ordered mesoporous carbon and its applications for

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Ordered Mesoporous Carbon and Its Applications for Electrochemical Energy Storage and

Conversion

Ali Eftekhari a,b,*, Zhaoyang Fan c,*

a The Engineering Research Institute, Ulster University, Newtownabbey BT37 OQB, United

Kingdom

b School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Queen's University Belfast, Stranmillis Road,

Belfast BT7 1NN, United Kingdom

c Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering and Nano Tech Center, Texas Tech University,

Lubbock, Texas 79409, USA

Abstract

Ordered mesoporous carbon (OMC) is a flexible material providing interconnected channels for the

diffusion of electroactive species in electrochemical systems. This is a unique feature, which

distinguishes OMC from other types of carbonaceous materials including mesoporous carbon (MC).

The potentials of OMC in electrochemical systems have been overshadowed by the vague

terminology of this class of mesoporous materials. Despite the ordered structure of mesopores, the

electrochemistry of OMC is not straightforward. This manuscript reviews the opportunities

experimentally presented for employing OMC in various electrochemical power sources such as

ultracapacitors, supercapacitors, battery systems, fuel cells, and electrochemical hydrogen storage.

The aim is to highlight the potentials and critical issues. For instance, the graphitization of OMC is

of particular importance, as ordered alignment of π electrons can be beneficial for charge transfer;

while the mesopore edges can resemble the peculiar properties of graphene edges.

Keywords: Ordered mesoporous carbon; supercapacitor, lithium-ion battery, lithium-air battery,

lithium-sulfur battery, fuel cell

Email: [email protected]; Email: [email protected]

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1. Introduction

Owing to its unique flexibility in forming nanostructures, carbon has found a central role in the

realm of nanotechnology, with fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and graphene as the landmark

discoveries [1]. A new member of this family is ordered mesoporous carbon (OMC), which has

recently attracted considerable attention.

On the other hand, porous carbon materials, although not so exciting, has a much longer practical

application history. With their remarkable physicochemical properties, including large specific

surface area (SSA) and pore volume, high corrosion resistance, good thermal and mechanical

stability, and further considering their easy manufacturing and precursor earth abundance, porous

carbon has been employed in various applications. These include water and air filtration, as

catalysts or catalyst supports, gas storage host, and electrochemical energy storage and conversion.

It is still a dominant characteristic material for such applications.

According to the IUPAC classification of porosity, micropores are < 2 nm, mesopores 2–50 nm,

and macropores > 50 nm. Traditional porous carbon materials, including activated carbons and

carbon molecular sieves, are commonly synthesized in a pyrolysis process with appropriate carbon

precursors such as coal, polymers, and carbides, with the activation through potassium hydroxide [2]

or selective etching of metal ions in carbides by halogen gasses [3]. Associated with these

micropore-dominated carbon materials are drawbacks that include slow mass transport in the

micropores, low electrical conductivity resulted from abundant surface groups and defects, and

porous structure collapse at high-temperature, among others.

From the consideration of molecules diffusion and electrolyte ions transportation, mesoporous

carbon (MC), those dominated with 2-50 nm mesopores, are more interesting, since microspores

might not be easily accessible by these species, while macropores are simply too large leading to a

reduced SSA. Therefore, MC was subsequently developed through a variety of strategies [4-9].

These MC materials have a broad pore-size distribution without structural ordering (or symmetry).

Indeed, MC is a general category according to the physical porosity and does not necessarily

represent the same geometrical structure. Mesoporosity of carbon in the form of nanostructured

texture obviously increases the specific surface area. Of course, the disordered pores are

unpredictable in electrochemical performance, as the pores are not necessarily electrochemically

accessible.

