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CONTENTS

DOORS & WINDOWS 16 BUILDING COMPONENTS &

TYPICAL FAULTS 4

> Seasonal movement 16 > Windows 17

CRACKS AND BUILDING MOVEMENT 4 Awning 17

> Overview 4 Casement 17

> Footings and foundations 5 Double‐hung 17

> Stormwater drainage 6 Sliding 17

Subsurface drainage 6 Better materials 18

Drainage from hard surfaces 6 Cellars and underground garages 6 SHEDS AND OUTBUILDINGS 18 Drainage to and from sloping sites 6

ELECTRICAL SERVICES 18 > Watering near the building 6 > Safety switches 18 > Tree roots 7 > Service lines 19 > Leaking plumbing 7 > House wiring 19 > Summary 7 > Lights and fire 19

ROOFS 7 Low voltage downlights 19 > Tiled roofs 7 Other lamps fire risk. 20

Sarking and leaking 7 PLUMBING SERVICES 20

Tiled roof repairs and ‘restoration’ 8 > Water plumbing 20 Tiled roof ageing and decay 8 > Waste plumbing 20 > Metal roofs 8

Steep enough? 8 DAMP & SALT DAMP 21 Flat roofs 8 > Cause 21 Colorbond roofing 9 > Prevention 21 Screws, nails and fasteners 9 > Cure 22 Inspecting for leaks 9 Old roofs 9

> Roof framing 9 HEALTH & SAFETY 23 > Gutters and downpipes 10

Maintenance & clearing 10 GLAZING 23

Downpipe size 11 > Mirrors 23

Gutter shape and capacity 11 > Safety glazing 23

> Exterior trim, barges, fascias 11 Toughened glass 23

WALLS 11 Laminated glass 23 Safety film 23 > New materials, old habits 11 Wired glass 23 > Water and windows 12

> Wall vents 12 FIRE SAFETY 24

Underfloor ventilation 12 > Escape 24

Wall cavity ventilation 12 > Smoke alarms 24

Room ventilation 13 > Fire extinguisher, fire blanket 24

> Interior wall types & defects 13 > Bushfire 24

Hard plaster 13 > Electrical fire hazards 24

Plasterboard 13 Recessed downlights 25

CEILINGS 14 Power boards starting fires 25 > Plasterboard 14

HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 25 > Lath and plaster 14

> Asbestos 25 > Fibrous plaster 15

> Timber 26 > Other ceiling types 15

> Lead 26 FLOORS 15

AIR QUALITY IN THE HOME 27 > Concrete ‐ slab on ground 15

> Off‐gassing of new materials, paints etc 27 > Concrete ‐ suspended slab 16

> Carpets 27 > Timber 16

EDITION 8 – JUNE 2012 COPYRIGHT ‘ARTEKTON’

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CONTENTS


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CHILD SAFETY 27 > Blind + Curtain cords 27 > Hazardous substances: 27 > Restricting access 28

Vehicle areas 28 Water safety 28 Stairs 28

> Vehicles 28 Playing in cars 28 Keys 29

> Electrical safety 29 > Fireplaces 29 > Hot water scalding 29

FIRST AID KIT 29

FURNITURE 29

FALLS 30

DANGEROUS STRUCTURES 30 > Decks + balconies 30

Timber 30 Concrete 30

> Outbuildings 31 > Basketball rings and collapsing walls 31

RATS, POSSUMS AND UNWANTED

VISITORS 31

VENTILATION & SEALING 32 > Water vapour 32 > Ceilings 32 > Doors + windows 32

STAIRS 32

HANDRAILS AND GRAB RAILS 32

LIGHTING 32

SECURITY 33 > Barriers to entry 33

Security screen doors 33 Glass reinforcement 33 Window grilles and shutters 33 Locks 33

> Surveillance and detection 33 Peep holes 33 Remote surveillance cams 33 Alarms 34

TERMITES 35

WHAT IS THE REAL RISK? 35

CONSEQUENCES OF TERMITE DAMAGE 35

HOW TO REDUCE THE RISK OF ATTACK 36 > Barriers 36 > Baits 36 > Attack versus defence 36 > Don’t offer cosy conditions 36 > Verandah & pergola posts 37 > Don’t hand out free food 37

D.I.Y. DETECTION OF TERMITES 37 > Call for help 37 > I found some termites ! 37 > Observation 37 > Ant caps and flashings 38 > Warning signs inside 38 > Noisy termites 38 > Links to more information 38

ENERGY EFFICIENCY 39

BUILDING FABRIC 39

BUILDING SEALING 40

PASSIVE SOLAR DESIGN 40 > ‘We’re going solar…where?’ 40

LIGHTING 40

HOME HEATING 41

HOME COOLING 41 > Windows 41 > Airconditioning 42 > Evaporative cooling 42 > Fans 42

INSULATION 42

HOT WATER HEATING 43

SHADING 43

CONNECTING TO A FREE ENERGY SUPPLY 43 > Hopes for further progress 44

Tradition 44 Cheap Energy 44 Ignorance 44 Industry Economics 45

JARGON EXPLAINED 46

INDEX 53

BUILDING COMPONENTS & TYPICAL FAULTS

This document is a work in progress answering requests from our clients for more

information about building defects and maintenance. Because it covers such a

variety of age and type of home, some of the defects and issues may not be

relevant right now, but are useful to know for the future. As with any specialist

area, there is some jargon to know, so to assist readers, there is a glossary at the

end and some chapters have a list of keywords at the beginning. Suggestions for

additions or comments can be sent to the author, David Bodycomb at

[email protected] web: www.artekton.com.au

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CCRRAACCKKSS AANNDD BBUUIILLDDIINNGG MMOOVVEEMMEENNTT

Footing –

often incorrectly called ‘the foundations’, the footing is the part of a structure, usually at its bottom, which transfers the loads of the structure

into the foundation. Footings around Adelaide are mostly made from reinforced concrete.

Foundation‐

the soil, rock, sand or fill on which the building’s footing is supported

> Overview Many of Adelaide’s suburbs are built on reactive soils – soils that shrink and

swell according to their moisture content. Houses built with inadequate

footings on reactive foundation soil will almost always suffer cracked walls.

Ideally, if the moisture can be kept unchanged, the building won’t crack, but

in reality this is made difficult by our uneven rainfall (see graph). Wall

cracking varies with locality and the type of construction, from nil to very

severe. Generally speaking, the older the home, the worse the cracking.

Severe cracking can need expensive plastering and painting every 5‐10 years, simply to maintain a tolerable level of

comfort and cleanliness in the home. The accumulating cost and disruption can make demolition and rebuilding seem

a better option. Fortunately, cases this bad are rare, but even relatively minor wall cracking can appear alarming.

People unfamiliar with the condition can be justifiably alarmed and fearful of purchase. Those from outside Adelaide

are often perplexed at how locals can tolerate ongoing walls cracking. They may reasonably believe that the building

will soon fall down, but this is most unlikely and it is rare even for a single wall to need to be fully rebuilt. Over the

years, as seasonal moisture fluctuations continue, repairs accumulate with the result that wall surfaces inside and out

can become rough and uneven, sometimes with waving visible along the length of exterior walls.

Again, cracking generally affects older homes more, but on recently‐developed sites, another cause of cracking may

exist: subsidence of areas of un‐compacted soil, which settle over time, leading to a loss of building support. In this

case, underpinning may become necessary, which involves sometimes difficult excavation under or against the

footing, followed by concreting of new support piers and/or beams.

Although rain is the main cause, plumbing leaks can be a more insidious cause of cracking because they usually

remain hidden and develop slowly over a long period. The plumbing section discusses this further.

mailto:[email protected]



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> Footings and foundations Many older homes are constructed on footings that

have little or no structural value except to occupy

the distance between the wall (usually tons of brick

or stone) and the ground, slightly below the surface.

They have little or no ability to resist movements in

the foundation, so all such movements end up being

transferred into the building and manifest as wall

cracks. Homes built pre‐WW1 used little or no

cement in their brickwork mortar, making a very

weak mortar, and this has the interesting effect of

sometimes allowing the bricks to slide over each

other, so that instead of individual large cracks appearing, movement can be distributed across the whole wall, visible

only as fine cracking in the plaster or completely hidden behind wallpaper. In contrast to this, newer brickwork is

usually ‘glued’ together with strong mortar. The ‘sliding’ of bricks cannot occur so wall cracks are typically more

dramatic. Cracked brickwork may remain ‘toothed’ together at the crack, but if the mortar is too strong, then the bricks

can crack right through (sometimes occurring with a ‘bang’) and leave the wall separate pieces, no longer connected

by their ‘toothing’ pattern. Sections of wall can become unstable and unsafe and need assessment by an engineer.

We can see from these fairly general examples that wall cracking is not a simple issue to understand. Expert advice is essential and

remedies must consider the age and type of the building and its environment.

Developments in soil science and engineering over recent decades have largely overcome cracking by giving us

footings that resist or accommodate the effect of foundation movements. Generally, footings are designed to be strong

enough to support part or all of the building without breaking or excessive bending. Where this is not feasible, the

footing may be articulated – that is, made in sections which are connected with a flexible joint, with the building above

likewise jointed. The junction between a house and a later extension is an example. Buildings whose footings are

unable to resist the consequent foundation movements will always experience cracking unless the walls have

adequate flexibility (eg are fully framed) or if they are built of rigid units (eg bricks) flexibly‐connected together by

‘control joints’. Control joints usually appear simply as strategically‐placed gaps in the rigid parts of a building’s

structure. In brickwork this is a vertical slot about 12mm wide, or in the case of ‘articulated masonry’, it is the whole

space occupied by doors and windows, with a panelled section above or below the frame as necessary to make the

frame the full height of the wall. Prior to about 1970, homes typically did not have control joints, so movement in the

rigid parts of the building would show up as cracking. A crack which opens and closes seasonally and does not

compromise the stability of the building might be tolerated as an ‘ad hoc’ control joint. It may better become the

location for a properly‐formed control joint. This work should only be done be under the guidance of a builder,

architect or engineer.

Modern footings are designed by an engineer using

established knowledge of the particular soil type at the

site. Samples are taken from the site, usually to a depth

of several metres, using a drill or push‐tube. This

information, added to knowledge of steel and concrete

structures, assists the engineer in designing a footing to

support a particular building for a particular site, so as to

resist or accommodate the likely movement of that site

together with other loads imposed upon the structure.

Despite the vast accumulation of knowledge on the

subject of footing design, there are numerous opportunities for footing to fail and the building to crack, such as wetting

or drying of the foundation beyond the limits anticipated by the engineer , mistakes in the footing design, or simply

poor workmanship or materials. Differential movement between an existing house and an extension is a common

occurrence, usually because the new and old have been built at different times, probably on different foundation using



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a different footing system. It is not difficult to see that there is likely to be some movement at the junction of the two

structures, so it had better be allowed for, to avoid damage to claddings, linings and flooring.

> Stormwater drainage With changes in soil moisture being the most common cause of cracking in houses, the management of water, on the

surface and below, deserves close attention.

Subsurface drainage

If an area of the site is excessively wet or boggy, it may be necessary to install

a drain to carry the water away. Consider using a length of buried perforated

pipe (‘agricultural pipe’ or ‘ag pipe’) or a gravel‐filled trench draining to a

legal point of discharge (see sketch). A small area can sometimes be drained

adequately by boring a hole a metre or so deep using a hand post hole borer

(approx 200mm dia) then filling with coarse gravel.

Drainage from hard surfaces

Drainage from hard surfaces (paving and concrete) should be directed to a

location where it will not cause overwetting of the building foundation.

Poorly‐graded surfaces can allow ponding to occur which can become

slippery and hazardous.

Cellars and underground garages

A driveway leading downhill to an excavated garage can be reliant on

mechanical pumping to prevent flooding. Strip drains and sumps need to be

maintained free of blockages and pumps tested regularly to ensure they work

adequately when needed. Paradoxically, the time when a pump will be most

needed to keep an underground space dry is the same time that interruption to electric power is most likely – during a

severe storm. For this reason, a backup pump or power source independent of mains electricity is advisable, especially

if the underground space contains valuable items like motor vehicles.

Drainage to and from sloping sites

Most house sites in Adelaide are fairly flat and drainage is easily managed,

with excess stormwater being directed out to the street water table (see

sketch). Sites that are not sloping towards the street can present issues of

potential damage caused by drainage onto, or from, neighbouring sites. Roof

water can be sent uphill to the street, up to a metre or so, using sealed

underground pipework. Because it will always contain some ‘dead water’

and accumulated sediment, the pipework should have some facility for

draining and cleaning, like a removable cap at its lowest point (see sketch).

> Watering near the building Rainfall in Adelaide is so unevenly distributed that maintaining a completely

consistent level of moisture in the foundation is almost impossible, even with

careful drainage and judicious watering during dry times. With most of our

rainfall occurring mid‐year, overwetting

needs to be avoided by maintaining good

drainage of soil near the building. Bear in

mind that the soil under the building is generally dry, and nearer to its centre will be

the driest and therefore most stable, while the perimeter tends to move up and down

according to its changing moisture content. Dry summers will tend to dry and shrink

the soil around the building perimeter. The extent varies with soil type. A small strip

of garden along the outer edge of the building’s perimeter paving help prevent



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excessive drying in summer, provided that it is watered, of course. Drippers will distribute water with greater control

than sprayers and with minimal waste from evaporation. Watering near the building must be done carefully for a

number of reasons: obviously, overwatering or neglect can exacerbate the problem we’re trying to control, but also

moisture is conducive to rising damp, termite infestation and fungal decay, so as a general rule, the foundation

against the wall and footing should be kept dry.

> Tree roots In buildings with inadequate footings, tree roots can cause serious localised foundation drying with consequent severe

cracking . Fast‐growing eucalypts, like Lemon‐scented gum, can cause severe localised drying when planted too near

to older homes with inadequate footings. This has been observed to cause spectacular and sudden subsidence: in one

particular case, a crack big enough to put a hand in appeared over a year or two, then closed again after the tree was

removed. Conversely, the swelling of large roots as they grow can exert pressure to lift a structure. If you have

concerns about a particular tree, consult an arborist for advice on its water demands and root distribution. This

information is essential for understanding its the effect on foundation moisture, but the advice of an engineer may also

become necessary to know how the soil type responds to those moisture changes. Don’t move to hastily to chop

down large trees until their effect of the building has been properly investigated. Also, check with council about

‘Significant Tree Legislation’ – penalties can apply.

> Leaking plumbing In recent decades, PVC piping (recognisable as white, pale grey or yellow) has been used for all domestic stormwater,

waste and sewer installations. When correctly installed, it is almost trouble‐free. Houses built in the sixties and before

used iron, lead and baked clay for pipework. All three deteriorate with time and most have already begun to give

trouble with leaks and blockages. Cracking in these older homes is often contributed to by the slow leaking of

underground and underfloor waste plumbing. Identifying leaks can be difficult and needs the involvement of a

skilled plumber or an inspection service which may run a remote‐controlled camera through the pipe suspected of

leaking. Repairs to earthenware can sometimes be made from inside the pipe by remote control, but it may be

preferable to excavate and renew the whole with PVC. See plumbing section for more.

> Summary From the above, we can see that a combination of the factors of rainfall, soil type, drainage, footing design, leaking

plumbing and tree roots could exist simultaneously for one building. When seeking a remedy, careful inspection and

an understanding of the various contributing factors is essential for maximising the benefits of the remedial work,

which may not, even after considerable expense, be fully successful anyway.

RROOOOFFSS

> Tiled roofs Tiled roofs are not completely water‐tight. They have many small gaps

through which wind‐driven rain may enter and the tiles themselves may

become damp underneath. This is normal and should not be a problem in

normal circumstances.

Sarking and leaking

Tiled roofs of very low pitch (less than 10 degrees slope) will not shed water

so well and may rely upon a continuous foil or paper membrane called

‘sarking’ (see sketch). This is a remarkably fragile component of an

otherwise very robust and ancient roofing system. It is easily cut or

damaged, often by other trades installing gear long after the house was

built. If sarking is left unrepaired under a low‐pitched roof, or simply

deteriorated, then the roof can lose its water‐tightness and leak seriously and frequently, even though the tiling may be

in top condition. Replacement of the sarking calls for complete removal and reinstallation of the tiles and the battens to



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which they attach, so is very labour‐intensive and expensive. Low‐pitched tiled roofs are therefore a problem in

waiting, especially in exposed locations where wind‐driven rain is likely. Inspection of the roofspace is very important

for identifying these problems of tiled roofs.

Tiled roof repairs and ‘restoration’

Tiled roofs should be inspected after storms – from inside is best, where gaps and cracks will show as points of light.

Repair of individual tiles is easy (gloves are advised) but ridges should be repaired by experts. ‘Roof restoration’ is

frequently sold to homeowners but may be of doubtful value, because the ‘roof restoration’ business has attracted

operators who have been known to propose work to tiled roofs that actually increases ongoing maintenance: like

painting them when they don’t need painting. Whilst this restores a new appearance, the paint will fade and

deteriorate over a few years and need re‐applying. If you are considering ‘roof restoration’, always consult the tile

manufacturer or a reputable roof tiler first. Look for the manufacturer’s name on the tile underside or photograph and

email a picture to a major manufacturer for identification and advice. Some very old tile shapes are still being made,

but if not, a demolition yard may have some recycled or new tiles of a similar pattern suitable for repairing a roof. If

damaged tiles are in a location where appearance is important, the best repair may be to use tiles from elsewhere on

the roof, placing the new ones in an inconspicuous location. In case of tile breakages occurring, it is advisable to keep

some spares on site. This is especially important for roofs of old terracotta tiles, because they can be very brittle and

easily broken when walked on or even by large hail.

Tiled roof ageing and decay

Older roofs of concrete tiles can be severely eroded, having a normal appearance outside but having such a reduced

thickness that they are easily broken. Terracotta tiles can suffer salt attack, worst in coastal locations but possible

anywhere (see ‘Damp and Salt Damp’ section for explanation of salt attack). Again, outward appearance may be

normal, but inspection inside the roofspace can reveal flaking and powdering, as the tile breaks apart under the

mechanical effect of crystallising salts. Both these examples of tile degradation are very slow processes and it might be

50 years or more before leaks begin, at which time the worst tiles can be replaced or a re‐roofing considered. Timber

tile battens can suffer from decay due to ‘delignification’. The battens acquire a fluffy appearance with the breakdown

if the timber’s ‘lignin’ – the material that binds wood fibres together – with the consequent weakening and eventual

breakage of the battens. Deterioration is usually slow. Replacement is the only remedy.

> Metal roofs

Steep enough?

Metal roofs should be pitched according to manufacturers specification to

avoid leaks. Some metal roofing is designed to be almost flat with only

half a degree of pitch. Although the roof may be made properly, being so

flat it can accumulate leaves and dirt which, when combined with

moisture, will hasten deterioration of the metal. Clumps of debris can

also cause leaks by damming the flow of water off the roof.

