theyunderestimate the power of direct communications through or bymanagerial action.
Effective communication occurs when mangers establish work standardsthrough collective means and provide feedback on performance asmeasured against agreed-upon standards.
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Communication Theory
Effective communication with other agencies and with agency publics isan enduring feature of managerial communication theory.
Keeping channelsclear for upwardcommunication is astaple incommunication theory,as is the importance ofredundant, multiple,and overlappingcommunicationchannels downward,upward, and laterally.
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New Public Management (NPM)
New Public Management (NPM) and some time referred to as the “newmanagerialism”
The New Public Management is presently very influential in the practicesof public administration. In a postmodern and rhetorical sense, the NPMcan be explained and understood as presently acceptable doctrines ofmanagement. But, the canons of social science demand a more preciseidentification of variables more precision in the suggested associationbetween variables, greater precisions techniques indicates that NPAprinciples can result in a selective and short run increase in efficiency; arenegatively associated with fairness, equity, or justice, seldom reducecosts; and have produced numerous innovative ways to accomplish publicor collective purposes.
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Comparison of Traditional and Contemporary Principles ofManagement in Public Administration
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Doctrine Traditional Principles Contemporary Principles
Scale Large - centralized Small – decartelized
Serviceprovision
Direct government service
Compel cost and benefits
Contract out
Choices in cost and benefits
Specialization By characteristics of work
By work process and purposes
By characteristics of clientele
By location
Control By professional practice standards
By inputs (budgets, staff size)
By outputs, process
By administration
By competition
By outcomes
By administration
Comparison of Traditional and Contemporary Principles ofManagement in Public Administration
Cont.
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Chapter 6
Decision Theory
52
Doctrine Traditional Principles Contemporary Principles
Discretion By laws, regulations
By professional latitude
By deregulation
By risk taking
Employment By merit, affirmative action,technical skills
The same
Leadership Based on neutral competence
Professional expertise
Based on entrepreneurialadvocating
Purpose To carry out the law
To manage orderly and reliableinstitutions
To facilitate change
To create public value
Introduction:
Although now quite distinct, in many ways rational choice theory anddecision theory trace to the same origins. Both are associated with earlywork of Herbert A. Simon and particularly his Administrative Behavior, firstpublished in 1947.
Decision theory, is the most obviously multidisciplinary body of theory inpublic administration, influenced as it is by economics, organizationalsociology, social psychology, and political science.
The relative maturity of decision theory is characterized by a generallyagreed-upon set of conceptual categories and the use of a distinctlanguage to explicate those categories.
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Introduction:
Simon’s argues that administration is a world of deciding and thatdecisions are as important as actions.
Herbert Simon theory could be summarized:
– “bounded rationality”
– seek to “satisfice” rather than “optimize”
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Introduction:
Indeed, decisions are the predicates of actions, and actions are almostalways based on accumulated decisions.
The traditional study of administration was, Simon claimed, toopreoccupied with action, and particularly with unsubstantiated “principles”of action, which he labeled proverbs.
The modern study of administration needed to be more scientific, and thescience of administration needed to be based on a new and different unityof analysis – the decision
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Simon’s book review of Administrative Behavior
Any decision involves a choice selected from a number of alternatives,directed toward an organizational goal or sub-goal.
Realistic options will have real consequences consisting of personnelactions or non-actions modified by environmental facts and values.
In actual practice, some of the alternatives may be conscious orunconscious; some of the consequences may be unintended as well asintended; and some of the means and ends may be imperfectlydifferentiated, incompletely related, or poorly detailed.
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Simon’s book review of Administrative Behavior
The task of rational decision making is to select the alternative that resultsin the more preferred set of all the possible consequences.
This task can be divided into three required steps:– (1) the identification and listing of all the alternatives;– (2) the determination of all the consequences resulting from each of
the alternatives; and– (3) the comparison of the accuracy and efficiency of each of these
sets of consequences. Any given individual or organization attempting to implement this model in
a real situation would be unable to comply with the three requirements. Itis highly improbable that one could know all the alternatives, or all theconsequences that follow each alternative.
