ON-FARM POULTRY FEED MILLING FOR SMALL SCALE FARMERS IN NIGERIA

Extension Bulletin No: 183

2012

Produced and distributed by

National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison services

Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

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Acknowledgement

We wish to acknowledge the contributions from various

scientists all over the world whose work were used to

develop this bulletin. We also thank our colleagues who

contributed in no small measures to the production of this

final content.

Iyiola-Tunji, A.O., Dafwang, I.I., Ikani, E.I. and Adesina, M.A.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

PageAcknowledgement ……………………………… iiTable of contents …………….……………..…… iii1.0 Introduction ……………………………… 12.0 Class of nutrients in poultry nutrition ……… 12.1 Energy …………………………………….… 22.2 Protein ……………………………………… 32.3 Fats ………………….……………………… 52.4 Minerals …………………………………… 52.5 Vitamins …………………………………… 92.6 Water ……………………………………… 103.0 Nutrient requirement of poultry …………… 113.1 Nutrient requirement of broilers ………….… 123.2 Nutrient requirement of layers ……………… 143.3 Nutrient requirement of turkey ……………… 143.4 Nutrient requirement of other poultry species 154.0 Feed ingredients in poultry feed production … 154.1 Conventional feedstuffs …………………….… 154.2 Non-conventional feedstuffs ………………… 185.0 Feed mill equipment ……………………… 216.0 Methods of poultry feed formulation ……… 256.1 Pearson’s square method ………………… 256.1.1 Use of Pearson’s square for more than two

Ingredients……………............... 286.2 Simultaneous equation method …………… 306.3 Two-by-two matrix method ……………… 306.4 Trial-and error method ………………… 316.5 Linear programming …………………… 316.6 Least cost feed formulation …………… 317.0 Step-by-step procedure of poultry

feed production …………………….. 327.1 Feed ingredient procurement …………… 337.2 Storage of feed ingredients and finished

Products……………… 347.3 Raw material weighing…………………. 357.4 Raw material grinding ……………………. 36

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7.5 Raw material mixing …………….……… 377.6 Bagging ……………………….……… 387.7 Quality control ……….………………… 398.0 Management tips for on-farm feed milling… 309.0 Types and characteristics of finished rations of

poultry …………………………….. 4110.0 Summary of on-farm poultry feed milling .. 43Bibliography ………….…………………………. 45

LIST OF TABLESTable page

1. Division of amino acids …………………… 42. Common sources of minerals for poultry feed 63. Recommended nutrient requirements in diet

of various classes and species of poultry …. 114. Two-stage ration for broiler ……………..… 145. Groups of conventional feed ingredients

in poultry nutrition ……………………… 166. Poultry feedstuffs and their compositions … 197. Characteristics of different types of

finished poultry ration …………………….. 41

LIST OF FIGURESFigure Page

1 Maize as source of concentrated energy in poultry diet………… 2

2 Soy bean cake – source of protein in poultry diet …………….. 5

3 Uncrushed bone meal …………… 74 Crushed bone meal – source of calcium and

phosphorus …….. 85 Mineral and vitamin premix …………… 106 Broiler chicks …………………………

13

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7 Adult broiler ready for market …………13

8 Wheat offal ……………………………… 169 Platform dial weighing scale …………… 2210 Platform beam weighing scale …………… 2211 Precision weighing scale ………………… 2312 Grinder (Hammer mill)…………………… 2313 Mixer ……………………………………. 2414 Sack truck ………………………………. 2515 Flow chart of step-by-by procedure of feed

production for poultry ………………… 3516 Wheat offal in storage at NAPRI feed mill 3417 Wooden pallet on which finished feed can

be stored ………………………….. 3518 Shovel mixing of poultry feed …………… 3819 Formulated poultry feeds stored in sack bag 39

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1.0. IntroductionThere is evidence of small scale (backyard) poultry production in nearly every community in Nigeria. Chicken nutrition and feeding is an important part of production. Feeds make up the major cost of production and good nutrition is reflected in bird's performance and its products. On-farm feed milling is a process of manufacturing animal feed through the use of raw materials (feed ingredients) of widely ranging physical, chemical and nutritional composition. The raw materials are mixed together to form a homogenous mixture suitable for producing a desired nutritional response in the animal to which the mixture is fed. It is also capable of reducing the cost of feeds.

On-farm mixing of poultry feed requires some technical knowledge of the procedures to produce well-balanced diets. Farmers can save some amount of money by producing the feed needed by their animals.. The quality of feed compounded by farmers can be compromised if the required nutrients are not provided for the animals through the feed. If this happens, the farmer incurs losses instead of profit. A poultry farmer should not mix poultry feed without the adequate knowledge of the nutritional need of the animals. This bulletin provides information to farmers on the nutritional need of poultry animals, feed ingredients, method of mixing feed ingredients and the equipment needed for on-farm feed milling.

