ATTRA is the national sustainable agriculture information service, operated by the National Centerfor Appropriate Technology through a grant from the Rural Business-Cooperative Service, U.S.Department of Agriculture. These organizations do not recommend or endorse products,companies, or individuals. NCAT has offices in Fayetteville, Arkansas (P.O. Box 3657, Fayetteville,AR 72702), Butte, Montana, and Davis, California.

By George L. Kuepper, Holly Born,Janet BachmannNCAT Agriculture SpecialistsJune 2003

Abstract: This publication focuses on organic practices for blackberry and raspberry production. Included arediscussions of site selection and preparation; fertility; weed, disease, and insect management; greenhouseproduction of raspberries; and economics and marketing. Electronic and printed resources are provided.

ORGANIC CULTUREOF

BRAMBLE FRUITS

Introduction

This publication addresses the nuances in-volved in the production and marketing of or-ganic bramble fruit. As such, it does not dealwith many of the basics of bramble culture, likevarietal selection, pruning, and irrigation, whichare largely the same under both organic and con-ventional management. For basic informationon brambles, please contact your local Coopera-tive Extension. If you have not already done so,we encourage you to read ATTRA’s Overview ofOrganic Fruit Production; it provides valuable in-troductory information on organic fruit culture.ATTRA’s Overview of Organic Crop Production isalso suggested.

HORTICULTURE PRODUCTION GUIDE

© 2

003

ARS

Introduction ........................................ 1

Untangling Brambles ............................ 2

Cultural Considerations ....................... 2

Weed Management ................................. 5

Fertility Management ........................... 6

Greenhouse Raspberry Production ........... 8

Diseases ................................................ 9

Insects ................................................. 11

Economics and Marketing ..................... 12

References ............................................. 14

Further Resources .................................. 16

Table of Contents

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITSPAGE 2

Organic growers use cultural practices, natu-ral fertilizers, and biological controls rather thansynthetic fertilizers and pesticides. When donewell, organic farming is more friendly to the en-vironment and is believed to produce healthierfood. Experience has shown that bramble fruitsare relatively easy to produce using organicmethods.

However, while anyone can choose to groworganically, federal regulations now control thelabeling and marketing of all organic products. Ifyou have a commercial farm and plan to repre-sent your produce as organic, you will need tobe certified. To learn about organic certificationand the steps involved, read ATTRA’s OrganicFarm Certification and The National Organic Pro-gram.

Cultural ConsiderationsThe Basics of Bramble Production

The classification bramble fruits applies to alarge number of plant species within the genusRubus. The most commonly known bramblefruits are blackberries and raspberries, but othertypes—such as dewberries, tayberries, boysen-berries, and loganberries—are also popular.Many of the bramble types and varieties arethorned, though some are not. Plant breedershave worked especially hard in recent years todevelop thornless varieties. Growth habit alsovaries among bramble fruits. Some have pros-trate growth and require trellising for commer-cial production; others grow fully upright anddon’t need trellising.

Red raspberries can be either of two types. Summer-bearing red raspberries have the typicalbiennial life cycle of a bramble: they bear their fruit from late June to August of their secondyear, and the canes die after fruiting. Primocane-bearing types such as Heritage are the exceptionto this life cycle: they bear fruit during the first year. Also called “everbearing” raspberries,they will fruit again in the spring, on the buds below those that fruited the previous fall. Be-cause both of these red raspberries produce new canes (suckers) primarily from the root system,they are usually grown in a hedgerow. They are the most winter-hardy of the raspberries.

Black raspberries initiate new canes from the crown of the plant rather than from root suck-ers. Because of this, they are grown in a “hill” system: each plant is grown independently, withpruning and maintenance done on a per-plant basis. They require summer tipping, unlike redraspberries, because individual canes will grow to unmanageable lengths. Black raspberriesbear their fruit in late June through July, and are the most winter-tender of the raspberries.

Purple and yellow raspberries are also available but are not widely grown, though they can bea very high-value specialty crop. Purple varieties include Success, Brandywine, and Royalty.Yellow varieties include Fall Gold, Kiwi Gold, and Goldie.

Eastern blackberries can be thorny and erect, or thornless and trailing. Breeders have recentlybeen able to produce thornless and erect cultivars. Thornless types are much more cold sensi-tive (to 0°F). Cultivars with a trailing growth habit require trellising. Thorny types often haveexcellent fruit quality but the thorns make harvest difficult. Generally, thorny types of black-berries will tolerate temperatures to about -5°F. They do not require trellising.

Tayberries were bred by crossing a blackberry with a raspberry. The flavor of the fruit re-flects this parentage, and many people feel that a ripe tayberry is the most flavorful bramble ofall. Unfortunately, tayberries are very soft when fully ripe, so they don’t lend themselves tocommercial production. Although they are quite thorny, they grow in a manner similar totrailing blackberries and require similar planting, training, and pruning techniques.

Other brambles, most of which are either hybrids among Rubus species or specific cultivarsof blackberry, such as Loganberry, Boysenberry, Marionberry, and Ollalaberry, are grown ex-tensively in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. They have excellent fruit quality, but arenot well adapted to environmental conditions in the Northeast and should not be grown there.Their most limiting characteristic is their cold-tenderness.

Source: Small-Scale Fruit Production: A Comprehensive Guide (Penn State Cooperative ExtensionPublication), available online at <http://ssfruit.cas.psu.edu/chapter7/chapter7a.htm>.

Untangling Brambles

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITS PAGE 3

Typically, bramble canes are vegetative dur-ing their first year of growth, and in this stagethey are called primocanes. They are calledfloricanes the following season, during which theybear fruit. New primocanes emerge while theolder floricanes fruit, so mature plants have bothactive primocanes and floricanes in evidenceeach season. Several raspberry cultivars areprimocane-fruiting. These varieties produce alate summer or fall crop on the upper portions ofthe primocane stem in the first year. The nextyear, the same cane—now a floricane—producesa second crop lower on the stem.

Because growth and fruiting habits varyamong bramble species, so do production prac-tices. It is important that the grower seek out thecultural guidelines for the specific berry beinggrown.

Most bramble plantings are established eitherfrom root cuttings or plants. Spacing within rowsat planting depends largely on the species. Even-tually, most bramble fruits are managed as con-tinuous hedgerows rather than as individualplants. The row spacing for commercialhedgerow plantings is typically 12 feet to accom-

modate tractor operations, allow for air move-ment, and optimize sunlight penetration (1).

Brambles, especially blackberries, are fairlydrought-tolerant and are sometimes grownwithout supplemental irrigation. Most com-mercial plantings, however, are irrigated to as-sure quantity and quality of production. Be-cause bramble fruit is highly perishable, mar-keting strategies must be developed well inadvance. Many growers rely on direct mar-keting—particularly U-pick, roadside stands,and farmers’ markets—to sell their crop.

Site Selection and Preparation

A planting site higher than the surround-ing area provides air circulation and waterdrainage, reducing disease and insect prob-lems. Sites with adequate air circulation alsoreduce the possibility of winter injury and latespring frosts. However, where strong prevail-ing winds occur, open sites (such as the crestsof hills) may expose plants to desiccation andexcessive wind stress—major causes of winterkill in brambles.