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Simon’s book review of Administrative Behavior
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Simon’s book review of Administrative Behavior
The question here is: given the inevitable limits on rational decisionmaking, what other techniques or behavioral processes can a person ororganization bring to bear to achieve approximately the best result?Simon writes:“The human being striving for rationality and restrictedwithin the limits of his knowledge has developed some workingprocedures that partially overcome these difficulties. These proceduresconsist in assuming that he can isolate from the rest of the world a closedsystem containing a limited number of variables and a limited range ofconsequences
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Simon’s book review of Administrative Behavior2
Administrative Behavior, as a text, addresses a wide range of humanbehaviors, cognitive abilities, management techniques, personnel policies,training goals and procedures, specialized roles, criteria for evaluation ofaccuracy and efficiency, and all of the ramifications of communicationprocesses. Simon is particularly interested in how these factors directlyand indirectly influence the making of decisions.
Weaving in and out of the practical functioning of all of theseorganizational factors are two universal elements of human socialbehavior that Simon addresses : Role of Authority, Loyalties, andOrganizational Identification
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Simon’s book review of Administrative Behavior2
Authority is a well studied, primary mark of organizational behavior, and isstraightforwardly defined in the organizational context as the ability andright of an individual of higher rank to determine the decision of anindividual of lower rank. The actions, attitudes, and relationships of thedominant and subordinate individuals constitute components of rolebehavior that can vary widely in form, style, and content, but do not vary inthe expectation of obedience by the one of superior status, andwillingness to obey from the subordinate. Authority is highly influential onthe formal structure of the organization, including patterns ofcommunication, sanctions, and rewards, as well as on the establishmentof goals, objectives, and values of the organization
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Simon’s book review of Administrative Behavior2
Decisions can be complex admixtures of facts and values. Information about facts,especially empirically proven facts or facts derived from specialized experience,are more easily transmitted in the exercise of authority than are the expressions ofvalues. Simon is primarily interested in seeking identification of the individualemployee with the organizational goals and values.
Following Lasswell he states that “a person identifies himself with a group when, inmaking a decision, he evaluates the several alternatives of choice in terms of theirconsequences for the specified group”. A person may identify himself with anynumber of social, geographic, economic, racial, religious, familial, educational,gender, political, and sports groups. Indeed, the number and variety are unlimited.The fundamental problem for organizations is to recognize that personal andgroup identifications can either facilitate or obstruct correct decision making for theorganization. A specific organization has to deliberately determine and specify inappropriate detail and clear language its own goals, objectives, means, ends, andvalues.
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Simon’s book review of Administrative Behavior2
Chester Barnard pointed out that “the decisions that an individual makesas a member of an organization are quite distinct from his personaldecisions”. Personal choices may determine whether an individual joins aparticular organization, and continue to be made in his or her extra–organizational private life. But, as a member of an organization, thatindividual makes decisions not in relationship to personal needs andresults, but in an impersonal sense as part of the organizational intent,purpose, and effect. Organizational inducements, rewards, and sanctionsare all designed to form, strengthen, and maintain this identification.
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Simon’s book review of Administrative Behavior2
The correctness of decisions is measured by two major criteria:– (1) adequacy of achieving the desired objective; and
– (2) the efficiency with which the result was obtained.
Many members of the organization may focus on adequacy, but theoverall administrative management must pay particular attention to theefficiency with which the desired result was obtained.
Simon's contributions to research in the area of decision-making havebecome increasingly mainstream in the business community thanks to thegrowth of management consulting
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Summary:
We can make several generalization form this review of decision theory inpublic administration.
First, there is an obvious close affinity between the decision logic ofconsequences and rational or public-choice theory. The former tends to agreater emphasis on the bounds of rationality, the later to a greateremphasis on pure rationality. Both are grounded in economics andpolitical science and tend to use methodologies.
Second, there is also a close affinity between the decision logic ofappropriateness and modern institutional theory. Both are grounded insociology, social psychology, and business and public administration, andboth tend to use the same methodologies
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Summary:
We can make several generalization form this review of decision theory inpublic administration.
Third, the level of theorizing, modeling, and categorizing about institutionalchoice making from either perspective is probably greater that the level ofempirically-based, theory-testing research.