2.0. Class of nutrients in poultry nutritionPoultry have a simple digestive tract. Their feed is composed of a number of nutrients that are essential to

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their health, maintenance, egg and feather production. The main nutrients required by poultry are protein, energy (carbohydrates and fats), vitamins, minerals and water.2.1 Energy The energy in poultry diet is derived largely from carbohydrates e.g. maize, guinea corn, etc (Plate I); but some is also derived from fat and some amino acids. Carbohydrates represent a major part of poultry diets with contents ranging from 40% to 70%. In most cases, poultry are given free access to food and are allowed to consume as much feed as they wish. Poultry usually consume just enough feed to meet their nutrient requirements. Control of intake is based primarily on the amount of energy in the diet. Birds eat to satisfy their energy requirements. Thus, increase in concentration of energy in the diet decreases intake, and vice versa. Therefore, when a diet is formulated, the levels of the constituents are stated in relation to the energy content of that diet.

Plate I: Maize is a source of concentrated energy in poultry diet

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2.2 ProteinThe word ‘protein’ is derived from the Greek word ‘proteios’, meaning ‘first’ or ‘of primary importance’. Proteins are polymers of amino acids and consist of one or more polypeptide chains. Dietary requirements for protein are actually the requirements for the amino acids contained in the dietary protein. Amino acids obtained from dietary protein are used by poultry to fulfill a diversity of functions. For example, amino acids, as proteins, are primary constituents of structural and protective tissues, such as skin, feathers, bone matrix, and ligaments, as well as the soft tissues, including organs and muscles. Also, amino acids and small peptides resulting from digestion-absorption may serve a variety of metabolic functions, and as precursors of many important non-protein body constituents. Because body proteins are in a dynamic state, with synthesis and degradation occurring continuously, an adequate intake of dietary amino acids is required. If dietary protein (amino acids) is inadequate, there is a reduction or cessation of growth or productivity and a withdrawal of protein from less vital body tissues to maintain the functions of more vital tissues.There are 20 amino acids (Table 1) in body proteins, and all are physiologically essential. Nutritionally, these amino acids can be divided into two categories: those that poultry cannot be mixed at all or rapidly mixed enough to meet metabolic requirements (essential) and those than can be absorbed from other amino acids (non-essential). The essential amino acids must be supplied by the diet. If the nonessential amino acids are not supplied by the diet, they must be synthesized by the poultry. The presence of

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adequate amounts of nonessential amino acids in the diet reduces the necessity of synthesizing them from essential amino acids. Thus, stating dietary requirements for both protein and essential amino acids is an appropriate way to ensure all amino acids needed physiologically are provided.

Table 1: Division of amino acidsEssential Non-essential

Arginine AlanineHistidine AsparagineIsoleucine Aspartic acidLeucine CysteineLysine Glutamic acidMethionine GlutaminePhenyalanine GlycineThreonine ProlineTryptophan TyrosineValine Serine

There are two main sources of protein in poultry diet. These are animal protein and plant protein sources. The most common animal protein sources are fish meal, meat by-products, milk by-products, blood meal, feather meal and poultry by-product meal. Fish meal has a good balance of amino acids, but must not be used in large amount (used at 2-5%) to avoid fishy flavor in eggs and poultry meat. The plant protein sources are soya bean meal (Plate II), ground nut cake, etc.

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Plate II: Soya bean cake – source of protein in poultry diet

2.3 FatsFat is usually added to the feed for meat-type poultry to increase overall energy concentration, and in turn, improved productivity and feed efficiency. Oxidation of fat is an efficient means to obtain energy for the cell in large quantity. The main sources of fats in poultry diet are palm oil, animal fat and vegetable oil.

2.4 MineralsMinerals are the inorganic part of feeds or tissues. They are often divided into two categories (macro and micro)- based on the amount that is required in the diet. Requirements for macro minerals are stated as some percentages of the diet, whereas requirements for micro, or trace minerals are stated as milligrams per kilogram of diet or as parts per million. Minerals are required for the formation of the skeleton, as components of various

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compounds with particular functions within the body, as co-factors of enzymes, and for the maintenance of osmotic balance within the body of the bird. Calcium and phosphorus are essential for the formation and maintenance of the skeleton. Sodium, potassium, magnesium, and chloride function with phosphates and bicarbonate to maintain homeostasis of osmotic relationships and pH throughout the body. Most of the calcium in the diet of the growing bird is used for bone formation, whereas in the mature laying fowl most dietary calcium is used for eggshell formation. Other functions of calcium include roles in blood clotting and as a second messenger in intracellular communications.Some sources of calcium and phosphorus in poultry diets are shown in Table 2. These are ground oyster shell, limestone, bone meal (Plate III and IV), dicalcium phosphate (kanwa). Inorganic phosphorus is also supplied by bone meal, dicalcium phosphate, rock phosphate. Sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl) are added as common salt (0.5-1% of diet).