In older domestic buildings, it is quite common to see our very popular

corrugated steel roofing pitched below its 5 degree recommended

minimum, with the likelihood that rainwater will run back underneath the sheet ends (see sketch). Moisture damage

can result and remain hidden for some time, such as rotting (fungal decay)

of the fascia and concealed framing, damage to cladding and linings and

corrosion of metal parts.

Flat roofs

Low‐pitched metal roofs tend not to be completely trouble‐free (see

sketch). Problems that arise are: Tree debris and dirt can accumulate and

not wash away, causing accelerated corrosion of the areas shown in the

sketch. Flashing of ridges can be less effective against wind‐blown rain.

Penetrations for skylights and ducts are perhaps the worst source of



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persistent leaks. Because the penetration is often not installed by the original roofer, it may not be done in the correct

manner for the roofing, so may corrode or leak. Even when properly done, debris can accumulate behind the

upstanding skylight/airconditioner duct and corrode the roofing material or dam the runoff, causing local ponding

and a leak. Low‐pitched metal roofs where there are trees nearby should be checked periodically (at least annually)

with some manual sweeping or hosing‐off expected. Keep overhanging trees trimmed away from the roof.

Colorbond roofing

Colorbond is a factory‐applied paint finish applied onto steel roofing which has already received a zincalume anti‐

corrosion coating. It adds to the life of the zincalume‐coated steel but in the meantime, will weather and lose its

freshly‐painted appearance. Some Colorbond roofing which has been poorly painted at the factory will show severe

loss of colour, sometimes in a striped pattern. Repainting is necessary only to improve appearance, because unless the

roof is in a corrosive atmosphere (e.g. near the coast), it remains adequately protected by its zincalume layer.

Screws, nails and fasteners

Older roofs were typically fixed with nails driven through the sheets into the

timber roof framing. These tend to work their way out over time or may lose

their holding ability altogether as the timber dries. Rather than driving nails

back in, replace them with roofing screws driven in with a cordless drill.

Decking‐type roofs are often fixed with concealed clips instead of screws, thus

eliminating the opportunity for corrosion wherever a fastener (screw or nail)

has pierced the sheet.

Inspecting for leaks

In addition to inspecting the outside surface and flashings, older metal roofs should be inspected for leaks from inside

the roofspace, where holes appear as points of light. Staining or whitish deposits on roof framing timbers can indicate

the path of running water, which can travel some distance along the framing or under the roofing before dropping

onto the ceiling where the leak was first noticed.

Old roofs

Old metal roofs are most likely to leak at the ends laps. Until

recent decades, sheets were shorter (6 or 8 foot lengths) and

were overlapped end‐to‐end to form longer runs. Where this

double thickness end‐lap occurs, dirt and water are trapped,

accelerating corrosion. Old roofs of this type can be in near‐

perfect condition except at the end‐laps where they are rusted

right through. Old villas with very steep roofs (and hence very

fast runoff) have been seen to tolerate quite large holes without

apparent leaks. If so desired and if the roof is otherwise good

enough, then an old roof can have its life extended several

decades by ‘sleeving’ these rusted end‐laps with a short length

of the same shaped roofing material (see illustration) slipped

in between the rusted sheets. This is an effective, low‐cost and

almost invisible repair.

> Roof framing The roofing is supported on a framework of steel or timber members or a combination of both. Steel framing, though

uncommon in older homes, tends to be trouble‐free except where proximity to ocean may corrode its protective

coatings. Timber frames are subject to sagging, breakages and connection failures and should be carefully inspected,

especially in old tiled‐roof bungalows. The great weight of roof tiles compared with sheet metal means that tiled roofs

on timber frames have the most problems. Houses 40 years and older often have a degree of sagging of the eaves or

undulations visible across the roof surface. Sagging, deflection and breakage of timber framing members is usually

due to under‐sizing, substandard quality timber, poor framing design or a combination. Fungal decay and termite

damage can also occur, inside the roofspace and outside, where timbers project through walls or eaves. Based on what



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was observed during your inspection, your inspector may advise particular repairs or recommend a more detailed

inspection by a roof carpenter who can then make any necessary repairs.

In most cases of minor roof undulations, if deflection of timber rafters has occurred years before and the timber has

since dried and increased in strength, it is unlikely to deflect further. Nevertheless, it should be monitored. Timbers

such as Oregon and native hardwoods are installed when ‘green’ (with a higher moisture content ‐ not kiln‐dried like

pinus), and once deflected, will not return to their original shape if unloaded. This permanent deformation of loaded

timber over time is known as ‘creep’.

> Gutters and downpipes Good design of gutters and downpipes helps avoid blockages and overflows that can cause damage to buildings. All

gutters should be provided with enough downpipes of sufficient capacity to prevent overflows. Overflowing of the

eaves gutters can occur without detection: the back edge of the gutter is usually lower than the front, so an overflow

can be hidden from view. On occasion, water can run over the fascia, drop down onto the eaves lining, flow across it

and into the building. Buildings without eaves should have gutters that will overflow at the front, showing they are

blocked; otherwise the overflow could run straight into the wall cavity. Gutters with slots at the front are available for

this purpose. Dampness in the eaves or wall cavity is conducive to fungal decay and termites. Whereas most new

homes have steel fascias (the board to which the gutter is attached) older homes have timber. Even a small leak from

the gutter can provide enough moisture for fungal decay to attack the timber fascia. This is extremely common but

unfortunately, this damage and concealed damage in walls and eaves may not be observable during a visual

inspection.

Maintenance & clearing

Where there are overhanging trees or windblown debris, gutters and downpipes will likely become blocked unless

regular cleaning is done or an effective barrier installed. The external gutter straps supporting eaves gutters allow

easier cleaning than do internal straps, which cross the gutter at every metre or so. Regardless, gutter cleaning is

something to be avoided if possible and poses a serious safety risk if

high ladders are needed, so installing a leaf‐excluding barrier to

gutters is recommended. Barriers usually take the form of perforated

plates or a mesh installed into, or over, the gutter. Many types are

available but their effectiveness is variable, dependent very much

upon the size and shape of the tree debris. In recent years, products

have appeared which are fitted by the firm’s own trained installers.

One very well‐performing design consists of a fine, durable mesh of

plastic or metal fixed permanently to the roof and gutter, extending from the front edge of the gutter, back onto the

roof, in the case of metal roofs, to the top of the roof surface and in the case of tiles, over the last tile and under the

second row of tiles (see sketch). In choosing a barrier, it is vitally important that the design and hole size suit the type

of debris. For instance, pine needles are particularly good at simply accumulating in a mesh guard, rendering it

useless. Ideally, the tedious and dangerous task of gutter cleaning should be eliminated with a barrier that excludes all

but the finest debris, which can pass through the barrier and be easily washed through the gutter then re‐filtered if

desired before storage.

More than any others, parapet gutters and box gutters need periodic cleaning and

inspection because they are concealed from view. Furthermore, if an overflow occurs, it

will likely be into the building interior or into a wall cavity, possibly unnoticed for some

time and causing damage to ceilings, wall linings and furnishings. The sketch shows a

typical parapet gutter.

The box gutter common to 19th‐century houses is shown (following) and is normally not

visible from ground level, except for its end exiting the roof. These gutters and their

flashings should be kept in good condition and repaired or renewed well before they

deteriorate enough to leak. When replacement becomes necessary, their design should

be re‐assessed by a competent roofing contractor so that any inadequacy (eg under‐



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sizing or inadequate fall) can be rectified rather than repeated. As a rule of

thumb, bigger is better, not just for water flow, but to reduce the likelihood that an

accumulation of debris such as leaves, or a sudden blockage such as hailstones,

might block the gutter and allow water to enter the building.

Downpipe size

Downpipe size and shape is important, again, to reduce the likelihood of

blockages. Common rectangular downpipes approximately 100x50mm appear

on many homes. For the builder, they are neat and tidy. They will cover a

control joint in the wall and they are easy to work with because they can be cut

and folded to make bends. For the homeowner, they are very prone to blockage,

especially when the bends are sharp. Large bore, round pipes, with 45 degree

bends are far preferable because they will pass leaves and sticks more reliably

without blockage. Fortunately, they are becoming more common. The opening

at the gutter, called the ‘pop’, deserves attention also: it can be sized larger than the downpipe to assist flow. Here, the

water changes direction from horizontal to vertical and velocity is very slow, so again, bigger is better.

Gutter shape and capacity

The shapes of most eaves gutters in SA are ‘D’, ‘square fascia’ or the heritage style ‘ogee’ (see sketch). All these have

lower water carrying ability compared with half‐round gutters, precisely for the same reason that drainpipes are

round and not square: there is less friction in a round pipe.

Look at the sketch; when viewed in section, there is less

contact area and therefore less friction when the gutter shape is

a sector of a circle. This means greater water velocity which

means better self‐cleaning and less manual cleaning.

> Exterior trim, barges, fascias The horizontal boards around the edge of the roof, to which the gutters are attached, are called fascias. The similar trim

to gables (without gutters) are called barges or barge boards. In modern homes, these are often colorbond steel, but if

they are timber, they are susceptible to rot due to being fully exposed

to weather. Between exterior repaints, rotting (fungal decay) may

occur and it is important before the next repaint, that damaged

sections be well repaired or replaced with good timber. Rather than

fiddle about with awkward repair of small areas, the replacement of a

whole length on timber may be quicker, easier and give a far better

finish. Furthermore, since the timber was not durable anyway, why

not replace it with a material that is durable? Most homes built in the

past decade have steel fascias, folded from zincalume plated sheet

with a colorbond finish. These are superior to timber in every practical sense, though aesthetically, designs are limited

by what manufacturer has to offer, as opposed to timber which can be shaped as desired.

WWAALLLLSS

The most common wall defect is cracking of masonry walls due to building movement, usually in response to

changed soil moisture. Please refer to the first part of this appendix for detailed discussion of this major issue.

> New materials, old habits Baked clay bricks have been in use for thousands of years, but in recent years we see exterior walls constructed of

newer materials such as aerated concrete and composite panels. This is part of a growing shift in building technology,

driven at least by these three features of modern economics: high labour cost (we can afford fewer man‐hours to build

a house), technology (in manufacture and on‐site assembly) and transport (fast, cheap and flexible). New claddings

differ from traditional materials in a very basic sense: traditional materials were sourced and used locally simply



12

because they were abundant, cheap, did not need much transport (which was slow and expensive) and were easy to

use. Engineered building products on the other hand are made as a ‘system’ of parts (panels, fixings, finishes etc), to

fulfil certain criteria of cost, speed, appearance, light weight and mass production etc. There is one material which

straddles both economic periods simply because it fulfilled all criteria so extraordinarily well – and still does –

corrugated iron (steel).

An example of a modern composite panels is a panel of plastic foam (say 2.4m x 1.2m) with a strong skin made from

metal or fibreglass bonded to one or both sides. The foam in combination with the skin provides stiffness, the foam

alone insulation and the skin mechanical strength. There is also a resurgence in lightweight cladding of framed walls:

what used to be known as ‘fibro’ (fibre‐cement sheet using asbestos fibre) has been updated as ‘blueboard’ – asbestos‐

free, naturally. This is installed onto framing, then finished with a specially‐formulated textured compound for an

effect similar to, or imitating, rendered masonry. As with most engineered building products, these materials must be

installed according to manufacturer’s instructions as part of a ‘system’ or they will almost certainly fail. There are

many instances of gross failure simply because products were installed by personnel using what they believed to be

the ‘right’ way or were established trade practices (using similar materials).

‘Old habits’ of building workers, not appropriate and not according to manufacturer’s specifications, can prove

disastrous for a home owner, especially if the inevitable failure is not detected at the inspection or soon enough

afterwards for recompense to be obtainable. From the inspector’s point of view, a building surface that has been

rendered and coloured could conceal anything, good or bad, so there is much reliance on the work having been done

well in the first place. Whether it has or hasn’t, there may be no way of knowing and no evidence may appear until

years later.

> Water and windows Technological advancements in adhesives and sealants have extraordinary results like multi‐storey wall cladding and

car windscreens held on by double‐sided sticky tape – scary but effective! However, this increased reliance upon

sealants and adhesives has allowed some diminution of knowledge of how building components can be assembled

using more pragmatic and robust methods to cope with natural forces of wind, water and gravity. One example is the

detailing of window sills against rendered masonry. Whereas for centuries a window sill was formed with several

distinct elements for weather proofing (drip, weather bar etc), it is now commonplace to see the render taken up to the

nose of a sill, timber or aluminium. Whereas the window frame has probably been carefully designed and

manufactured, the junction created on‐site becomes its Achilles’ heel. Were a crack to form here, then water running

down the face of the window could enter the wall, quite likely damaging structure and linings before the defect is

detected. The presence of an internal wall flashing is not a satisfactory substitute for a leaking window edge (water

entering the cavity must be disposed of via an internal flashing leading to drain holes but the flashing cannot be

inspected to verify its efficacy). In this case of the window sill, only a small bead of sealant, which it is up to the

homeowner to monitor and maintain, will prevent this occurring. The enduring force of gravity, utilized by more of a

traditional (overhanging) sill design, would seem far preferable to relying on sealant between wall (which may be

painted) and window frame.

> Wall vents

Underfloor ventilation

Wall vents are often overlooked or disregarded yet they can be of critical importance, mostly for maintaining the

underfloor ventilation in timber‐floored houses, without which problems of rising damp, termite infestation and

fungal decay of timber can arise.

Wall cavity ventilation

Brick walls are rarely completely waterproof. Old pressed bricks found in pre‐war homes are notably water‐absorbent

and their interior face can become quite damp in wet weather. Obviously this would be unsuitable for an interior

space, so external brick walls are built double with a cavity behind, whether they be brick veneer (single layer of brick

outside a framed wall) or all‐brick (ie ‘double leaf’ or ‘cavity brick’). However, occasionally, old brick and stone walls

were built solid with no cavity. The wall cavity runs the full height of the wall and is open at the top so water vapour



13

can escape into the roofspace. Additional openings (vents or open joints in the brickwork) are necessary at the bottom

for fresh air to enter. In a timber‐floored building, wall vents usually open right through both leaves of the wall so they

can ventilate the underfloor space too. Brick veneer buildings usually have open vertical brick joints every few bricks

low in the wall. These are occasionally partly blocked by mortar (which the bricklayer has not removed) and

frequently blocked with render when the wall has been rendered. Cleaning these blockages after construction must be

done very carefully to avoid damaging the plastic wall flashing behind.

Room ventilation

Walls vents in older brick homes were often located high in the wall and were required when the noxious by‐products

coal gas and open fires were commonplace. They are no longer required and in most cases are unnecessary. Being a

dreadful waste of energy, they allow heated room air to pass straight outside. Unless un‐flued gas heating is in use,

they can be safely closed off. In older homes where the ventilator is a decorative item, remove the vent, fill the hole,

paint that part of the wall black then stick a new, or reproduction, vent back on.

> Interior wall types & defects Plasterboard‐

Paper‐faced gypsum plaster sheeting 10‐15mm thick used for lining ceilings and walls

Float and set plaster

Plaster for brickwork – two coats of a sand, lime and cement‐based render topped with a lime putty coat that sets hard, white and smooth.

Hard plaster

Interior walls are almost always plastered: plasterboard for framed construction

and float and set plaster for masonry. Occasionally, plasterboard is used to

finish masonry, glued directly to its face. Plasterboard will accommodate some

movement before it cracks, but float and set plaster tolerates little. Very old

plaster will often show fine cracks or delaminate from the wall and sound

‘drummy’ in places when tapped with a knuckle. In older homes, the plaster can

become quite loose before it needs replacing, with large areas held in place

simply by adjacent areas and able to be removed perhaps half a square metre at

a time with one blow of a plasterer’s comb hammer. Just because a wall has

some drummy plaster is not sufficient cause to strip and re‐plaster it …yet. In

very old homes, the plaster and the mortar are usually very soft because little or

no cement was used (lime, sand and water only). It is important that repairs use

a similarly weak mix because hard stuff (ie plaster or mortar containing more cement), laid onto a soft substrate, does

not possess the same tolerance for minor movement and will likely break away from the substrate in large chunks if

movement does occur. Lime plaster and mortar also possess a ‘self‐healing’ capacity whereby minor cracks can

disappear over time.

Plasterboard

Plasterboard has proven, over a century of use (initially in the USA), to be an

excellent material needing no maintenance, so long as whatever it is fixed to is

dry and stable. Plasterboard is applied in large sheets held in place with glue

and a few nails or screws and sheets are usually 1200mm wide or 1350mm

wide and several metres long. Joints between sheets are first reinforced with

mesh tape then finished almost invisibly with specially‐formulated plaster. This

finishing (called ‘flushing’) of plasterboard joints has received much criticism in

recent years due to the varying level of workers’ skill and the revealing effect

that paint and lighting have upon defects that were previously invisible. So that

the joints and fastener heads will remain invisible after painting, the standard of

flushing must have regard for the gloss level and lighting conditions on the

finished work. Flat paint is sometimes used by builders to conceal poor flushing and then when the owner repaints or

adjusts lighting, the uneven surface (ceiling or wall) can suddenly reveal itself, forcing the redecoration back a few

steps with a call to a plasterboard finisher.



14

The other common defect in plasterboard is minor cracking months or years after installation. This is usually caused

by small movements in timber framing due to drying, settlement and shrinkage. These occur most frequently at wall

junctions or along the cornice and are easy to fix with some paintable flexible sealant and will need no further

investigation unless they reappear.

Persistent cracking due to building movement should be dealt with by installing a control joint in the plasterboard to

the plasterboard maker’s recommendation. It is interesting to note that in articulated masonry construction, where the

external wall has the benefit of control joints, almost never are there corresponding joints in the interior plasterboard‐

lined wall, the resilience of the material itself being usually adequate.

CCEEIILLIINNGGSS

Plasterboard

Often called ‘Gyprock’ after a major brand name. A paper‐faced gypsum board installed onto framing or masonry for lining ceilings and walls.

Usually 10‐15mm thick and installed in long sheets 1.2m wide which are then joined invisibly using reinforcing tape and plaster.

Lath and plaster

Predates the above and not used past about 1930. Consists of many small timber slats (‘lathes’, approx 25x6mm) nailed parallel to the framing

and spaced slightly to allow a hand‐trowelled wet plaster coating, reinforced with horsehair, to squeeze through the gaps slightly, thus keying

the plaster to the lathes. Used also for walls in early framed construction.

Fibrous plaster

An earlier plaster sheet used until about 1970 consisting of plaster reinforced with fibreglass or organic fibre.