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OMC certainly can be regarded as a natural evolution from MC when constraints of narrow pore

size distribution with ordered pore positions are applied. Strictly speaking, if a perfect ordering is

defined for a specific pore size on a macro-scale, such OMC will belong to the category of

superlattice or meta-materials with unique properties due to its 2D or 3D periodical structure

resulting in quantization of wave vectors (i.e., dramatically different from MC with random pore

size and random pore position). However, from a practical point of view in electrochemistry,

neither a perfect pore ordering nor the same pore size is necessary. OMC, with either a non-perfect

ordering or a non-uniform pore size, due to the easier fabrication and control, is under active

investigation for much better performance in many applications that traditionally employ MC or

porous carbon. This is particularly true for electrochemical energy conversion and storage. The

explosive increase in the number of papers published in the very recent few years witnesses the

research interest in this field.

In this review, we will first summarize the synthesis methods and novel OMC properties, and then

focus on its applications for electrochemical energy conversion and storage, including

supercapacitors, lithium-ion batteries (LIB), other emerging rechargeable batteries, and others.

2. Ordered Mesoporous Carbon: Synthesis and Properties

2.1. From Mesoporous Carbon to Ordered Mesoporous Carbon

Mesoporous carbons could be synthesized by different methods, such as catalytic activation of

carbon precursor using metal-containing species [9-10], carbonization the blends of one

thermosetting precursor and one thermally unstable polymer [7], and carbonization of organic

aerogels [11]. The produced mesopores from these methods generally have a broad size distribution.

They also introduce a lot of micropores. Well-controlled pore size distribution through template

method, therefore, became more interesting.

The story started by attempts for utilizing silica gel as the template for the preparation of

carbonaceous materials. In the 1980s, synthesis of MC was investigated by impregnating phenol-

hexamine mixture as carbon precursor into silica gel as a template [12]. Owing to the spacious

structure of silica gel, carbon precursor can be easily inserted. Upon completing the carbonization

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process, the silica template then can be easily removed. Although the resulted MC has no structural

ordering (symmetry), this effort provided the strategy of template-guided OMC synthesis, as long

as an ordered template with suitable dimensions is available. Liquid crystals provide an ordered

structure with the mobility of liquid, which can be used as mesoporous templates. This feature was

utilized in 1992 to fabricate mesoporous molecular sieves [13-14] and led to the birth of an

interesting family of ordered mesoporous materials with crystal-like symmetries. Carbon is usually

a pioneer in forming new nanostructures, but cannot be synthesized chemically in liquid through the

liquid crystal template. Hence, OMC is synthesized by utilizing the mesoporous silica templates

originally prepared by the liquid crystal template [15-17]. For about two decades started in the

1980s [12,18-19], various silica and zeolite templates were utilized for the preparation of MC. The

birth of OMC did not happen until 1999 when cubic mesoporous aluminosilicate MCM-48 was

employed as the hard template [15,20], thus creating a new nanocarbon structure with symmetry.

Currently, OMC that has a very narrow pore-size distribution with periodical structural ordering are

synthesized using a template. Depending on the template used, the OMC synthesis can be

differentiated into two categories: hard-templating based (impregnation and etching back) and soft-

templating based (direct synthesis). Their major differences are illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Schematic comparing a) hard-template based and b) soft-template based synthesis

strategies. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[19]. Copyright 2006, Wiley-VCH.

2.2. OMC Synthesis: Hard-Template Based

In this strategy, an order mesoporous solid template is applied as the mold for the negative

replication of OMCs. The pore size control and symmetric ordering are simply determined by the

solid template and do not rely on the interaction between the carbon precursor and the template.

The development of hard-template based OMCs was comprehensively reviewed by Dai et al. [4]. In

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this hard-templating synthesis strategy [19], a preformed hard template, particularly that silica

based ordered mesoporous structures are used, and carbon precursors are impregnated into the pore

volume. After carbonization, the hard template is etched away, leaving the negatively replicated

OMC. That is, the interconnected pore space in the template is transferred into the continuous

framework of OMC, while the volume once occupied by the template material becomes mesopores

in OMCs. 3D interconnected porous structure of the template is generally considered to be

necessary for this process. The success of using SBA-15 silica mesoporous molecular sieve as a

template, which has a cylindrical pore structure, is due to the existence of interconnecting

micropores in the sidewalls. It is worth mentioning that, in addition to the solution-based

impregnation to fill the precursor into the pore volume of the template, chemical vapor deposition

was also capable of filling the pore volume.

