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310 ASCA | PROFESS IONAL SCHOOL COUNSEL ING

Young adolescents (ages 11-14), typically in the mid-dle school grades, face life tasks involving connectionsand belonging with their peer group along with thedevelopment of their individual identity (Henderson& Thompson, 2010). Learning to negotiate throughthese developmental tasks, they face myriad relationalchallenges. This article explores the application ofRelational-Cultural Theory (RCT) with early adoles-cents. It provides implications and recommendationsfor school counselors.

Gabrielle is a seventh-grade student who has cometo see her middle school counselor in tears. Sheexplains that she is fighting with her ex-friends.

A group of girls with whom she was once close friendsare now ignoring her at lunch, deleting her texts with-out responding, and whispering about her in the hall-ways. Gabrielle is saddened by the loss of these friend-ships and the isolation she is now feeling. For her part,Gabrielle reports that she originally found comfort inbeing part of this circle of friends. Soon, one of theother girls in the group, Neveah, started to send textsto other friends about Gabrielle, questioning her sexu-al reputation. Beginning to doubt her relational safe-ty, Gabrielle started gossiping about Neveah on herFacebook site. Gabrielle reports, I thought, whats thebig deal? We all gossip about each other all the time.Its always so hard to tell who really has your back.

Traditional models of human growth and devel-opment focus on separation and individuation ascore components of healthy maturation. In contrast,

Relational-Cultural Theory (RCT) is an approach tounderstanding development within the context ofrelationships. This approach emphasizes the healthyexpansion and deepening of relationships as the goalof development rather than separation and individu-ation (Miller & Stiver, 1997). Disconnection isviewed as the primary source of human suffering,while healthy connections are seen as key compo-nents of satisfaction and growth.Young adolescents, typically in the middle school

grades, are facing life tasks involving connectionsand belonging with their peer group along with thedevelopment of their individual identity. As they arelearning to negotiate through these developmentaltasks, they face myriad relational challenges. Thisarticle explores the application of Relational-Cultural Theory with early adolescents in the middleschool grades and provides a brief overview of con-cepts.

RELATIONAL-CULTURAL THEORY

At the core of RCT is the notion that all people,throughout the lifespan, grow in connection withothers. When people are able to be authentic in rela-tionships, and when others are able to be authenticin return, a cycle is created in which mutual empa-thy, connection, and growth are possible. Mutualempathy, or the two-way ability to put oneself inanothers position and allow others through the self-boundary (Jordan, 1991), leads to mutual empow-erment and growth. According to Ruiz (2005),through this process, individuals realize that theyhave an impact on each other (p.35). Relational-Cultural Theory further purports that growththrough connections fosters what are referred to asthe five good things (Miller, 1986, p. 2). Miller(1986) defined these five good things as 1) each per-son feels a greater sense of zest (vitality, energy),2) each person feels more able to act and does act,3) each person has a more accurate picture ofher/himself and the other person(s), 4) each person

Relational-Cultural Theory forMiddle School Counselors

Catherine Tucker, Ph.D., is an assistant professor withIndiana State Universitys Counseling Area Programs,Terre Haute, IN. E-mail: [email protected] Smith-Adcock is an associate professor inCounselor Education with the University of Florida,Gainesville, FL. Heather C. Trepal, Ph.D., LPC-S, is anassociate professor of Counseling and EducationalPsychology at the University of Texas San Antonio, SanAntonio, TX.