> Plasterboard Most ceilings are plasterboard and receive only occasional mention in reports because it is a very reliable material

which, when properly installed is almost maintenance‐free (see previous section for more detail). The most common

defect is cracking at the junction with the cornice.

Older homes tend to have these now‐disused ceiling materials: fibrous plaster and lath‐and‐plaster. Compared with

plasterboard, both can be troublesome, as described below.

> Lath and plaster Lath and plaster is a pre‐1920’s material that tends to need repair every few years as it develops fine cracks. Being such

an old material made using lime plaster, it is quite soft and deteriorates steadily. Eventually, chunks can fall away.

Many old ceilings are papered over and painted, which successfully extends their life. Few lath and plaster ceilings

remain in service, having been replaced or covered over with plasterboard.

For heritage work, preservation is possible, using resin poured from above,

to glue together the assemblage of laths and horsehair‐reinforced plaster.

This is a specialist job and far more expensive than fitting a new

plasterboard ceiling so it is rarely done.

Renewing lath and plaster is rarer still,

because it is incredibly labour‐intensive. Each

timber lath is nailed to the ceiling joists (or

wall frame), with the result that a small room

(3.6x3.6m) needs about 700 nails and 300metres of timber lath to cover just the

ceiling…and that’s before the plastering begins! A plasterboard ceiling would take three

sheets of plasterboard, 70 screws and a few dobs of glue.

Despite the deficiencies of lath and plaster, it is a ‘character’ material, tending to show its

age and history of repairs ‐ all this be appropriate to maintain in an old home rather than



15

replace it with the perfectly flat finish of plasterboard.

> Fibrous plaster Fibrous plaster was widely used from about 1920 until the 1960’s, installed in sheets in a similar manner to

plasterboard. Prior to WW2, decorative beads and bosses covered the joints. Later, for a modern (undecorated)

appearance, joints were ‘flushed’ like plasterboard today. Fibrous plaster is approx 10‐15mm thick and cast in sheets

reinforced with fibre (sisal or in modern restoration work, fibreglass).

Maintaining attachment to its supporting framing (the ceiling joists) is essential

maintenance for a fibrous plaster ceiling. Being quite heavy, and subject to

cracking without fully breaking, it has been known for a whole ceiling of flush‐

jointed fibrous plaster to peel away from its framing in one great sheet, crashing to

the floor. Typically the sheets are nailed up and over time will sag; the nails

loosen or the heads pull through the sheets, sometimes showing as ‘popped’ nails

(circular indentations) visible underneath. Additional fasteners (usually screws)

are then needed to fix the sagging sections back into position. Further work may

be needed if the material is badly cracked or resists straightening. Sheets that have

been sagged for a long time or are very heavy (such as cast decorative panels), can

be strapped to their joists from above. Using hanks of fibre dipped in cornice

cement, the repairer will loop over the joists and glue the ends onto the top face of

the ceiling. Obviously, the ceiling needs to be cleaned first to ensure good adhesion and this work can end up being

quite expensive, but it is worthwhile and long‐term solution for preserving a decorated old ceiling.

Where it is not feasible to repair fibrous plaster, a plasterboard replacement is the obvious replacement. Most of the

decorative mouldings (beads, bosses, cornice etc) are now available, reproduced from original patterns and in

lightweight foamed plastic. Again, even though no‐one may ever know the mouldings are foam not plaster, the

generally perfect appearance of the new ceiling will betray its age.

> Other ceiling types Straw panels were popular in the 1970’s, often fixed between exposed rafters. These are still available and have great

practical benefits of acoustic absorption and thermal insulation. Buyers of 1970’s houses who find them unappealing

or unfashionable should consider these benefits carefully before replacing or covering them with plasterboard.

Suspended ceilings based on a grid are widely used in commercial buildings but are rare in homes. They give easy

access to services in multi storey buildings or where there is no crawlspace in the roof.

FFLLOOOORRSS

House floors are nearly always either concrete or timber of the following types:

> Concrete ‐ slab on ground Most houses built in the last 30 years use raft slab construction, where the footing and floor are poured together as one

piece of concrete, reinforced internally with steel bars and mesh. Typically the floor is 100‐150mm thick and is not

visible for inspection because it has been tiled or carpeted. Serious defects are few, but it is quite common to have

surface defects caused by poor finishing and drying shrinkage cracking caused by rapid drying of the recently‐placed

concrete. Damage to floor finishes, such as cracked tiles, can occur when the slab is too new (‘green’) and has not yet

undergone its initial shrinkage. Moisture in the floor can be a problem around the building’s outer edge: slab edge

wetting occurs when the plastic membrane laid under the slab for damp‐proofing gets trampled and damaged by site

activities, leaving part of the slab edge in contact with soil. If the concrete is a bit permeable, moisture from the soil can

travel the short distance up to the floor surface. If a permeable floor finish such as carpet is laid, the moisture may



16

dissipate harmlessly, but if an impervious floor finish traps the moisture, then damage can develop, affecting the floor

finish and other materials in contact with the slab nearby.

> Concrete ‐ suspended slab Suspended concrete floors are usually cast in‐place onto formwork which sometimes remains in place. In housing,

they are appear usually on sloping sites and in the wet areas of timber‐floored houses. In multistorey dwellings, they

may extend past the wall to form a balcony floor. The single main defect with suspended slabs is corrosion of

reinforcement. If, through poor quality workmanship or defective concrete, moisture and air reach the steel

reinforcement buried inside, the steel will rust and in doing so, expand and break the concrete, accelerating the

process. This degradation is most severe where it affects balconies in coastal locations. There are instances where a

whole balcony has broken off, then falling onto the one below, breaking it off too. Much effort has gone into

developing remedies and repairs and corrosion of reinforcement is sometimes called ‘concrete cancer’ – it serious,

needs expert treatment and is often terminal, leading to the eventual destruction of the affected part.

Concrete decks and balconies should be inspected annually for signs of cracking and rusting reinforcement. See also

‘decks and balconies’ page 27.

> Timber Timber floors are either individually‐laid boards (called ‘strip flooring’) or sheet flooring. Sheet flooring of wet areas

and balconies is usually compressed fibre cement sheet at least 15mm thick, with a tiled or resilient floor finish applied

to it. Interior sheet flooring is ply or particleboard purpose‐made in sheets 900x2400 and larger. Timber sheet and

strip flooring has a tongue‐and‐groove joint where the edges meet, so that adjacent pieces work together as one, rather

than rubbing together (and creaking) when walked on. Defects with the flooring are usually creaks which can be

remedied with extra fixings (nails or screws) but the more serious problems come from the subfloor – the framing that

supports the flooring. Subfloor problems can be serious and unseen, because the subfloor is rarely accessible for

inspection. A ground‐level timber floor will have a space under it, usually barely enough to crawl through and this

space should be well‐ventilated so that moisture can evaporate and dissipate. If it cannot, and accumulates, then it can

affect the floor in two ways: damage by pests and distortion. A damp situation encourages termites and fungal decay.

Secondly, timber in strip flooring is never completely stable: generally, if one face gets damp, it will absorb the

moisture and swell, with the piece curling towards the dryer face. Placing a piece of pine board on a damp lawn in the

sun will produce a dramatic demonstration of this effect. If dampening of the floor occurs more slowly, each board

may swell in width to the extent that the whole floor or part of it, bows up in the same manner described for a single

board. Underfloor ventilation is often reduced when additions or verandahs cover up existing wall vents. Careless

rendering of walls has also resulted in vents being completely covered. Consequences of both these examples may be

delayed years but are potentially serious.

Many two storey homes built in recent decades have small balconies built onto timber framing. Their floors need to be

well sealed to prevent moisture entering the supporting framing. Typically, they are tiled onto cement sheet and the

defect occurs when water enters the subfloor framing via hairline cracking at the balcony edge. Poor detail design and

poor workmanship are usually the cause – workers simply not reading the manufacturers instructions which are

published in brochures and websites.

DDOOOORRSS && WWIINNDDOOWWSS

> Seasonal movement Doors and windows that become difficult to operate could indicate that maintenance is due, but it could also be

building movement or termites. Either way, it should be investigated promptly. Timber doors and windows most

often suffer the effects of seasonal swelling, as they absorb atmospheric moisture or rainwater. To prevent this, all

surfaces should have adequate clearance against abrasion and be well‐sealed or painted. Very often, the bottom edges

of doors are left un‐painted simply because it is easier than removing the door. Whilst this may not matter for internal



17

doors, it is bad news for exterior doors, and worst if rainwater runs down the face, being readily absorbed into the

bottom edge, swelling, warping and decaying the door.

To allow for seasonal shrinkage and swelling, sufficient clearance around the door or window sash (approx 2‐3mm)

should be provided. In old homes inclined to foundation movement, this clearance may need to be much greater.

Locks may need adjustment to accommodate more movement than they were designed for, by lengthening the

opening in the lock striker (the piece on the doorframe) to allow for greater up and down movement of the lock

tongue during the year. Who hasn’t at some time struggled with a troublesome front door?

> Windows

Awning

Awning windows are prone to rubbing on their frames,

which wears away the paint and hastens swelling and rot. At

the sash corners, the timber end‐grain can become exposed

and with dirt trapped here against it by the frame, fungal

decay rapidly develops. Meranti frames, unless well‐sealed,

are particularly susceptible. Western red cedar is far more

durable.

Awning window hardware consists of hinges or ‘stays’ which

are usually trouble‐free unless bent or strained, plus a

winding or opening mechanism. Crank‐handle winders are

most common. These contain small alloy parts which wear

out and are not repairable, making the winder more difficult

to operate and eventually failing.

Replacements are available from larger hardware stores.

Casement

Casement windows are common in bungalows, and are usually outward‐opening so they are particularly good at

catching a breeze and funnelling it into the room or acting as a venturi to draw air out. Hardware is simple: hinges and

a perforated rod or a winder. Casements are generally trouble‐free simply because they are smaller but are susceptible

to jamming and rot in the same way as other designs.

Double‐hung

Most older homes have double‐hung box‐framed sash windows with cords that break as they get old. Each side of the

window frame (the box frame) houses a pair of iron weights counterbalancing the sashes. Renewing the cords takes

care and patience but not much skill so is well within the reach of a competent home handyperson. It is the kind of job

which may occupy an exasperating half day the first time, but with practice can be done in under an hour. If preferred,

a carpenter accustomed to restorations or a glazier should be called upon. Modern versions of the double hung

window usually do not have weights and cords but a tubular ‘spring balance’ fixed to the frame each side of the sash.

These items need renewing as they become tight or break and are readily replaced with no disassembly of the

window, unlike the older box framed sash window with its cords. The spring balance consists of a spiral spring inside

a tube. When raising the sash, the spring rotates a nut which winds in a very steeply‐threaded rod from which the sash

is suspended. Lowering the sash pulls the rod back out, through the nut, turning it and winding the spring. They are a

cost‐saving design alternative to the box framed sash window and if they give any trouble that a spray of lubricant

won’t fix, then simply renew them, a pair at a time.

Sliding

Modern sliding doors and windows usually have aluminium tracks and plastic wheels or sliders. All are prone to

wear and should be kept free of dirt and grit, which is easily done when vacuuming. Periodic adjustment and eventual

replacement of rollers is part of general maintenance.



18

Better materials

Most of the defects described above are exclusive to timber‐framed units. Aluminium frames have been commonplace

for decades and overcome most of them, but their appearance is unappealing to many people. The more substantial

appearance of timber is available in some aluminium commercial‐style mouldings. Plastic frames, of extruded PVC,

are slowly gaining popularity and are very energy‐efficient, being a poor heat conductor like timber, but unlike

aluminium. Composite materials (eg timber clad in an aluminium sheath or aluminium outer with a timber inner

frame) are used in Europe and America especially where severe weather prevails, but remain uncommon here. Heat

losses through aluminium are solved by having separate inner and outer parts, with a thermal break of plastic joining

them. As we pursue greater energy efficiency, systems such as these will seem less exotic and more attractive despite

their higher cost.

SSHHEEDDSS AANNDD OOUUTTBBUUIILLDDIINNGGSS

These are often built more simply, typically with steel walling and roof but sometimes using similar materials and

complexity to the house. Maintaining a dry interior is essential for safe storage but despite this, leaky roofs and damp

floors are common. New sheds are not immune from damp and it is very common to see a shed on a concrete slab

where the slab is slightly larger than the shed, so that rain running down the outer wall flows easily underneath the

wall into the shed. So when installing a shed, place the shed first, then install the floor onto damp‐proof membrane so

it is fully enclosed by the shed. If you are in doubt about whether a concrete floor is really dry or not, lay down an off‐

cut of vinyl flooring, plastic or other impervious sheeting at least 300mm x 300mm and check underneath after a few

days. It should still be dry. If not, it may be feasible to apply a surface‐sealer to the concrete.

Unattended outbuildings can harbour vermin and termites. Old woodpiles are a home for both. If abandoned for long

enough, they can deteriorate to a dangerous condition, especially for exploring youngsters. Unless they can be

verified as safe, demolition and removal of unattended structures is recommended.

Outbuildings are where the most spectacularly bad electrical work can be found, done by homeowners either with no

clue of the hazards or on the assumption that no‐one else will venture there (bloke’s shed).

Old laundries or toilets may have the fixtures removed but the pipework remaining.

Your report will note if any of these conditions were observed and recommend attention by the appropriate

tradespeople.

EELLEECCTTRRIICCAALL SSEERRVVIICCEESS

Safety switch

Also called a ‘residual current device’ or RCD and ‘earth leakage circuit breaker’ or ELCB. A device for preventing electrocution.

Lamp

Commonly called a ‘light bulb’, the term ‘lamp’ is the preferred technical term. It includes all types of device for converting electricity to light

e.g. fluorescent tubes. For plain language in the following text , the term ‘bulb’ is also used for ‘lamp’ and the term ‘lamp’ is used for some light

fittings like ‘bed lamp’.

Luminaire

Technical term for the fitting that holds the lamp and connects it to the electricity supply, commonly called a ‘ light fitting’, ‘light fixture’ or

just a’ light’

> Safety switches Safety switches have become very popular in recent years, partly due to the successful TV marketing of their ability to

reduce the incidence of electrocution. For some years now they have been compulsory in new installations. Despite

their value, it must be remembered they cannot prevent electrocution in all instances. Like anti‐lock brakes, they offer

a huge improvement in safety but are not a substitute for due care. Safety switches operate by comparing the current



19

flowing through both conductors (active and neutral), which under

normal conditions is equal. In most situations when someone

receives a shock, there will be some leakage to earth; the device

senses that the current flow is now unequal and trips, fast enough to

prevent serious shock or electrocution. However, it is still possible

for a person to receive a shock that will not trip the safety switch if

they come into contact with both conductors while they are not

adequately earthed (see sketch). This can occur changing a light or

installing a power point.

> Service lines Service lines, or the supply of power and phone from the street, are commonly run underground in new work and so

are well‐protected from damage. For overhead lines, the home owner is responsible for preventing trees on their

property, or overhanging their property, damaging the installation. Check with ETSA utilities for details of this

obligation or the Office Of The Technical Regulator here… http://www.technicalregulator.sa.gov.au/public/EI_elec_con_safe/EI_elec_con_safe.html .

> House wiring Your inspection includes a visual inspection of the house wiring in the roofspace to the extent that a comment can be

made if there is concern about its general age and condition and whether it should be checked by an electrician. In

addition, light fittings, switches and power outlets which appear defective or dangerous will be noted. Homes built

since the late 1950’s generally have good wiring, though many pre‐1980 will still have wired fuses and no safety

switch. Although older switchboards may be serviceable, they do not offer the same degree of amenity or safety as a

newer one which will have circuit breakers (instead of fuses) and a safety switch (required in recent years).

Older homes, prior to about 1960, are the most likely to have electrical hazards. For a period around 1950, black rubber

insulation was used. This cable has the same appearance as modern cable but is black in colour. With age, the

insulation becomes hard and brittle and can crack and fall away when the cable is bent or disturbed , exposing the

conductors. This type of cable should be replaced by an electrician when identified.

Another common wiring system in older homes used metal conduit (black steel tubing) to house a pair or more of

cloth and rubber‐insulated wires. Light fixtures were typically not earthed, as is currently required, and the metal

conduit could become live and hazardous especially after being interfered with. When re‐wiring a home, old metal

conduit already embedded in the walls can be a convenient route for running new cables to light switches and power

points, without disturbing the wall finish.

Prior to metal conduit, a rectangular timber conduit about 50mm wide and 20mm high was used, known as ‘cap and

casing’. Made from dry timber, it is combustible, but is also an excellent electrical insulator. ‘Cap and casing’ remains

in some old homes and unless disturbed, it may be quite satisfactory, but more often than not, it will have been

damaged or intercepted, making it unsafe and susceptible to further damage at these locations.

> Lights and fire

Low voltage downlights

The huge popularity of small low‐voltage recessed halogen downlights over recent decades has significantly increased

fire risk in the roofspace. This is because the fittings are small and the lamps are extremely hot, but critically, they are

often unshielded from contact with combustible material in the roofspace, such as birds nests or leaf debris. Some

lamps are dichroic, which are designed to allow heat to pass back through the reflector to protect the subject from

excessive heat (eg artwork). This infrared heat passes right into whatever combustible material may have collected

against the lamp which can ignite and start a fire ‐ out of sight ‐ which could be well‐established before detection. A

second contributor to the fire risk is when ceiling insulation is too near or covering the fitting, allowing excessive heat

build‐up. Charring of the ceiling (the plasterboard is paper‐faced) may be the first indication. Thirdly, these lights use a

http://www.technicalregulator.sa.gov.au/public/EI_elec_con_safe/EI_elec_con_safe.html



20

transformer, and older or poor quality units may overheat if not properly ventilated, so they need to be mounted clear

of the insulation. The answer to all this is either to get rid of them in favour of more energy‐efficient lighting or to

install a heat shield that keeps combustible material and ceiling insulation away. There are several after‐market heat

shields for this purpose. Alterations to the wiring rules now require new installations to be heat shielded.

Other lamps fire risk.

Like the downlights above, it is quite possible for desk lamps and bed lamps using a naked bulb (low‐voltage halogen)

to start a fire, because even a fairly low‐wattage lamp burns at such a high temperature that combustible material (eg

paper at a desk) can ignite after a few seconds of contact. Most such lamps will have a clear glass or metal guard but

some do not.

PPLLUUMMBBIINNGG SSEERRVVIICCEESS

UPVC – unplasticised polyvinyl chloride –

White or greyish plastic widely used for rigid pipework of waste and storm water. Commonly called simply ‘pvc pipe’.

Stormwater‐

Rain water which falls on hard surfaces such as roofs and paving and needs to be managed using devices such as gutters, drains, pipework and

tanks

Wastewater‐

Water from showers, basins and washing machines. This is run to the sewer drain unless separated and used as ‘grey water’

Sewer‐

Network of pipework for the disposal of toilet waste. Also collects wastewater (grey water). Stormwater must not be run into the sewer.