Template candidates: Silica-based order mesoporous structures such as MCM, SBA, FDU, MSU-H,

and HMS series have contributed to the synthesis of a variety of the OMC structures such as cubic

structures with several symmetries, face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic, and 2D hexagonal

structure. There are also some efforts focusing on the use of as-synthesized ordered structures of

colloid nanoparticles (NP) as the hard templates. The OMC pore size now is primarily determined

by the NP size, and therefore, the pore size can be easily adjusted in a large range [21]. Silica NPs,

polymer beads such as polystyrene spheres and others can be used. Iron oxide NPs are interesting

[22] since iron can catalytically induce graphitization at lower temperatures (< 1000 °C) [23].

The key advantage of silica-based templates is the highly ordered architecture of the mesopores, but

a key disadvantage is the essential requirement of acid treatment for the template removal. The

strong acid treatment does affect the carbon surface and its functionality. Although the defects

formed might be useful in the electrochemical system, the material ordered architecture is lost at the

atomic scale. Other templates such as MgO has also been introduced [24-26], which can be

removed with a light acid treatment, but the uniformity of the mesopores is not at the level of silica-

based templates. However, another considerable advantage of such templates is a practical

feasibility for scaling up the material production.

Carbon precursors: During the high-temperature carbonization and graphitization process, the

molecular structure of the precursor will determine the shrinkage of the structural frame and the

possibility of micropore generation in the frame, and therefore, the morphology and SSA of the

OMC formed. Commonly applied precursors can be categorized into those with loose molecular

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structures such as sugar, sucrose and furfuryl alcohol, and those with dense aromatic structures such

as pitch, pyrene, polyacrylonitrile, and acenaphthene. Using the latter category of precursors, the

OMC could replicate the reverse image of the hard templates with minimum framework shrinkage,

high mechanical strength, and negligible microporosity. In contrast, if precursors with loose

structure are applied, framework shrinkage will increase the mesopore size, and particularly

micropores will be generated in the framework, leading to bimodal pore-size distribution and larger

SSA. When an SBA-15 silica template is used, micropores in the OMC can also be produced due to

the micropores in the pore walls of the template [27-28].

Although silica is an ideal template for the preparation of OMC, template removal is time-

consuming and somehow destructive to achieve complete removal of silica. Other mesoporous

templates can have some advantages. For instance, electroactive materials are excellent templates if

the target application of OMC is in electrochemical systems. For instance, mesoporous nickel oxide,

which is an electroactive material for supercapacitors, have been successfully utilized to prepare

OMC [29].

With the sacrifice of the template used, this hard-template based strategy has its intrinsic limitation

on cost. However, it does have several prominent advantages. The impregnation mechanism offers

a relatively facile process to precisely replicate the negative image of the hard template, and the

nature of the hard template ensures the pyrolysis process causing less damage on the structure

regularity and ordering. Another prominent merit of this method is easier graphitization of the

OMC formed within the hard template.

2.3. OMC Synthesis: Soft-Template Based

Instead of sacrificing the template by etching it away, it is possible to directly synthesize OMC by

self-assembling a block copolymer surfactant and carbon precursor [4,30-34]. The advantage of this

method is the absence of template removal step, which is somewhat destructive. The OMC with

mesopores in the range of 3–7 nm can be easily synthesized by this method. The interaction

between the carbon precursor and the surfactant, which drives the self-assembly of the soft template,

determines the pore structure. This strategy is rooted in the pioneering work on the M41S family

silica materials [13]. The association of surfactant micelles with the precursor through a weak

interaction, such as hydrogen bonds, leads to the polycondensation of the precursor. The self-

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assembly of the composite micelles yields an ordered mesostructured. The removal of the soft

template and further carbonization of the remaining precursor polymer yields the OMC with a

defined symmetry and pore size.