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feels a greater sense of worth, and (5) each personfeels more connected to other persons and exhibits agreater motivation to connect with others (p. 3).According to RCT, all people have an intense

desire for connection. In spite of this yearning, peo-ple often block connections with others by usingbehaviors that keep them from the very thing theydesire. Relational-Cultural Theory refers to this asthe central relational paradox (Miller & Stiver,1997, p. 81). To explain further, each person has arelational template, or series of learning experiencesrooted in past relationships. How individualsapproach relationships is based on this template. Inorder to circumvent hurt, people employ strategiesof disconnection. For example, some disconnectingbehaviors include withdrawing, isolation, and blam-ing (Hartling, Rosen, Walker, & Jordan, 2000). Byutilizing these strategies of disconnection, people areable to protect themselves from perceived danger inemotionally charged situations. In the case of Gabrielle, although she desired con-

nection with her group of friends and was experi-encing a disconnection with Neveah and some of theothers, she chose to gossip and act in an inauthenticmanner. In this example, by choosing the behaviorof lying, Gabrielle was distancing herself both fromher feelings about the situation and from the othersinvolved in the situation. As Gabrielle explained toher counselor, she does not know whom to trust. IfGabrielle explored her relational templates with acounselor, she might find that she has experienced alack of trust in relationships before. Further, she maylearn that, although she desires a genuine connec-tion, she blocks herself from fully engaging withothers because she fears not being accepted. Ifunable to work through the disconnections, she maybecome stuck in a cycle of condemned isolation orlocked out of the possibility of connection (Miller& Stiver, 1997, p. 72). In order to grow, and, according to RCT, to grow

in connection with others, people must learn how towork through unhelpful relational templates and thestrategies of disconnection that have protected themover time (Miller & Stiver, 1997). They must con-tinue to examine the ways in which they approachrelationships because disconnections, or rough peri-ods in relationships, are bound to happen.According to this approach, routine disconnectionsor everyday, normal ruptures exist in relationshipsand are products of living. Examples of routine dis-connections include general disagreements, let-downs, and conflicts of opinion. These daily discon-nections are the most amenable to prevention andremediation in the school environment. Conversely,disconnections that are prolonged and severe maybe the result of trauma or abuse. In these instances,a chance to repair the relationship almost never

occurs, and to try to do so would lead to becomingstuck in a cycle of despair and confusion, sometimesleading to chronic, severe disconnections that arelabeled psychopathology.

Relational-Cultural Theory and Diversity IssuesMutual empathy and mutual empowerment are cen-tral in RCT. The theory grew out of feminist theo-ries in the 1970s and places strong emphasis on therole of culture and oppression on the developmentand psychology of women (Miller, 1986). In partic-ular, theories that pathologized womens desire forrelationship and mutual growth were questioned bythe early RCT scholars Jean Baker Miller, IreneStiver, and others. Jordan (1991) challenged thenotion of self-boundaries that categorized enmesh-ment with another person as unhealthy and re-con-ceptualized as a strength the ability to lose oneself inanothers experience (i.e., empathy), such that bothparties can grow relationally. This concept may res-onate with individuals from collectivist cultures. Insuch cultures, competition and individual achieve-ment are not valued; ones role is seen as interde-pendent within the group or family. Thus, accordingto Ruiz (2005), one can apply RCT to describecollectivism in terms of the emphasis on remainingconnected to others (p.38). Specific cultural valuesand scripts may also hold keys to understanding dis-connections (Ruiz, 2005). Walker (2002) asserted that people and relation-

ships are composed of multiple social identities (p.2). The dominant culture values, or devalues,aspects of differences in social identities includingrace, sex, gender, physical ability, spirituality, andclass, among others (Walker). The dominant cultureforms an arrangement in which difference is strati-fied into dominant and subordinate, superior andinferior (p.2). In this way, dominant groups andmembers of these groups exert power over others inan attempt to maintain their status and perpetuatethe ascribed value of differences (Walker).Relational-Cultural Theory focuses on the role ofpower in relationships and strategies of relating.Negotiating issues of power is central to RCT. Notonly are relationships viewed as central to growth,but balanced or shared power is central to forminghealthy relationships. When imbalances in powerand privilege are unexamined in relationships, and insociety, relationships suffer and relational strategiesthat lead to disconnection are common.