Grey water‐

Water from showers, basins and washing machines used for purposes such as toilet flushing and watering. Not safe for human contact or for

storage unless treated. Useful for garden watering‐ enquire with local council or Health Dept for latest directions on safe use

> Water plumbing Water plumbing is the pipes, fixtures and fittings that provide our hot and cold water. The pipes are mostly or fully

enclosed within the building structure and therefore not accessible for inspection or maintenance. For the years

approximately 1970‐2000, most houses’ water plumbing was done entirely in copper tube. This is tough and reliable

with only occasional failures, usually due to poor workmanship such as poorly‐soldered joints or an occasional use of

substandard copper tubing. Prior to about 1970, much water plumbing was galvanised steel pipe which was prone to

rusting especially with the dissolved salts in Adelaide’s water. The rusting was mostly unseen, occurring inside the

pipe where it grew inwards, reducing the bore diameter and flow eventually to almost nothing. Eventually the pipes’

joints would rust and leak also. Fortunately very little of this remains, having mostly already failed and been replaced

with copper. In recent years, new work uses various proprietary systems of flexible plastic pipe. This is low cost, quick

to install and does not suffer the amount of vibration or banging problems of water hammer common to metal

pipework.

> Waste plumbing The plumbing mostly under discussion here is the waste plumbing of wet

areas: toilets, bathrooms and laundries (‘plumbing’ also includes roof gutters

and downpipes, stormwater drainage and hot and cold water).

For thirty‐odd years, waste and stormwater plumbing have been done in

UPVC plastic. This is very tough and has a degree of flexibility and tolerance

for soil movement that older pipework did not. Correct installation is

essential to avoid leaks, especially where pipes pass through concrete

footings, they must be installed so as to avoid stress that could break the pipe.

Compared with older pipework, UPVC is almost trouble‐free.



21

Prior to the use of UPVC, the materials used for domestic waste plumbing were earthenware (baked glazed clay), lead,

galvanised wrought pipe and occasionally cast iron. Earthenware was assembled in short lengths (about 2 foot) with

semi‐flexible joints which are prone to penetration by plant roots if they

leak. Traps and bends made in earthenware are brittle and can crack and

leak unseen for years. Underfloor pipework in old bathrooms is usually

lead or galvanised wrought pipe. Lead pipe will erode and leak with age.

Wrought pipe rusts especially at the joints, leaks then breaks. When

purchasing an older home, it is worthwhile to consider the likelihood that underground waste plumbing may already

be leaking and may be expensive to renew. The dampness also creates a favourable environment for fungal decay and

termites. Repairs to earthenware can sometimes be made from inside the pipe by remote control, but it may be

preferable to excavate and renew the whole with PVC. Much digging may be involved, which can be several metres

deep for drains, plus hand‐digging near or under the building. Good access for excavation machinery will help reduce

cost.

DDAAMMPP && SSAALLTT DDAAMMPP

> Cause There are various ways for moisture to enter the building structure and cause ‘damp’. ‘Rising damp’ comes up from

the ground, via the foundation soil, from surface water or from gardens, penetrating permeable building materials.

Dampness can also come from above, from inadequate weatherproofing of the wall top or roof or chimney. The most

common damp affliction in SA homes is not rising damp, but salt damp (also called salt attack). Unlike ordinary

damp, with its smells and possible health risks, the main problem with salt damp is the physical destruction of the

building material. The materials affected by salt attack are typically brickwork, stonework and concrete.

There are three pre‐conditions for salt damp: salt, movement of moisture through the affected material and

evaporation. The salt can come from the soil, or from mains water (repeated mis‐directed garden watering) or salt

may be present in the building material already. Moisture movement depends upon the material being permeable so

the moisture with the dissolved salts can move to a surface where evaporation occurs. There, the crystallisation of salts

causes the mechanical breaking apart of the building material, which could be brick, stone or concrete.

Buildings in coastal areas are particularly susceptible to salt attack from salt borne by atmospheric moisture.

Permeable building materials absorb the moisture when dry then as it evaporates, the salt attack occurs. In reinforced

concrete structures, like blocks of flats where the floor slab extends out to form a balcony floor, the concrete can be

very exposed and salt attack can develop into corrosion of steel reinforcement, posing a serious safety risk (see section

‘floors’, earlier in appendix)

> Prevention During construction, barriers to damp are built‐in at various locations but in older homes they may have failed or be

missing altogether. Masonry walls typically have a DPC (damp‐proof course) which is simply a row of mortar (a

‘course’) containing an impervious material, typically purpose‐made black embossed plastic. Older homes may have

nothing at all, or have used bitumen or aluminium sheet, both of which fail over time. Thin slate can be seen in some

very old buildings of high quality. Sometimes, a few courses of cement mortar (sand and cement, without lime) and

hard‐burnt bricks (clay bricks fired hotter) were used, or a few mortar courses containing a waterproofing additive.

Many late 20th century houses remain unaffected by damp, despite having no visible DPC. Older homes have more

permeable bricks so are not so lucky, especially if the foundation is damp.

Around the perimeter of the house, the soil and paving should be kept below the level of the damp‐proof course, if

one is present, or below the level of the top of the footing in older homes where no DPC is installed. Soil or paving

against the building will transfer moisture into the building unless a moisture barrier or impermeable materials are

used.



22

> Cure What can be done about salt damp?

Once the building material is damaged it is usually best replaced or repaired. The traditional method for repairing

walls can be very expensive and disruptive, involving removal of the affected masonry, metre by metre, and its

replacement with sound material with a damp‐proof course of embossed plastic sheet. Chemical treatments are now

available and may be a preferred option. The wall is drilled at close intervals of approximately 100mm and injected

with a penetrating liquid designed to arrest the moisture movement. Other methods are available and should be

evaluated at the time.

Each instance of damp should be evaluated on its own merits. Your report may recommend inspection by a specialist

in damp houses. More often than not, damp in Adelaide houses is minor and manageable without major remedial

work. In older homes, this may mean periodic patching and repainting alongside the other aspects of slow decay in

the structure.

23

HEALTH & SAFETY

This section covers several aspects of safety in and around the home with

emphasis on the safety of those least able to anticipate risk – young children.

Hazards discussed include fire, broken glass, drowning risks, heights and falls.

GGLLAAZZIINNGG

For nearly 20 years, Australian building regulations have required safety glass in doors and some windows. Older

buildings usually containing glazing which is hazardous by current standards, typically: door sidelights (the windows

next to a door), low‐level windows (accessible by children), and glass in doors. Full glass doors were very common as

double doors into lounge rooms in the 1930’s – 60’s and half‐glass doors are common as back doors. Half‐glass doors

are particularly hazardous when the handle is installed near the glass. If any of these situations are noted in your

report, they should be checked by a glazier and either the glass changed to safety glass or clear safety film installed

onto the existing glass.

> Mirrors Mirrors can be freely purchased and installed by the homeowner and because they are usually not safety glass are

potentially hazardous. When installing a mirror, always anticipate what will happen in the event of a breakage. Could

large pieces fall or broken edges contact skin? If so, mirrors that are not safety glass should be installed so that the glass

is stuck onto a backing material (thin board or fabric) so that large pieces are prevented from falling. If it is fixed using

adhesive or double‐sided tape, the substrate must be sound, for example do not stick to plaster or paint which may

pull away from its substrate. In addition to adhesive, it can be much safer to retain the glass mechanically, in a frame

or a perimeter beading or by having it pre‐drilled for screws.

> Safety glazing Ordinary glass is called ‘float glass’. It breaks into large pieces with long, sharp edges so can be extremely hazardous,

especially in doors, sidelights and low‐level windows. Safety glass is required in specific locations in building work

and several types are found in homes:

Toughened glass

Toughened glass – glass which is made stronger by heat treatment. Harder to break and when broken, shatters into

small blocks relatively less‐dangerous than large pieces.

Laminated glass

Laminated glass – safety glass made by sandwiching two sheets together with a clear plastic layer in between.

Designed to stay together when broken, so the sharp edges are not exposed.

Safety film

Safety film – clear plastic film applied to the surface of existing glass to make it safer, in the manner of laminated glass,

so that is stays together when broken. When purchasing a home where the glazing is likely to be hazardous because it

pre‐dates the current code, safety film is an approved but cheaper option than changing to laminated or toughened

glass.

Wired glass

This glass has wire mesh embedded in the glass and is usually only seen in older‐type shower screens and some

windows because it is relatively unattractive.

HEALTH & SAFETY

FFIIRREE SSAAFFEETTYY

A few simple fire safety steps are useful in any home…

> Escape Unlock deadlocks. Deadlocks to entry doors should be left unlocked or the key left in place so that a quick exit is

possible. Window screens which obstruct escape should be removable easily from inside, even if vision is impaired by

smoke or darkness.

> Smoke alarms The life‐saving benefit of smoke alarms is to wake a sleeping person, preventing death by smoke inhalation. Smoke

alarms are required by law, but the requirement is minimal and can be improved... Imagine a situation where a fire

starts in a bedroom and the smoke alarm is in the hallway, on the other side of a well‐fitting door. Perhaps there is a

slight air pressure in the hallway from air‐conditioning or an open window, further preventing smoke escaping to the

alarm. Wouldn’t it be better to have the smoke alarm inside the bedroom? For the small cost of a few extra battery‐

powered smoke alarms, it would seem good sense to put one in every bedroom. Even if one decides to not smoke in

bed, there are other potential fire sources in bedrooms among the several electrical devices most of us own: electric

blankets, lamps and electronic devices which, on rare occasions, can malfunction.

> Fire extinguisher, fire blanket Kitchen fires can start and spread rapidly due to the presence of hot oil and naked flame. A small automotive‐type fire

extinguisher (which is also designed for use on burning oil) or a fire blanket located nearby can help in extinguishing

a kitchen fire before it spreads to other materials.

> Bushfire The SA Country Fire Service , or ‘CFS’, runs a ‘Community Firesafe’ program for local residents in bushfire‐prone

areas, aimed at raising awareness, preparedness, understanding and co‐operation amongst residents. Adelaide has a

number of bushfire‐prone suburbs through the foothills. New residents, especially those coming from cooler climates,

may not appreciate the hazard nor appreciate that a little knowledge, easily obtained through the CFS, can help save

life and property in the unlikely event of a bushfire. Some heavily‐wooded foothills suburbs have been established for

over 50 years. In newer suburbs, fuel load accumulates with growing trees and gardens. Combined with strong winds,

this could lead to a bushfire catastrophe so residents should be prepared.

Although current building regulations have special requirements for construction in bushfire‐prone areas, existing

homes are not required to comply and may in fact have no fire‐resisting design features at all. Indeed, they could be

regarded as ‘living on borrowed time’. The buyer of an existing home in a bushfire risk area would be wise to assess

the home against current CFS, council and BCA recommendations and regulations then undertake the necessary

improvements. Although cost may be an issue, there are many steps which are not costly to implement, like sealing

the house against embers entering and preparing a bushfire plan according to CFS recommendations.

Links to additional information ‐

http://www.csiro.au/science/FireSafety.html

http://www.cfs.org.au/

> Electrical fire hazards Your building inspection includes a visual inspection of electrical installations in reasonable accessible areas. If the

inspector regards the electrical work as substandard or hazardous, then the report will advise that an electrician be

called to provide specialist advice and appropriate repair.


24

http://www.csiro.au/science/FireSafety.html

http://www.cfs.org.au/

HEALTH & SAFETY

Recessed downlights

A fire hazard may exist where recessed low voltage halogen downlights are installed in ceilings. This affects a great

many homes. See electrics section for further explanation.

Power boards starting fires

In past years, it was considered dangerous to piggy‐back one double adapter on another. This was true for a couple of

reasons: the devices being used were more likely to be drawing more power (there were fewer electronic home

gadgets) and the weight of the cords was likely to cause one adapter to partly pull out from the other, causing partial

loss of contact and consequent heating with risk of fire. The power board was a great improvement, but it is not

foolproof. Problems with power boards can arise from:

1. Overloading the power board.

2. Dust build up in unused points.

3. Power leads becoming dislodged over time, particularly under a desk where they are knocked by feet.

4. Heavy plug‐in transformers that will ʺover balanceʺ and partially unplug, resulting in over heating from poor

connections.

5. Limited or no understanding of the amount of power being drawn by different appliances (see example below).

Most homes have a large number of electrical and electronic devices, many permanently on and plugged into

powerboards which seem to be made in ever‐increasing sizes. Most electronic devices draw only small current and the

power board will probably have inbuilt overload protection, so there is minimal risk of overload. If a power board does

not have inbuilt overload protection, then it could be overheated and start a fire when high‐load devices are plugged

into it. Most power boards are rated at 10 amps but the circuit it is plugged into will probably be on a 16amp breaker,

therefore, the powerboard could be 60% over its design capacity.

To determine whether you are placing too much load on a powerboard, use the example below:

How much power is a device using? Look for a label showing the watts or amps. If you only see amps, then calculate the

watts from the amps thus: Watts = Amps x Volts (volts here = 240).

6 devices are plugged into a power board.

Read their labels and add their total wattage:

Phone charger 10

Radio 25

Juicer 40

Kettle 2000

Coffee maker 800

Total 2875 watts

The powerboard is labelled 10A (10amps). How many Watts is this?

Watts (W) = Amps (A) x 240, so 10 x 240 = 2400 watts is the maximum that should be plugged into this board. Therefore

it would be overloaded, even by running only the kettle and coffee maker. Plug them in elsewhere, to another socket outlet,

and prevent the risk if overheating and fire.

HHAAZZAARRDDOOUUSS MMAATTEERRIIAALLSS

> Asbestos

Most homes built from the 1940’s to the early 1980’s have asbestos in the fibre‐cement sheeting of their eaves (soffit) linings.

Asbestos was also used for lagging (insulating)hot water pipe and for insulating old stoves.


25

HEALTH & SAFETY

Asbestos is a naturally‐occurring fibrous mineral (magnesium silicate) which was long thought benign and despite the

accumulation of evidence to the contrary, it took a long time to be regarded with the extreme caution it deserves.

Much has been made of its hazards during recent decades and wrangling over compensation for the many victims of

asbestos‐related diseases, especially the lung cancer ‘mesothelioma’ is ongoing.

In local housing, asbestos occurs most commonly in the form of asbestos‐cement sheet, or ‘fibro’ (‘fibro’ is the common

name for fibre‐cement sheet). During the 1950’s whole houses were clad with it and a few remain in the suburbs, often

disguised by a second skin of faux brick or weather boards. The other common form of asbestos‐cement sheet is

corrugated, used for roofing and fencing. Asbestos is also found in these other building products: stormwater pipes,

flue pipes, roof shingles, plaster patching compounds, textured paint, vinyl floor tiles and the backings of linoleum

floor coverings and insulation on hot water pipes. Asbestos dust was also used to make some domestic paths and

driveways, appearing similar to concrete and almost as hard when rolled and compacted. As insulation in old

domestic heaters and stoves and very occasionally in ceilings, it can occur as a loose fluffy material looking similar to

cotton wool.

Asbestos‐cement sheet is the most common asbestos‐containing material still in service, having proven to be extremely

durable. Although it becomes increasingly hard and brittle with age, it tends to remain intact and undamaged in

protected areas such as eaves, but degrades in exposed situations like roofing and fencing, with the harmful fibres

released into the air. Fibres are also released if the material is worked, broken or cut. Safe work practices must be

followed at all times and the handling and disposal of asbestos is regulated by law. Detailed information is available

from a number of government agencies via the internet and from local council.

If an owner wishes to preserve a building material that contains asbestos (such as a roof) then a proprietary treatment

for sealing the surface and binding the material may be available, but it must comply with regulations. Check with

local authorities and the manufacturer to ensure compliance.

> Timber There are a number of timbers whose dust is hazardous. Western red cedar is particularly common for garden

furniture and its dust is carcinogenic so it should be sanded as little as possible and only with proper protection

against inhaling the dust.

Treated pine (eg ‘Permapine’) has been widely used for backyard structures. It is no longer allowed for structures such

as play equipment, decks or handrails where there is frequent contact unless it is painted with a penetrating sealer.

The preservative treatment giving it a greenish colour is a mix of copper, chrome and arsenic (CCA) and is toxic. For

decades, CCA was regarded as sufficiently well entrapped in the timber for it to be safe enough for children’s play

equipment, but accumulated evidence proved otherwise.

> Lead Lead was used in paints and pipework and is still occasionally used for flashing tiled roofs, although safer substitutes

have been developed. The main risk to the occupant or renovator is breathing in lead from lead‐based paints when

they are sanded or burnt or if the paint is flaking or chalky. Lead‐based paint in good condition should be left intact.

Paint shops sell test kits to check for lead paint, but it is a fair bet that any paint applied before 1970 will contain lead.

Master Painters Australia has more information on the hazards of lead‐based paints.

Link to brochure ‐ http://www.housing.qld.gov.au/renting/pdf/leadpaint_factsheet.pdf


26

http://www.housing.qld.gov.au/renting/pdf/leadpaint_factsheet.pdf

HEALTH & SAFETY

AAIIRR QQUUAALLIITTYY IINN TTHHEE HHOOMMEE

> Off‐gassing of new materials, paints etc Modern building materials may contain toxic substances, which we trust are safely entrained, but there are many

materials which, especially when new, produce gas and fumes that can be hazardous and/or objectionable. It is

reasonable to expect that some off‐gassing is hazardous but not detectable by smell. Glues, paints and sealants are

obvious sources. Careful attention to manufacturers’ warnings is advised and people with fragile health or who are

pregnant should consider the timing of their renovations carefully, to avoid inhaling harmful chemicals. Read the

manufacturer’s safety data sheet on the products you are intending to use.

> Carpets Carpets are a notorious breeding ground for bugs, simply because they entrap dirt so well and are not easy to clean

without specialist equipment. To help minimise the health risks of dust mites and allergens, seasonal cleaning by a

reputable carpet cleaning service is advised.

A domestic vacuum cleaner for carpet should have a brush head with a motorized brush or agitator to vibrate and

tease the carpet to loosen dirt. Maintain good suction by keeping the machine in good order and if the machine used a

bag, renew bags well before they are full. Many domestic vacuum cleaners of conventional design (with a bag filter)

emit an invisible cloud of fine particles which are too small to be trapped by the bag and simply pass through it or

escape via leaks in the machine. Provide good ventilation during vacuuming.