Since the early report of the soft-templated OMCs by a stepwise assembly approach [30], great

progress has been made to synthesize OMCs using this method, as has been comprehensively

reviewed by the Yuan’s group [35]. A variety of OMCs were synthesized in the forms of spheres

[36], rhomb dodecahedron [37], wires [38] and ribbons [39], films [30], or monoliths [40]. The

strategy, through the supramolecular assembly of the soft surfactant templates, can be accomplished

by an evaporation-induced self-assembly (EISA) or hydrothermal process. The EISA of a block

copolymer and resols is a facile approach with flexibility since it can separate the cross-linking and

thermo-polymerization process of the resols from the self-assembling process. The ordered

mesostructure is formed on the solvent evaporating surface, and therefore, the OMC films could be

produced. Different OMCs with 2D hexagonal, lamellar, 3D bicontinuous, body-centered cubic,

and other structures have been prepared using this route [41]. Using water to replace the organic

solvents is an alternation [42], in which the surfactant-driven self-assembly and carbon precursor

polymerization occur in a cooperative process. Such an aqueous route offers better reproducibility

and suitable for large scale production. The hydrothermal process was also reported to fabricate

OMCs [36,40].

Direct synthesis with surfactant recycling provides the opportunity for a large-scale production. The

challenge of this strategy is that currently available options of the soft templates is mainly limited to

block copolymers and the precursor to phenolic resin. The block copolymer limits the minimum

pore size to ca. 3 nm. Smaller amphiphilic molecules as templates should be explored for smaller

pore size.

Comparing the OMCs synthesized from these two strategies, the soft-template OMCs have thick

pore walls with a continuous framework, thus, offer stability in harsh thermal and oxidation

treatment for functionalization. However, the hard-template OMCs is much easier to be graphitized,

while it is difficult for the soft-template OMCs.

The morphology of the OMCs (including specific surface area, pore size, and volume) can be

altered by post-synthesis modification. KOH activation is a common method industrially employed

for generating the micropores in activated carbon [2,43-45]. Depending on the activation conditions

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(temperature, concentration, etc.), micropores generated can merge into each other to form

mesopores or create microporosity texture. In the latter case, micropores can build shortcut bridges

between mesopores, which can be beneficial for electrochemical performance [46]. This method of

activation can double the specific surface area of OMC.

2.4. Graphitization of OMC

It is sometimes wrongfully addressed that OMC is not a graphitic material. Considering the fact that

amorphous carbon is actually a form of disordered graphite, these types of carbonaceous materials

are always graphitic with different degrees of graphitization, which is usually judged by the D and

G bands in Raman spectroscopy. From a practical perspective, the OMCs with higher graphitization

degree are better for various applications. This is particularly true for the electrocatalyst and

electrode applications in which higher electrical conductivity critically depends on the degree of

graphitization [47]. Thus, there is a demand for increasing the degree of graphitization of the OMCs.

Low-temperature carbonization offers well-ordered structure, but with an amorphous or low degree

of graphitization framework. Post-synthesis thermal treatment [48], particularly if conducted at a

high temperature (> 2000 °C) will induce significant graphitization, but resulting in a lower degree

of ordering with broad pore-size distribution. Carbon precursors with rich fused aromatic structures

such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons or aromatic molecules [23,49-54] are better than those with

loose molecular structures since the former can be graphitized at much lower temperatures,

particularly when the iron-based catalyst is incorporated [27,55]. CVD growth at a temperature

higher than 900 °C is another option [56], leading to the formation of graphitic OMCs [56-59]. In

almost all methods, the reaction or treatment is conducted at a high temperature where carbon

atoms have enough energy to arrange or re-arrange themselves into the graphitic hexagonal form

[60]. The temperature could be lowered in the presence of catalytic species, particularly iron-based

nanomaterials.

A simple and effective approach is carbonization of metal phthalocyanines within an SBA-15

template [59]. However, this method is not practical because of the high cost of phthalocyanines. It

has been reported that phthalocyanine can be replaced by natural fat as the carbon feedstock in the

same template system to produce the OMCs with graphitic walls at relatively low temperature [61].