Brambles are adapted to a wide range ofsoils but do best when planted on well-drained,deep, fertile soil that is high in humus and free

of hardpan. A pH of 6.0 to 6.5 is preferred. Com-pared to raspberries, blackberries are more tol-erant of heavy soils and the soil-borne diseasesoften associated with heavy soils. Adding or-ganic matter and planting in raised beds can beof help in avoiding these problems.

Sites previously established in fruit crops(e.g., peaches, apples, grapes, brambles, etc.) arepoor choices because of potential problems withcrown gall infection. Likewise, land recentlyplanted to solanaceous crops (e.g., tomatoes, po-tatoes, peppers, eggplant, tobacco) presents in-creased risks of verticillium wilt. Nearby thick-ets of wild brambles should also be removed, ifpossible, to reduce sources of insect pests anddiseases. Experts advise a minimum of 300 to400 feet of separation from wild hosts or othercommercial plantings (2).

Perennial weeds, especially aggressivegrasses such as bermuda, should be controlledin advance of planting, or an alternative siteshould be chosen. This is extremely importantin organic and reduced-herbicide plantings, asperennial weeds are especially difficult to man-age with non-chemical methods.

© ARS 2003

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITSPAGE 4

Species and Cultivar Selection

It is advantageous to organic and low-inputgrowers to select well-adapted species and vari-eties, especially those genetically resistant tocommon diseases. By so doing, growers find theyhave more time and resources to spend on othercritical areas, such as weed control. Cultivar in-formation is readily available from state orcounty Cooperative Extension services and fromlocal nurseries. When purchasing, it is also im-portant to buy from reputable suppliers to en-sure virus-free and nematode-free planting stock.

With one exception, there are few restrictionson proximity when planting different varietiesand species of brambles on the same farm (as-suming all are locally adapted). Black and purpleraspberries are much more susceptible to dam-age from mosaic and leaf curl viruses than arered and yellow cultivars. Since these diseasesare vectored by aphids, black and purple variet-ies should be separated as much as possible, andlocated upwind, from red and yellow raspber-ries (3).

Alleyway Management

Brambles can be managed either under cleancultivation or with sodded alleyways. In someinstances, the alleyways between new plantingsare clean-cultivated, with a permanent cover cropplanted at a later date. Brambles have extensiveroot systems, and as plantings mature, deep till-age between berry rows must be avoided to pre-vent root damage, unwanted suckering, and in-creased susceptibility to crown gall through plantwounds. According to Kansas recommendations(4), cultivation should not exceed 4 inches indepth; Georgia (5) advises cultivating no deeperthan 1½ inches.

Where clean cultivation is used, the establish-ment of annual winter cover crops in alleywaysis encouraged to reduce erosion, build soil or-ganic matter, and act as a catch crop for nutri-ents. Establishment of a good cover crop in latesummer or early fall also precludes the need forfall cultivation, which stimulates excessive late-season cane growth—tissue that is especiallyvulnerable to winter kill (4). A cereal crop suchas rye (Secale cereale) is normally recommendedfor use as a winter cover crop, though annualryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lamark) is also sug-

gested. The practice of simply allowing weedsto grow as a cover crop is discouraged, as manymay go to seed and increase problems in the fu-ture.

Permanent sodded alleyways offer the great-est protection against soil erosion and the loss ofnutrients through leaching, while also suppress-ing weeds. Conventional recommendations forsodded alleyways advise the maintenance of afour-foot-wide vegetation-free strip in the plantrow, to reduce the competitive effects of the covercrop on the berries (2).

The selection of plant species for use in sod-ded alleyways is also important. Non-aggres-sive sod-forming grasses like bluegrass, fescue,and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) areoften recommended (7), as these are only mod-erately competitive with brambles. Aggressivespecies like bermuda are definitely discouraged.

The use of non-aggressive legumes as win-ter cover crops or as a companion to grasses insodded alleyways offers the advantage of pro-viding a significant amount of the annual nitro-gen needs through biological fixation. The down-side of legumes is the buildup of stinkbug andtarnished plant bug populations. In Oklahoma,at the Kerr Center for Sustainable Agriculture, ablend of subterranean, Dutch white, and ladinoclovers was successfully used in alleyways in ablackberry planting (8). Frequent mowings ap-peared to reduce the threat from stinkbugs andplant bugs and prevented weed seed develop-ment. No evidence of winter damage from ex-cessive soil nitrogen was observed.

In a Canadian study, raspberries were grownwith white clover and perennial ryegrass cov-ers. The white clover cover resulted in higherberry yields, improved vegetative growth, andbetter nitrogen nutrition than the perennialryegrass. When compared to clean cultivation,yields with the white clover cover crop were com-parable (9).

In all cases, sodded alleyways do competewith the bramble crop for nutrients and mois-ture. Their benefits, however, usually outweighthe negatives; growers can compensate by ap-plying supplemental irrigation and additionalnitrogen fertilizer if needed.

For additional details on cover crops, pleaserequest ATTRA’s Overview of Cover Crops andGreen Manures.

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITS PAGE 5

Pruning & Trellising

The appropriate means of pruning, training,and trellising a bramble crop is largely dictatedby the species and varieties grown. Good infor-mation on specific procedures is provided in con-ventional literature available from CooperativeExtension. A few details, however, are of spe-cial note to organic and low-input producers.

Destruction of spent floricanes is importantfor disease and insect pest control. Removingand burning these floricanes is commonly rec-ommended, though shredding and soil incorpo-ration are sometimes practiced. While trellisingis necessary on most trailing brambles, it is alsoan option for most raspberries and a number ofother bramble species.

While somewhat expensive, trellising in-creases air movement in the plant canopy—re-ducing the need for sprays to manage plant dis-eases. Trellising also enhances the effectivenessof pesticides, by allowing better spray penetra-tion (11). And because trellising allows easieraccess to fruit, cleaner picking is possible, result-ing in fewer overripe berries—lessening the at-traction to picnic, sap, June, and Japanese beetles(12).

Air movement and sunlight penetration canalso be enhanced by using alternate row produc-tion in regions with suitable growing seasons.In this approach, every other row is mowed dur-ing dormancy, resulting in a much more openfield during the early part of the season. Aggres-sive regrowth in the primocane rows is excep-tionally competitive with weeds, and yields infloricane rows are heavy. Reduced pruning costis an additional benefit (13, 14).

Weed Management

Aspects of weed management already dis-cussed include suppression via cover crops andthe importance of pre-plant weed control. Referto ATTRA’s Overview of Organic Fruit Productionfor details on pre-plant weed control strategies.Subsequent weed control in established brambleplantings through cultivation, hoeing, or hand-weeding is very difficult. The use of traditionalgrape hoes or more modern versions such asWeed Badger™ and Green Hoe™ cultivators hasbeen suggested. Descriptions and contacts for

these implements are provided in ATTRA’s Over-view of Organic Fruit Production. Whatever thetechnology employed, all mechanical weedingmust be shallow to avoid root damage.

Weeder geese can eliminate most of the grassand many of the tender broadleaf weeds from aplanting. Since geese will also eat the ripe fruitand perhaps even some of the newly emergingprimocanes, their use should be timed appropri-ately. Obviously, stocking rates will be muchlower and management will be easier on clean-cultivated plantings.