Table 2: Common sources of calcium and phosphorus for poultry feed

Feedstuff Calcium (%) Phosphorus (%)Bone meal 36.0 16.82Kanwa 25.5 1.47Limestone 38.0 0.02Oyster shell 38.0 0.1

Source: Aduku (1993)

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Plate III: Uncrushed bone meal

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Plate IV: Crushed bone meal – source of calcium and phosphorus

An excess of dietary calcium interferes with the availability of other minerals, such as phosphorus, magnesium, manganese, and zinc. A ratio of approximately 2 calcium to 1 phosphorus (weight/weight) is appropriate for most poultry diets, with the exception of diets for birds that are laying eggs. When poultry are laying eggs, a much higher level of calcium is needed for eggshell formation and a ratio as high as 12 calcium to 1 phosphorus (weight: weight) may be correct. But high levels of calcium carbonate (limestone) and calcium phosphates may tend to make the diet unpalatable and dilute the other dietary components. If a calcium source contains a high level of magnesium (as does dolomitic limestone), it probably should not be used in poultry diets. Sodium and chloride are essential for all animals. Generally used salt dietary concentrations are those that

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support just the maximum growth rate or egg production. Higher concentrations lead to excessive consumption of water and attendant problems with ventilation control and wet droppings. Proper dietary balance of sodium, potassium, and chloride is necessary for growth, bone development, eggshell quality, and amino acid utilization.

2.5 VitaminsVitamins are generally classified into two: fat-soluble vitamins, A, D, E, and K, and water-soluble vitamins, that include the vitamin B-complex and vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Vitamin C is synthesized by poultry and is, accordingly, not considered a required dietary nutrient. There are evidences of a favorable response to vitamin C by birds under stress. Plate V is an example of a premix that is capable of supplying high quality vitamins and minerals in the diet of poultry.

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Plate V: Mineral and vitamin premix for a particularclass of poultry is packed and sold at livestock

feedstuff shops

2.6 WaterWater is as an essential nutrient, although it is not possible to state precise requirements. The amount needed depends on environmental temperature and relative humidity, the composition of the diet, rate of growth or egg production, and efficiency of kidney re-sorption of water in individual birds. It has been generally assumed that birds drink as much as twice the amount of water and the feed consumed on a weight basis. Several dietary factors influence water intake and water to feed ratios. Increasing crude protein increases water intake and water

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to feed ratios. Increasing dietary salt increases the water intake.

3.0 Nutrient requirements of poultryUnderstanding the nutrient requirement of a particular species or class of poultry is essential. The recommended nutrients required by different class or species of poultry are shown on Table 3.

Table 3: Recommended nutrient requirements in diet of various classes and species of poultry

Feed type Age of bird (weeks)

Metabolizable energy (Kcal/kg)

Crude protein (%)

Calcium (%)

Phosphate (%)

Chick ration

0 – 8 2700 20.0 1.0 0.45

Growers ration

9 – 20 2650 16.0 0.8 0.5

Layers ration

21 and above

2600 16.5 3.2 0.5

Broiler starter

0 – 4 2850 24.0 1.0 0.7

Broiler finisher

5 – 8 2900 20.0 0.5 0.5

Turkey pre-starter

2800 26.0 0.9 0.9

Turkey starter

0 – 8 2900 24.0 0.85 0.85

Turkey grower I

8 – 16 3000 20.0 0.65 0.65

Turkey grower II

16 – 20 3200 17.0 0.65 0.65

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Turkey finisher

21 and above

3300 15.0 0.70 0.7

Guinea fowl

0 – 8 3000 - - -

Guinea fowl

9 – 20 3100 - - -

Guinea fowl

Laying 2600 15 - -

Duck 0 – 8 2800 18 1.0 0.7Duck Laying 2800 15 2.75 0.6

Source: Aduku (1993)

3.1 Nutrient requirement of broilersBroiler chicks (Plate VI) are provided feed on a free-choice basis up to 8 weeks or whenever they are sold. Protein requirements of broiler vary with age, thus, multiple stage rations are employed. An example of a two-stage ration for broiler is shown on Table 4 below. Required protein levels for starter feeds are approximately 23-24 percent and for the finisher is 18-20%. Energy levels may range from 2750 to 3300 kcal/kg (Table 3) with slightly higher values present in the finisher (Plate VII) feeds. Starters’ feeds are generally used for no longer than 3 weeks, followed by growers and finishers’ feeds.

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Plate VI: Broiler chicks

Plate VII: Adult Broiler - ready for market at the average weight of 2kg

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Table 4: Two-stage ration for broilerIngridients Startera Finisherb

Maize 55.25 57.0Groundnut cake

36.0 33.0

Blood meal 3.0 3.7Palm oil 2.0 2.0Bone meal 3.0 3.5Salt 0.25 0.3Lysine 0.25 0.25Premix 0.25 0.25Total 100.0 100.0

aTo be fed to broiler in the first 4 weeks of age.bTo be fed to broiler from 5th week on.

3.2 Nutrient requirement of LayersPullet chicks are usually fed a starter diet containing 20% protein up to 8 weeks of age. This is followed by a 16% protein grower diet fed up to 20 weeks of age. Energy at starter phase is generally higher (2700 kcal/kg) than in grower (2650 kcal/kg) and laying stage (2600 kcal/kg). The lower crude protein and energy of the growers’ diet compared to that of chick diets is a deliberate attempt to slow down their growth and also to avoid fat deposition. At the onset of sexual maturity, which is defined as the age at first egg (approximately 18-20 weeks in many strains), a layer ration containing an adequate level of calcium as well as other nutrients need to be made available to the birds.