EARLY ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENTAND COUNSELING

Developmental changes in early adolescence, whichspans approximately ages 11 to 14, make Relational-Cultural Theory particularly useful for this age

14 :5 JUNE 2011 | ASCA 311

Disconnection is

viewed as the

primary source of

human suffering,

while healthy

connections are

seen as key

components of

satisfaction and

growth.

group. Changes in childhood relationships (movingaway from family and connecting more meaningful-ly with peers) and the beginnings of a more maturesense of individual identity mark early childhooddevelopment (Henderson & Thompson, 2010).Cognitively, early adolescence marks the beginningof the transition from concrete to abstract thinkingskills, and the beginning of the ability to understandevents from another persons point of view(Henderson & Thompson, 2010). The human braingoes through a dramatic reorganization during thisperiod, and that can lead to inconsistencies in behav-ior that can be frustrating for both the adolescentand the adults in his or her life (Wigfield, Lutz, &Wagoner, 2005). These changes in the brain, whichare not completed until late adolescence, allow formuch greater abstract thinking, critical reasoning,and social competence (Wigfield, Lutz, & Wagoner,2005), but also may be frustrating to the young ado-lescent and the adults in the young persons life. At the same time that adolescents are developing

a heightened awareness of social belonging, theyalso develop a specific type of egocentrism thatElkind labeled the imaginary audience (1994). Theimaginary audience concept implies that, as peoplemove through adolescence, they do so with a per-ception that they are always being watched by oth-ers and are the center of everyones attention. Theimaginary audience, combined with Elkinds notionof adolescents as risk-takers who see themselves asimmune from harm, can lead to an inflated sense ofself-importance and invulnerabilitymaking thedevelopment of healthy relationships both compli-cated and essential. The emphasis on others percep-tions and the beginnings of adult identity formationcan lead to exaggerated concerns about being disre-spected or disliked by peers or adults and can lead toexplosive conflicts over seemingly minor slights(Wigfield, Lutz, & Wagoner, 2005). The physical and social-emotional changes of early

adolescence do not happen uniformly, making forvery uneven distributions of attributes among stu-dents in a middle school classroom (Vernon &Clemente, 2005). In order to reach all students inmiddle school, counselors need to deliver flexible,comprehensive programs designed around the devel-opmental themes of early adolescence (Henderson &Thompson, 2010). For example, Akos (2005) rec-ommended that dramatic changes in physical, cogni-tive, and relational abilities of the middle school childmean that interventions should address topics such asanger management, decision making, and conflictmanagement, and that peer programming is critical.These recommendations for counseling young ado-lescents are consistent with, if not indicative of, theneed for relationally focused intervention in middleschools. Viewing anger management, decision mak-

ing, and conflict management through a relationallens also can enhance existing counseling programs.For example, peer mediation programs, often used inmiddle schools because of the developmental impor-tance of peer relationships, are focused primarily onproblem solving and conflict management. In con-ducting peer mediation programs, ignoring the rela-tional templates of the students involved and theissues of power and dominance that exist betweenthem may theoretically and practically limit theireffectiveness, even potentially worsening bullyingand relational aggression. The following sectionexamines the application of RCT to school counsel-ing and suggests specific use of relational interven-tions in middle schools.

APPLYING RCT TO MIDDLE SCHOOLCOUNSELING

Counseling and RCTRelational-Cultural Theory (RCT) is a natural com-plement to school counseling as it supports the pro-fessions foundational principles and philosophiessuch as wellness and focusing on clients strengths,developmental level, and contextual factors (Duffey& Somody, in press). Relational-Cultural Theorysfocus on recognizing and building health patterns ofrelating to others is particularly appropriate foryoung adolescents who are struggling with issues ofsocial belonging (Akos, 2005). Partially derivedfrom the recommendations of others (Duffey &Somody, in press; Jordan, 2009; Trepal, 2010), theauthors offer the following general suggestions forschool counselors who wish to incorporate RCTinto their practice. According to Jordan (2009), RCT therapy is

largely based on a change in attitude and under-standing rather than a set of techniques (p. 5).Counselors who adhere to this model work toenable their clients to help themselves in terms oftheir relational patterns and relational images.Further, they encourage clients to develop relation-al awareness, thus encouraging and deepening con-nections, and enhancing both the capacity and skillsfor developing new relationships (Jordan, 2009).The basic skills involved in putting RCT into prac-

tice can be summarized using five words that beginwith the letter E. The five Es include: 1) encour-age (self-empathy, or self-acceptance without blame,is a precursor to examining ones relational tem-plates. Empathy for self, understanding self in rela-tion to others, must be present before empathy forothers can be built.); 2) explore students relationalimages; 3) educate students about power; 4) explaindisconnections (routine, cultural/societal, and trau-matic) and conflict; and 5) expand students rela-tional capacities.