Investigators at the Kerr Center for Sustain-able Agriculture have used weeder geese for ef-fective weed control in blueberries with soddedmiddles. The center’s strategy entails the use ofmovable electric fencing and intensive grazing(8). Call ATTRA for additional information onweeding with geese.

Mulching

Research over the years has demonstrateddefinite advantages to mulching in raspberries(15, 16) and thornless blackberries (17). Mulch-ing conserves moisture, moderates temperaturefluctuations, decreases weed pressure, and en-hances yield. Results of research at the MissouriFruit Experiment Station, however, show thatwhile mulching with organic materials can behelpful in controlling some weeds, it is not suffi-cient for total weed control by itself. In fact, ex-cessively deep in-row mulching can interferewith primocane emergence. It may also harbordamaging rodents.

Mulching can also aggravate phytophthoraroot rot problems on susceptible red raspberrycultivars grown on heavy (clayey), irrigated soils.In such a situation, New York researchers rec-ommend straw mulch during the establishmentyear only (18).

Geotextile mulches, such as woven plasticand weed barrier fabrics, are gaining favor aslong-term weed control solutions, and appearsuitable for use in bramble plantings. The fabricmust be slit properly to minimize suppressionof emerging primocanes. Plantings have beenmade using the fabric solely as an in-row cover,and also as a seamless mulch sheet, extendingrow to row across the middles. Though the ini-tial cost is high, it may prove reasonable whenamortized over the expected lifetime of 10 to 12

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITSPAGE 6

years. Available fabric mulches includeSunbelt™ by DeWitt Co. (19) and Lumite byShaw Fabrics. Additionally, county or state Ex-tension Services can provide information on fab-ric mulches, and, in some cases, might supplythese products themselves.

Fertility Management

Sustainable fertility management in bramblesbegins well in advance of planting, with soil test-ing and site preparation. Refer to ATTRA’s Over-view of Organic Fruit Production for general infor-mation on pre-plant soil preparation for fruitcrops, plus additional information on fertiliza-tion. Some specific aspects of site preparationfor bramble crops should be noted:

•Brambles tolerate a fairly wide pH range from 4.5 to 7.5. However, the optimum pH range is 6.0 to 6.5. Lime or other suitable amendments should be applied in the year prior to establishment to bring the soil into his pH range.

•Avoid excessive applications of phosphate. High levels of soil phosphorus have been associated with zinc deficiency in brambles. Growers planning to use poultry litter prior

to establishment or as a maintenance fertil - izer should take special note, since poultry wastes are especially high in phosphates.

•Brambles are also sensitive to chlorine salts, and natural sources of potassium chloride

should not be used ei-ther pre-plant or as amaintenance fertilizer.Even when cover cropsand mulches are used,annual applications ofsupplementary fertil-izer—especially nitro-gen—are needed inmost bramble plantingsto sustain good yields.Organic growers prima-rily use manures, com-posts, animal by-prod-ucts, and vegetable orseed meals to make upthe difference. Esti-mates of total nitrogenfertilizer requirementsare provided below.During the establish-ment year, applicationshould be delayed until

the canes have emerged, especially if salt- based materials or manures are applied, since young brambles are easily salt-dam- aged. Maintenance rates shown can be ap- plied as a single spring application (pre- bloom), or split to apply one-half immedi- ately after harvest.

Additional guidelines for supplemental fer-tilization include:

•Be certain to credit the nitrogen contribu-tion from cover crops and reduce supplemen-tary fertilizer rates accordingly. ATTRA’sOverview of Cover Crops and Green Manuresprovides information useful in making thisestimation.•It is a good rule of thumb to assume thatonly 50% of the nitrogen in most manure orcompost will be available during the year ofapplication. (The availability of nitrogen infresh poultry manure may be closer to 90%in the first year.) However, the remainingnitrogen will become available in subsequent

Bramble Type Growth Stage Pounds per Acreof Nitrogen*

Upright blackberries Establishment Year 25 to 30Summer-bearing purple Maintenance 50 to 60and black raspberries

Trailing blackberries Establishment Year 30 to 35Summer-bearing red Maintenance 65 to 75raspberries

Primocane fruiting Establishment Year 30 to 40raspberries (no summer) Maintenance 95 to 115

* Reduce rates by 10 to 24% for dryland production

ESTIMATES OF NITROGEN REQUIREMENTS

FOR BRAMBLE CROPS

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITS PAGE 7

years and should be credited accordingly.•Be especially cautious to avoid nitrogenburn and nutrient imbalances when usingmanure. The fertilizer value of manure ishighly variable and usually unbalanced withrespect to nitrogen, phosphorus, and potas-sium (N-P-K). Considering these properties,specific application rates are impossible torecommend. Typically, farmers apply ma-nures at roughly 1-4 tons per acre, depend-ing on the fertility of the soil. Poultry ma-nures, which are usually higher in nitrogen,are applied at 1-2 tons per acre.•The timing of manure applications is veryimportant. Manure cannot be applied to theplants within 120 days of harvest under con-ditions where the fruit is either in contactwith the soil or can be splashed with soil fromrainfall or irrigation. Manure cannot be ap-plied within 90 days of harvest where thefruit is elevated or otherwise shielded fromsoil contact.•If manure is fully and properly composted,it can safely be applied at higher rates and atany time during the season. For further de-tails on manure and composting require-ments, see ATTRA’s Manures for Organic CropProduction.•When using organic fertilizers—especiallyunprocessed manures—growers find thatany material not finely textured is difficultto spread within an established bramblehedge-row. Large clumps of organic mattercan also impede primocane emergence.Coarse-textured compost or manure is moreeasily applied if sieved or simply broken upwith spading forks or shovels. The ATTRApublication Manures for Organic Crop Produc-tion provides useful information on manure-spreader calibration.•In contrast to animal manures, cottonseedmeal (N-P-K approximately equalto 7-2-2) is more predictable as to nutrientcontent, and its texture makes it easy to ap-ply to brambles. Though more expensivethan cottonseed meal, blood meal (N-P-Kapproximately equal to 12-1.3-0.7) is widelyavailable, easily applied, and more rapidlyavailable to plants. To apply roughly 60 lbsof actual nitrogen per acre, one would needto apply almost 860 lbs of cottonseed meal or500 lbs of blood meal per acre. This is equiva-lent to about 2 1/3 lbs of cottonseed or 1 1/3

lbs of blood meal per 10 feet of row (assum-ing 12-foot row spacing).•All solid organic fertilizers should be ap-plied in the mid- to late winter to allow ad-equate decomposition time before the springgrowth spurt. Also, if applied too late, solidorganic fertilizers may still be releasing nu-trients to plants late in the season, which canresult in cold damage to tender late growth.•Magnesium and boron deficiencies some-times occur in brambles, though these are lesslikely under a sound organic fertilizationscheme. Magnesium deficiencies can occurunder conditions where excessively highpotassium levels are accompanied by lowcalcium. Dolomitic limestone, sul-po-mag,and epsom salts are suitable for correctingsoil deficiencies. Boron deficiencies are mostlikely in high pH soils, particularly in theNorthwest. Small amounts of Solubor™ orborax are commonly used as amendments(20, 21).•Biannual soil and/or plant-tissue testing isadvisable to identify nutrient imbalances andadjust fertilization accordingly. Testing ser-vices are usually available through countyand state Cooperative Extension.