Forth, and most important, scholars using the decision logic ofconsequences and scholars using the decision logic of appropriatenessare increasingly influenced by one another.
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Rational Choice Theory
Rational Choice Theory
Rational choice is neoclassical economic theory applied to the publicsector. It seeks to build a bridge between micro-economics and politics byviewing the actions of citizens, politicians, and public servants asanalogous to the actions of self-interested producers and consumers.
This analogy not only makes it possible to conceive of the public sector inmarket terms but also makes available to public administration scholars awell-developed set of theoretical tools from economics. The terminologyfor these tools varies (they are sometimes called political economy orwelfare economics), but are best known and most widely applied asrational or public choice.
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Rational Choice Theory
The intellectual roots of rational choice date back at least to the work ofAdam Smith, whose The wealth of Nations (first published in 1776).
Smith’s greater insight was that people acting in pursuit of their own self-interest could, through the mechanism of the “invisible hand”, producecollective benefits that profited all society.
Although Smith contribution was vital, he did not construct a theory ofpublic administration.
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Some Other Aspects of Public Choice Theory
What are some of the other aspects of collective activity that PublicChoice Theory covers?
Constitutional, Democratic Government
Voting
Political Manipulations
The Realities of Collectives
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Some Other Aspects of Public Choice Theory
Constitutional, Democratic Government : Public Choice theorists attempt toexamine the system of government in which the people governed define theirgovernment by means of a constitution.
Voting: Much attention has been given in the Public Choice field to the problem ofvoting. The simple approaches currently used have been shown to be defective asthey do not always achieve the desired results. Alternative voting methods areexamined and evaluated.
Political Manipulations :Public Choice scholars have looked at the wayspoliticians interact with each other, the voters, and their supporters to achieve theirown goals. Vote-trading, "log-rolling", wealth transfers, etc. are a few of themethods they use to obtain their own selfish ends -- and, occasionally, the wantsof the citizens.
The Realities of Collectives Public Choice scholars examine the options involvedwith solving the many social dilemmas resulting from living in groups orcollectives. We know that private enterprise is not a good solution to the problemof the distribution of public goods. From that you cannot conclude that governmentcan do the job better (in spite of the fact that many "scholars" do come to thatconclusion!). Public Choice scholars address the challenge of determining what isthe best "of the imperfect solutions".
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Chapter 7
The Study and Practice of Public Policy
62
Politics definition
The study of politics is the attempt to explain the various ways in whichpower is exercised in the everyday world and how that power is used toallocate resources and benefits to some people and groups, and costsand burdens to other people and groups.
Politics is a process by which groups of people make decisions . The termis generally applied to behavior within civil governments , but politics hasbeen observed in all human group interactions, including corporate ,academic and religious institutions. It consists of "social relations involvingauthority or power" and refers to the regulation of a political unit, and tothe methods and tactics used to formulate and apply policy .
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The Public Policy definition
The study of public policy is firmly grounded in the study of politics,which is as ancient as human civilization itself. Most of the ancientphilosophers looked at politics in general, theoretical ways.
Public policy can be generally defined as the course of action or inactiontaken by governmental entities (the decisions of government) with regardto a particular issue or set of issues
Other scholars define it as a system of "courses of action, regulatory measures, laws , and priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by agovernmental entity or its representatives.“
Public policy is commonly embodied “in constitutions, legislative acts,and judicial decisions”
Public policy is the results of decisions made by the three branches ofgovernment.
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Political Science:
Political science is a social science concerned with the theory and practice ofpolitics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior.It is often described as the pragmatic application of the art and science of politicsdefined as "who gets what, when and how", leaving out of the picture most of the"why".[1] Political science has several subfields, including: political theory , public policy, national politics, international relations , and comparative politics .
Political science is methodologically diverse, to the discipline include classicalpolitical philosophy , positivism , interpretivism , structuralism , and behavioralism ,realism, pluralism, and institutionalism . Political science, as one of the social sciences, uses methods and techniques that relate to the kinds of inquiries sought:primary sources such as historical documents and official records, secondarysources such as scholarly journal articles, survey research, statistical analysis ,case studies and model building.