Dramatic changes

in physical,

cognitive, and

relational abilities

of the middle

school child mean

that interventions

should address

topics such as anger

management,

decision making,

and conflict

management.

Counselors who

adhere to this

model work to

enable their clients

to help themselves

in terms of their

relational patterns

and relational

images.

14 :5 JUNE 2011 | ASCA 313

such as those mentioned above. Informal interviewsof teachers, administrators, students, and parentsmight also be used to develop an overall picture ofthe relational atmosphere of the school. When providing responsive services, middle

school counselors using RCT view the problems stu-dents describe as being based in relational issues,often disconnections, which may be chronic oracute. Children desire connected relationships withsignificant adults in their lives and thrive in relationto caring parents and teachers (Spence, Jordan, &Sazama, 2002). Developmentally, their experiencewith peers is indisputably formative. The relation-ships children have outside of the schoolsuch aswith parents or other family membersalso can beof concern. The school counselor who uses an RCTapproach may implement strategies common to allschool counselors, such as group and individualcounseling and classroom guidance, as a part of theschool counseling programs responsive services.The difference between other school counselingapproaches and RCT would be in the counselorsfocus on relationships as the key to both creatingand resolving student concerns.

USING THE FIVE Es IN MIDDLE SCHOOL COUNSELING

The application of RCT, especially in school settings,requires further description. To illustrate how RCTcan be put to practical use in a middle school setting,we will return to the vignette of Gabrielle and her cir-cle of friends using the five Es (i.e., encourage clientself-empathy; explore clients relational images; edu-cate clients about power; explain disconnections andconflict, and expand clients relational capacities).The counseling implications offered can be used as abrief or longer-term approach and in a variety ofmodalities (e.g., individual or small group counsel-ing). Recommendations for universal guidance pro-grams follow.Encourage client self-empathy. Jordan (1991)

defined self-empathy as the process of developingempathy for ones own experiences without criticismor blame. For young adolescents, this may be anarduous task as they are in a heightened stage of self-consciousness, identity development, and socialadjustment. To facilitate self-empathy, the schoolcounselor begins by listening to Gabrielles storywithout judgment. She is authentic, expressing herown reaction to the story and expressing compas-sion for the student. The counselors authenticityfosters a healthy relationshipa bond that lacksjudgment and advice giving but is rich in authentic-ity and mutuality. When Gabrielles experiences are valued and her

story is heard without judgment, she is better pre-

In summary, according to RCT, although growthoccurs through connection, individuals need toestablish empathy for self and then empathy for oth-ers in order for healthy growth to occur. The con-cepts of connection, disconnection, and mutualempathy, and the role of culture and power, takecenter stage in this approach to human develop-ment. As previously mentioned, early adolescence isa time of growth and establishing oneself and onesown identity. The peer group becomes vitally impor-tant; thus, adolescence could be termed as relation-ally challenging both with the self (i.e., discoveringones authentic self) and with others (i.e., connect-ing with ones peer group and exploring differenttypes of relationships).

