organization behaviour ch02

Chapter 2

Values, Personality, and Individual Differences

People are Different

Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2-2

Chapter 2 Study Questions

• What are culture and values?

• What is personality?

• How do personalities differ?

• What are individual differences and how are they related to workforce diversity?


What are culture and values?

• Culture– The learned and shared way of thinking and

acting among a group of people or society



• Cultural intelligence – the ability to identify, understand, and act with

sensitivity and effectiveness in cross-cultural situations.



• Values and national culture– Cultures vary in underlying patterns of values

and attitudes– Hofstede’s five dimensions of national culture:

• Power distance• Uncertainty avoidance• Individualism-collectivism• Masculinity-femininity• Long-term/short-term orientation.



• Power distance– The willingness of a culture to accept status

and power differences among members.– Respect for hierarchy and rank in

organizations.



• Uncertainty avoidance– The cultural tendency toward discomfort with

risk and ambiguity.– Preference for structured versus unstructured

organizational situations.



• Individualism-collectivism– The cultural tendency to emphasize individual

self-interests or group relationships– Preferences for working individually or in

groups.



• Masculinity-femininity– The tendency of a culture to value stereotypical

masculine or feminine traits.– Emphasizes competition/assertiveness versus

interpersonal sensitivity/relationships.



• Long-term/short-term orientation– The tendency of a culture to emphasize future-

oriented values versus present-oriented values.– Adoption of long-term or short-term

performance horizons.



• Terminal values – reflect a person’s preferences concerning the

“ends” to be achieved

• Instrumental values – reflect a person’s beliefs about the means for

achieving desired ends


Figure 2.1



• Values– Broad preferences concerning appropriate

courses of action or outcomes.– Values influence behavior and attitudes.


Figure 2.2



• Gordon Allport’s values categories– Theoretical values– Economic values– Aesthetic values– Social values– Political values– Religious values



• Maglino’s categories of workplace values– Achievement– Helping and concern for others– Honesty– Fairness



• Value congruence – occurs when individuals express positive

feelings upon encountering others who exhibit values similar to their own


What is personality?

• Personality– The overall profile or combination of

characteristics that capture the unique nature of a person as that person reacts and interacts with others.


Figure 2.3



• Heredity and environment– Heredity sets the limits on the development of

personality characteristics– Environment determines development within

these limits– About a 50-50 heredity-environment split


Figure 2.4



• Personality and the self-concept– Personality dynamics

• The ways in which an individual integrates and organizes social traits, values and motives, personal conceptions, and emotional adjustments

– Self-concept• The view individuals have of themselves as physical,

social, and spiritual or moral beings• Self-esteem• Self-efficacy


How do personalities differ?

• “Big Five” personality dimensions– Extraversion

• Being outgoing, sociable, assertive

– Agreeableness• Being good-natured, trusting, cooperative

– Conscientiousness• Being responsible, dependable, persistent



• “Big Five” personality dimensions– Emotional stability

• Being unworried, secure, relaxed

– Openness to experience• Being imaginative, curious, broad-minded



• Social traits– Surface-level traits that reflect the way a person

appears to others when interacting in various social settings



• Information gathering– Getting and organizing data for use– Styles range from sensation to intuitive



• Evaluation in problem solving– Making judgments about how to deal with

information once it has been collected– Styles vary from an emphasis on feeling to an

emphasis on thinking


Figure 2.5



• Personal conception traits– The way individuals tend to think about their

social and physical settings as well as their major beliefs and personal orientation concerning a range of issues



• Locus of control– The extent to which a person feels able to

control his/her own life– Concerned with a person’s internal-external

orientation


Figure 2.6



• Authoritarianism– Tendency to adhere rigidly to conventional

values and to obey recognized authority

• Dogmatism– Tendency to view the world as a threatening

place



• People with a high-Machiavellian personality:– Approach situations logically and thoughtfully.– Are capable of lying to achieve personal goals.– Are rarely swayed by loyalty, friendships, past

promises, or others’ opinions.



• People with a low-Machiavellian personality:– Accept direction imposed by others in loosely

structured situations– Work hard to do well in highly structured

situations



• Self-monitoring– A person’s ability to adjust his/her behavior to

external, situational (environmental) factors



• Emotional adjustment traits– How much an individual experiences distress or

displays unacceptable acts.– Type A orientation– Type B orientation



• Stress– A state of tension experienced by individuals

facing extraordinary demands, constraints, or opportunities



• Source of stress– Stressors

• The wide variety of things that cause stress for individuals

– Types of stressors• Work-related stressors• Life stressors



• Work-related stressors– Task demands– Role ambiguities– Role conflicts– Ethical dilemmas– Interpersonal problems– Career developments– Physical setting



• Life stressors– Family events– Economic difficulties– Personal affairs



• Stress and performance– Constructive stress (or eustress)

• Moderate levels of stress act in a positive way for both individuals and organization

– Destructive stress (or distress)• Low and especially high levels of stress act in a

negative way for both individuals and organization

– Job burnout• A loss of interest in and satisfaction with a job due to

stressful working conditions



• Stress and health– Stress can harm a person’s physical and

psychological health– Health problems associated with stress

• Heart attack.• Stroke.• Hypertension.• Migraine headache.


How do personalities differ?• Stress management

– Stress prevention• Taking action to keep stress from reaching

destructive levels in the first place

– Stress management• Begins with the recognition of stress symptoms and

continues with actions to maintain a positive performance edge



• Stress management (cont.)– Personal wellness

• Pursuit of one’s job and career goals with the support of a personal health promotion program

– Employee assistance programs• Provide help for employees who are experiencing

personal problems and related stress


What are individual differences and how are they related to workforce diversity?

• Workforce diversity– The presence of individual human

characteristics that make people different from one another



• Stereotyping – occurs when one thinks of an individual

belonging to a group and the characteristics commonly associated with the group are assigned to the individual in question



• Equal employment opportunity– Nondiscriminatory employment decisions

• No intent to exclude or disadvantage legally protected groups

– Affirmative action• Remedial actions for proven discrimination or

statistical imbalance in workforce



• Demographic characteristics– The background characteristics that help shape

what a person becomes



• Gender– No consistent differences between men and

women in:• Problem-solving abilities• Analytical skills• Competitive drive• Motivation• Learning ability• Sociability



• Age– Aging workforce – Older workers are more susceptible to

stereotyping– Experienced workers, who are usually older,

tend to perform well, be absent less, and have low turnover



• Able-bodiedness– Despite evidence of effective job performance,

most disabled persons are unemployed– Most disabled persons want to work– More firms are likely to hire disabled workers in

the future



• Racial and ethnic groups– African Americans, Asian Americans, and

Hispanic Americans make up an ever-increasing percentage of the American workforce



• Important lessons regarding demographic characteristics– Respect and deal with the needs and concerns

of people with different demographics– Avoid linking demographics to stereotypes– Demography is not a good indicator of

individual-job fits



• Aptitude– A person’s capability of learning something

• Ability– A person’s existing capacity to perform the

various tasks needed for a given job– Includes relevant knowledge and skills

organization behaviour ch02

Education

john wiley sons

instrumental values

terminal values

values broad preferences

presentoriented values

future oriented values

underlying patterns

dimensions of national