"As a discipline" political science, possibly like the social sciences as a whole,"lives on the fault line between the 'two cultures' in the academy, the sciences andthe humanities ."[2] Thus, in some American colleges where there is no separateSchool or College of Arts and Sciences per se, political science may be a separatedepartment housed as part of a division or school of Humanities or Liberal Arts .[3]
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Political Science:
Political science is a social science concerned with the theory andpractice of the study of governments, public policies and politicalprocesses, systems, and political behavior. It is often described as thepragmatic application of the art and science of politics defined as "whogets what, when and how", leaving out of the picture most of the "why".
Political science has several subfields, including: political theory , public policy, national politics, international relations , and comparative politics .
Political scientists study anything all about and related to the allocationand transfer of power in decision making , the roles and systems ofgovernance including governments and international organizations ,political behavior and public policies . They measure the success ofgovernance and specific policies by examining many factors, includingstability, justice , material wealth , and peace .
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Selected Disciplines That Study Public Policy
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Selected Disciplines That Study Public Policy
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Discipline Description Relationship to Public Policy
Publicadministration
The study of the management ofgovernment and nonprofit organizations,including the management of information,money, and personnel to achieve goalsdeveloped through the democraticprocess.
The management of publicprograms is an integral part of thepolicy process. PA scholars studythe motivation of programimplementers and targets and helpresearch innovations to improveservice delivery.
PublicPolicy
The study of what governments choose todo or not to do, including studies of thepolicy process, policy implementation andimpact, and evaluation..
We give this label to the highlyinterdisciplinary study of the publicpolicy process. Policy scholarsdevelop theories about how thepolicy process works and developtools and methods to analyze howpolicy is made and implemented.
Discipline Description Relationship to Public Policy
PoliticalScience
The study of political relationships; that is,the study of the processes by whichsocieties seek to allocate political powerand the benefits of such power,
The political process is the processthrough which policies are madeand enforced.
Sociology Sociology is the study of social life, socialchange, and the social causes andconsequences of human behavior.Sociologists investigate the structure ofgroups, organizations, and societies, andhow people interact within these contexts.
Community and group activities arean important part of policy making,because groups of people oftenform to make demands.
Economics The study of the allocation of resources ina community, however defined.Economists study markets andexchanges. Welfare economists seek tounderstand the extent to which an overallcommunity’s welfare can be maximized.
There are many economic factorsthat influence public policy, such aseconomic growth, productivity,employment, and the like. The toolsof economics are often used topromote policies or to explain whypolicies succeed or fail.
The Study and Practice of Public Policy
Because the field of public policy studies is so new, it has yet to coalescearound a shared set of principles, theories, and priorities (paradigm).
For public policy to be useful, we must bridge the gap between whatacademics know and how practitioners and citizens use what we know tomake better policy (or better policy arguments).
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Policy Science as Applied Science
Is public policy a “science”?
We can say that the careful study of public policy is “scientific” because itcontributes to knowledge by relying on methodological rigor.– Policy analysts share a commitment to methodology, but not to any one
particular method– Some scientist recognized that we must combine quantitative and
qualitative information.– Theorizing is important, because they make sense of ambiguous
evidence, and they develop concepts that apply to more than one case.
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Policy Science as Applied Science
Policy analysis is an important component of policy sciences.
But researchers should keep rational analysis in context: within theinterplay of evidence, value and belief systems of the participants, thestructure of the process, and the distribution of power.
Most policy analysis is not value neutral. Problem identification is rarelyneutral, for example.
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Public Policy:
Policy Analysis is frequently deployed in the public sector , but is equallyapplicable to other kinds of organizations.
Policy analysts can come from many backgrounds including sociology ,psychology, economics , geography , philosophy , law , political science ,anthropology, public policy , policy studies , social work , environmental planning, and public administration .
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Chapter 8
Ethics in Public Administration
What is Ethics?
The study of standards of conduct and moral judgment…
The system or code of morals of a particular person, religion, group,profession, etc.
To be ethical means conforming to the standards of conduct of a givenprofession or group.