For an overview of soil fertility in organicfarming systems, see ATTRA’s Sustainable SoilManagement. For further information on alter-native fertilizer materials, see ATTRA’s Alterna-tive Soil Amendments.

© ARS 2003

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITSPAGE 8

By Marvin P. PrittsDepartment of Fruit and Vegetable ScienceCornell University, Ithaca, NY.(Reprinted with the author’s permission)

Raspberries are uniquely suited for winter greenhouse production in the U.S. Unlikestrawberries, no significant domestic sources of winter raspberries exist. The vast majority ofwinter raspberries are flown in from the Southern Hemisphere. Quality is generally poorbecause raspberries have an extremely short postharvest life, and bruise easily during ship-ping. As a result, consumers are willing to pay between $3.00 and $6.00 per half-pint for freshfruit, and restaurant chefs seem willing to pay even more.

Compared to field production, greenhouse produced berries are larger, firmer and muchless prone to fruit rot. Only 6% of our greenhouse berries were crumbly or otherwise unmar-ketable, whereas the percentage of field-grown berries that are unmarketable is usually muchhigher. Fruit tends to be slightly less sweet and more acid in the greenhouse, but well withinthe limits of acceptability. Only Royalty purple raspberry and Heritage red raspberry (“sum-mer crop”) did not produce fruit of acceptable flavor.

Procedure

Although we have not optimized the system, these procedures work reasonably well.Summer-bearing (floricane-fruiting) tissue-cultured raspberry plugs are planted into 1 gallonpots filled with equal parts sand:peat:perlite:vermiculite in May, allowed to grow outdoorson a gravel bed with irrigation until late December, then brought into the greenhouse. Whileoutdoors, plants are fertilized weekly with a complete soluble fertilizer solution containing100 ppm N, and pest outbreaks are managed using conventional practices. Once in the green-house, canes are trellised and plants watered with a 100 ppm N fertilizer solution. Tempera-tures are maintained at 65F during the day, and 50F at night - ideal for raspberries but too coldfor most other plants. Supplemental light can accelerate development by 2 to 3 weeks andincrease yield by 20 –30%.

Six weeks after moving plants into a lighted greenhouse, they flower. Bumblebees areused to pollinate the flowers, and fruiting can begin as early as mid-February, about 10 weeksafter moving plants indoors.

Once flowering begins, the nutrient solution is reduced to 50 ppm nitrogen. With one-year-old plants, we use double rows (with row centers 5 ft. apart) and a pot-to-pot spacing sothat approx. 26 plants are contained in each 3 m length of row. Each plant produces abouttwo half-pints (350g) of fruit. New primocanes are removed when they reach a height of 18inches. (Removing all primocanes as they emerge is detrimental to the carbohydrate status ofthe plants.) Those that are 18 inches tall near the end of harvest are retained for fruiting thefollowing year.

After the first harvest is over in April, we transplant into 7 gallon pots and place plantsoutside for the second growing season. We return plants to the greenhouse in mid-Decemberafter the chilling requirement has been fulfilled. Rapidly satisfying the chilling requirementis one advantage that northern growers have over more southern producers. Outdoors infull sun, plants are watered regularly and fertilized once a week with a soluble balancedfertilizer (100 ppm N). Canes are held upright with trellises as they grow. In the secondproduction cycle, we space plants 22 in. apart in single rows, with 5.5 ft. between rows, andtrellis canes upright to a single wire.

Greenhouse Raspberry Production

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITS PAGE 9

Diseases

The foundations of organic disease controlare sanitation (removal and destruction of in-fected plant parts); keeping the plants in goodvigor through weed control, good fertility, andmoisture management (mulching and irriga-tion); and using resistant varieties. For descrip-tions and diagnoses of plant diseases, refer toCooperative Extension publications or contactan Extension specialist. Also see Chapter 7:Small-Scale Fruit Production—A Comprehen-sive Guide (Penn State Cooperative ExtensionPublication), available online at <http://ssfruit.cas.psu.edu/chapter7/chapter7a.htm>.

Phytophthora Root Rot

Phytophthora root rot is not known to be aproblem on blackberries and causes minimalproblems in black and purple raspberries (22, 23).It can, however, be a problem in some soils onsusceptible variet-ies of red raspber-ries. A listing ofknown resistantand highly sus-ceptible varieties,compiled fromseveral sources(22, 23, 24, 25, 26,28), is providedbelow.

Soils naturallysuppressive ofp h y t o p h t h o r a

Pests amd Diseases

Economics

We regularly released Phytoseiulus persimilis for twospotted spider mites (there are no pesti-cides labeled for use on raspberries in greenhouses). Household fans are used to circulate airdown the rows to reduce pockets of high humidity (ideal is 65–75%) and the subsequent risk offungal infection.

At our orchard store, we sold raspberries for $3.00 per half-pint without consumer resistance.We have calculated that net profits of $2,500–$5,000 per 1,000 sq. ft. are reasonable. Raspberries arewell-suited to greenhouse production, and the economics appear to be favorable.

For more information on greenhouse raspberry production, visit the Web site:<http://www.hort.cornell.edu/department/faculty/pritts/Greenhouse/Frontpage.htm>.

fungi contain large amounts of organic matter,plentiful calcium, and nitrogen in the ammoniumform (decaying organic matter will produce am-monium nitrogen) (27). Planting on raised bedsis also helpful.

Cornell researchers found that amending thesoil with gypsum (calcium sulfate) reduced theincidence of phytophthora in red raspberries.Other amendments tested—including compost,lime, sulfur, and potassium—were either ineffec-tive or inferior to gypsum against phytophthora(28).

As mentioned earlier, mulching susceptiblered raspberry cultivars can foster phytophthoraproblems. This appears to be common only inirrigated plantings on heavy soils. If all factorsare present—susceptible cultivars, heavy soil, ir-rigation—research indicates that mulch is advan-tageous during the establishment year, but mayfavor phytophthora thereafter (14).

PHYTOPHTHORA RESISTANCE OF RASPBERRY VARIETIES

Phytophthora-Resistant Varieties Phytophthora-Susceptible Varieties

Boyne Latham Canby MungerBristol Lauren Chilcotin ReveilleCherokee Meeker Comox RubyChilliwack Newburgh Cumberland SkeenaDundee Nordic Festival TaylorFall Red Pathfinder Heritage TitanKillarney Sumner Hilton WillametteJewel Sunrise

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITSPAGE 10

Verticillium Wilt

Verticillium wilt is caused by the fungus Ver-ticillium albo-atrum. To avoid soil-borne verticil-lium wilt problems, an often-repeated recom-mendation is that growers should wait at leastthree to four years before planting in a fieldwhere potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, eggplant, ortobacco have been grown; however, research hasshown Verticillium species to be capable of sur-viving in the soil for more than 14 years in theabsence of a host (29).