A new approach is to utilize a triblock-copolymer template, which results in the formation of highly

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graphitic OMCs while the mesopore size is strongly tunable in the range of ca. 3 – 40 nm [30-

31,62-63].

Graphitization of OMC is of particular importance in electrochemical systems, as increases the

electrical conductivity, which is indeed a major requirement to reduce the charge transfer resistance.

In the lack of appropriate graphitic conductivity, the electrical conductivity of OMC should be

improved by some conductive agents such as graphene or metals to achieve required conductivity

for electrochemical performance [64-73].

2.5. OMC with Graphene Wall

Graphene foam has been developed in the recent studies of graphene-based electrode applications.

Chemically-derived individual reduced graphene oxide sheets, with a sub-micrometer size, can be

assembled into a foam structure through freeze-drying or similar methods [74-76]. Such a graphene

foam has irregular pore distribution, and particularly, they do not form an intimately connected

network. Direct growth of multilayered graphene (MLG) inside of a 3D metal frame resulted in

macro-pores of a few hundred micrometers in diameter by the metal foam template [77]. Both are

not the optimized electrode structures when compared to the graphitized OMC structure with

graphene wall.

The OMC with graphene wall is a variation of graphitized OMC when the highly graphitized pore

wall is thinned down to a few atomic layers. The soft-template based method will not provide the

high degree of graphitization and therefore unsuitable for producing the graphitized OMC; while

for the hard templates, in order to obtain pore walls of graphitized OMC down to several atomic

layers, the void space in the hard templates should be thin enough. Furthermore, the high degree of

pore ordering and graphitization demand a catalytic graphitization process at a moderate

temperature.

Jang et al. [78] reported the growth of mesoporous graphene balls (MGBs) using a drop-casted

polystyrene bead (PS) as a template. As illustrated in Figure 2a, carboxylated PS was synthesized

via emulsion polymerization and then sulfurized to obtain SPS-COOH, which can strongly absorb

iron ions (Fe3+) when emerged in the FeCl3 solution. Using the drop-casted beads as a template and

precursor, the sample was annealed in H2/Ar environment to catalytically promote the graphene ball

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growth. Thus, the resulting graphene balls have a diameter similar to that of the functionalized PS

beads, but etching away the Fe from the sphere walls will form the MGBs, as shown by the

transmission electron microscopic (TEM) images in Figure 2b,c. Due to the irregular distribution of

the PS beads in the template, the synthesized MGBs did not form an ordered 3D macrostructure.

Figure 2. a) Schematic of MGB synthesis from drop-casting functionalized beads/FeCl3 solution, to

thermal annealing for graphene growth, and etching away Fe domain to obtain MGB. b,c) TEM

images of MGB. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[78]. Copyright 2013, American Chemical

Society.

Dong et al.[22,79] took one step further to synthesize the graphene OMCs with superlattice

symmetry. In their works, the Fe3O4 colloidal NPs formed a superlattice structure, which was

employed as both template and catalyst. Using oleic acid (OA) capped Fe3O4 colloidal nanocrystals

(NC), a 3D superlattice was self-assembled and followed by the carbonization/graphitization of the

OA ligands at 500 °C in the presence of an iron catalyst. The partially-graphitized OMC after the

NC removal is shown in Figure 3a,b. Further heat treatment at 1000°C results in the formation of

multilayered graphene as pore wall (Figure 3c,d). The resulting graphitized OMC exhibits a long-

range highly-ordered superlattice symmetry, replicated from the template.

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Figure 3. a) Schematic of the OMG synthesis from colloidal Fe3O4 NPs. b,c) TEM images of the as-

synthesized OMC superlattice after catalytic carbonization at 500 oC with fcc symmetry. d,e) TEM

images of OMG after further graphitized at 1000 oC, imaged for (111) plane. Reproduced with

permission from Ref.[22]. Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH.