3.3 Nutrient requirement of turkeyEnergy and protein requirement of turkey at different stages of growth is shown on Table 4 above. Protein requirements decrease by age and are also influenced by sex. This decrease ranged from 26% with poults to 15%

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for finisher. Energy requirement levels, on the other hand, tend to increase as the animal grows. Avoid the use of groundnut cake in turkey feeding because of the anti-nutritional effect of aflatoxins.

3.4 Nutrient requirement of other poultry speciesRation for ducks, geese, pheasants, quail and other birds, for the most part, may be patterned after appropriate poultry formulas. In feeding ducks, regardless of age, it is usually recommended that pelleted-type ration be utilized because they are easier to consume by the birds and tend to minimize feed wastage. Ducklings should be fed a starter diet for the first 2 weeks of age; they may later be placed on a finisher diet up to the market age. Because ducks have a higher requirement for niacin than do chickens, supplemental niacin should be provided if chicken rations are substituted.Guinea fowl are fed in a manner very similar to turkeys. Grower feeds are supplied to keets after about 6 weeks of age. As with the case with guinea fowls, pheasants are quite similar to turkey, and feeding methods described for that species may be utilized in raising these birds. Japanese quail may be raised successfully by utilizing a turkey starter diet containing 28% protein for the first 2 weeks followed by a well-fortified broiler ration with 24% crude protein to sexual maturity at 5-6 weeks. For adult quail, the crude protein required by the birds is 26%.

4.0 Feed ingredients in poultry feed productionThe feedstuffs used in production of poultry feed are classed into two broad categories: conventional and non-conventional.

4.1 Conventional feedstuffs

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Conventional feedstuffs (Table 5) are the naturally occurring feed ingredients which quality parameters have been recognized and standardized by the animal feed industry. Feedstuffs such as maize, wheat offal (Plate VIII), soya bean, groundnut cake, palm kernel cake, fish meal, bone and meal are in this category.

Plate VIII: Wheat offal

Table 5: Groups of conventional feed ingredients in poultry nutritionS/No Group Ingredients1. Cereal and

grainsmaize, rice, wheat, sorghum, and other millets, broken rice, germs, middling and damaged wheat discarded from the food industry as unfit for human consumption.

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2. Cakes or Oil meal

groundnut cake, soybean meal, rapeseed meal, sesame meal,sunflower meal, coconut meal, palm meal are used as protein resources.

3. Feed of animal origin

meat meal, fish meal, squilla meal, hatchery waste andbone meal are used. However, farmers face production problems usually due to easy bacterialcontamination of fish and meat meal.

4. By-products rice bran, rice polish, solvent extracted rice and wheat bran,molasses and salseed meal are by-products used in poultry feeds.

5. Minerals and vitamins

poultry feeds are enriched with calcium, phosphorus,trace minerals such as Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, CO and I and vitamins A, D3, E, K and BComplex.

6. Feed additives additives commonly used are antibiotics (usage not banned in India) prebiotics, probiotics, enzymes, mould inhibitors, toxin binders, anticoccidial supplements,

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acidifiers, amino acids, antioxidants, feed flavours, pigments and herbal extract of Indian origin.

4.2 Non-conventional feedstuffs (NCF)Non-conventional feedstuffs include many farm wastes (crop residues that are left on the farm after harvest, byproducts of home-based food processing methods and kitchen wastes) and agro-industrial by-products. Such feedstuffs can be partially or fully substitute for the conventional feedstuffs. Some non-conventional feedstuffs are filler materials that supply variable quantities of one or more nutrients e.g. cereal offal.Although the high cost and scarcity of conventional feedstuffs favours the use of Non-conventional feedstuffs; there are several factors that limit their use:

(i.) Variations in quality:- because most of them are by-products, the variations in quality from one source to another are often very wide.

(ii.) Availability:- most NCFs are often available in limited quantities and their supply may be localized.

(iii.) Presence of toxic substances:- toxic substances are available in most feedstuffs but they are more so in NCFs.

As feed cost is the key factor in determining the profitability of poultry farming, feed manufacturers as well as farmers attempt to produce least cost rations by including some of the following products, depending upon their cost, availability and nutritive value:

(1.) forest produce (babul seed, rubber seed, tamarind seed, salseed, etc.);

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(2.) food industry waste (biscuit waste, coco shell, bread waste, powder, cocoa beans, macaroni waste, skim milk powder, etc.);

(3.)gum and starch industry (guar meal, tapioca, tapioca spent pulp, etc.);

(4.) fruit and vegetable waste (citrus wastes, mango waste, tomato pomace, pineapple waste, tea leaves, etc.);

(5.) alcohol industry waste (yeast sludge, grape extractions, breweries’ dried grain, etc.).

Farmers are advised to use feedstuffs whose nutrient characteristics have been studied and their percentage inclusion in poultry feeds has been standardized. Table 6 shows nutrient content of some of the tested feed ingredients in poultry feeding.