Also, common weeds such as black night-shade, redroot pigweed, lambsquarter, andhorsenettle support verticillium (30). Soil solar-ization can greatly reduce the verticillium inocu-lum (refer to ATTRA’s Overview of Organic FruitProduction for more information on soil solariza-tion).

Among red raspberries, which tend to bemore tolerant, Cuthbert and Syracuse haveshown to be resistant under field conditions (10).Among blackberries, Himalaya and Evergreenare verticillium-resistant (30).

Crown Gall

Crown gall is caused by the bacteriumAgrobacterium radiobacter var. tumefaciens, whichusually enters through wounds in the roots orcrowns of raspberry and blackberry plants. Thedisease is best controlled by planting healthystock on a “clean” site. On a planting site wherecrown gall has been known to occur, a waitingperiod of three to five years is advised beforereplanting. As an alternative, a biological treat-ment (dip) with a non-pathogenic strain of aclosely related bacterium (A. radiobacter var.radiobacter strain K84) can protect the plantingstock from infection by the virulent A. radiobactervar. tumefaciens (31). Two commercial formu-lations of this treatment are available (32, 33).

Gray Mold

The only serious disease of bramble fruit isgray mold, caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea.Gray mold can be devastating if rainy weathercoincides with harvest when fruits are at theirripest and most susceptible. Raspberries aremore susceptible than blackberries. No organi-cally acceptable fungicides are available for con-

trolling this disease, but there are biological con-trols proven effective against gray mold (34).Unfortunately, none of these biological controlsare as yet EPA-registered for use on abovegroundplant parts.

The incidence of gray mold can be reducedthrough advanced planning in site selection—choosing a location with good soil and air drain-age, and orienting crop rows with prevailingbreezes. Subsequent cultural management toimprove sunlight entry and air movement (e.g.,trellising, alternate row production, removal ofspent floricanes, thinning, weed control, andcover crop mowing, etc.) and maintaining a tightpicking schedule to reduce the presence of over-ripe fruit also contribute greatly to suppressinggray mold.

Leaf Spot

Another fungal problem in humid climatesis leaf spot (causal organism: Sphaerulina rubi).Most blackberries are resistant, but raspberries—especially those growing in the southern ex-tremes of their adapted region—can be hard hit.Practicing good sanitation, especially the removaland destruction of old floricanes, and managingto increase air movement and sunlight penetra-tion work to suppress leaf spot. Overwinteringinoculum can also be reduced with a single de-layed-dormant spray of lime sulfur (35).

There is some genetic resistance to leaf spotamong raspberry varieties. Heritage, Southland,Fall Gold, and MN 659 appear especially resis-tant, and black raspberry varieties demonstratemoderate resistance. Red raspberry varietiesSentry, Taylor, Skeena, Killarney, and Canbyappear most susceptible (36).

Orange Rust

Orange rust affects blackberries and blackraspberries. The organism Gymnoconia peckianus,which causes rust-colored lesions on leaves, willcommonly infect the whole plant, stunting someplants seriously. Control measures largely fo-cus on the planting of clean stock and diligentscouting to rogue out infected crop and wildplants, roots and all. Practices to improve air cir-culation are also advised (37).

Among blackberry cultivars, Eldorado,Raven, Snyder, and Ebony King appear resistant.

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITS PAGE 11

Among thornless blackberry varieties, Hull,Chester, and Arapaho appear resistant.

Anthracnose

Anthracnose (causal organism: Elsinoe veneta)can be a serious disease on blackberries and blackraspberries. It is less of a threat to purple andred raspberries, and most of the thornless black-berry varieties exhibit resistance. Again, sanita-tion procedures and practices to improve air cir-culation play major roles in disease suppression.Anthracnose can also be controlled organicallywith a single delayed-dormant spray of liquidlime-sulfur (7). Under severe conditions, addi-tional later sprays using bordeaux, burgundymix, or a fixed copper may help.

Spur Blight

Spur blight (causal organism: Didymellaapplanata) is a fungal disease of red raspberriesand sometimes of purple raspberries that canreduce the yields and life of a planting. Controlprocedures are essentially the same as those foranthracnose. The cultivars Amity, Festival,Haida, and Prestige all show some resistance (38).

Viruses

There are several bramble viruses ofeconomic importance. Again, plantingclean stock and rogueing out and de-stroying infected plants are importantpractices in limiting virus spread. Rasp-berries can be particularly hard hit inareas where aphid vectors of viruses arepresent. Breeding for resistance toaphid vectors has proved highly effec-tive in restricting virus infection inplantings (39, 40).

Insects

Aphids

Besides vectoring viruses, aphids can betroublesome on brambles when feeding is so in-tense that leaves become curled and distorted.High aphid populations are often an indication

of excessive nitrogen fertilization—a more fre-quent problem where soluble nitrate fertilizer isused.

Organic growers usually find that, if theydon’t spray, naturally occurring enemies of theaphids will eventually exert control. However,organic growers may also use insecticides suchas soap sprays, rotenone, and pyrethrum for con-trol.

Borers

Other major insect pests of brambles includethe borers: the raspberry crown borer, the rasp-berry cane borer, and the red-necked cane borer.Despite the names of these pests, all three attackblackberries as well as raspberries. Control ofall three is best achieved organically by rogue-ing out and destroying infested plants.

Beetles

Japanese and June beetles can be major pestsof bramble fruit if their adult emergence coin-cides with the ripening. Since ripe berries arepicked every day or every other day, there arefew pesticides (organic or otherwise) that areboth effective against these beetles and usableup to the day of harvest. Some botanicals—such

as rotenone—can legally beused even theday of harvestaccording tocurrent labelrestrictions;h o w e v e r ,none haveproved ad-equate forJune and Japa-nese beetlecontrol.

Consequently, organic growers have to re-sort to other methods to control these pests.Hand picking, trapping, exclusion with row cov-ers, and reducing the immatures (grubs) in thesoil with tillage, milky spore disease, and/orbeneficial nematodes have all been attempted bygrowers with varying degrees of success. Tar-geting the grubs requires advance planning—thebeneficial nematodes and milky spore disease are

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITSPAGE 12

not effective against adult beetles. Grubs canbe especially plentiful in undisturbed pastureor turf soils. Tillage and soil treatment withbeneficial nematodes or milky spore diseaseare helpful in destroying pupae or grubs, butsince the adults can fly in from relatively dis-tant sites, it is often impractical to till or treatenough ground adjacent to the brambleplanting to effectively suppress a local popu-lation.

Attempts have been made to exploit a be-havioral phenomenon of these pests for con-trol. Apparently the beetles are initially at-tracted by the odors of ripening fruit and fruityeasts. After the first beetles find the foodsource, they emit an aggregation pheromonewhich functions as a scent beacon for otherbeetles. Commercial traps that use thesepheromones for trapping the beetles areavailable through mail-order garden supplycompanies, but growers and researchers alikecaution that they can end up attracting morebeetles to the planting than the traps canhandle, making the problem even worse.However, understanding this behavioralphenomenon reinforces the importance ofhand picking or otherwise dealing with thosefirst few beetles.