Huang’s group [80] employed SBA-15 as a template and poly furfuryl alcohol (PFA) as a precursor

to synthesize a graphitized OMC. Figure 4 demonstrates the synthesis procedure. First, an

impregnated template if formed by depositing the Ni agent within the silica template, then the N-

doped ordered mesoporous with walls made of few-layer carbon are built within the template in a

CVD process. The final step is the removal of the template and the metallic catalyst.

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Figure 4. a) Schematic to synthesize nitrogen doped OMG. b) Low-angle x-ray diffraction patterns

of the synthesized sample with or without N-doping, showing the characteristic peaks of hexagonal

packing. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[80]. Copyright 2015, American Association for the

Advancement of Science.

2.6. Graphene Edge-Oriented Pore Walls

For these highly graphitized OMCs, the graphite basal plane is generally exposed as the pore wall

surface. In electrochemical systems, the graphite basal plane is far less attractive than the edges.

Ideal graphene is not an interesting material in term of electrochemical reactions due to the high

ratio of the basal plan to edges, and particularly flatness of the hexagonal network of carbon atoms

in which the sp2 hybrid is not very reactive [81]. The later is somehow shielded by the π electrons

avoiding direct adsorption at carbon atoms. It is known that the edge plane of highly oriented

pyrolytic graphite has an electrochemical reactivity several orders of magnitude higher than its

basal plane due to a large amount of defects, such as kinks, steps, and vacancies, at the edge that

produce a high density of defect states near the Fermi level [82]. These atomic edges or steps are

the potential adsorption sites of redox species in the electrolyte and sites of electron transfer. The

edge planes can also provide electrical double layer capacitance of 50 to 70 mF cm-2 in comparison

with that of basal planes, which provide a capacitance of only ~3 mF cm-2 [83]. The edge-oriented

multilayered graphene flakes have been investigated for a variety of electrochemical applications

[84-87]. Therefore, it is highly desirable to synthesize the OMCs with exposed graphene edges.

Using Al-incorporated silica templates and various aromatic compounds as a precursor in an

autoclave process, followed by further graphitization at high temperatures, Ryoo's group [55]

demonstrated a unique CMK-3 OMC with graphitic framework structures through in situ

conversion of the aromatic compounds to mesophase pitch inside the silica templates. The degree of

graphitization of OMC can be at the level of multi-walled carbon nanotubes or multiple-layer

graphene. A striking feature is that the hexagonal arrays of carbon nanorods are formed by a

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stacking of the discoid graphene sheets oriented perpendicular to the rod orientation, with the

exposed edge-on graphitic structure, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. a) Schematic of CMK-3G OMG consisting of hexagonal arrays of carbon nanorods, while

the nanorods is formed by a stacking of the discoid graphene sheets oriented perpendicular to the rod

orientation. b) TEM images of CMK-3G showing the rod array. c) TEM images showing the stacked

discoid graphene sheets. The inset is the corresponding electron diffraction pattern. Reproduced with

permission from Ref.[83]. Copyright 1971, The Electrochemical Society.

Utilizing nickel foam [88] or cellulose paper [89] as a template, Ren et al. deposited edge-oriented

multiple-layer graphene porous structure in a plasma CVD process and the template can be

removed [90]. Since the template used has large pores without ordering, the edge-oriented graphene

porous structure thus produced does not belong to the category of graphitized OMC. However, if

suitable templates are used, such a plasma CVD process may provide a viable approach for

producing edge-oriented graphitized OMC.

In general, there are various methods to enhance the degree of graphitization of the OMCs to align

the π electrons along the ordered architecture, and it is still an active area of research. However, our

knowledge about the arrangement of graphene hexagons across the mesopores is very limited. In

the graphene structure, edge atoms have anomalous electronic properties resulting in different

electrochemical performance. However, the actual atomic structure of the edges of OMC mesopores

is not fully understood.