If renovating, consider installing ducted vacuuming which removes the motor and dust extraction machinery right

outside the house. Installation of ducted vacuuming is fairly simple if the ductwork is installed at framing stage, using

easily workable PVC pipe and fittings. See also ‘Ventilation and Sealing’ later in this section

CCHHIILLDD SSAAFFEETTYY

Many hazards exist in any home, which many parents will already be aware of. New parents especially, may wish to

gain further information from Kidsafe SA here ‐http://www.kidsafesa.com.au/

> Blind + Curtain cords Cords are a potential cause of accidental strangulation of children and should be kept as short as possible and out of

reach. Looped cords can be fitted with a tensioner that secures them to the wall or skirting so that they are not waving

loosely and inviting play.

> Hazardous substances: There are many substances in most homes and sheds, such as medicines, cleaning products and solvents, which are

potentially dangerous. Bleach and caustic soda are just two which are extremely hazardous, yet are common

supermarket items and would appear quite harmless to children if opened.

Establish a secure location for such items, like a locked cupboard or drawer. Childproofing devices for cupboard doors

can be unreliable, due to poor design, poor installation or becoming worn out or broken. Those installed inside the

door or drawer do not indicate that they are working. A reliable and simple lock is a pair of screw eyes (one in the

door, another in the jamb or the opposing door) linked with a small padlock, with the key placed high and away. This

is crude but effective: it is strong and can be verified as locked or unlocked at a glance.


27

http://www.kidsafesa.com.au/

HEALTH & SAFETY

> Restricting access

Vehicle areas

Children’s access to the road from the yard may be prevented with adequate gates and fencing. There are numerous

lightweight fencing systems available which allow good through‐vision. Self‐closing gates and child‐proof latches are

available in several designs, such as those intended for pool fencing.

Off‐street parking may be safest if fenced‐off from the rest of the yard with a pool‐type fence. This makes sense

considering that both pool and driveway pose grave risk for unattended youngsters.

Water safety

Safety barriers for swimming pools are required by law. The aim is to reduce swimming pool drownings of children

aged under 5 years, but given that they can drown in far less water than a pool, the use of barriers to other water

features such as fish ponds and fountains should be seriously considered even though it is not mandatory. An existing

fishpond at a home with small children can become an excellent sandpit for a few years. Send the fish on holiday and

get a load of washed ‘play pit’ sand delivered by your local sand and metal yard or landscaping supplies yard.

Requirements for pool safety barriers vary slightly depending on age of the pool, but the design standards of the

various components are specified in Australian Standard AS1926. Ask your local council for a pool safety inspector to

visit your home, inspect the pool safety barrier and give you the details of any improvements that may be needed.

You can then get the work done and have the inspector return to check it and provide a compliance certificate. A

nominal fee may apply for these visits.

When a property is offered for sale, there are specific requirements. These have changed several times in recent years

so check with local council or Planning SA for updates. The following is current at June 2011 ‐

If a person sells a property with a swimming pool, for which an application for approval was submitted on or after 1 July

1993, the child‐safety barriers must comply with whatever was approved at the time. Therefore, if the approved child‐

safety barriers included child‐resistant doors, this does not have to be changed when the property is sold. If the swimming

pool or spa pool was built or installed on or after 1 July 1993, the child‐safety barriers do not have to be upgraded before

the house can be sold. That requirement only applies to pools built or installed before 1 July 1993. In the case of a

swimming pool or spa pool that was built or installed on or after 1 July 1993, the safety features must comply with

whatever was approved at the time, and the owner must ensure the safety features are maintained in working order at all

times. http://www.planning.sa.gov.au/go/swimmingpools

A situation which allows a mix of house doors and gates as part of the barrier does not offer the peace of mind of a

single fence encircling the pool, which although it may be unattractive, allows the whole area to be checked at a glance.

Stairs

Access to stairs by small children poses an obvious fall hazard. Gates top and bottom are advised for toddlers and

once they are able to climb competently, retain the top gate to safeguard against accidental falls from the top landing.

The Building Code specifies the dimensions of the treads and the tread‐to‐tread height and also the maximum

allowable opening in balustrades. That opening is 125mm, intended to block a child’s head. It is, however, possible for

a very small child’s body to pass through and not the head, so if access to the balustrade is unsupervised, then an

additional temporary barrier would be wise. Make sure it is non‐climbable if accessible by older children.

> Vehicles

Playing in cars

Apart from the hazards mentioned above, there are other vehicle hazards at home. Suffocation or over‐heating can

occur if children lock themselves in and can’t get out, like in a car boot or in a station wagon luggage area fitted with a

cargo barrier. Small children may simply not know how to operate the handle to escape or may only try the rear doors

which may be childproofed.


28

http://www.planning.sa.gov.au/go/swimmingpools

HEALTH & SAFETY

Keys

The availability of the keys allows access to the vehicle. Whilst this may be an irresistible temptation to some children,

allowing them to play in the car with the keys invites disaster. Consider these facts: In a city which is mostly flat like

Adelaide, some drivers do not use their parking brake and even if they do, there is no indication on flat ground that

it’s working. Most cars start readily when the key is turned. A manual car, left in gear and without a clutch interlock,

will usually start and move off, only with its engine idling, but with lethal force. An automatic car, once started, can be

easily put into a gear with the same result. A child interested in cars may have keenly observed and learned what

needs to be done to make them go.

> Electrical safety Access to the pins of a partly‐withdrawn plug is easy, either accidentally or deliberately out of curiosity. A safety

switch is mandatory on new switchboard installations but some older homes do not yet have them installed. Like

smoke alarms, they provide a healthy degree of safety for little cost. However, they will not protect against all types of

potentially fatal shock and a finger across the pins of a partly‐withdrawn plug will not trip a safety switch unless that

person is earthed. Refer also to the section on electrical for more discussion of safety switches. Unused socket outlets

accessible to small children should have a dummy plug inserted to block the insertion of objects. The left‐hand upper

pin of a switched‐on socket outlet is live with 240 volts – this is the source of a potentially lethal shock.

> Fireplaces To reduce the burns risk of fireplaces and combustion heaters, provide a freestanding fireguard or better still, install

one that hooks into place so it can’t be pulled over, but still can be readily lifted away to service the fire.

Fireplaces should be carefully checked before use. In older homes it is common for the chimney bricks to lose their

mortar and gaps to appear where sparks can escape into the roofspace. Awaiting these sparks, there can be an

abundance of fuel, such as blown‐in leaves or animal nesting materials brought in from the garden. A fire in the

roofspace can be well established before detection. Make sure the fireplaces and chimneys are in good order by having

them inspected by a specialist and repaired if necessary, prior to first use.

> Hot water scalding Current requirements for new houses limit hot water temperature to a safe level, but many existing installations have

no such safeguard. If the hot water service is near ground level, the thermostat may be easily accessible and turned up

to an unsafe temperature. If you are new to the home, check that the water temperature is safe and bear in mind that a

storage heater may take a full 24 hours to reach its maximum after being switched on. Call a plumber if you are unsure

about adjusting your hot water heater’s temperature. Consider having a tempering valve installed at the heater to limit

the maximum temperature.

If a storage hot water service is small and prone to running out too soon, users may be tempted to turn up the

temperature at the unit, so that it provides more showers with less, but hotter, water. Without a tempering valve, this

is extremely hazardous. Have a plumber install a tempering valve at the unit first, to ensure that the supply to the

home is limited to a preset maximum.

FFIIRRSSTT AAIIDD KKIITT

A first aid kit with instructions for cardio‐pulmonary resuscitation is useful in any household. It can also contain

everyday items for attending to cuts, stings and splinters. Although most homes have these items already, a first aid

kit, in a marked container in a fixed location, will ensure they can be found, quickly when necessary.

FFUURRNNIITTUURREE

Furniture is often designed with no thought for a collision with a tender part of the anatomy, be it a falling person or

one simply unaware. Furniture features such as glass table tops and glass doors may not be made using safety glass.

Sharp edges may be at children’s head height. Slippery floors or mats can cause the fall that brings a person in contact


29

HEALTH & SAFETY

with the hazardous furniture feature. Not only the young and elderly are at risk – observe these situations and make

the necessary changes.

FFAALLLLSS

The cost of falls trauma among people aged 55 years and older has been estimated to be $2.5 billion in Australia

(Fildes, 1994). Falls among the elderly are the most likely form of trauma death for people aged 55 years and older.

Environmental factors which can be addressed in the home include Wet areas, Rails, Mats, Non‐slip surfaces +

stair/step nosings.

DDAANNGGEERROOUUSS SSTTRRUUCCTTUURREESS

> Decks + balconies

Timber

Widespread use of timber in decks and balconies has diminished in the past 20 years due to the increase in timber cost

and the reduced availability of suitable species, like jarrah from Western Australia, which is a very durable timber

good for exposed exterior use. From about 1970 to 1990, it was common to use heavy sections of Oregon in decks and

balconies, for joists, beams and posts. This has been unsatisfactory because Oregon, like pinus, is vulnerable to fungal

decay (commonly called ‘rot’) if not chemically treated or kept dry. At best, this has led to widespread repairs and

maintenance being necessary, and worse, the failure of structures with death and injury resulting.

Timber decks and balconies should be inspected regularly and maintained. In normal service they may only be

carrying the weight of a few people. There may be significant deterioration of the supporting structure which may not

be apparent or has been ignored or under daily use does not pose a problem. Only when the heavy load of a crowd is

imposed on the structure, perhaps at a party, will the structure be tested nearer to the limits for which it was designed,

so if it has deteriorated sufficiently, it will fail then. Death and injury have already occurred in several cases in

Australia. In one case, part of a balcony came loose from a wall and in an unzipping fashion, the whole assembly,

laden with people, came away and fell several metres to the ground.

Common defects to look for are generally near the end of timber members. The end‐grain is most susceptible to decay

because this is where the timber most readily absorbs moisture. Furthermore, because the end grain is often concealed

at a joint with other members, it misses out on being painted and in the adjacent gap, dirt and debris collects which

holds moisture and harbours microorganisms. It is well to remember that the timber is, after all, pieces of dead trees

and that timber‐destroying fungus and termites work very well at breaking it down to compost. When timber in used

in an exposed or buried location we invite its inevitable destruction, so it is vital to ensure that either it is durable (a

suitable species or preservative‐treated), or as with Oregon balconies, it is regularly inspected and maintained.

Sometimes the metal fixings are the cause of failure. Unless they are properly protected from corrosion, they may rust

in concealed locations. For example, a mild steel bolt passing through CCA treated pine (Permapine) or Western Red

Cedar will readily rust and fail even though its exposed ends might appear good. Zincalume steel fares little better, so

all fixings used with these timbers need to be stainless steel or appropriately protected by hot dip galvanizing or other

suitable treatment.

Concrete

Concrete decks and balconies are usually cast in place (‘insitu’). Unless they were made at the same time as the rest of

the building, they may not have been properly designed by an engineer, relying instead upon the knowledge, skill and

diligence of others. Concrete is a material that hides all manner of evils. It may appear good on the outside but this is

no indication of its strength or quality. Concrete has high compressive strength which is a resistance to being crushed.

But it has low tensile strength, which is resistance to being pulled apart or stretched. That’s where steel comes into the

mix because steel has plenty of tensile strength. Steel reinforcement, usually in the form of mesh and rods, is essential

to the strength a concrete floor. There must be an adequate thickness to a concrete slab and the concrete used must


30

HEALTH & SAFETY

have sufficient compressive strength. The steel must be sufficient and be properly located within the slab, generally

near the bottom.

Failure of the steel reinforcement will occur if it is allowed to rust. Whilst the steel is properly encapsulated in concrete,

it is protected from rusting. Provided that there is reasonable access for inspection, corrosion of reinforcement may be

detected by these outward signs: as the steel rusts, it expands and breaks the concrete, typically as large flakes

(“spalling”) on the edges or underside, often accompanied by brown rust staining. This type of deterioration may be

initially slow, but will accelerate as the spalling and cracking exposes more steel to more moisture and air.

Concrete decks and balconies are not always able to be inspected. The underside, where these signs may be obvious,

may not be accessible. There may have been cosmetic repairs which conceal defects such as cracking, rusting

reinforcement or poor quality concrete. The strength of concrete cannot be determined by visual inspection. See also

‘suspended slabs’ page 14.

> Outbuildings See ‘Sheds & Outbuildings’ page 18

> Basketball rings and collapsing walls There are too many instances of unsafe brick walling in the suburbs, at the front of garages, where the brick wall has

been carried up a few courses to make a neat façade to conceal the sloping roof beyond. Garages are typically not built

to the same quality as the house and their walls are often single brick. With time, a little building movement and

mortar of uncertain quality, the few courses of brickwork over the garage door may become unstable and be easily

dislodged. An attached basketball ring provides a perfect lever for overturning and collapsing the brickwork onto

anyone below and if the brickwork has been strongly made, rather than falling as loose bricks, it can fall as a whole or

in large pieces ‐ hundreds of kilograms ‐ making death or serious injury almost certain.

RRAATTSS,, PPOOSSSSUUMMSS AANNDD UUNNWWAANNTTEEDD VVIISSIITTOORRSS

Rats and mice are common in small numbers where there is food, like fruit trees and compost bins. The digging

activities of a well‐behaved and quietly‐living rat is even considered an asset in some compost bins. If they decide to

move in with people, the game changes. The easiest way to get into most houses is into the roofspace, via openings

around the roof perimeter. A small opening can be enlarged by gnawing teeth to allow easy entry. Rats in the

roofspace can make luxurious nests in the ceiling insulation and have been known to eat the plastic insulation off

electrical wiring, with obvious fire hazard. The presence of their droppings is a sign indicating that it is time to call a

pest controller or lay some rodenticide (available from the supermarket).

Mice are small enough to get into wall framing where they are very difficult to access. They can follow a path down a

wall cavity or enter internal walls via the holes drilled through the top plate by plumbers and electricians.

Small birds can enter under the flutes of corrugated steel roofs especially at the valleys and anywhere the sheets aren’t

well screwed‐down. Nesting debris and bird lice can accumulate; both are health hazards. Where an opening can’t

easily be closed, bird wire can be stuffed into the gap or fixed across openings. Bird wire is like chicken wire, only with

small holes, able to stop birds, rats and possums.

Possums in the roofspace can be very noisy, tearing up the insulation and staining ceilings with their urine. If

preventing their entry proves difficult, their night‐time antics (they are nocturnal) can be deterred by lighting the

roofspace. Use a low‐energy lamp on a timer.

The diseases carried by these animals is beyond the scope this document, but suffice to say the risk is undesirable.


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HEALTH & SAFETY

VVEENNTTIILLAATTIIOONN && SSEEAALLIINNGG

> Water vapour Any occupied building needs ventilation, if only for the reason that people exhale water vapour with every breath,

which accumulates, condensing onto cool surfaces like walls and ceilings, causing them to become increasingly damp

and harbour mold and microorganisms. Other sources of large amounts of water vapour are gas fuelled devices such

as under‐bench ovens, flueless gas heaters and clothes dryers without an exhaust to outside. Provide adequate

ventilation when these devices are in use, or install ducting or a ceiling exhaust fan to exhaust their emissions to the

outside.

Water vapour from wet areas is unavoidable from showers and especially clothes dryers. Fortunately, Adelaide’s

climate is warm and dry enough that damp from atmospheric moisture is rarely an issue beyond bathrooms and

laundries where an exhaust fan, heat lamps, electric towel rail and heated floors are useful for dissipating it and

improving comfort at the same time.

> Ceilings A common fault, especially in older homes, is a crack forming where the wall meets the ceiling. Through this gap can

descend all manner of debris that has accumulated in the roofspace over the life of the building. It can be a most

unhealthy cocktail of fine dust, feathers, dirt, bird lice, vermin droppings and leaves. Sealing these gaps should be

done using flexible sealant to accommodate some future movement, but if the movement is excessive, consider

installing cornice which is fixed to the wall only, free to move against the ceiling.

> Doors + windows The building code has energy efficiency provisions which require a standard of building sealing that many homes

built pre‐2000 will not possess. Door seals are an easy and obvious improvement for the homeowner, to reduce heat

loss and blown‐in dust and debris. A wide variety are available from home hardware merchants.

SSTTAAIIRRSS

Stairs are a huge potential hazard for the very young and very old. The Building Code specifies the dimensions of the

treads and the tread‐to‐tread height and also the dimensions of balustrades. Non‐slip stair nosings are required by the

BCA in new construction and can be retrofitted, using self‐adhesive grit‐covered tape, screwed‐on strips and other

proprietary devices designed for the purpose. Provide good lighting of stairways. Handrails should be continuous to

provide a constant handhold along their length.

HHAANNDDRRAAIILLSS AANNDD GGRRAABB RRAAIILLSS

Grab rails are commonplace in aged care and disabled bathrooms, so many people baulk at the idea of having them in

their own home. However, spare a thought for a visitor who might be a little unsteady and in unfamiliar surroundings

when they visit you. Having fitted grab rails in a shower or toilet for someone else, homeowners invariably find

themselves using them, especially in the shower, where otherwise the taps may have been the only handhold.

LLIIGGHHTTIINNGG

Glare

Glare occurs when one part of the environment is much brighter than the general surrounding area. The contrast causes the eye to have to

continually adjust, which is tiring and annoying. As the eye adjusts to the brightness, the view away from the light become perceptibly darker

and harder to navigate safely.

Lighting should always be designed to suit the task being lit. For example, what is the purpose of outdoor lighting…

to light the way, to dazzle an intruder or to create atmosphere? Exterior lighting around the home is useful for security


32

HEALTH & SAFETY

but is most important for safety of residents and especially visitors unfamiliar with the place. For safety, it should not

be glary. Security lighting, on the other hand, may be intended to cause glare rather than light the way.

Exterior lighting should avoid glare by essentially illuminating the path and not the surroundings or the people. Many

dim lights are better than few bright ones. If few bright lights are installed, they should be kept very high, out of the

field of view so as to not cause glare.

Movement sensors are readily available and inexpensive. They operate by detecting a change in infrared radiation: the

warmth of a person moving by. They are very convenient for residents, activating lights as needed, and providing a

degree of security lighting. Cheaper models are unreliable for security lighting because they are easily fooled by heavy

clothing which reduces the radiation from a person. This effect is readily apparent during colder months, when the

light may not be activated if one goes outside in a coat and hood or if it is raining.

SSEECCUURRIITTYY

Whilst much is made by some home owners to protect their home against possible intruders, it is curious to see how

adjacent homes in the suburbs can have completely different approaches, for example, with one having a high railing

spiked fence with remote‐control sliding gate when its neighbour has nothing. Perhaps this reveals more about

individual fears than actual risk. Irrespective of the real risks, most people desire to provide a sense of security, and the

following devices have been shown to be effective:

> Barriers to entry via the main openings (doors and windows).

Security screen doors

These provide an open view of visitors and may have ‘one‐way mesh’, a type of screening that inhibits view into the

home whilst giving a good view of the visitor. They also allow the solid door to be left open for ventilation, especially

useful on hot nights.