Arkansas researchers report that bucketsof water and rotting fruit attract June beetles(41). The water can be laced with a pesticideor the beetles scooped off and otherwisekilled. In any case, these researchers cautionthat the buckets must be emptied of beetlesregularly because the pests soon accumulateto the extent thatthe last-arrivingbeetles may be un-able to reach thewater and thus eas-ily crawl out. Thefruit brew may also need to be changed if itappears to have lost its yeast-like smell or isno longer attracting the beetles. In all in-stances where beetle traps are employed, cur-rent wisdom advises placing them awayfrom the field to avoid the possibility ofdrawing the pests to the crop.

Surround™ WPis a kaolin-clay-based in-sect repellent effective against both June andJapanese beetles. It is considered “organic”by the Organic Materials Review Institute,and is registered on brambles. However, the

clay is nearly impossible to wash off from be-tween the drupelets (the individual seed-bear-ing structures that together make up the “berry,”which, botanically, is more correctly called a“drupe”). As a result the Surround label cau-tions that Surround should only be applied toberries intended for processing (42).

Refugia

While cover crops may provide shelter toseveral bramble pests, cover crops and adjacentvegetation also harbor beneficial insects thatpollinate the crop and help to suppress pest in-sect and mite populations. When crops and fieldborders are managed with beneficials in mindthey are often referred to as refugia, and repre-sent a new approach to pest management basedon planned biodiversity. To learn more aboutrefugia, please request the ATTRA publicationFarmscaping to Enhance Biological Control.

Economics and Marketing

Overview of Bramble Economics

In the U.S., large-scale commercialbramble production is located almost exclu-sively in states along the Pacific Coast. Theremaining bramble fruit production is scat-tered in small plantings throughout theUnited States. Most of the commercial crop isprocessed, with only a small amount making

its way to the freshmarket. In general,fresh bramble fruitdoesn’t ship welland thus is gener-ally most appropri-

ate for local markets. Still, it can bring highprices.

More than 95 percent of the bramble fruitgrown in Washington and Oregon is sold forprocessing. California brambles are grownmainly for the fresh market, since shippers usethe fresh-market infrastructure developed forstrawberries to handle and sell raspberries. Sta-tistics are not available for other states, but inCalifornia the fresh market, especially direct-to-consumer sales, reportedly accounts for mostsales (43).

“Demand and prices for blackberries

and raspberries are rising...”

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITS PAGE 13

Demand for both fresh and processedbramble fruit is increasing. Recent reports indi-cate that prices and sales are rising. Raspberriesare the most important commercial bramble fruit,and the black and red types the mostpopular. Purple and yellow raspber-ries are less widely grown than the oth-ers, but demand is still strong (44).Blackberry acreage and yield are alsoincreasing as that crop becomes morepopular.

Bramble fruits can be a good crop to add tothe production mix for the small-scale and/orpart-time farmer. Once established, raspberryplantings, for example, should produce for atleast six years, and some produce for more than20 years (45). Bramble fruits, which ripen shortlyafter strawberries or later in August or Septem-ber, can extend the small producer’s harvest sea-son. However, since bramble fruits have specialproduction requirements and a very short shelflife and marketing season, growing them is notappropriate for everyone.

The high cost of machinery, irrigation, qual-ity plants, and labor requirements often discour-ages growers from getting into the bramble mar-ket. Economically, raspberries or blackberries areconsidered to be a medium- to high-risk cropbecause of a high initial investment, returns de-layed for two or more years, biological factorsincluding the climate, and high fixed costs (44).

Establishment costs can range from $3,000 to$4,500 per acre. Plantations should consist of atleast 3 acres to provide enough fruit for sale.Most growers report needing at least five to tengood pickers per acre to keep up with the ripen-ing fruit. Growers who plan to harvest their cropwith mechanical harvesters generally need atleast 10 acres in production to justify renting amachine (46).

In budgetary information developed by Kan-sas State University in 1993, the total variable andfixed costs for an acre of red raspberries were$2,222 in the establishment year and $1,720 ineach of the three subsequent years. (Note thatthese figures do not include costs associated withirrigation, land payments, interest, or returns tomanagement.) Based on these costs, it was esti-mated that, at an average yield of 1 ton per acreand a market price of $1.25 per lb, the growerwould remain in a negative cash position for atleast three years, since no crop is produced inthe establishment year (1).

However, market prices will vary by region,affecting economic returns. For example, whilethe Kansas study above was based on a market

price of $1.25, a survey conducted by Ohio SateUniversity in 2001 showed average black rasp-berry prices in Ohio to be $2.37 per lb in pick-your-own markets, $3.33 per pint in on-farmmarkets, and $3.79 per pint in farmers’ markets(6).

For more information on marketing and eco-nomics, see Ohio State University ExtensionService’s publication “Brambles—ProductionManagement and Marketing” online at <http://ohioline.osu.edu/b782/index.html>.

While the bulk of brambles are grown con-ventionally, there is some commercial organicproduction. Organic production is typicallymore costly than conventional production.Among the factors that often increase per-unitproduction costs in organic systems are theadded labor and machinery costs associated withweed control, the loss of benefits associated withscale (organic operations are typically smaller),and reduced yields due to pest pressure.

However, small-acreage organic raspberryfields, carefully hand-harvested every day overa 4-week period, can be lucrative. Expectedyields in 1997 for mechanically harvested organicraspberries (in the Pacific Northwest) were be-tween 3 and 4 tons an acre, with hand-harvestedberries yielding 4 to 5 tons per acre. Prices havebeen high, with premiums of up to 35 cents apound over conventional. However, increasedacreage in both the U.S. and overseas is expectedto continue to drive down prices by increasingsupply (47).

Marketing

Can you make money growing raspberries?To help decide, first consider where to marketthe berries. Options include wholesalers, coop-eratives, local retailers, roadside stands, pick-your-own, farmers’ markets, and processingfirms. Many small, independent fruit producersfind it increasingly difficult to market their ber-

Organic production is typically more

costly than conventional production.

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITSPAGE 14

ries. Eighty percent of all fresh fruits and veg-etables sold at the retail level are presentlyhandled by chain stores in the United States.High labor costs and lack of a wholesale marketat a fair return has made direct marketing muchmore attractive to small growers. The cost/pricesqueeze is particularly dramatic in the case ofbrambles. Direct marketing provides a meansof increasing the grower’s net return.

Before you plant organic fields, make yourmarketing arrangements. Since costs are high, itis crucial to locate markets that will pay the pre-mium prices required to turn a profit. For helpwith understanding, researching, and locatingorganic markets, see ATTRA’s Organic Market-ing Resources.

A study from Ohio (44) examined the profit-ability of three different bramble fruit markets:pick-your-own (PYO), hand-harvested for eitheron- or off-farm sales, and mechanically harvestedfor either immediate processing or individuallyquick frozen (IQF) storage.

PYO marketing is highly attractive as a low-investment alternative. However, researchersfound that these operations were required to sellat relatively low prices, PYO being less populartoday than it used to be. Also, marketing op-tions for PYO can be limited for operations lo-cated far from population centers. Inclementweather can have a particularly depressing ef-fect on this marketing strategy, too. Hand-har-vested berries can be sold directly to consumersor to retail. Hand-harvesting requires the man-agement of additional seasonal workers. Theresearchers found that growers need to chargeat least $1.00 more per pound for hand-harvestedberries than PYO-harvested berries to turn aprofit.

