organizaciones transnacionales (las influencias ... · la comunidad en su conjunto. ello sugiere,...

Organizaciones Transnacionales (las influencias transculturales)

Desarrollo Organizacional e Inteligencia Organizacional

Bibliografía: “Organizaciones Transnacionales (las influencias transculturales)”

Editado por The Organization Development Institute International, Latinamerica –2005. Autor: Eric Gaynor Butterfield – RODP www.theodinstitute.org

(Introducción: El desarrollo económico de China y de la India se ha sustentado endistintos elementos. En este modesto trabajo Bibliográfico queremos mostrar conhechos – y con humildad - que hoy en día ya están muy cerca estos dos países de conformar el privilegiado lote de las 10 más grandes potencias de esteplaneta. Ambos países se han esforzado fuertemente durante lasúltimas tres décadas por aprender y aplicar los conocimientos relacionados con lasCiencias del Comportamiento y su aplicación para el Desarrollo Organizacional. Hande encontrar en esta bibliografía evidencia de la importancia que le han prestado aesta importante disciplina y como la misma se constituye en una herramientafundamental para potenciar el mundo Empresarial competitivo.Mientras tanto en las distintas culturas latinoamericanas seguimos aletargados en un estado de hibernación respecto del aprendizaje y la aplicación de estosconocimientos. No es casualidad entonces, que nuestros países – y también supoblación – sigan pagando el precio de “ignorar” cuan importante es conocer sobreel comportamiento tanto a nivel individual como grupal y organizacional

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).

Uno de los aspectos que más me ha fascinado tanto como consultor internacionalcomo cuando he realizado mis estudios de Doctorado en la Universidad estatal deMichigan, que otros expertos (fueran ellos consultores, académicos einvestigadores) se inclinaran e hicieran uso de la explicación “cultural” para explicar todo aquello que hasta ese momento ellos mismos no encontraban una“solución”.

De hecho, existen diferencias culturales notables que hasta los profanos en lamateria reconocen. Pero de todas maneras me parecía una super-simplificaciónadjudicar a la “cultura – país – nación” todo aquello que parecía “no-entendible”.

Tiene sentido que las distintas culturas elijan distintas formas asociativas uorganizativas para recoger sus productos de la naturaleza y también paratransformarlos y también debemos reconocer que hay culturas que son capaces de desarrollar formas asociativas para “producir” elementos y servicios que nosiempre son 100 % tangibles. Además existen culturas que son capaces detrascender sus propios límites geográficos en relación con la obtención,procesamiento y comercialización tanto de bienes como de servicios.

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Y podemos aprender algunas cosas más en este sentido al poder apreciar quealgunas culturas son capaces de trascender sus límites geográficos no sólo enrelación con los productos y servicios que comercializa; lo pueden hacer para“instalarse” localmente en otro país fuera de la metrópoli donde la organización se gestó inicialmente. Estas son las organizaciones transnacionales omultinacionales que se ven forzadas a tener en cuenta los aspectos trans-culturalespropios de cada nueva cultura o país en la que han de radicarse.

Y este no es un tema sencillo de ninguna manera. El primer libro de “management” –o como gerenciar – se editó recién unos 60 años después de que se llevara a cabola revolución industrial y la “profesión de Desarrollo Organizacional” emergió con fuerza unos 60 años después del primer libro de management.

La gente – y esto incluye a notables expertos en la materia – como es el caso dedistintos investigadores, académicos, practitioners, e incluso empresarios comenzó aencontrar evidencia de que no existía una única “mejor forma de organizarse”. Esto implicaba que las organizaciones estaban sujetas a adoptar distintos arreglos en la medida en que estaban interesadas en sobrevivir y crecer. Nacieronentonces trabajos muy interesantes en la materia que estaban vinculados con“tipologías organizacionales”; al parecer, distintos contextos hacían necesaria unadistinta forma de organizarse.

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Una contribución importante en esta materia han sido los trabajos de Peter Blau(“The comparative study of organizations”; Industrial and labor relations review;number 18 – 1965); de Joan Woodward (“Industrial organization: theory and practice”; Oxford University Press – 1965); de Tom Burns (“The comparativestudy of organizations”; en Víctor Vroom (ed.) Methods of organizational research;Pittsburg: University of Pittsburg Press – 1967); de Paul Lawrence & Jay Lorsch(“Organizations & Environment”; Harvard University Press – 1967); de Amitai Etzioni (“A comparative analysis of complex organizations”; Glencoe: Free Press –1961); de James D. Thompson “Organizations in action”; McGraw Hill – 1967; deHenry Landsberger (“A framework for the cross-cultural analysis of formalorganizations”; en H. Landsberger (ed.) Comparative perspectives of formalorganizations; Boston: Little Brown & Co. – 1970); de Charles Perrow (“A framework for the comparative analysis of organizations”; American Sociological Review, number 32 – 1967; y de Stanley Udy, Jr. (“The comparative analysis oforganizations”; en J. G. March (ed.) Handbook of organizations; Chicago: RandMcNally – 1964).