RCT and the ASCA National ModelThe ASCA National Model (2005) divides the workof the school counselor into four areas: foundation,management system, delivery system, and accounta-bility. RCT can be employed primarily in the areas offoundation and delivery system. The foundationarea represents the beliefs and philosophies on whicha school counseling program is built, while the deliv-ery system encompasses the classroom guidance cur-riculum, individual student planning, and responsiveservices. Within the delivery system, student out-comes are further divided into academic, career, andpersonal domains. For middle school counselors to adopt RCT as a

foundation, a first step is to examine the nature ofmultiple relationships in their school. Because of thedramatic developmental changes in adolescentsrelationships, relational cultural theorists have sug-gested that middle schools ought to be cultures ofconnection that foster growth in relationship, or afree space in which to interact and learn from peoplewho treat students as equals (Robb, 2006).Currently, many middle schools foster cultures ofdisconnection (Hartling & Sparks, 2008) that aremarked by dominant-subordinate and power-overrelationships among adults, between adults and stu-dents, and among students. Therefore, school coun-selors may benefit from examining the ways in whichconnection and disconnection exist within relation-ships in the school. To what extent do individualstudents experience growth-fostering relationships?To what extent do school counselors, teachers,administrators, and other staff members perceive therelationships in the school as connected? Where doschool counselors see examples of disconnectingstrategies among students or between students andfaculty? This initial relational assessment will guidethe further development and implementation ofRCT responsive services. An assessment of this typecould easily be added into the schools annual cli-mate survey through the addition of a few questions

Although growth

occurs through

connection,

individuals need to

establish empathy

for self and then

empathy for others

in order for healthy

growth to occur.


pared to examine her patterns of connection and dis-connection (Jordan, 2009). In a rush to solve thefrequent disputes among students in middle schools,many counselors might be inclined to skip theseimportant first steps in relationship building. But inthis relational, non-blaming environment, studentsare free to examine the self in relationship to the dis-pute with their friends. To foster self-empathy, thecounselor might ask: How do you view yourself andyour friendships? What words do you use to describeyourself? If Gabrielle expresses self-blame, the coun-selor might ask her how she would view the situationif it involved a friend or loved one, thus allowing herobserving self to have compassion and empathy forwhat she experienced. Then with compassion forherself and the advantage of a relational view of whathappened between her and her friends, she is able torecognize and name the self-destructive behaviorsthat have contributed to her present situation. Explore relational images. According to RCT

(Miller & Stiver, 1997), people develop mentalmodels (or templates) based on past relationshipsthat inform future relationships. The counselormight consider multiple relationships in a youngpersons lifefamily, peers, and authority figures.Gabrielles relational templates influence the situa-tion with Neveah and her other friends. A next stepin RCT with Gabrielle, therefore, is to examine herown notions of connection and disconnection in herrelationships. A beginning point in examiningGabrielles relational template is to help her examinekey relationships in her life up to now. How con-nected are they (authentic, empowering, and mutu-al)? In what ways does she experience disconnectionin any of her relationships (alienation, disapproval,inauthenticity)? Which relationships mean the mostto her and why? Millers (1986) characteristics for growth-fostering

relationships, known as the Five Good Things, arealso easily adaptable to help Gabrielle examine herpast and current relationships. Counselors can readi-ly illustrate these definitions of relational/non-rela-tional qualities to early adolescent children. Usingthis framework of good things in relationships, thecounselor and Gabrielle can brainstorm to come upwith specific examples of connection in her relation-ships. Working through the five good things, she canrelate these definitions to her everyday experience infriendships and other significant relationships.Likewise, she can examine in detail the type of dis-connections she experiences in her relationships andher strategies for disconnecting (including the gos-siping that she has recently experienced). To do this,the counselor might ask Gabrielle to think of anoth-er time when she gossiped about someone (or felt asif she needed to retaliate for being hurt). What wasgoing on for her? What were her fears, hopes, and

thoughts about the situation? What did she want outof the situation and what did she get in the end? Educate about power. From a Relational-