Glass reinforcement

Safety glass or safety film applied to window and door glass makes forced entry more difficult. Doors and windows

may already be safety glass, but if the glass is toughened, not laminated, it will still break with a blow from a small

hammer, so clear film is still a worthwhile barrier to apply.

Window grilles and shutters

Many different devices are available, roller shutters, barred grilles etc. Grilles have the benefit of allowing the window

to be left open anytime. They are a visually prominent attachment so should be designed to enhance the home’s

appearance.

Locks

Door and window locks and deadlocks have varied effectiveness and are only as strong as the material to which they

are attached. For convenience, they can be keyed alike by a locksmith or purchased with the same key pattern (some

keys are numbered for this purpose).

> Surveillance and detection

Peep holes

A peep hole in the front door gives the option to be ‘at home’ or not. They are cheap and easy to install…only needing

careful use of a drill. To avoid damaging the door, drill through first with a fine drill then drill from both sides with the

right size, but only just past half way through.

Remote surveillance cams

An ever‐increasing choice of remote locking and surveillance devices are available as consumer electronics become

cheaper and the middle classes of developing nations expand, anxious to protect their assets and creating an ever‐


33

HEALTH & SAFETY


34

widening market for wired and wireless cameras, intercoms and locks for every location. Many can be installed by

anyone, available from consumer electronics stores such as Jaycar or Dick Smith’s http://www.jaycar.com.au or

professionally installed by security companies.

Alarms

Many homes now have alarms, usually monitored by a security firm from a remote location. These systems may have

an ongoing maintenance package where the provider looks after any defects in the hardware. Fire and smoke

detection is usually part of the package.

http://www.jaycar.com.au/

TERMITES

Termites are known locally also as ‘white ants’. They serve an important purpose

in our ecosystem to devour dead timber and return it to the ground. Of the

hundreds of species in Australia, only a handful pose a risk to Adelaide homes.

Across South Australia, they are a serious and persistent problem in some areas

more than others. You may have requested a termite inspection together with your

building inspection report. Although the building inspection is not a pest or

termite inspection, if termite presence or damage is observed during your building

inspection, it will be noted in your report.

35

WWHHAATT IISS TTHHEE RREEAALL RRIISSKK??

Much fear and loathing exists around termites and with good reason. The damage they can cause, even before being

detected, can be devastating, not only to a building’s structure but to the owner’s budget, especially when not covered

by home insurance. On the other hand, hundreds of dollars can be spent annually protecting buildings which have no

previous history of attack. The decision of whether or not to

maintain regular termite inspections and/or treatment should take

into account the assessed risk versus the cost. When moving into a

newly‐purchased home, it makes good sense to consult the

neighbours, especially if they have lived there a long while, about

local termite activity. Combining this information with that of a

Licensed Pest Manager will help you decide what level of

protection is appropriate, and how much you’re prepared to

spend to achieve it. Some home owners regard the termite

protection programs as insurance they can do without, whilst

realistically expecting that one day they may have to face the

repair bill for an attack. Others prefer the peace of mind knowing

that an expert is helping to monitor and keep at bay these

opportunistic subterranean attackers. If evidence of termite attack

has been observed on or near your property, then it should always

be taken as a serious warning that they may return.

CCOONNSSEEQQUUEENNCCEESS OOFF TTEERRMMIITTEE DDAAMMAAGGEE

The consequences of termite attack may extend beyond the repair of the affected timberwork which already may

amount to major cost and inconvenience. For example, damage to cladding, linings and floor coverings may result

directly, or from the need to remove them to access the affected timberwork. In the case of brick veneer construction, it

is well to remember that the wall frame, not the brickwork, is what supports the roof load, so the roof could lose

support or its timbers be attacked via the wall framing. A tiled roof on timber rafters poses a significant safety risk if

the rafters are attacked, due to the weight of the tiles.

Retaining walls may be susceptible to termite attack if they are not constructed of durable material. Untreated timber,

generally redgum sleepers, is common in retaining walls and although the outer face may appear sound, the sleepers

can be eaten from the back, where they are against the soil being retained. Unless termite damage is arrested early

TERMITES

enough, the wall may become structurally inadequate and fail. If the wall is low, failure may be an inconvenience but

if the wall is several metres high, the consequences could be severe for life and property on both sides of the wall.

Retaining walls over a certain height may require building approval and design by an engineer.

HHOOWW TTOO RREEDDUUCCEE TTHHEE RRIISSKK OOFF AATTTTAACCKK

The Building Code of Australia requires that new building work be protected by a ‘termite management system’.

Many kinds of barriers, repellents, poisons and baiting systems are approved for this purpose and are continuing to be

developed. However, another approved system has none of these items added to the normal building: the termite

barrier is the concrete raft slab itself, and an inspection zone surrounds it to allow visual detection of termite entry.

> Barriers Barriers can be physical or chemical. A chemical barrier is a ‘termiticide’ (termite poison) or a repellent, usually

applied as a liquid into the foundation soil. Sometimes, termiticide is impregnated in a building material already, such

as treated timber, or impregnated in plastic sheeting laid under the floor slab and at other possible entry locations.

Until about 20 years ago, the termiticides in common usage were very effective and long‐lasting but were also found to

have undesirable health risks to humans. Their use was banned and now a plethora of alternatives has come to the

marketplace: chemical barriers, physical barriers and baits, which are often used in combination. An example of a

physical barrier is the floor slab itself (as in raft slab on ground construction), or metal ant capping which has been

used in subfloors of timber‐floored homes for many decades, made from thin sheet steel. More recent developments

include stainless steel mesh, crushed granite and crushed glass.

> Baits Since the banning of certain hazardous substances previously used successfully for termite eradication and chemical

barriers, new strategies have been developed, such as baiting. Baiting attracts termites in order to detect their presence,

prior to eradication of the nest which could be anywhere up to 50 metres away. Baits in ‘bait stations’ are usually

installed in the ground or attached to the building. Typically they are housed in a litre‐sized container and consist of a

palatable timber or chemical attractant. Depending on the system used, the bait may also contain a termiticide or a

growth regulator, which the congregating termites spread amongst themselves and transport back to the nest,

destroying it without its location ever being known.. Alternatively, a bait may simply indicate infestation to the pest

controller who will then insert a termiticide or growth regulator into the container.

> Attack versus defence A chemical barrier will kill only those termites who happen to venture across it. Killing individual termites, even a

few thousand at a time, will have little impact on the colony, because the queen termite can lay up to 2000 eggs a day

and the nest could be 50 metres away from the building being attacked. Chemical barriers are vulnerable: they can be

bridged by new building work (as simple as a new pergola post) or damaged by digging the soil into which the

chemical was injected. A chemical barrier is defensive only, unlike methods designed to destroy the colony. An

experienced pest controller may be able to locate the main nest underground or in an old tree, but unless the colony is

eradicated by this or other means, then termites from that same colony (and there could be other colonies too!) can

continue poking at your defences for decades.

> Don’t offer cosy conditions Termites like dark, moist conditions. In fact, they live almost entirely inside their own controlled environment of

narrow ranging temperature and humidity, either inside timber or enclosed in the mud tubes and honeycomb

structures of their own design. Buildings should be kept dry, because dampness will only encourage them. Homes

with raised floors should have good underfloor ventilation to deter them, by maintaining uncomfortably dry

conditions underfloor.


36

TERMITES

> Verandah & pergola posts Timber posts for verandahs, carports and decks should not be in contact with the ground unless they are treated to be

termite resistant. Otherwise, they should be attached to a metal post base (“shoe”) which provides an inedible barrier

and a gap for visual detection. Unfortunately, this gives an unsightly appearance to the post base as it thins near to the

ground and appears to not quite reach it, as a post or column should appear to do. In this case, a cover can be made

from a termite‐resisting material. One example is a skirting of western red cedar with a termite barrier such as a layer

of termiticide‐impregnated membrane ‘Kordon’ underneath. http://www.kordontmb.com.au/. Steel posts are

commonly used in new construction for pergolas, carports and verandahs attached to the house. They are usually

hollow tube and unless a chemical barrier is installed or they are closed off at one end, they can provide a perfectly

concealed entry for termites.

> Don’t hand out free food Food sources, like dead tree trunks, old wood piles or building debris should be cleared up or kept well away from the

house. An obvious way to reduce possible damage is to use building materials that are unpalatable to termites. Some

timbers, like native cypress and western red cedar are naturally termite resistant. Chemically‐treated building timbers

are available, but remember that some, like CCA treated pine (eg Permapine) can be hazardous for human contact.

Framing timbers (pinus and oregon) have traditionally been untreated and susceptible to attack, but several brands of

chemically pre‐treated pine framing timber are now available. Steel framing is growing in popularity, especially for

slab‐on‐ground construction (which is most new houses), but it will not keep termites away because it is still possible

for termites to enter a steel‐framed house and devour built‐in furniture, carpet edge gripper strips, skirtings and

architraves and even the plasterboard behind shower wall tiles.

DD..II..YY.. DDEETTEECCTTIIOONN OOFF TTEERRMMIITTEESS

> Call for help The ‘pest controllers’ section of the Yellow Pages is the first step for most people wanting help with treatment of pests.

The work of controlling termites is a specialist area which has evolved from a ‘find and kill’ approach (using

poisonous substances and sometimes dubious safety) to a more sophisticated exercise requiring greater knowledge of

the entomology of termites and an understanding of the evolving array of control products, most produced by the

major international chemical companies. The term ‘Integrated Pest Management’ is currently favoured and pest

controllers in SA must be licensed by the state Department of Health.

> I found some termites ! If termites are detected, they should not be disturbed any further, as this can make the pest controller’s job harder. Do

not spray them. There is a better chance of the pest controller locating the nest and eradicating it, possibly by using the

live termites as the couriers of a control chemical back to their nest, if they are left undisturbed by the homeowner.

> Observation Most recently‐constructed homes in the Adelaide region have concrete floors and footings and some masonry walling.

They may have no chemical termite barrier installed, with the barrier being the raft slab itself. Bricks and concrete are

inedible, so termites must enter via an opening somewhere, building their mud tunnels which reveal their presence.

Hopefully, it will be where they can be seen by the occupant, who can then call a pest controller. For this to work, the

slab edge must be exposed to view around the whole building perimeter and anything bridging this inspection zone

(conduits, other structures etc) must be suitably treated against termites. Although a raft slab is deemed to be a termite

barrier, it can fail due to poor workmanship, with termites entering either via cracks or via the penetrations for waste

pipes and other services which pass through the slab, or the slab can be bridged by other structures attached to the

house. Homes with strip footings and timber floors cannot be inspected in this manner without full access to the

underfloor areas, which is rarely possible without an ‘invasive inspection’ by a pest controller who has the owner’s

permission to cut or break through parts of the building to create access. Given this difficulty of access, visual detection


37

http://www.kordontmb.com.au/

TERMITES


38

by the homeowner is not feasible. Floors are probably timber and therefore a food source, so a chemical termite barrier

is most likely appropriate.

> Ant caps and flashings Ant caps and flashings of galvanised sheet steel are commonly used underfloor when there is access for inspection.

Partly a barrier, they are mainly a means of detection, because they force the termites to leave the timber and build

their mud shelter tubes (see sketch) around the sheet metal, thus making their presence observable (subject to the

space being reasonably accessible).

> Warning signs inside Because termites survive only in a very controlled environment, they will attack timber by tunnelling along its grain

without penetrating its face. So by the time they are detected, they can have already done major damage. For example,

a doorframe and architrave might be completely eaten out, leaving only a shell of painted timber by the time they are

detected. Any sound of crushing, crunching or hollow timber underfoot or in the interior trim or timber furniture, or

weakness where there shouldn’t be (like a door hinge pulling out all its screws) is cause for closer inspection.

> Noisy termites Termites can be surprisingly noisy. They might be small but there are lot of them! Occasionally, in a quiet place, the

agitated soldier termites can be heard, sounding a bit like the rapid, light tapping or scratching of fingernails on a

laminate benchtop.

> Links to more information Monitoring termites and wood borers in the home http://www.csiro.au/science/Termites.html

Termite or ‘white ant’ treatment and prevention http://www.csiro.au/resources/Termites.html

Archicentre brochure ‘Termites and Borers’ http://www.archicentre.com.au/06TermitesBorers.pdf

Pest control industry company websites

Reading –

‘Urban Pest Management in Australia’ Gerozisis, J., Hadlington, P. W., Staunton, I. ‐ 5th ed. UNSW Press , 2008

‘Australian termites: and other common timber pests’ Hadlington, Phillip ; Beck, Louise 1996

http://www.csiro.au/science/Termites.html

http://www.csiro.au/resources/Termites.html

http://www.archicentre.com.au/06TermitesBorers.pdf

39

ENERGY EFFICIENCY

There are a number of ways to improve the energy efficiency of our homes towards

satisfying multiple goals of saving money, reducing carbon emissions and reducing

use of resources. In these times of increasing energy costs and government

incentives for individuals to invest in solar energy equipment, there is a basic

principle of passive solar design, which is to point the right‐size windows in the

right direction, provide them with shading and enjoy maximum light and heat

when we need it and shaded light when we don’t. Glass is cheaper than walling.

It’s the most cost‐efficient way to capture solar energy, maintenance‐free, no

moving parts, a kilowatt per square metre, free, forever.

Solar energy

In building design, a combination of visible light and heat

Solar orientation

The design and position of a building in relation to the sun, usually with orientation to north being the reference for position.

Lamp

The device that turns electricity into light. Light bulbs and fluorescent tubes are types of lamps.

Thermal mass

Used to describe the heat‐holding ability of a material. Example: Concrete, brick and water have high thermal mass. Timber and furnishings

have low thermal mass.

Colour temperature

A measurement, in degrees Kelvin, useful for describing the ‘colour’ of the white light from a lamp: a ‘warm white’ lamp has a low colour

temperature (it is more reddish ‐ say 2600deg K)

A ‘cool white’ lamp has a high colour temperature (it is more ‘blueish’ with a ‘colder light’ ‐ say 5000deg K). Here is a point of common

confusion: the colour temperature number is opposite to our impression of what is ‘warm’ or ‘cool’ light: the warmer lamp (redder) has the

lower colour temperature and the ‘cooler’ light (blueish) has the higher colour temperature. Colour temperature affects how appropriate the

light seems to us at a particular time of day (see Lighting below).

Radiant heat

Infra‐red radiation from the sun or a home radiator which travels in a straight line, like light, and heats the objects (and people) it falls upon.

This is why clear winter sunshine can feel so warm despite low air temperature.

LED

Light‐emitting diode. Becoming more useful for lighting as higher‐brightness versions become available. Very efficient use of electricity because

most is converted to light instead of heat.

BBUUIILLDDIINNGG FFAABBRRIICC

‘Building fabric’ refers to the ‘shell’ of the building – that which separates the occupants from the outside. This is

typically a mixture of several materials such as metal, brick, timbers, glass and concrete. Individually and in

combination, these materials have known properties of thermal mass (heat‐holding ability) and of heat conduction,

which can be reduced by adding insulation.

The energy efficiency of a building can be calculated from the interaction between its solar orientation, its materials,

the size, location and type of windows, and areas of walls and rooms. To make comparison easy and provide a

simple, agreed basis for assessment, energy efficiency can be expressed as a single‐digit summary, such as the ‘star

rating system’ currently in use. Various software packages have been produced to assist designers and energy

auditors assessing individual buildings. Whilst a star rating goes some way towards improving efficiency, it does not

ENERGY EFFICIENCY


40

encourage quality in passive solar design. Quality home design takes account of all factors present: economic, human,

spatial, material, site and climate, and is best practiced by architects who are the specialist practitioners in this field.

BBUUIILLDDIINNGG SSEEAALLIINNGG

Sealing the building is important for energy efficiency because the amount of energy used in keeping interior

conditions different from outside can be increased by air leaks in or out of the building. Locations to check are: exterior

doors should fit their frame well when closed and have a weather seal on their bottom edge and a thin foam seal

around their perimeter, especially if subject to wind pressure. In timber floored houses, the gap between skirting and

floor should be sealed with clear sealant or a small timber moulding (eg quarter round). Chimneys should be closed

off when not in use. Wall vents high in the wall, as required by outdated building rules, should be closed if they are no

longer required for room ventilation. Exhaust fans should be a seal‐closing type or have a flap installed above, in the

roofspace, to close them when switched off. Ducted airconditioners should not allow air to and from outdoors when

the system is turned off.

PPAASSSSIIVVEE SSOOLLAARR DDEESSIIGGNN

If you are building or renovating, passive solar design principles are an essential part of a sensible and responsible

design process. In simple terms, this means considering the effect of the sun upon your structure and its occupants.

Firstly, it is essential to understand the sun’s path through the sky and how it changes through the year – see later in

this section. When the sky is overcast, light is fairly uniformly radiated onto a building, but when the sky is clear, as it

so often is in Adelaide, the sun’s radiation reaches us in a straight line and at high intensity, like a torch beam. In

winter this represents free home heating but in summer we need shade from excess heat. When the sky is clear, we can

use the shape of a building to control how solar energy is utilised, because we know the location of the sun for every

moment of every day. Basically, it’s a matter of pointing enough glass in the right direction at the right time of year –

the cool months. Then, as summer approaches and the sun climbs higher in the sky, we have a shading device in place

to shield our solar collector (window). Passive solar design principles are more elaborate than this, but stating this

basic principle flies in the face of most conventional house designs, new and old, which declare an almost universal

ignorance of it.

> ‘We’re going solar…where?’ Many have already ‘gone solar’ with rooftop water heaters and photovoltaic arrays, but we can ‘go solar’ a whole lot

more if we understand the sun’s path and design houses in the first place to maximise this free energy. The most cost‐

effective use of solar energy is not a rooftop solar panel, but a piece of glass – a window ‐ facing north, and with

something to heat behind it, preferably of high thermal mass like a dark‐coloured tiled or concrete floor. So what is this

energy worth? We pay around 20cents per kilowatt hour for our electricity. The sun, in a clear sky, irradiates us at the

rate of up to a kilowatt per square metre. So that’s 20 cents per square metre per hour. So a big window facing north

and collecting the winter sun is a powerful home heater. Turning that solar heater up or down is as simple as shading

the window when necessary (in warmer weather). One very reliable automatic shading device is a deciduous vine,

supported overhead. It’s there when you need it (warm weather) and gone in the winter, allowing maximum sun

entry through the window. This is a very simple example, made to work well with some basic knowledge of the sun’s

path at different times of year. It is so simple yet widely disregarded in almost all house designs.