Table 6: Poultry feedstuffs and their nutrient compositions

Feed ingredients

Metabolizable energy (kcal/kg)

Crude protein (%)

Crude fibre (%)

Calcium (%)

Phosphorus (%)

1. Energy sourceMaize 3432 8.9 2.7 0.02 0.29Wheat 3086 13.5 3.0 0.05 0.41Sorghum (Guinea corn)

2700 2.6 2.0 0.04 0.29

Animal fat

8140 - - - -

Palm oil 8184 - - 6.0 -

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2. Plant protein source (oil seed cakes)Groundnut cake

2530 45.0 3.81 0.2 0.6

Palm kernel cake

2700 18.8 11.0 0.25 0.74

Soybean (full fat)

3300 38.0 5.0 0.25 0.59

Soybean meal

2420 44.0 6.5 0.20 0.60

Cotton seed cake

1892 41.0 12.5 0.15 0.98

3. Animal protein sourceFish meal

2882 63.11 1.31 3.0 2.0

Blood meal

2845 77.35 1.46 0.30 0.20

Poultry manure (caged)

1400 28.3 14.9 8.8 2.5

Poultry manure (deep litter)

1320 25.3 16.6 2.5 1.6

Feather meal

2354 85.0 1.5 0.20 0.75

4. Agricultural byproductsCassava peal meal

2036 5.0 9.5 - -

Maize - 11.9 10.5 - -xxv

branMaize cob

528 2.3 35.0 0.11 0.04

Rice bran

1892 13.0 12.0 0.06 1.80

Rice offal

1319 6..0 3.3 0.17 0.49

Sorghum stover

- 5.3 32.6 0.4 0.11

Wheat offal

1256 15.61 10.0 0.14 1.2

5. Other feedstuffs (Non-conventional)Cassava leaf meal

- 14.69 15.63

- -

Cassava meal

- 2.4 7.6 0.15 0.08

Cocoyam meal (unpeeled)

- 8.60 2.38 - -

Cocoyam (peeled)

- 7.57 1.63 - -

Cocoyam peels

- 9.56 32.02

- -

Sweat potato

- 5.36 0.33 0.02 0.03

Irish potato

- 10.6 2.3 0.08 0.22

Source: Aduku (1993)

5.0 Feed mill EquipmentEquipment needed in a feed mill can be classed into:

(1.) Weighing equipment such as platform dial weighing scale (Plate IX), platform beam

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weighing scale (Figure 1) and smaller weighing scale that can be used for weighing small quantities of feedstuff (Plate 10).

Plate IX: Platform dial weighing scale for heavy weight measurements

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Figure 1: Platform beam weighing scale

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Plate X: Precision weighing scale for light weight measurements

(2.) Grinder (Hammer mill):- this machine (Plate XI) is designed to shred or crush feedstuffs into small particles,. Some of the feedstuffs that require grinding include maize, guinea corn, oil cakes (soya bean cake, cotton seed cake, groundnut cake), bones, oyster shell, etc.

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Plate XI: A Grinder (Hammer mill) common in Nigeria

(3.) Mixer:- These equipment include vertical mixer (Plate XII), horizontal mixer, hand held cement mixer and shovel. It is designed to mix feed ingredients with various physical and chemical properties to form a meal.

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Plate XII: Mixer

(4.) Other miscellaneous equipment:- These include sack truck (Figure 2), plastic bowls, bags, etc.

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Figure 2: Sack truck

6.0 Methods of poultry feed formulationThere are several methods of formulating rations; all of them have the same objectives of providing the required balanced nutrients at the least possible cost. Some of these methods are Pearson’s square, simultaneous method, two-by-two matrix method, trial and error method, and linear programming method.

6.1 Pearson’s square methodThe Pearson square or box method of balancing rations is a simple procedure that has been used for many years. It is of greatest value when only two ingredients are to be mixed. In taking a close look at the square, several numbers are in and around the square. Probably one of the more important numbers is the number that appears in the middle of the square. This number represents the nutritional requirement of an animal for a specific

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nutrient. It may be crude protein or energy, amino acids, minerals or vitamins.

To solve feed mixture problem using the Pearson’s square, the desired solution is place in the centre (X) and feed source A, with its usual level of protein or energy (or any other nutrient needing a solution), is then added. If a solution of crude protein (CP) is desired, the CP level must be either higher or lower than X. Then a second level is placed in the position. To solve, the difference (+ or -) between X and A goes in the position D, and likewise, the difference between B and X goes in the C position.

A C

X

B D

The answer is expressed as parts. Add up the total parts and the amounts of A and B needed to provide the desired solution X can be expressed as parts of the whole or as percentages. Suppose we have a protein concentrate, such as cotton seed meal (CSM) with 40% CP, and a grain with 10% CP, and we wish to have a blend with 18 percent CP.