Webster’s New World Dictionary
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Ethics in public administration
Ethics in the public sector is a broad topic.
In general, ethics is a branch of philosophy which seeks to addressquestions about morality ; that is, about concepts like good and bad , right and wrong , justice , virtue , etc.
In the public sector, ethics addresses the fundamental premise of a publicadministrators duty as a "steward" to the public. In other words, it is themoral justification and consideration for decisions and actions madeduring the completion of daily duties when working to provide the generalservices of government and nonprofit organizations. Ethics are anaccountability standard by which the public will scrutinize the work beingconducted by the members of these organizations.
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Ethics in public administration
Ethics in the public sector Decisions are based upon ethical principles, which are the perception of
what the general public would view as correct. Having such a distinctionensures that public administrators are not acting on an internal set ofethical principles without first questioning whether those principles wouldhold to public scrutiny. It also has placed an additional burden upon publicadministrators regarding the conduct of their personal lives. Public sectorethics is an attempt to create a more open atmosphere withingovernmental operations.
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Government's Ethical Origins
Government officials serve the people, managing the resources of others.Along with this stewardship,– there is an expectation from the public that in conducting daily activities,
the officials will practice fairness and equality.– They are also expected to maintain openness in their workings to
ensure that they are operating within the public's perception of what is"right.”
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What is Ethics?
Ethics refers to standards of conduct, standards that indicate how oneshould behave based on moral duties and virtues, which themselves arederived from principles of right and wrong. As a practical matter, ethics isabout how we meet the challenge of doing the right thing when that willcost more than we want to pay.
There are two aspects of ethics:
– The first involves the ability to discern right from wrong, good from evil,and propriety from impropriety.
– The second involves the commitment to do what is right, good, andproper. Ethics entails action.
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Ethical Dilemmas
Confronting conflicting responsibilities is themost typical way public administratorsexperience ethical dilemmas.
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What Are public employees Responsibilities?
To the public To the stakeholders
To the organization
To the profession
To the colleagues
To themselves
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Providing Ethical Leadership: Creating EthicalOrganizations
One could argue that the only thing of realimportance that leaders do is to create and manageculture and that the unique talent of leaders is theirability to understand and work with culture.
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What Shapes Our Ethical Decisions?
Societal Expectations– Public participation– Public trust– The media– Laws
Individual attributes– Ethical decision making skill– Mental attitude– Personal values– Professional values– Education– Experience
Organizational Culture– Codes of conduct
– Norms for conduct
– Role Models
– Symbols
– Accountability
– Policies and Procedures
– Organizational design and structure
– Informal organizational structure
– Training
– Ethical leadership
– CouragePage 144
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Creating Ethical Organizations: Some Strategies
Understand how supervisors and peers can influence behavior Communicate and enforce the code of ethics Set the tone for a high standard of conduct by clearly articulating the
organization’s values Attend to ethical values and character in recruitment Integrate ethical performance into promotional exams and annual reviews Link ethical behavior to incentives Develop and implement ethics training programs Make ethics a part of employee orientation Raise ethical concerns at meetings and through regular communication
channels Publicize ethical dilemmas and the organization’s perspective on them Give earnest attention to ethical treatment of employees and those we serve Limit opportunities to be unethical through checks and balances Form an ethics committee to focus on ethics policy and issues Conduct an “ethics audit”
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Principles of Public Service Ethics
A public office is a public trust. Public servants should treat theiroffice as a public trust, only using the powers and resources of publicoffice to advance public interests, and not to attain personal benefits orpursue any other private interest incompatible with the public good.
Principle of independent objective judgment. Public servants shouldemploy independent objective judgment in performing their duties,deciding all matters on the merits, free from conflicts of interest and bothreal and apparent improper influences.
Principle of accountability. Public servants should assure thatgovernment is conducted openly, effectively, equitably and honorably in amanner that permits the citizenry to make informed judgments and holdgovernment officials accountable.
Principle of respectability and fitness for office. Public servantsshould conduct their professional and personal lives so as to revealcharacter traits, attitudes, and judgments that are worthy of honor andrespect and demonstrate fitness for office
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