Machine-harvested berries are generallytaken to a processor for freezing or juicing. Lowyields and few hours of machine use per yearincrease the cost of machine-harvested berries.Mechanical harvest requires a business that canhandle large volumes of berries in one day. Pro-cessed berry prices tend to change more rapidlythan fresh berry prices. The researchers foundthat when growers with small farms are capableof producing an average of 3,200 pounds or moreper acre, they are able to compete with largerfarms in marketing machine-harvested berries.However, it may be difficult to locate processorsoutside the Pacific Northwest.

Marketing Health through Bramble Fruits

The demand for nutritionally enhanced foodscontinues to grow. Beyond their vitamin andmineral content, bramble fruits are now knownto contain important phytochemicals (naturallyoccuring compounds). The term nutraceuticalrefers to a phytochemical substance that may beconsidered food (or part of a food) and that pro-vides medical or health benefits, including pre-vention and treatment of disease. Nutraceuticalsrepresent one of the most important food-indus-try trends for marketing to an increasinglyknowledgeable and health-conscious consumer.Information on nutraceutical properties ofbramble fruits can be found at <http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/~sfgnet/ellagic.html>.

Value Adding

Since bramble fruits are so perishable andeasily damaged, the farmer may have a lot ofdamaged berries unsuitable for the fresh marketon his or her hands. While it is not recommendedto rely exclusively on culls for value-added prod-ucts, culls can make up a large part of fruit in-gredients in products such as fruit leathers andjams and jellies.

For more information on adding value, re-quest the ATTRA publications Adding Value toFarm Products: An Overview and Keys to Successin Value-Added Agriculture.

©ARS 2003

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITS PAGE 15

References

1.) Morrison, Frank D., Ned Tisserat, EdHellman, and Donald B. Erickson. 1993.Commercial Blackberry & RaspberryProduc tion in Kansas. Kansas State Uni-versity.Manhattan, KS. 21 p.

2.) Poling, E.B. 1992. Blackberry ProductionIn North Carolina. Leaflet No. 200-B.North Carolina Cooperative Extension.North Carolina State University. Raleigh,NC. 7 p.

3.) Bartels, Steve, Henry Bartholomew,Michael A. Ellis, Richard C. Funt, StephenT. Nameth, Ronald L. Overmyer, HaroldSchneider, William J. Twarogowski, andRoger N. Williams. 1988. Brambles: Production, Management, and Marketing.Bulletin 783. Ohio Cooperative ExtensionService. Ohio State University. Columbus, OH. 58 p.

4.) Morrison, Frank D., Ned Tisserat, EdHellman, and Donald B. Erickson. 1993.Commercial Blackberry & RaspberryProduction in Kansas. Kansas State Uni-versity. Manhattan, KS. 21 p.

5.) Krewer, Gerard, Stephen Myers, PaulBertrand, and Dan Horton. 1987.Commercial Bramble Culture. Bulletin964. University of Georgia CooperativeExtension. Athens, GA. 12 p.

6.) Anon. 2001. Black raspberries most popu-lar on growers list in Ohio survey. TheFruit Growers News. November. p. 63.

7.) Pritts, Marvin, and David Handley (edi-tors). 1989. Bramble Production Guide.NRAES -35. Northeast Regional Agricul-tural Engineering Service. Ithaca, NY.189 p.

8.) The Kerr Center for Sustainable Agricul-ture, P.O. Box 588 Poteau, OK 74953. Tel:918-647-9123.

9.) Bowen, Pat, and Stan Freyman. 1995.Ground covers affect raspberry yield,photosynthesis, and nitrogen nutrition ofprimocanes. HortScience. April. p. 238-241.

10.) OSU. No date. Brambles—ProductionManagement and Marketing. Ohio StateUniversity Extension Service. Bulletin782-99.

11.) Goulart, Barbara. 1991. Raspberry trellises: Pitfalls and possibilities. NorthlandBerry News. June. p. 14.

12.) Otten, Paul, and Thomas M. Schuett.1991. The econotrellis for primocaneraspberries for under $275/acre.Northland Berry News. March. p. 1-3.

13.) Edberg, Kevin. 1994. Alternate row crop-ping of Boyne raspberries. NorthlandBerry News. September. p. 16.

14.) Kuepper, George, and Tommy Williams.1989. Alternative pruning system forblackberries. Pomona. Fall. p. 51.

15.) Makus, D.J. 1989. Mulch, evaporativecooling improve yield of Arkansas-grownraspberries. April-May. p. 9-10.

16.) Pritts, Marvin P. 1991. Mulch thosenewly planted raspberries. OrganicFarmer. Summer. p. 38-39.

17.) Funt, Richard C., Henry M. Bartholomew,Mark C. Schmittgen, and John C. Golden.1994. Straw mulch increases yield ofthornless blackberry cultivars.HortScience. May. p. 453.

18.) Wilcox, Wayne, and Marvin Pritts. 1993.Phytophthora root rot of raspberries: Re-view and update on recent research.Cornell Small Fruits Newsletter. Jan-Feb-Mar. p. 8-9.

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITSPAGE 16

19.) DeWitt Co. RR 3, Box 31, Sikeston, MO63801. Tel: 800-888-9669.

20.) Anon. 1991. Boron for brambles and blueberries. Northland Berry News. March.p. 6.

21.) Scheer, William P.A. 1992. Magnesiumand boron deficiencies in raspberries.Northland Berry News. September. p.14.

22.) Wilcox, Wayne F. 1992. Integrated con-trol of phytophthora root rot of raspber-ries. LISA Small Fruits Newsletter. Sum-mer. p. 6-9.

23.) Wilcox, Wayne F. 1990. Phytophthorarootrot of raspberry/red stele of strawberry. Northland Berry News. March. p.12-13.

24.) Jennings, D.L. 1988. Raspberries andBlackberries: Their Breeding, Diseasesand Growth. Academic Press, New York,NY. p. 89.

25.) Himelrick, David G. 1994. Raspberry rootrot. American Fruit Grower. June. p. 16.

26.) Anon. 1997. Variety spotlight. Ameri-can Fruit Grower. p. 13.

27.) Cook, R.J., and K.F. Baker. 1983. TheNature and Practice of Biological Controlof Plant Pathogens. APS Press, St. Paul,MN. p. 270.

28.) Pritts, Marvin, and K. E. Maloney. 1998.Calcium sulfate soil amendment reducesincidence of phytophthora root rot inraspberry. HortIdeas. August. p. 87.

29.) Jennings, D.L. 1988. Raspberries andBlackberries: Their Breeding, Diseasesand Growth. Academic Press, New York,NY. p. 87, 88.

30.) Ellis, Michael A., and Wayne F. Wilcox.1992. Bramble diseases: IPM works.American Fruit Grower. May. p. 22-24.

31.) Cook, R.J., and K.F. Baker. 1983. TheNature and Practice of Biological Controlof Plant Pathogens. APS Press, St. Paul,MN. p. 59.

32.) AgBioChem, Inc. 3 Fleetwood Ct. ,Orinda, CA 95617. Tel: 415-756-7177.