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Using the square:

CP% of CSM,40

8 part of CSM

X

CP% of grain,10

22 parts of grain 30 of total parts

The answer is

8 parts of CSM and 22 parts of grainsIn order to make the square work consistently, there are three very important things to consider:

1. The value in the middle of the square must be intermediate between the two values that are used on the left side of the square. For example, the 14 percent crude protein requirement has to be intermediate between the soybean meal that has 45 percent crude protein or the corn that has 10 percent crude protein. If barley is used that has 12 percent crude protein and corn that has 10 percent crude protein, the square calculation method will not work because the 14 percent is outside the range of the values on the left side of the square.

2. Disregard any negative numbers that are generated on the right side of the square. Be concerned only with the numerical differences between the

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nutrient requirement and the ingredient nutrient values.

3. Subtract the nutrient value from the nutritional requirement on the diagonal and arrive at a numerical value entitled parts. By summing those parts and dividing by the total, the percent of the ration that each ingredient should represent in order to provide a specific nutrient level can be determined. Always subtract on the diagonal within the square in order to determine parts. Always double check calculations to make sure that you did not have a mathematical error. It is also very important to work on a uniform basis. Use a 100-percent dry-matter basis for nutrient composition of ingredients and requirements and then convert to an as-fed basis after the formulation is calculated.

The corn represents in figure (31.0 / 35.00) x 100 of the ration; or 88.57 percent. Soybean meal represents in figure (4.0 / 35.00) x 100 of the ration, or .43 percent. 6.1.1. Using Pearson’s square for more than two ingredientsIt is possible to mix more than two ingredients using the Pearson square. For example, to prepare a 15 percent crude protein mixture that consists of a supplement of 60 percent soybean meal (45 percent crude protein) and 40

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percent corn gluten meal (45 percent crude protein), and a grain mixture of 65 percent corn (9 percent crude protein) and 35 percent oats (12 percent crude protein), take the following steps.

Since only two components can be used in the Pearson square method, the ingredients are combined first as follows:

60% SBM x 45% crude protein =27.040% CGM x 45% =18.0Protein in supplement mixture   45.0% 65% corn x 9.0% =5.8535% oats x 12.0% =4.20Protein in grain mix   10.05% 5.0 parts x 60% =3.0 parts SBM5.0 parts x 40% =2.0 parts CGM30.0 parts x 65% =19.5 parts corn30.0 parts x 35% =10.5 parts oats    35.0 (3.0 / 35.0) =8.57% SBM(2.0 / 35.0) =5.71% CGM(19.5 / 35.0) =55.72% corn(10.5 / 35.0) =30.00% corn 

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100.00kg contains   15.04kg or 15% CP

Some of the merits of Pearson’s square method of feed formulation is that:

(1.) It is relatively simple, direct and easy to follow;(2.) It is useful in balancing for the protein

requirements.

Some limitations of this method are that:(1.) It uses only two feed ingredients;(2.) Less consideration is given to other nutritive

requirements, vitamins and minerals.6.2 Simultaneous Equation Method Some farmers prefer to solve the simple problems of ration formulation using simultaneous equation. This method involves equations with two unknown. The approach works in the following process:

X = kg of SBM in mixY = kg of maize in mixX + Y = 100 kg of mix

This is an alternative method for the Pearson Square method using a simple algebraic equation.The advantages of this one over the Pearson Square method is that

(i.) One can balance for both the protein and the energy.

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(ii.) It is also useful in considering more than two feed ingredients at once when balancing more complex rations.

6.3 Two-by-two matrix methodThis method solves two nutrient requirements using two different feed ingredients. A 2X2 matrix is set and a series of equations are done to come up with the solution to the problem.

6.4 Trial-and-error Method This is the most popular method of formulating rations for poultry. As the name implies, the formulation is manipulated until the nutrient requirements of the birds’ are arrived at. As the name implies, the formulation is manipulated until the nutrient requirements of the animal are met. This method makes possible to get the formulation of a ration that meets all the nutrient requirements of the animal.

6.5 Linear programming (LP) This is a method of determining the least-cost combination of ingredients using a series of mathematical equations. There are many possible solutions to each series of equations, but when the factor of cost is applied, there can only be one least cost combination. An electronic computer is capable of making thousands of calculations in a very short time. However, the machine is incapable of correcting errors resulting from incorrect data and errors in setting up of the programme. Therefore, the resultant rations obtained from linear programming will not be better than the information and values which are entered into the programming. Before using the LP approach to ration formulation, the farmer should be familiar with LP program or software package to be used.

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6.6 Least cost feed formulationDifferent Species, Strains or Classes of animals have different requirements for energy (Carbohydrate and fats), proteins, Minerals, and Vitamins in order to maintain its various functions like body maintenance, reproduction, egg production, milk production and meat production etc. Formulation of poultry feed is a highly complex exercise. It involves the selection of a combination of feed ingredients that adequately meet stated nutrients and other requirements of livestock. Achieving a technically satisfactory feed as cheaply as possible is referred to as "least cost" formulation and is the basic objective of both commercial and on-farm feed millers. Formulation of rations for poultry emphasizes the use of linear programming using a computer to derive the least-cost ration. Reasonable cost refers to least-cost technique. Ration formulation does not merely involve mathematical calculation to meet the requirement of the birds, since the result of the calculation may be impractical and not ideal for feeding the birds. Therefore, there is the need to evaluate the feed formulation before it can be given to the birds.