Cultural Theory perspective, power is analyzed aspolitical and as directed toward gaining power overothers. Middle schools are microcosms of society inwhich a dominant culture values or devalues aspectsof difference (e.g., race, gender, physical ability,spirituality, class). For middle school students, theirstrong need for social belonging and an exaggerat-ed sense of individual identity further complicaterelational power issues that can result in isolation,exclusion, and trauma for some students. For exam-ple, bullying is defined as verbal or physical, director indirect, group or individual aggression that isrepeated, and in which there is a power imbalance,consistent in direction, between the victim and theaggressor (Gini & Pozzoli, 2006). When an imbal-ance of power is present between students, coun-selors should take this into consideration beforethey intervene. For example, finding creative waysto address difficult topics like privilege,power/dominance, and difference might includehaving students participate in bibliotherapy, art,photography, or film to allow for consciousness-raising with care for students emotional safety.Acknowledging issues of difference or privilegeopenly allows young people to begin to developmutual empathy and empowerment, to appreciateeach others experience, and to work through theirdifferences. Counselors can infuse discussions aboutcollaboration and collective goals versus independ-ent, me first thinking into classroom guidanceactivities and can explain these differences in indi-vidual and small group interventions. Gabrielle and Neveah, each intent on developing

her individual identity and social status, may over-look how harmful and hurtful their behavior is toone another, even though they once enjoyed afriendship. Pressures to belong and/or compete forstatus that exist in power-over environments canovershadow connection and amplify disconnectionbetween young people. Furthermore, if Gabrielleand Neveah are from different cultural groups, thesemisunderstandings can be deeper and lead to moredamaging relationship problems, as people from dif-ferent cultures often examine and interpret relation-al behaviors such as direct communication or expres-sion of anger differently. To help Gabrielle andNeveah explore issues of power and difference, thecounselor might discuss their broader peer group. Inthe dispute that arises between Gabrielle andNeveah, one of the girls may have more social statusand may thus be able to do more psychological harmto the other. To fully consider intervention in therelationship between Gabrielle and Neveah, thecounselor also will examine the context of their

Acknowledging

issues of difference

or privilege openly

allows young

people to begin to

develop mutual

empathy and

empowerment, to

appreciate each

others experience,

and to work

through their

differences.

14 :5 JUNE 2011 | ASCA 315

friendship group (e.g., to whom is each connectedin their circle of friends? How does the peer groupserve to influence the disconnecting strategies inwhich each girl is involved? If your peer group had aname (title), what would it be?) The counselor thenmakes a judgment, in collaboration with Gabrielle,concerning whether or not to conduct this examina-tion of her friendship alone or with Neveah.Threshold questions for Gabrielle that might allowthe counselor to make this decision include: Haveyou felt safe in your friendship with Neveah? Arethere times when you felt heard and understood inyour friendship? Do you want a better friendshipwith Neveah? Explain disconnections and conflict. Strategies

of disconnection that would commonly occur inmiddle schools include withdrawing, blaming, criti-cizing, isolation, and gossiping. Recent meta-analyt-ic research suggests that these forms of relationalaggression are common in boys and girls (Card,Stucky, Sawalani, & Little, 2008). Therefore, strate-gies for explaining disconnection and conflict thatare discussed below, while relevant for counselingwith boys or girls, can be modified based on the pre-senting concerns of the adolescent or peer group. Applying the central relational paradox suggests

that neither Gabrielle nor Neveah is getting whatthey want from their relationship. Gabrielle andNeveah regress to disconnecting behaviors becausethey are afraid of being harmed. Helping to reframedisconnecting strategies as a way to protect one-self from hurt also serves to protect either girl frombeing blamed for inappropriate behavior. Althoughroutine disconnection such as gossiping can be nor-malized, helping clients learn to choose authenticrepresentation of their own needs and viewpoints toeach other is critical during emotionally chargedtimes. Also important is differentiating routine dis-connection from severe forms of exclusion and trau-ma (e.g., bullying). When evidence exists that thelatter is the case, that the pattern of behavior is con-sistent with more severe forms of physical and rela-tional aggression, exploring strategies of disconnec-tion with Gabrielle alone is appropriate. If moresevere forms of aggression are not present, the coun-selor might bring Gabrielle and Neveah together todiscuss the message that each wanted the other tohear. Working to explore connection and disconnec-tion with each girl, the counselor will then helpthem to speak to each other more authenticallyand to participate in resolving their conflict.Expand students relational capacities.