A estas alturas del “estado de las ciencias del comportamiento dentro de lasorganizaciones” – entrados ya en la segunda mitad del siglo pasado - quedabanpocas dudas respecto de que era necesaria una importante variabilidad de tipoorganizativa si es que estamos orientados a producir y comercializar bienes yservicios dentro de un mismo contexto. Sin embargo, quedaba siempre flotando el hecho de que todo lo que se relacionaba con las organizaciones más alláde las fronteras del país donde ellas se originaban, no siempre se encontrabanexplicaciones respecto de cual era la “nueva” y mejor forma de organizarse. Porende, la “diferente cultura” explicaba “los diferentes resultados” que alcanzan las empresas trans-nacionales.

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Afortunadamente es mucho lo que hemos aprendido en esta materia a partir de lasegunda mitad del siglo pasado, que nos puede inspirar y orientar hacia nuevas ymejores perspectivas para comprender el fenómeno de las organizaciones yempresas transnacionales.

Hace casi una década atrás (en el año 1997) hemos sido muy afortunados al podercontar con la presencia del Presidente de The Organization Development Institute,en un Congreso de Desarrollo Organizacional que se realizara en la Argentina. Allí elDr. Donald W. Cole señaló que al interesarse en promover la profesión de Desarrollo Organizacional en México, recibiera como respuesta que el DesarrolloOrganizacional tiene poca aplicabilidad en México pues aún la forma prevalecientede organizarse y de operar es la que se conoce bajo el nombre de burocracia.

Estas palabras tuvieron un importante impacto en mí, y en especial en la relaciónque yo debía mantener con mis Clientes, tanto en el desarrollo de mis labores comoconsultor, capacitador, formador, agente de cambio. En realidad, y bajo miperspectiva, justamente el hecho de que existiera una forma empresarial yproductiva que se caracterizara por operar en forma burocrática, es ella misma la que justifica la existencia del Desarrollo Organizacional. La presencia dealgo – bajo mi perspectiva – surge como consecuencia de la carencia, y no tanto porla presencia. Bajo mi perspectiva el potencial de introducción de cambios y mejorasen las organizaciones dentro de las distintas culturas latinoamericanas a partir de la profesión de Desarrollo Organizacional, contaban con un terreno sumamente fértil e infinito.

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De todas maneras rondaba sobre mi cabeza el relato del Dr. Cole. Con el propósitode encontrar una vía que facilitara explorar esta situación que aparecía como undilema más bien que como un conflicto, desarrollé un trabajo de investigacióntitulado “Organizaciones y el Desarrollo Económico” (Eric Gaynor Butterfield, Agosto 2001) bajo el patrocinio de The Organization Development InstituteInternational, Latin America.

Algunas de las conclusiones de dicho trabajo se detallan a continuación:

1. Los países con mayor grado de desarrollo económico – medido en ingreso percápita – cuentan con el mayor número de organizaciones transnacionales.

2. Los países subdesarrollados tienen una presencia prácticamente nula en elmundo de las empresas transnacionales.

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3. Las empresas transnacionales son posibles como resultado de contar con unavigorosa organización local del país que opera como metrópoli.

4. Los países subdesarrollados se caracterizan por contar muy pocasorganizaciones vigorosas dentro de su propio contexto.

5. Muchas de estas pocas organizaciones vigorosas dentro de los paísessubdesarrollados han surgido como resultado de haber crecido más como“contratistas del estado” que como empresarios (competitivos).

6. El hecho de que las pocas organizaciones vigorosas dentro de los paísessubdesarrollados hayan crecido como “contratistas del estado” (en lugar de cómoempresarios) las ha hecho no-competitivas para operar dentro del mundoglobalizado.

Es sumamente desafortunado que la inmensa mayoría de los economistas no hayan

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tenido en cuenta la importancia que tiene la creación y el desarrollo deorganizaciones para el crecimiento de las comunidades, países y naciones. Y lo quees más desafortunado aún, es que sigan sin tenerlo en cuenta. Algunos de ellosparecen fascinados con “datos macroeconómicos” sin darse cuenta que la macro-economía solamente puede existir como resultado de la micro-economía, yque dentro de ésta el rol del empresario innovador es vital (Joseph Schumpeter).