7.0 Step-by-step procedure of poultry feed productionThe flow diagram below (Figure 3) illustrates the step-by-step procedure of feed production for poultry birds.

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Figure 3: Flow chart of step-by-step procedure of feed production for poultry

7.1 Feed ingredients procurementProcurement of feed ingredients such as maize, soya bean cake, groundnut cake, wheat offal, bone meal, salt, etc is the first step poultry feed production.

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7.2 Storage of feed ingredients and finished products

Some forms of storage of raw materials are necessary in order to ensure a continuous supply of feed ingredients at the mill. This is important because some of these ingredients are seasonally available. Poultry farmers can take advantage of seasonal price fluctuations when the price is low. Feed ingredient storage is preferable in bags (Plate XIII). Raw materials should arrive in good condition and in sacks which have not been used for the storage of fertilizer, pesticides or chemicals. Storage areas must be waterproof and well-ventilated, and provide protection against infestation by insects and rodents which can quickly cause substantial losses in weight. The bags should be stacked a few inches above floor level using wooden pallets (Figure 4).

Plate XIII: Wheat offal in storage at a feedmill

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Figure 4: Wooden pallet on which finished feed can be stored

7.3 Raw material weighing The accurate weighing of raw materials according to the formulation for a given ration is one of the most important operations in feed milling. The point at which weighing occurs in the feed milling depends on the design of the mill. Raw materials may be selected from store, weighed and then subjected to grinding and mixing, or materials may be pre-ground, then weighed and mixed. In small scale feed milling, raw materials in sacks can be weighed individually on a platform scale with either a dial or lever-arm movement (Plate XIV and XV). Or if bags are known to be of accurate weight, they can be counted and any excess needed for the formulation can be weighed on the scales. Where possible, it is advisable that all scales be fitted with an adjustable tare, so that operators do not make calculations when allowing for the weights of containers into which raw materials may be tipped for weighing.

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The weighing of raw materials requires great care and inaccuracies must be kept to a minimum. It should be noted that errors in the weighing of small quantities of raw materials often have far greater influence on the growth performance of animals than errors in the weighing of large quantities of material. For example, the omission of say, 25 kg of bran from a mixture requiring 400 kg of bran is of much less significance nutritionally than the omission of 1.5 kg of vitamin pre-mix say from the same mixture requiring only 2.5 kg of pre-mix. It may therefore be necessary to purchase a scale to weigh small quantities, of up to 25 kg (Plate X). The use of accurate scales is particularly important when handling expensive and/or potent raw materials such as vitamins and medicinal additives which are added at low inclusion rates.

7.4 Raw material grinding In the sequence of unit operations involved in feed milling, raw material grinding may occur before or after weighing. It is a process with high power requirements which is often noisy and dusty. The machine most commonly used in the feed milling for grinding is hammer mill (Plate XI). Inside the grinding chamber, hammers, which may be fixed rigidly to the central shaft, or more often swinging on steel pins, rotate at high speed. The impact of the raw material on the hammers and the continual high-velocity impact of particles on particles results in material breakdown until they are smaller in sizes to pass through a perforated screen. It is obvious that the smaller the screen size the more work will be required to reduce the particles to the desired size, and the larger the grinder motor required. Raw materials also have different grinding properties somewhat related to their bulk density and flow characteristics. In general

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those of high bulk density grind more easily than fluffy, fibrous low-bulk density materials. Grinders are most efficient when they are running at maximum capacity for a given raw material and screen size.

Grinders may operate in a horizontal or vertical direction according to design. It should also be noted that the desired fineness of grind will be influenced by the livestock to which the feed must be fed, or by other processes following grinding. Raw materials for poultry should be more finely ground than for cattle or pigs and raw materials to be pelleted are usually more finely ground than the equivalent feed as meal.

7.5 Raw materials mixingThe cereals should be weighed out first, and should be coarsely ground. The protein supplements, such as meat meal, should then be mixed followed by the vitamin and mineral premix. The premix can be bought from produce merchants or directly from chemical suppliers. The mixing can be done in special mixing machines or concrete mixers, or by turning the ingredients over a few times with a shovel on the floor (Plate XIV). The mix should always be turned inwards, to ensure proper mixing.

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Plate XIV: Manual mixing of poultry feed

7.6 BaggingFormulated poultry feeds are usually stored in sacks bags (Plate XV) immediately after production. Bags may be filled directly with feed from mixers or from holding bins and may be weighed on a scale balance or through an automatic pre-set weigh up and bagging unit set to weigh, for example, 25 kg of meal per bag. Bags may be of jute, cotton or paper and can be hand-or machine-stitched or tied with a string or metal tie. Polythene bags are not recommended for storing animal feeds because of the risk of sweating and mould growth. If old bags are to be used, care should be taken to ensure they have not been used previously for the storage of fertilizers, pesticides, or other dangerous chemicals.