33.) IPM LaboratoriesMain St.Locke, NY 13092315-597-3129

34.) Daar, Sheila. 1989. Trichodermabiofungicide registered in U.S. The IPMPractitioner. September. p. 19.

35.) Wilcox, Wayne. 1990. IPM practices forsmall fruit disease control: A review.Northland Berry News. June. p. 16, 18.

36.) Wilcox, W.F., and M.P. Pritts. 1988.Evaluation of leaf spot severity on 39 rasp-berry cultivars. Biological and CulturalTests. Vol. 4. p. 8.

37.) Kleiner, Bill. 1993. Understanding orange rust on black raspberry. Northland Berry News. June. p. 14.

38.) Daubeny, Hugh A., and H.S. Pepin. 1974.Susceptibility variations to spur blight (Didymella applanata) among red rasp-berry cultivars and selections. Plant Dis-ease Re porter. Vol. 58. p. 1024-1027.

39.) Jennings, D.L. 1988. Raspberries andBlackberries: Their Breeding, Diseasesand Growth. Academic Press, New York,NY. p. 110.

40.) Schaefers, George A. 1988. Studyingaphid-resistant brambles. Fruit Grower.June. p. 8.

41.) Barbara Lewis & Dr. Donn Johnson (Per-sonal communication.)Dept. of EntomologyUniversity of ArkansasFayetteville, AR 72702.Tel: 479-575-2501

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITS PAGE 17

42.) http://www.engelhard.com/surround

43.) http://www.rma.usda.gov/pilots/feasible/txt/bramble.txt

44.) http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/%7Eohioline/b782/b782_34.htm

45.) Penn State Ag Alt. Pubhttp://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/ua285.html

46.) Brun, Charles. 1997. Red Raspberries: AMost Lucrative Crop for the Pacific Northwest. Sustainable Agriculture Farming forProfit & Stewardship. April. p. 3.

47.) Wiffig, Hans. 1997. Organic red rasp-berry production in the PNW. NorthlandBerry News. Vol. 11, No. 2.

Further Resources

Publications:

Compendium of Raspberry and BlackberryDiseases and InsectsEllis, M.A., et al. (ed.). 1991. The American Phy-topathological Society, St. Paul, MN. 122 p.Available for $49 + shipping from:

APS PRESS Customer Service3340 Pilot Knob RoadSaint Paul, MN 55121-2097Toll-free ordering: 800-328-7560http://store.yahoo.com/shopapspress/41213.html

Galleta, G.J., and D.G. Himelrick (ed.). 1990.Small Fruit Crop Management. Prentice-Hall,Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 602 p.

Krewer, Gerard, et al. 1987. Commercial BrambleCulture. Bulletin 964. The University of Geor-gia CES, Athens, GA. 11 p.

Pritts, Marvin, and David Handley (eds.). 1989.Bramble Production Guide. NRAES-35. North-east Regional Agricultural Engineering Service.Ithaca, NY. 189 p.Available for $45 (NY residents add 8% sales tax)plus $5.50 shipping from:

Publications Distribution CenterThe Pennsylvania State University112 Agricultural Administration Build

ingUniversity Park, PA 16802-2602Ithaca, NY 14853(814) 865-6713Fax: 814-863-5560E-mail: AgPubsDist@psu.eduCode Number: NRAES-35

American Fruit GrowerMeister Publishing Company37733 Euclid Avenue440-942-2000Fax: 440-942-0662Willoughby, OH 44094

Published monthly, $15.95 per year.

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITSPAGE 18

Northland Berry News595 Grand Ave.St. Paul, MN 55102-3674651/265-3413Fax: 651/292-9699E-mail: subscriptions@berrynews.comhttp://www.berrynews.com/index.html

Quarterly, $20 per year or $35 for two years.

Small Fruit News of Central New York3288 Main St.Mexico, NY 131154315-963-7286

Monthly, $35/year.

Fruit Growers News343 South Union StreetP.O. Box 128Sparta, MI 49345

Phone: 616-887-9008Fax: 616-887-2666E-mail:gap@i2k.net

http://www.fruitgrowersnews.com/Subscription cost is $11.00 per year or $28for 3 years. Some articles available online.

Electronic Resources:

Ohio State University Extension Web sitehttp://ohioline.osu.edu/lines/fruit.html#FRU.6

University of California Fruit & Nut Researchand Information Center

http://fruitsandnuts.ucdavis.edu/rasp.html

Small fruit production information index. NorthCarolina State University

http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/smfruit-index.html

Greenhouse Raspberries, by Marvin Pritts.http://www.hort.cornell.edu/department/faculty/pritts/Greenhouse/Frontpage.htm

Northwest Berry and Grape Information Net-work. A joint effort of Washington State, OregonState, and Idaho Universities

http://osu.orst.edu/dept/infonet/

Small fruit strategies after a disaster. VirginiaCooperative Extension.

http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/disaster/490-316/490-316.html

Raspberry Production Summary 2002. CornellUniversity Extension.

http://www.hort.cornell.edu/extensioncommercial/fruit/Newsletters/Raspjo1.htm

Disease and Insect Control Programs for HomeGrown Fruit in Kentucky Including Organic Al-ternatives. 2001. University of Kentucky Coop-erative Extension Service.

http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/id/id21/id21.htm

Southern Region Small Fruit Center Web site. Ajoint effort of Clemson University, the Univer-sity of Georgia, and North Carolina State Uni-versity.

http://www.smallfruits.org/

Berry Growers’ Associations

Minnesota Fruit & Vegetable Growers Assn.Marilyn Johnson15125 W Vermilion Circle, NEHam Lake, MN 55304Phone: 763-434-0400Fax: 763-413-9585

New York State Berry Growers AssociationJames C. Altemus14 State St.Blooomfield, NY 14469Phone: 716-657-5328Fax: 716-657-4642E-mail: goodberries@aol.comhttp://www.hort.cornell.edu/grower/nybga/

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITS PAGE 19

Original publication by Guy K. AmesJune 2000

Updated by George L. Kuepper, HollyBorn, & Janet BachmannNCAT Agriculture Specialists

Edited by David Zodrow andPaul WilliamsFormatted by Ashley D. Hill

The electronic version of Organic Culture ofBramble Fruits is located at:

HTMLhttp://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/bramble.htmlPDFhttp://www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/sbramble.pdf

IP022 / Slot 31

North American Bramble GrowersRichard Fagan, Executive Secty.13006 Mason Rd., NECumberland, MD 21502Phone: 301-724-4085Fax: 301-724-3020E-mail: rfagan@mindspring.comhttp://www.hort.cornell.edu/grower/nabga/index.html

Oregon Raspberry & Blackberry Commission4845 B SW Dresden Ave.Corvallis, OR 97333Phone: 541-758-4043Fax: 541-58-4553E-mail: berries@oregon-berries.comhttp://www.oregon-berries.com/

Washington Red Raspberry Commission1333 Lincoln St., Suite 182Bellingham, WA 98226Phone: 360-354-8767Fax: 360-354-0948E-mail: WAredberry@aol.comhttp://www.red-raspberry.org/

//ORGANIC CULTURE OF BRAMBLE FRUITSPAGE 20

photos© ARS 2003