Counseling interventions using RCT with adoles-cents includes implementing strategies that addressstudents relational awareness and increases specificrelational skills. Relational awareness is addressed(e.g., explore relational images and educate about

power) and, as a result, students are able to developand practice new relational strategies. When students experience disconnection, and the

disconnection is routine and non-traumatic, a goal ofcounseling becomes encouraging students to wagegood conflict, or manage their conflict through theuse of connecting rather than disconnecting strate-gies (Miller, 1986). Gabrielle and Neveah have anopportunity to work through their relational prob-lems if they can increase their use of authentic rela-tional strategieslistening, empathic responding,and authenticityand decrease their use of discon-necting strategiesisolating, gossiping, and aggres-sion. According to Miller, when conflict existsbetween two people, it often necessitates one personchanging (i.e., giving in) in order to preserve therelationship. Waging good conflict allows adoles-cents the freedom to express anger, disappointment,and frustration with others in a way that is honestand egalitarian, and teaches healthy connection. Theschool counselor helps Gabrielle (and/or Neveah) topractice strategies of connection, and to examine therelationship together. Questions such as the follow-ing can help open a dialogue about fostering health-ful relationships: What was happening for each girl?What were their fears, hopes, and thoughts aboutthe situation? What did each girl want out of the sit-uation and what did she get in the end? How doeseach girl listen to and hear what the other is saying?Role-play activities and other social skills practicealso are relevant to increasing relational skills withGabrielle and Neveah. Teaching the use of I-mes-sages, problem-solving protocols, and peer conflictmediation can be easily integrated with RCT. Theobjectives of these social skills programs, however,while consistent with RCT, are not effective substi-tutes. Teaching social skills strategies are but oneessential part of teaching healthy ways to manageconflict in relationships. Relational skills are develop-mental. If waging good conflict is experienced inthese formative years, and authenticity and mutuali-ty is developed in adolescent relationships, the pat-tern may then become part of young peoples iden-tity development and relational templates and tocontinue into their adult relationships. The five Es and universal guidance programs.

School counselors occupy a privileged position with-in schools, from which they are able to preventproblems before they occur by implementing devel-opmentally appropriate social skills education to allstudents. Early adolescents, with their emergingindependence and interest in friendships and roman-tic relationships, are at a key developmental point foracquiring relational skills. Employing RCT princi-ples to guide the guidance curriculum allows schoolcounselors to emphasize the skills young peopleneed to create and maintain connections.

Waging good

conflict allows

adolescents the

freedom to

express anger,

disappointment,

and frustration

with others in a

way that is honest

and egalitarian,

and teaches

healthy connection.


examine the use of RCT for specific problems inschools (e.g., relational aggression, bullying), withspecific populations (e.g., sexual minority youth orother marginalized groups), and/or specific inter-ventions (e.g., peer mediation, mentoring).

REFERENCES

Akos, P. (2005). The unique nature of middle schoolcounseling. Professional School Counseling, 9(2), 95-103.

American School Counselor Association. (2005). The ASCAnational model: A framework for school counselingprograms (2nd ed). Alexandria, VA: Author.

Card, N. A., Stucky, B. D., Sawalani, G. M., & Little, T. D. (2008).Direct and indirect aggression during childhood andadolescence: A meta-analytic review of genderdifferences, intercorrelations, and relations tomaladjustment. Child Development, 79(5), 1185-1229.

Duffey, T., & Somody, C. (in press). The role of relational culturaltheory within mental health counseling practice. Journalof Mental Health Counseling.

Elkind, D. (1994). Ties that stress: The new family imbalance.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Gini, G., & Pozzoli, T. (2006). The role of masculinity in childrensbullying. Sex Roles, 54(7), 585-588.

Hartling, M., Rosen, W., Walker, M., & Jordan, J. V. (2000). Shameand humiliation: From isolation to relationaltransformation. Work in Progress, No. 88. Wellesley, MA:Stone Center Working Paper Series.