LLIIGGHHTTIINNGG

Many homes have already changed their incandescent lamps for compact fluorescents. However, many have large

numbers of low‐voltage downlights which are far less efficient at converting electricity to light and are consuming

50watts each in doing so. An option is to re‐lamp with a LED module. These are available from a few suppliers and are

bound to improve in performance and affordability in coming years. The appeal of halogen downlights stems partly

from the quality of light they provide which includes specular highlighting: the sparkle and shine they give to

ENERGY EFFICIENCY


41

reflective curved surfaces, like glass and metal. This effect is due to the lamp being an extremely small and intense

light source, an effect not achievable with LED modules containing a cluster of LEDs. There are some very high

intensity LED’s on the market ( ‘Luxeon’ and ‘Cray’ are two brand names) which may evolve to become an adequate

substitute in achieving the specular highlighting comparable with tungsten halogen. Because LED lighting is recently

evolving, readers should do fresh research before buying.

Of all common lamp types, fluorescent tubes give the most light per watt – they are the cheapest to run and that is

why they continue to be used in large numbers for lighting large buildings. Home users are often disappointed with

the light, finding the light ‘cold’. This is because the tubes are probably the wrong colour temperature, being designed

for daytime use in offices, not at the ends of the day when home lighting is used.

Compact fluorescent lamps are now available in a vast array of sizes, shapes and wattages, but most are not

dimmable. Many are sold with too high a colour temperature and some ‘warm white’ have a dirty greenish tinge.

Choose carefully, perhaps buying a few to compare.

There are many colour variations of what at first appears to be white light, as there is with ‘white’ paint. For instance,

the colour of the noonday sun is different from the morning and evening sun. A ‘cool white‘ fluorescent tube may be

right for boosting daylight in an office, but in the home, the colour of its light can seem uncomfortably inappropriate at

morning and evening because at these times, a ‘redder’ shade of white light is more appropriate – like the colour of the

rising and setting sun. So before condemning ‘fluoro’ tubes, make sure you have considered the vast choice of colours

of ‘white’ available.

HHOOMMEE HHEEAATTIINNGG

When deciding how to heat a room or a home, it is useful to understand the difference between radiant heating and

convection heating. Radiant heaters produce heat in a form that is directed, or focused onto whatever (or whomever)

needs heating. Examples are sunlight on a cool day or heat lamps in a bathroom. Airconditioners and convection

heaters work differently: they both heat the air in a room and this warmed air then heats the person. Obviously, much

energy can be wasted if all that is needed is the warming of a couple of people. In this case, radiant heating may be

more economical, especially in large spaces, because the heating energy can be better confined to the bodies in need of

heating. Radiant heaters can be gas or electric, fixed or portable. Electric fan heaters (small air heaters) can be useful

for warming a cold bedroom for short periods before and after bed. They are cheap to buy, provide instant heat and

are very effective in a small space but should not be operated for long periods as they consume a kilowatt or so of

electricity (15‐30 cents/hour).

Concrete floors can be uncomfortably cold in winter unless they are heated. Heating the slab sufficiently to slow the

rate of heat loss from one’s feet to a comfortable level does not cost a lot of energy, but trying to heat the whole space

using the slab heating might! Heating wires can be installed with the slab or laid under new floor tiles and the system

run cheaply using off‐peak electricity. Slabs can also be heated with water run through tubes in the slab. The water is

heated using gas, off‐peak electricity, heat pump, solar hot water, or a combination of these. Heating with this method

is not well‐developed in SA nor is hydronic heating with water‐filled radiators, despite both being well‐established

elsewhere. Some Adelaidians put up with a cold house for a couple of months in winter, much to the horror of visitors

from colder climes who declare they have never been so cold!

HHOOMMEE CCOOOOLLIINNGG

> Windows Cooling homes is usually done by a combination of mechanical air‐conditioning and natural ventilation. If building or

renovating, check whether you can take advantage of prevailing breezes, especially from a direction across water,

which has a cooling effect. ‘Gully breezes’ are favoured by residents near the foothills. If breezes are very weak, then

ENERGY EFFICIENCY


42

careful window design will optimize their effect. Identify their times and direction and locate the windows of a

suitable size and type to admit and expel air to achieve cross‐ventilation. For example, a breeze running parallel to a

wall can be caught by a casement sash and directed in; a casement opening the opposite way acts as a venturi, sucking

air out. The old style double‐hung sash opens up wide and when open top and bottom, it allows convection in and out

of the room. Clerestory windows (in a long strip at the roof ridge) are very effective at expelling hot air even if through

a small opening. The common awning sash is not a good ventilator in any respect, but it does keep the rain out when

left open.

> Airconditioning Over recent years, Adelaide summers have had more humid days, which when combined with high temperatures,

makes relief more difficult without mechanical assistance. Meanwhile, the purchase cost of refrigerated air

conditioners has fallen and their efficiency has risen. Nevertheless, their running cost (power consumption) makes

them a costly way to cool a whole house, unless the house is very energy efficient to begin with. Building houses with

no eaves to shade the walls does not help reduce energy use.

> Evaporative cooling Evaporative cooling is far cheaper to operate than refrigerated airconditioning but has the disadvantage of not

working well in humid weather. That is because it achieves its temperature drop by evaporating water into incoming

fresh air, drawn in by a fan and blown through the building and out through open doors and windows. Air that is

already very damp (humid) has little room for more water, so it can’t be cooled further using this method. Air that is

very dry will be cooled more. The water‐carrying ability of air increases with temperature so air that is hot and dry can

be cooled the most. Unfortunately, due to climate change, hot dry conditions seem to be diminishing. Apart from

humidity, a second factor in the poor performance of evaporative cooling is the under‐sizing of systems by suppliers

trying to be price‐competitive, with the result that when humidity rises, there is no reserve capacity to maintain

adequate performance. So when choosing a system, specify that it be sized larger, so that even on humid days, it will

continue providing relief with sufficient air movement.

A ducted evaporative system is very effective at force‐ventilating a house after temperatures have dropped (especially

at night) but there is no breeze. With the fan turned down low and the cooling water switched off, this is very effective,

especially for homes with high thermal mass (ie holding a lot of heat in brick and concrete).

Given the uncertainty about climate change and the pros and cons of refrigerated and evaporative systems, it seems

ideal to have both. Obviously, the capital cost is higher to do so, but a ducted evaporative system with a refrigerated

split system or two will have all bases covered, for optimal running costs.

> Fans A third method of cooling which is cheap to install and operate and which maintains reasonable effectiveness in

humid conditions is the motorized fan. Freestanding fans give very localised relief but permanent ceiling fans are far

more convenient. They also help distribute warm air in winter, especially away from the ceiling to where it has risen.

Ceiling fans are cheap to run and can provide day and night‐time comfort in all rooms for low cost with little noise.

IINNSSUULLAATTIIOONN

R value

‘R’ value is the indicator of the insulating value of a material. The higher the figure, the greater the insulating value. R is the inverse of U, or

conductivity, which is watts per square metre per second.

Thermal insulation

A building component installed to inhibit heat movement in or out of the building.

Thermal insulation to the walls is most easily installed during construction and unless specified otherwise, will likely

be only to the minimum required by the BCA. Ceiling insulation can be installed anytime and easily into an accessible

ENERGY EFFICIENCY


43

roofspace. Batt insulation is most popular but its effectiveness can decrease over time. Some batts are semi‐rigid and

hold their shape whereas others are very light and fluffy. In walls, the less‐rigid batts can partly collapse and leave

uninsulated voids. In roof spaces, dirt and dust inevitably accumulate and weigh them down, reducing their

thickness. The effectiveness of the batt is dependent on its thickness, so a squashed batt is less effective. It is not the

material which does the insulating, but the air which it entraps. There are many insulation types available but careful

selection and the advice of an expert is strongly recommended. Insulation should be installed neatly and carefully

according to maker’s specifications.

HHOOTT WWAATTEERR HHEEAATTIINNGG

Nearly everyone’s hot water is heated with either gas, electricity or solar. This may appear curious in a place that

enjoys so much solar radiation, much of it on clear days. Indeed, Adelaide is a fine place for solar hot water heating:

most house roofs are pitched so the heating panels can lie unobtrusively flat against the roof. The increasing interest in

‘green building’ has spawned some very well‐performing gas and electrically‐boosted solar systems which may attract

government subsidies. Upgrading to solar should be seriously considered by all homeowners and with greater

adoption, prices should fall and perhaps solar water heating could become the obvious, sensible standard installation.

Government incentives may vary fro time to time, so readers should do fresh research before buying.

SSHHAADDIINNGG

Large areas of glazing may capture abundant free solar energy for home heating, but shading is necessary, especially

in warmer weather. Many types of blinds are available, for manual or automatic operation. Louvre screens can be

adjustable or fixed. Fixed canopies and eaves should be designed to be the right width to shade most summer sun

while admitting winter sun. Deciduous vines, particularly ‘glory vine’ (a type of non‐fruiting grape vine) make a good

‘automatic seasonal shading device’, being very effective at good cover, virtually cost‐free, very attractive and only

need one good seasonal prune and tidy‐up.

It is easy to ignore the shading of walls. Passive solar design calls for expansive northern glazing and minimal east and

west glazing. Consequently, areas of blank wall facing east and west may continue to receive large doses of heat,

especially in the afternoons. If these walls are masonry (ie high thermal mass) they will absorb and hold a lot of heat,

from which the occupants should be protected in hot weather. This calls for effective wall insulation or if this is not

possible, the wall can be screened, for example, by a suspended shade cloth panel hung from the eaves or by foliage

grown on the wall or planted in the direction of the morning and evening summer sun (see sun path diagram below).

CCOONNNNEECCTTIINNGG TTOO AA FFRREEEE EENNEERRGGYY SSUUPPPPLLYY

equinox

the one day of the year when night and day are of equal length and the sun rises due east and sets due west. The equinox is mid‐way between

the summer and winter solstices. The noon altitude on the equinox is 90 degrees less the latitude of the observer. For Adelaide: 90 ‐35 = 55 deg.

zenith

the sun’s highest altitude for the day, in degrees from horizontal, which is at solar noon

solstice

the two days of the year when the sun is at the limits of its cycle of movement: summer solstice ( mid‐summer) and winter solstice (mid‐

winter).

solar noon

The time when the sun reaches its highest pointing the sky – its noon altitude. This point is on a vertical plane aligned north‐south.

noon altitude

The maximum height reached on the day, measured in degrees from horizontal.

Previous paragraphs have repeatedly mentioned passive solar design principles, in particular the solar orientation of

the building and its windows. The following diagram shows the sun’s changing path through the year in Adelaide.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY


44

The sun’s motion is most easily visualised if

you imagine yourself standing on a flat disk

covered by a hollow hemisphere on which the

sun moves in a circular path.

The line where the disk meets the sky is the

‘horizon’. Notice how the rising and setting

locations move during the year – by a full sixty

degrees each! The two sun paths show the

winter and summer solstices – June 21 and

December 22. These are the extremes, with all

other days lying in between them. These sun

paths both lie on a plane tilted 55 degrees from

horizontal (which is 90 deg minus Adelaide’s

latitude of 35 deg). The sun can thus be

visualised to be moving along a circular path

each day but the plane of that circular path

(which is always tilted 55 degrees) is moving

back and forth the between the two extremes of the solstices.

Understanding this motion of the sun will give rise to new questions when looking at houses...for example…

Will the low winter sun be admitted to the building interior to a great extent to give free home heating?

Will the building, particularly its windows, be protected from the summer sun when it is high in the sky and low in

the sky in mornings and evenings?

Will this beautiful outdoor area be a place to sit on a sunny spring or autumn day?’ …or will it be dark, damp, slimy

and uninhabitable, shaded by the house or houses on neighbouring allotments?

> Hopes for further progress Having taken account of the motion of the sun and it being obvious that Adelaide enjoys many clear days through

winter, why then, does so much of local housing design seemingly ignore both? It is possible to speculate on the

reasons for this, which could be titled: tradition, cheap energy, ignorance and industry economics.

Tradition

Rather than responding to local climate, local housing tends to recycle established designs from earlier times and other

places e.g. ʹTuscanʹ, California bungalow etc. In doing so, they are responding to another climate, with more

frequently overcast skies. This is indicated in the size and location of windows, because under an overcast sky, they

receive roughly equal solar radiation whichever side of the house they are on. We also have traditions, or conventions,

cemented in council development plans, about the public front and private rear of a house. That’s fine if you live on

the north side of the street, but across the street, if your back yard faces south, then the living area is in the shade while

the lounge and bedrooms ‐the evening rooms‐ are getting all the sun.

Cheap Energy

Energy is becoming more expensive, but so far it has been cheap enough for many to ignore the benefits of passive

solar design and seek simple mechanical solutions to heating and cooling. One by one, our options are reducing since

a few decades ago, open fires aflame with mallee roots and redgum were common in Adelaide. Affordable choices

remaining are gas and electricity, with solid fuel being too expensive for most. In response to higher electricity costs

and an increasing desire for comfort, heat pumps have become more efficient. Every dollar spent buying energy for

heating and cooling in lieu of passive solar design adds up to at least two dollars if paid off the mortgage instead.

Ignorance

It is easy to expect that the house‐buying public, builders and policymakers can, or should, understand the motion of

the sun and what a benefit to comfort and economics it can be, but to be fair, it is a bit like understanding the motion of

the moon and stars. Whilst it is second nature to farmers, sailors and pilots, for most of us, it is a case of, “We know

they’re there, but that’s about all !”

ENERGY EFFICIENCY


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Industry Economics

Consider a street that runs east‐west. Which side of the street would you choose to live on? What if the houses were

near to each other on small allotments and most were double storey? Pause to think how long is the shadow cast by

each one onto its site, mid‐year, when the days are short and night are cold. Obviously, those on the south side will be

shading their own back yards for most of winter, whilst those on the north side will have sun streaming into the rear

of the house and outdoor areas. So where would you want to live given the choice? The obvious choice is where the

sun shines into the daytime rooms of the house, not the evening rooms, and where it falls on my private outdoor

space, rather than my public front yard and driveway.

Our building industry could not operate as economically if the above considerations were made. Street frontages and

setbacks would be asymmetrical, most extremely on streets running east‐west. Planners would have nightmares and

real estate agents wouldn’t want to sell anything on the south side of the street (incidentally, they rarely ever indicate

north on their floor plans). Builders would be faced with a myriad more house designs to produce, rather than an

optimal few to be rotated or flipped over to ‘suit any site’. Does the Australian public deserve a better response to the

opportunities offered by passive solar design? Are we even aware of it enough to ask for it from the housing

industry? The housing industry is proud of being able to provide people with what they want, so presumably if the

public ask for better‐performing houses, theyʹll get them. So far, improvements have had to be forced upon industry

via energy efficiency requirements in the building codes and despite them becoming gradually more onerous, they are

lame in comparison with potential savings in energy use. We don’t even have double glazing or solar hot water as

standard! Perhaps the climate is just too benign for this to occur of its own accord and only a massive jump in

domestic energy costs and further legislation will force the change.

JARGON EXPLAINED

46

Rafter purlin purlins fascia hip bearer pier stump joist

footing veneer lintel plate stud nogging

These definitions are in the context of

local housing construction in SA and

may not apply elsewhere. See the

preceding diagrams for more

definitions.

ag pipe – agricultural pipe Perforated or slotted flexible or rigid pipe usually

installed in a rock‐filled trench for sub‐surface

drainage

ant cap A barrier to termites made from sheet metal and

installed between building components, usually in

sub‐floor spaces. Ant caps are not effective at stopping

termites’ progress – the cap merely forces them to

leave the timber and build their mud workings around

the cap, making their presence visible.

architrave Timber moulding around door frames and windows

covering their junction with the wall.

baluster The repeated vertical element of a balustrade, such as

around a balcony or along the open side of a stair.

Balustrades required by the BCA must have gaps

between them no greater than 125mm.

barge board Timber board used at the sloping edge of a roof partly

to seal the roof edge and partly for aesthetics. Exposed

to weather, they are susceptible to fungal decay

especially at the ends.

batten A small‐section timber member, usually rectangular

and no larger than 70x20mm and used to fix roof tiles,

claddings and linings to the structural frame of a

building.

beam A horizontal load‐bearing structural member

supported at two points or more.

box gutter A type of gutter which receives water from both sides

or all sides (like a box). Before about 1900, larger

homes often had a central box gutter hidden from

view and accessible only by climbing onto the roof and

over the ridge. They are notorious for blocking up or

deteriorating then leaking into the centre of the home.

brick veneer A common type of construction where a building is

steel or timber‐framed and a single leaf (layer) of

brickwork forms the outer skin, by being fixed to the

outside of the wall frame. Except for the top plates of

the framed walls, the wall frame of a completed house

is almost fully concealed from inspection.

cantilever A structural member with one end extending beyond

its point of support, such as a balcony floor joist.

cladding The weatherproof external ‘skin’ of the walls.

Typically brick, weatherboard, corrugated steel or

cement sheet. (see also ‘lining’)

compressed fibre cement sheet (abbr. CFC) A high‐density water‐resistant sheeting used in

framed construction for lining walls and floors of wet

areas and balcony floors. Various thicknesses from

about 5mm to 20mm. Made from cement and cellulose

fibre and formerly, asbestos fibre.

conduit Protective piping for electrical cables, used

underground and in some exposed situations.

control joint Usually appearing as a gap (5‐25mm wide) between

two parts of a building to allow for small movements

of those parts in different directions. Control joints are

usually filled with flexible sealant. Earlier buildings

without control joints usually suffered cracking

instead.

cornice A covering moulding at the junction of the interior

wall and ceiling, usually made from paper‐faced

gypsum, same as plasterboard.

damp‐proof course (abbr. DPC) Continuous layer of a waterproof material, usually

purpose‐made black embossed plastic, installed

during construction near ground level to stop

moisture moving from the ground or footing higher

into the building structure. Earlier materials used for

DPC include waterproof additives for mortar,

aluminium sheet, and thin slate. Most homes older

than 50 years have no effective DPC.

damp‐proof membrane (abbr. DPM) Continuous layer of purpose‐made waterproof

material. These are two examples used during

construction: 1‐ Sheet plastic installed under a concrete

floor slab in contact with the ground. 2‐ Continuous

sheet or liquid membrane installed behind tilework in

wet areas to waterproof the walls.


48

deck – roof decking A type of steel sheet roofing with a deeply ribbed

profile to give greater stiffness than plain corrugated

and therefore longer span between supports. Usually

installed at a low pitch, less than five degrees from

horizontal.

door frame The frame attached to the wall in the opening of a

doorway, consisting of jambs (the two verticals) and

the ‘head’ which is the top part of the frame. Each has

doorstops (thin beadings) attached, against which the

door should close tightly.

downpipe A tube to carry water from the roof gutter, usually to

ground level where it either connects to stormwater

pipework or discharges onto the ground. It is

important that the water be carried away from the

building so it does not cause dampness that could lead

to cracking or termite infestation.

drip ‐ drip groove A weather proofing device. A groove in an underside

exterior surface, usually a window sill, which blocks

the flow of water clinging to the surface by causing it

to drop off and run safely away.

dwarf wall Support for suspended floors, usually the timber

floors of older buildings. A low wall built from ground

level up to the subfloor framing. Dwarf walls are

usually located at about every 2.4 metre spacings

across a room and are sometimes topped with an ant

cap. (see also ant cap)

eaves The part of the roof that overhangs the exterior wall to

protect it from weather and shade the windows.