En el año 1996 hemos publicado un artículo en la Revista del “Instituto Argentino deEjecutivos de Finanzas” (Eric Gaynor Butterfield; año 12, número 123 del mes demarzo de 1996) donde se destaca la importancia clave que tienen lasorganizaciones en el desarrollo tanto para el individual como para la economía de la comunidad. Los países desarrollados son aquellos que han sido capacesde transferir las riquezas individuales de sus miembros a acciones grupales, y de allía comportamientos organizacionales para finalmente hacerlos trascender fuera desu país de origen (Fiat, Scania, Rolls-Royce, Ford, Hewlett-Packard, Mc Donald, Toyota, Mercedes Benz, Bayer son solamente algunos pocos ejemplos).

En dicho artículo se destaca que el subdesarrollo de las comunidades ypaíses se encuentra vinculado con el fenómeno que hemos denominado allí bajo elnombre de “eslabón perdido”; la falta de ligazón entre el desarrollo individual y eldesarrollo comunitario. Allí destacamos que “el estado del arte de la disciplina deDesarrollo Organizacional” nos puede ilustrar sobre formas más efectivas y eficientes para el desarrollo y crecimiento de las empresas, siendo entonces loOrganizacional nuestra unidad focal.

En dicho artículo se destaca “que los trabajos de campo realizados sugieren que el grado de desarrollo de las organizaciones es una variable relevantetanto para el crecimiento individual en una comunidad, como para el crecimiento de

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la comunidad en su conjunto. Ello sugiere, como una hipótesis principal, que la“inteligencia individual” de algunos miembros no es suficiente para conseguir el desarrollo y crecimiento de la comunidad, y a su vez, las limitantes comunitariasrestringen – en lo que llamaremos un segundo ciclo – el desarrollo de dichasinteligencias individuales. El eslabón faltante es lo que nosotros llamamos la“inteligencia colectiva” que está muy fuertemente relacionada con el crecimiento delas empresas (Desarrollo Organizacional)”.

El artículo sigue: “Esto sugiere que la riqueza de la supuesta “economía” de lasnaciones con mayor grado de desarrollo económico está basada principalmente enel grado de fortaleza de sus organizaciones. En realidad, esto ha sido así en todos los tiempos, ya que son las empresas las que compiten entre si para ganarmercado y tener una importante porción de la misma, sobreviviendo aquellas quepueden vivir “competitivamente”. Para competir las empresas deben tener productosy servicios que sean “pagados” por sus Clientes, y esto a su vez genera lanecesidad de desarrollar una fuerza laboral que realice su aporte en la producción y posterior “delivery” de los respectivos productos y servicios. Este hechotan pero tan simple no siempre ha sido tenido en cuenta por los economistas,sociólogos y políticos, quienes en su enfoque tradicional a través de la metodologíadeductiva asumen hipótesis de “arriba hacia abajo” donde ellos siempre juegan con las piezas blancas del ajedrez y los demás a veces ni siquiera puedenllegar a “mover sus piezas negras”. El precio que se paga por este enfoque esenorme, y podemos predecir que las consecuencias pueden ser letales en muy cortoplazo”.

A lo que debemos agregar – y que ya sabemos – que el enfoque deductivo (como esel trabajo de Marx sobre modelos de desarrollo económico y social) no es el queestá vinculado directamente con la creatividad e innovación. Por el contrario, es elmétodo inductivo el que se relaciona más directamente con la creatividad, la innovación y “los hallazgos deslumbrantes” (como lo es el trabajo de CharlesDarwin, por ejemplo). Finalmente no queremos dejar de destacar el hecho que lasdisciplinas macro (economía principalmente) han sido muy buenas para “explicar”fenómenos. ¿Acaso conoce Usted a algún economista que no esté en condicionesde explicar porqué es que ayer se ha producido una devaluación? Sin embargo,

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muchos hechos demuestran que han sido muy pobres en predecir y esto les cabe a los economistas de la Argentina en particular. No he escuchado a uno solode ellos poder anticipar que la Argentina pudiera descender tanto puestos enimportancia; de estar entre las 10 potencias más importantes en la década del 40 delsiglo pasado ha retrocedido como ningún otro país en el planeta.

Los empresarios – especialmente dentro de las culturas latinoamericanas – nocuentan con un suficiente arsenal de conocimientos en relación con el DesarrolloOrganizacional, y menos aún en lo que se relaciona con el Desarrollo Organizacionalmás allá de las fronteras de su propio país. Los empresarios de los países desarrollados – por el contrario – se han beneficiado largamente de estosconocimientos y en muchos casos estos mismos empresarios y líderesorganizacionales han compartido sus experiencias enriquecedoras con otros.Podemos destacar dos importantes ejemplos de ello como es el caso de AlfredSloan (“My years with General Motors”; Sidgwick & Jackson – 1965) y de Chester I.Barnard (“The functions of the executive”; Harvard University Press – 1938).