Hartling L., & Sparks, J. (2008). Relational-cultural practice:Working in a nonrelational world. Women & Therapy, 31,165-188.

Henderson, D., & Thompson, C. (2010).Counseling children(8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks-Cole.

Jordan, J. V. (1991). Empathy and self-boundaries. In J. Jordan,A. Kaplan, J. Miller, I. Stiver, & J. Surrey (Eds.). Womensgrowth in connection (pp. 67-80). New York: GuilfordPress.

Jordan, J. V. (2009). Relational-cultural therapy. Washington, DC:American Psychological Association.

Miller, J. B. (1986). Toward a new psychology of women. Boston,MA: Beacon Press.

Miller, J. B., & Stiver, I. (1997). The healing connection. Boston,MA: Beacon Press.

Robb, C. (2006). This changes everything: The relationalrevolution in psychology. New York: Farrar, Straus, &Giroux.

Ruiz, E. (2005). Hispanic culture and relational cultural theory.Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 1, 33-55.doi:10.1300/J456v01n01_05

Spence, R., Jordan, J. V., & Sazama, J. (2004). Growth-producingrelationships between youth and adults: A focus groupstudy. Families in Society, 85(3), 354-62.

Trepal, H. (2010). Exploring self-injury through a relational-cultural lens. Journal of Counseling & Development, 88(4),494-499.

Vernon, A., & Clemente, R. (2005). Assessment and interventionwith children and adolescents: Developmental andmulticultural approaches. Alexandria, VA: AmericanCounseling Association.

Walker, M. (2002). How therapy helps when the culture hurts.Work In Progress, No. 95. Wellesley, MA: Stone CenterWorking Paper Series.

Wigfield, A., Lutz, S., & Wagner, A. (2005). Early adolescentdevelopment across the middle school years:Implications for school counselors. Professional SchoolCounseling, 9(2), 112-119.

School counselors can begin to infuse the princi-ples of RCT into an existing guidance curriculum ina variety of ways. For example, if the school coun-selor uses any of the widely available anti-bullyingcurricula, the principles of mutual empathy, strategiesof disconnection, and power dynamics might beadded or highlighted to reflect RCT ideas. If thefocus of the lesson sequence is career exploration, theschool counselor might discuss interpersonal charac-teristics that help people to be successful at work,along with how to engage in healthy conflict.Likewise, if the focus is on academic development,the school counselor could add discussions about theimportance of nurturing healthy connections inmentoring relationships and providing mutual socialsupport in managing stress and improving academicperformance. Counselors also might see the need to create a

classroom guidance unit specifically on the five Es.Dividing the five Es into five short guidance lessonswould allow counselors to discuss each of the majorconcepts in some detail with students, and allow timefor students to practice the skills during and betweeneach of the five lessons. Role playing and modelingcould be infused into each lesson in order to con-cretely demonstrate the concepts discussed. Theselessons can also be used throughout the school yearas a universal or primary prevention curriculum.

CONCLUSION

Relational-Cultural Theory has been well-establishedin the field of psychology and is emerging as a viableoption in the counseling field (Duffey & Somody, inpress). Given that the counseling profession isanchored in the concepts of development, wellness,and multiculturalism, this approach fits easily into thedevelopmental matrix of school counseling programs(Duffey & Somody). RCT gives school counselors awell-defined framework for discussing complex issuessuch as power in relationships, empathy, and rela-tional well-being. Furthermore, as middle schoolchildren navigate myriad identity, social-emotional,and cognitive developmental milestones, using a rela-tional lens to provide school counseling interventionsseems particularly critical. Relational-CulturalTheory is easily adaptable to counseling young peo-ple and can be used to inform individual, small-group, group, large-group, and peer programminginterventions in schools. In addition, as school coun-selors strive to positively impact the school environ-ment, RCT may provide them with additional strate-gies to do so. This article illustrates the implementa-tion of RCT in middle schools using a case example.As school counselors implement RCT into theirdevelopmental programs, they should collect andanalyze data to validate its use. Future works might

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