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Plate XV: Example of formulated poultry feeds stored in sack bag

7.7 Quality controlFeed quality control is all actions directed towards ensuring that proper standards are maintained through the use of periodic inspections. Any good feed quality control programme contains four components which are

(i.) Ingredient control(ii.) Process control

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(iii.) Finished feed quality, and(iv.) Control of toxic substances, including

pathogenic micro-organisms.8.0 Management tips for on-farm feed millingDay-to-day activities of feed mill in poultry production require some of the following management tips:

8.1 Director:- This is an individual who provides enabling environment for proper functioning of equipment, encouraging optimum staff performance and maintain good raw material base. He must also carry out regular auditing of feed ingredient stock and ensures good maintenance culture for all equipment.

8.2 Labour:- This is provided by feed mill manager and attendants. The feed mill manager must be an experience person willing to work hard and be abreast of all operations in the feed mill including good relationship and monitoring of feed mill attendants. Primarily, the feed mill manager must ensure the supply of adequate quantity and quality feed to sustain the production capacity of the farm with little reserves. Feed mill attendants must be motivated to ensure dedication to their duties and timely production of finished feeds of good quality and discourage pilfering. If possible, shifting-operations can be organized in the feed mill. Uninterrupted production of feeds should be maintained.

8.3 General management practices:- There must be strict adherence to formula for different classes of poultry mixture. Rodents should be controlled to minimize damage to feedstuffs and compounded feeds. High quality feed can be produced through the use of good qualitative feed stuffs. Accurate record of feedstuffs supply and usage should be maintained. Feed ingredients

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with deleterious anti-nutritional factors should be avoided.

9.0 Types and characteristics of finished rations for poultryTypes and characteristics of finished feeds for different classes of poultry are highlighted on Table 7 as a guide to practical feed formulation.

Table 7: Characteristics of different types of poultry ration

S/No.

Name of feed

Stage of production

Characteristics of feed

Remarks

1. Pullet chick mash

Day old pullet chicks up to 8 weeks.

High protein, high energy, low fibre, low fat, adequate calcium, phosphorus, lysine and methionine.

Maize in feed must be grinded to small sizes.

2. Pullet growers mash

9 weeks to 20 weeks

Low protein, low energy, high fibre, low fat.

The feed must be able to slow down the growth of pullet growers to ensure maturity necessary for laying phase.

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3. Layers mash

21 weeks and above

Medium protein, medium energy, medium fibre, low fat, high calcium.

Quality protein feedstuffs should be used.

4. Broiler starter

Day old broiler chicks to 4 weeks

High protein, adequate energy, low fibre, medium fat. The feed must contain adequate calcium, phosphorus, lysine and methionine.

Grind maize to small sizes.

5. Broiler finisher

Broilers above 4 weeks

Low protein, high energy, medium fibre, high fat.

6. Turkey starter mash

Turkey poults from day old to 8 weeks.

High protein, high energy, low fibre, low fat, adequate calcium, phosphorus, lysine and methionine

Grind maize to medium size. Avoid the use of GNC (groundnut cake).

7. Turkey finisher mash

9 weeks and above

High protein, high energy, low fibre, medium fat,

Avoid the use of GNC (groundn

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adequate calcium, phosphorus, lysine and methionine.

ut cake).

8. Cockerel starter mash

Day old cockerel chicks to 8 weeks

Medium protein, medium energy, low fibre, medium fat. Adequate calcium, phosphorus, lysine and methionine.

Grind maize to small size.

9. Cockerel finisher mash

9 weeks and above

Low protein, low energy, high fibre and medium fat.

10.0 Summary of on-farm feed milling practices for poultry production

a. On-farm mixing of poultry feed requires some form of technical knowledge of the procedures required to produce well balanced diets.

b. Farmers can save some amount of money through on-farm feed milling.

c. Feedstuffs used in feed formulation for poultry are classed into two broad categories: conventional and non-conventional.

d. Conventional feedstuffs are the naturally occurring feed ingredients whose quality parameters have been recognized and standardized by the animal feed industry.

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e. Non-conventional feedstuffs include many farm wastes and agro-industrial by products such feedstuffs are those that can partially or fully substitute for the conventional feedstuffs.

f. The main nutrients required by poultry are: protein, energy (carbohydrate, fats and oil), vitamin, minerals and water.

g. Farmers should note that balancing for energy, protein, calcium and phosphorus required by a particular species and production stage of poultry is essential in formulating a balanced diet for that particular species of poultry.

h. Once these four nutrients are balanced in the calculated analysis of feed, it is assumed that all other nutrients are available in the ration and required quantities.

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Biblography

Aduku, A.O. (1993). Tropical feedstuff analysis table. Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture: Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Dafwang, I.I. (2006). Meat, eggs and milk from farm wastes: Explorations in animal nutrition research and extension. Inaugural lecture. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria: University Organized Lectures Committee, Vice Chancellor Office, 63pp.

Esonu, B.O. (2006). Animal Nutrition and feeding: A functional approach. (2nd Ed.). Nigeria: Rukzeal and Ruksons Associates. 218pp.

Parr, W.H. (Compiler) and contributors. (1988). The small-scale manufacture of compound animal feed. Overseas Development Natural Resources Institute Bulletin, ( 9). 87pp.

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