Intentamos con esta Bibliografía en materia de temas Trans-nacionales yTrans-culturales poner al servicio de los empresarios y emprendedores dentro de losdistintos países latinoamericanos, de un número importante de aportes que le hande ser de utilidad tanto conceptual como práctica, para la mejor introducción de sus productos y servicios fuera de sus fronteras. Esperamos que comoresultado de esta modesta contribución bibliográfica, que al conocimiento sobreDesarrollo Organizacional se le pueda agregar además aquello que “se sabe” puededistinguir a una empresa transnacional eficiente de una que no lo es.

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La literatura en materia de experiencias transnacionales donde se ha tratado deaprender “que es dentro de la cultura” que hace la diferencia es vasta y variada;hemos elegido algunos de ellos y aquí los compartimos con usted, estimado lector.

No hemos encontrado evidencia anterior de que se haya editado materialBibliográfico en relación con esta particular temática, de modo que en esta primerainiciativa, hemos de agradecer muy especialmente las sugerencias yrecomendaciones que seguramente tienen ustedes en sus cabezas(metafóricamente ya que está en sus mentes). Ellas han de ser muy bienvenidas.

Muchas gracias por compartir.

Eric Gaynor Butterfield _ RODP

The Organization Development Institute International, Latin America

Board Member of The Organization Development Institute – Worldwide

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www.theodinstitute.org

Bibliografía: “Desarrollo Organizacional” –“Variables Trans-culturales”

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Adler, N. J. (1982). Cross-cultural management (Special issue). International Studiesof Management and Organization

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Adler, N. J. (1983). A typology of management studies involving culture. Journal ofInternational Business Studies, volume 14.

Adler, N. J. (1983). Cross-cultural management research: The ostrich and the trend. Academy of Management Review, volume 8.

Adler, N. J. (1986). International dimensions of organizational behavior. Boston: Kent .

Adler, N. J., & Graham, J. L. (1986) Cross-cultural interaction: The international comparisonfallacy . Unpublished manuscript.

Adler, N. J., & Jelinek, M. (1986). Is “organizational culture” culture bound? HumanResource Management, volume 25.

Agrawal, K. G. (1975). Union participation and work motivation: A study among localunion leaders New Delhi: National Labor Institute.

Agrawal, V. K. (1989). State enterprises in India: Achievements and challenges. EnB. L. Mathur (Ed.), Problems and challenges of public enterprises. Jaipur, India: RBSA Publishers.

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Albert, R. (1983). The intercultural sensitizer or culture assimilator: A cognitiveapproach. In D. Landis & R. Brislin (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training; Volume2. NewYork :Pergamon.

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Esperamos que los lectores de habla hispana pertenecientes a nuestra importante

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cultura latinoamericana puedan apreciar en este modesto trabajo Bibliográfico laimportancia que le han prestado estudiosos, académicos, practitioners yempresarios a las Ciencias del Comportamiento y a la profesión de DesarrolloOrganizacional. Las contribuciones de personalidades de China y la India han sido crecientes en las últimas 3 décadas, ganando reconocimiento no solo dentrode sus países, sino también dentro de los países más desarrollados.

Es nuestro deseo que este trabajo bibliográfico sirva de inspiración a los más altosdirectivos de organizaciones como así también a empresarios dentro deLatinoamérica para hacer uso de lo que se sabe dentro de las Ciencias delComportamiento y la Profesión de Desarrollo Organizacional, para crearorganizaciones competitivas a nivel planetario que permitan generar trabajo genuino dentro de nuestras comunidades. Los regalos que los trabajadores puedanrecibir en materia de dinero únicamente, no son suficientes para satisfacer lasnecesidades más vitales de supervivencia que ellos tienen, pero peor aún,representan un atentado letal contra su propia dignidad y la de sus familias.

Es posible crear organizaciones competitivas en Latinoamérica pues contamos conventajas apreciables respecto de otros países del mundo en cuanto a recursos, yademás en cuanto a recursos / consumidores de recursos. Pero si las ventajas porrecursos naturales que Dios ha puesto a nuestro servicio, las obsequiamos al desconocer variables y aspectos claves dentro del mundo empresarial que serelacionan con las Ciencias del Comportamiento, no tendremos entonces ningunarazón valedera para quejarnos de nuestro nivel de desarrollo.

Teniendo en cuenta que esta iniciativa Bibliográfica es un primer esfuerzo,agradeceremos a los lectores hacer sus aportes y contribuciones en la materia. Hande ser muy bienvenidos.

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Muchísimas gracias por compartir.

Eric Gaynor Butterfield – RODP

Presidente The Organization Development Institute International, Latin America

Board Member of The Organization Development Institute – Worldwide

www.theodinstitute.org

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Para mayor información puede acercarse a The Organization Development Institute International, Latinamerica a través de : www.theodinstitute.org y también por este medio : [email protected]

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mailto:[email protected]

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