Fashionably absent in many newer homes.

eaves gutter A metal or plastic channel fixed to the outer edge of

the roof to collect rainwater. Leaks and overflows can

cause water to enter the building.

eaves lining (also called soffit lining) Cladding of boards or sheeting attached to the eaves

underside.

end grain The open tubular cell structure at the ends of a piece of

timber, which is where timber is most susceptible to

moisture absorption and fungal decay. Usually kept

well‐sealed and protected by paint.

expansion joint See ‘control joint’

fascia At the outer edge of the roof, traditionally a timber

board fixed on edge and running horizontally, usually

with a gutter attached to it. In new housing, fascias are

often steel which eliminates the ongoing risk of fungal

decay at the ends of the boards.

fire wall Internal wall that divides a building to prevent the

spread of fire. Usually between adjoining Torrens‐

titled units and townhouses.

first fix A stage in a tradesperson’s work during the

construction process when part of their work is done

before waiting for another trade to do theirs. Only

then can the first one finish. For example, the

plumber’s first fix includes installing pipework, but

until the wall linings are installed, the second fix can’t

be done, which will include installing taps and fixtures

(basins etc). (Also see ‘second fix’)

flashing Specially‐formed impervious sheet material for

excluding water. Example internally: to direct water

entering a wall cavity away from framing and out

again. Externally: Weatherproofing of the junction

between different parts of a building eg roof to wall,

chimney to roof, using sheeting of folded steel or of

malleable zinc, lead or modern composite material.

Roof leaks most commonly occur at flashings.

floor framing (also called subfloor framing) Structural members, usually timber (sometimes steel)

which support the flooring.

floor plate A horizontal timber member onto which the floor

framing is secured. Usually about 75x25mm and laid

flat onto the footing or dwarf wall.

formwork A container to hold wet concrete in place until it

hardens. Most formwork is then removed, but being

usually of timber, if some is left in place, it can become

a path for termite entry.

frass The fine dust or pellets left by borers attacking timber.

gable A vertical wall or panel forming a triangular shape –

an upside‐down ‘V’ ‐ at the end of a pitched roof.

Galvanic corrosion Corrosion caused to metal when water runs onto it

from a metal more ‘noble’ on the Galvanic scale (eg

from lead onto zincalume ) or when dissimilar metals

are in contact with each other and moisture is present

(eg copper and zincalume – the copper corrodes the

steel).


49

galvanised, galvanising A process of plating steel with zinc to protect it from

rusting.

green timber Timber which has not yet been dried or seasoned and

which still contains a high level of moisture. Oregon

building timber is often used ‘green’. Some species of

timber (eg pinus radiata) are best used seasoned

because they would be likely to distort excessively if

they dried before, during and after installation.

gutter ‘spouting’ in eastern states. See eaves gutters.

hardwood Timber from trees classified as angiosperms and

characterised by a cellular structure different from

softwoods. Hardwoods are not necessarily hard:

exceptions include balsa and traditional cedar which

are soft and light in weight. See also ‘softwood’.

head The top section of the frame of a door or window.

hip – hip roof The external junction of two planes of a pitched roof

and covered by special ridge capping (metal roofs) or

ridge tiles (tiled roofs).

jamb A vertical member of a window or door opening,

attached to the wall and usually made from timber

with architraves attached.

joinery Exposed timberwork such as cabinets, windows, doors

and windows where finish is very important, as

opposed to carpentry which is more structural work

and generally not visible in the finished building.

joist Structural member of timber or steel supporting

flooring material or ceiling lining. Joists are usually

installed parallel and spaced 450‐600mm apart.

lining Generally the internal ‘skin’ of a building of framed

construction. Almost always plasterboard but other

materials include wood panelling, ply and straw

panels (ceilings only). (see also ‘cladding’)

lintel Horizontal structural member spanning an opening,

usually at each door and window, to support the wall

or roof loads over the opening. Steel lintels are used in

brickwork and unless well painted or galvanised, will

rust when exposed to weather.

masonry Bricks, blocks or stone usually laid with mortar

between them to build walls and other structures.

MDF – medium density fibreboard Smooth‐faced sheet timber product resembling

compressed cardboard used mainly for cabinets,

skirtings and architraves. Various thicknesses 4mm –

30mm. Has replaced particleboard and solid timber in

many applications. It is dimensionally stable and

machines very well.

mortar The glue used to hold together, or more correctly, to

hold apart masonry units such as bricks. Usually a mix

of sand, cement and lime but may contain other

additives.

mullion A vertical member dividing a window or door into

two or more sections.

newel post the post at the end of a handrail or balustrade which

supports the end of the handrail or a column around

which a stair spirals

nogging Timber framing member fixed horizontally between

studs to prevent them twisting or to provide a fixing

point for linings, plumbing, cabinets, etc.

parapet The part of a wall that rises above a roof, traditionally

to prevent the spread of fire from the flammable

roofing of one dwelling to an adjoining dwelling.

Rarely seen in conventional single‐storey building

post‐1900 except as an aesthetic device. Parapet gutters

and flashings are common locations for roof leaks.

particle board A smooth‐faced board made from compressed timber

chips and glue and mostly used to build cabinets.

Various densities, thickness and moisture resistance

ratings. Has largely been replaced by MDF (medium

density fibreboard).

penetrations Typically wherever there is a hole in a roof, wall or

floor for something (like a pipe or column) to pass

through . The careful making and sealing of

penetrations can be important for many reasons:

Examples ‐ in concrete slabs penetrations must allow

for movement whilst preventing termite entry. In roofs

they must remain waterproof and prevent galvanic

corrosion.

perpend – brickwork The vertical joints between bricks. Open perpends are

used for weepholes to allow escape of water from the

wall cavity that may have entered due to a fault. They

are an obvious entry point for termites.


50

pinus – pinus radiata A species of fast‐growing softwood, plantation‐grown

in SA and providing nearly all locally‐used building

timber. Widely used in other states also. Susceptible to

termite attack. Now available chemically pre‐treated to

resist termites.

plasterboard Rigid lining board made from gypsum with paper

outer faces. Some types have special fire, acoustic or

structural properties. Various sheet sizes and

thicknesses 10mm – 15mm.

plinth The bottom courses of stones or bricks supporting a

wall. Often wider than the wall above.

plywood Board made from sliced sheets of timber glued

together in layers, so that the grain if each layer lies at

90 deg to the next. Layers are odd‐numbered: 3 ply, 5,

7, 9 or more. Typical thicknesses 4mm – 25mm.

pointing The finishing of mortar joints between bricks or blocks,

using a weather‐resistant mortar and in a consistent

shape with a tool or the trowel. Older brickwork is

often laid using weak lime mortar then pointed with a

harder cement mortar.

render The coating, (or the application of) applied to a

surface, usually a wall, using a hand trowel or float.

Traditionally a mix of sand, cement and lime, modern

render mixes are more sophisticated blends containing

additives to make their application easier and to

improve bonding and flexibility.

reo Abbreviation for ‘reinforcement’. Most structural

concrete contains steel because concrete by itself has

poor tensile strength (the tendency to pull apart)

compared with its compressing strength (resistance to

crushing). The addition of steel, correctly placed,

greatly improves the tensile strength of the concrete.

retaining wall Wall built at a change of ground level to hold back the

soil at the higher level. Walls built from hardwood

sleepers can harbour termites and be destroyed by

them. Preferred alternatives are treated pine sleepers

or concrete sleepers.

reveal The lined sides of an opening, usually a window,

where the jamb is narrower than the thickness of the

wall.

ridge – roof ridge The horizontal line of intersection of two planes of a

pitched roof, usually the highest part of the roof.

rising damp The vertical movement of moisture up a wall, usually

to a height less than 1 metre. Effects include staining

and damage to paint and finishes and fungal decay of

nearby timber like doorframes and skirtings. Caused

by the failure or absence of a damp proof course (also

see damp proof course ‐ DPC). Treatment: remove the

moisture source, make the wall impervious by

chemical treatment, or seal the passage of moisture

such as by installing a DPC. Presence of salt and

evaporation can change rising damp into salt damp

(also called salt attack).

roof trusses Structural frames of timber or steel usually designed

to support roof and ceiling simultaneously. Usually

installed parallel and spaced 1200mm apart and

supported only on the outer walls, without

intermediate support from any internal walls.

rot Common name for fungal decay affecting timber with

a high moisture content. In Victoria, ‘rot’ specifically

means ‘dry rot’ , which is a different timber pest and

uncommon in SA.

sarking Thin membrane of paper or insulating foil fixed under

roofing for added weather proofing. Tiled roofs which

are low‐pitched and readily admit rain may depend

upon sarking to be weatherproof. This is the ‘Achilles

heel’ of an otherwise very durable roofing.

sash The movable frame of a window which holds the

glass.

seasoned timber Timber which has been dried in a controlled manner

to give it added strength and dimensional stability.

second fix also called ‘fixing out’, ‘fixing off’. See ‘first fix’

skillion roof A roof of a single plane, without a ridge and usually

with only a slight slope. Typically at the rear of a

house over a small extension.

skirting Timber board fixed to the bottom of an internal wall to

protect the lining and cover the gap where it meets the

floor.

slab on ground A common type of combined footing and floor where

both are formed in a single concrete pour, reinforced

with steel rods and laid onto prepared ground and a

waterproof plastic membrane (DPM).

socket outlet Technical term for a power point


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52

soffit See eaves

softwood Timber from trees classified as ‘gymnosperms’

(typically pines and trees with needle‐like leaves, not

trees with broad leaves) and characterised by a cellular

structure different from hardwoods. Softwoods are not

necessarily soft, for example native cypress pine is

hard and heavy. Pinus radiata, the common building

timber, is a softwood. See also ‘hardwood’.

soldier A vertical unit amongst a bunch of horizontals.

Examples: Timberwork ‐ short vertical timbers

connecting two horizontal timbers. Brickwork – a

soldier course – a row of bricks side‐by‐side along the

edge of a path or wall.

span The horizontal distance between two points of support

of a load‐bearing structural member.

spouting

see ‘gutter’

stormwater water from rain which falls on buildings and

surrounds and can cause damage unless controlled

and directed by a stormwater system of gutters, pipes,

drains, sumps etc.

sump (stormwater) a box‐shaped hole at ground level covered with a grate

that allows surface water and the litter it carries to

enter. A drainage pipe enters the sump some distance

above its bottom, so that material which might block

the pipe falls to the bottom instead, where it is

retained for later removal. For draining outdoor paved

areas around houses, small grates are often used, but

sumps are better because they are not so easily

blocked by leaves.

suspended floor a floor which is not on the ground (or on fill), but has

space beneath it. Compare with slab on ground.

stretcher The most common pattern of laying bricks, where

units are laid end‐to‐end and each overlaps those

below by half a length.

striker The part of a lock fixed to the frame, in the case of a

door it is usually simply a slotted steel plate on the

door jamb.

truss See roof truss as an example. A truss is a structure

comprising one or more triangles made from straight

slender members. A truss is composed of triangles

because of the structural stability of that shape.

A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not

change shape even when its sides are loosely

connected. The simplest form of a truss is one single

triangle. This type of truss is seen in a framed roof

consisting of rafters and a ceiling joist. Trusses have

the advantage of reduced weight, greater size and less

material than a single solid piece of material. They are

engineer‐designed and can be built up of triangles into

almost any shape imaginable.

weep holes Holes purposely left in the outer masonry wall to

allow escape of water if it enters the wall cavity due to

a fault. Usually weep holes are made simply by

leaving the mortar out of some vertical joints between

bricks. Usually seen low in the wall and above or

below openings. Also see ‘flashing’.

zincalume Protective coating of zinc and aluminium applied to

steel to prevent rust. Similar to galvanising but with

advantages including lower cost and a thinner layer.

INDEX

ag pipe (agricultural pipe), 6, 47

air conditioner, 9, 24, 41

ant cap, 35, 47, 48

architrave, 37, 47

asbestos, 26, 47

barge board, 11, 47

batten, 47

beam, 39, 47

box gutter, 10, 47

brick veneer, 12, 34, 47

Building Code of Australia (BCA), 24, 32,

41, 44, 47

cantilever, 47

ceilings, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 26, 31, 32,

41, 47, 49, 50, 51

children, 23, 26, 27, 28, 29

cladding, 8, 12, 34, 47, 49

colorbond, 11

Colorbond, 11

concrete floor, 16, 18, 30, 36, 39, 47

concrete slab, 18, 30, 49

conduit, 19, 47

control joint, 5, 11, 14, 47, 48

cooling, 40, 41, 43

copper, 20, 26, 48

cornice, 14, 15, 32, 47

corrosion of metals, 8, 9, 16, 21, 30, 48, 49

cracks, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 19,

21, 30, 31, 32, 36, 47, 48

damp proof course ‐ DPC, 50

damp, dampness, 7, 12, 15, 16, 18, 21, 22,

31, 32, 35, 41, 43, 47, 48, 50

deck – roof decking, 48

door frame, 47, 48

doors, 5, 16, 17, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 31, 33,

37, 41, 47, 48, 49, 51

downlights, 19, 20, 25, 39

downpipes, 10, 11, 20, 48

drip ‐ drip groove, 12, 48

dwarf wall, 48

eaves gutter, 10, 11, 48, 49

eaves lining (also called soffit lining), 48

electrical, 18, 19, 24, 25, 29, 31, 47

electrical wiring, 18, 31

end grain, 30, 48

evaporative cooler, 41

excavation, 4, 21

expansion joint, 48

fascia, 8, 10, 11, 45, 48

fences, fencing, 26, 28, 33

fibre cement sheet, 16, 47

fibrous plaster, 14, 15

fire safety, 24

fire wall, 48

first fix, 48, 50

flashing, 12, 13, 26, 48, 51

floor framing (and subfloor framing), 48

floor plate, 48

footing, 4, 5, 7, 15, 20, 21, 36, 45, 47, 48, 50

formwork, 16, 48

foundation, 4, 5, 6, 7, 17, 21, 35

framing, framed structures, 5, 9, 12, 13,

14, 16, 17, 18, 23, 34, 36, 39, 47, 48, 49,

50, 51

frass, 48

gable, 48

Galvanic corrosion, 48

galvanised, galvanising, 49

gas – natural and lpg (liquid petroleum

gas), 13, 27, 31, 40, 42, 43

glass, glazing, 20, 23, 29, 33, 35, 38, 39, 40,

42, 44, 50

grab rails (see also handrails, stairs &

balustrades), 32

green timber, 49

grey water, 20

gutters, 8, 10, 11, 20, 47, 48, 49, 51

gyprock, 13, 14, 15, 19, 36, 47, 49, 50

hand rails, 26, 49

hardwood, 49, 50, 51

head, 27, 28, 29, 48, 49

heat pump, 9, 24, 41

heating, 13, 25, 28, 39, 40, 42, 43

hip – hip roof, 45, 49

hot water service, 29

jamb, 27, 49, 50, 51

joinery, 49

joist, 45, 47, 49, 51

lath and plaster, 14

lighting, 13, 18, 19, 20, 24, 30, 31, 32, 38,

39, 40

lining, 10, 13, 14, 47, 48, 49, 50

lintel, 45, 49

masonry, 11, 12, 13, 14, 22, 36, 42, 49, 51

MDF – medium density fibreboard, 49

mortar, 5, 13, 21, 29, 31, 47, 49, 50, 51

mullion, 49

nogging, 45, 49

parapet, 10, 49

particle board, 49


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paving, perimeter, 7

penetrations, 36, 49

perpend – brickwork, 49

pests, 10, 16, 18, 21, 30, 34, 35, 36, 37, 47,

49, 50

pinus – pinus radiata, 50

plasterboard, 13, 14, 15, 19, 36, 47, 49, 50

plinth, 50

plywood, 50

pointing, 39, 42, 50

pumps, 6, 40, 43

pvc (polyvinyl chloride), 20

rainfall, 4, 6, 7

reactive soils, 4

render, 12, 13, 50

reo (reinforcement of concrete), 50

retaining wall, 34, 50

reveal, 8, 13, 36, 50

ridge, 41, 47, 49, 50

rising damp, 7, 12, 21, 50

roof, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15, 18, 20, 21, 26, 31, 34,

41, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51

roofing ‐ flashing, 9, 10, 12, 13, 26, 37, 48,

49, 51

roofing ‐ metal, 8, 31

roofing ‐ tiled, 7, 8, 9, 26, 34, 47, 49

roofing ‐ trusses, 50

roofs ‐ leaks, 49

rot, 11, 17, 30, 50

rust (see also corrosion of metals), 9, 16,

20, 30, 31, 49, 51

safety, 6, 10, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,

28, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36

safety switch or rcd, 19, 29

safety switch or RCD, 18, 19, 29

salt damp (salt attack), 7, 8, 12, 15, 16, 18,

21, 22, 31, 32, 41, 43, 47, 50

sarking, 7, 50

sash, 17, 41, 50

seasoned timber, 50

second fix, 48, 50

shading & sunlight, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43,

44, 48

skillion, 50

skirting, 27, 36, 39, 50

slab on ground, 15, 35, 50, 51

smoke alarms, 24, 29

soffit, 25, 48, 51

softwood, 49, 50, 51

solar energy, 38, 39, 42

soldier, 37, 51

span, 48, 51

sprinkler, 21

stairs & balustrades, 28, 30, 32, 47, 49

stormwater, 6, 7, 20, 26, 48, 51

stretcher, 51

striker, 17, 51

studs, stud framing, 45, 49

subfloor, 16, 48

subsidence, 4, 7

subsidy (money), 42

sump, 51

sunlight & shade, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44,

48

swimming pools, 28

termites (white ants), 10, 16, 18, 21, 30, 34,

35, 36, 37, 47, 49, 50

timber framing (see also framed

structures), 5, 9, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 23,

34, 36, 39, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51

trees and tree roots, 7, 9, 10, 19, 21, 24, 30,

31, 35, 36, 49, 51

truss, 51

underground garages and rooms, 6

vermin, 18, 32

walls, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18,

19, 21, 22, 27, 30, 31, 32, 34, 36, 38, 39,

41, 42, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51

water heater, 29

weep holes, 51

white ants (termites), 10, 16, 18, 21, 30, 34,

35, 36, 37, 47, 49, 50

windows, 5, 12, 16, 17, 23, 24, 32, 33, 38,

39, 41, 42, 43, 47, 48, 49, 50

zincalume, 9, 11, 48, 51

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