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3. OMC in Electrochemical Systems

3.1. Electrochemistry of OMC

A comparative study revealed that the electrochemical activity of the OMC is higher than that of

graphene, which is a popular material in the realm of electrochemistry [91]. In a sense, the OMC is

considered as an alternative to the classical microporous carbon materials which have been

commercially available for decades. Therefore, the goal of the OMC production is to achieve the

highest possible specific surface area, but this is not the main requirement in the electrochemical

systems. Microporous carbonaceous materials have an extremely high specific surface area, but

micropores are too small for the diffusion of electroactive species. Since mesopores well fit with the

size of diffusing species, the OMC has attracted considerable attention in the realm of

electrochemistry. However, the common standpoint was to employ the OMC as a high surface area

carbon. This is the reason that the majority of electrochemical studies of the OMC are focused on

supercapacitors [92-104] or sensors [105].

The characteristic feature of the OMC in electrochemical systems is the possibility of fast diffusion

through the solid electroactive material. Unfortunately, our understanding of the electrochemistry of

OMC is very limited, as fewer efforts have been paid to this important issue. There is a similar

situation about electrochemistry of graphene because graphene is not as simple as the flat hexagonal

network of carbon atoms imagined [106-108]. Instead, graphene is full of chemical and physical

irregularities which can substantially change the electrochemical process. This misleading comes

from the straightforward structure of ideal graphene, but OMC chemical irregularities are too

complicated even for an ideal structure.

The arrangement of carbon atoms at the mesopore edges is indeed a mystery, particularly as the

graphitization level of OMC is not absolute or uniform. Similar to graphene, electrochemistry at the

mesopore edges is completely different from that on internal walls of mesopores. A key difference

is that edges and dangling atoms in graphene are chemically preferred sites; but in OMC, the

mesopore edges are even physically preferred to initiate the electrochemical reactions, as they are

more accessible.

Since carbonaceous nanomaterials are subject to chemical treatment resulting in severe structural

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changes, their electrochemistry cannot be easily judged. For instance, it was claimed that a majority

of electrochemical activity of graphene samples are due to the defects formed during the post-

treatment rather than the original graphene structure [109-110]. This phenomenon is more

complicated for OMC, as the template removal is at the atomic scale. In other words, not only the

chemical treatment but also the carbon template interactions can result in peculiar defects.

Electrochemistry within the OMC matrix is probably different from that on other carbonaceous

nanomaterials and far from fully understood. For instance, double layer capacitance is a

straightforward phenomenon with least electrochemical complexity, but the specific capacitance of

OMC within its silica template is similar to that after template removal [111].

3.2. Micropores within Macroporous Structure

Internal accessibility of mesopores is not the only factor in electrochemical performance, as

electroactive species should reach the mesopores regularly. Since the rate-determining step in most

electrochemical systems is the diffusion process, it is vitally important to facilitate a fast diffusion

of electroactive species to keep them ready for the insertion into the mesopores. Note that the

charge transfer resistance for a conductive carbon with a high specific surface area is not normally

the rate-determining step. This macrostructure of mesoporous carbon is of particular importance for

the electrochemical systems. Ordered hierarchical mesoporous/macroporous carbon display good

performance in electrochemical systems, as the ordered macropores facilitate fast diffusion through

the electrolyte to mesopores [112]. Figure 6 shows the ordered structure at two different scales of

such carbonaceous materials.

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Figure 6. SEM and TEM images of the Ordered hierarchical mesoporous/macroporous carbon at

different scales. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[112]. Copyright 2013, Wiley-VCH.

Figure 7 displays how a macroporous structure can be created by mesoporous building blocks. Such

two-level porous carbon has been prepared with different methods [113]. A simple idea is to use

two different templates for the formation of macropores and mesopores simultaneously. For

instance, polystyrene is known as a good template for the formation of macropores; introducing

silica nanoparticles creates mesopores throughout the walls of macroporous carbon synthesized

[114].

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Figure 7. An illustration for designing carbon-supported Pt electrocatalyst with

macroporous/mesoporous architecture. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[113]. Copyright 2015,

Wiley-VCH.

3.3. OMC Nanocomposites

As described above, OMC is prepared to utilize mesoporous templates, which should be removed.

Depending on the properties of the template, the final material can be OMC/silica, which is indeed

a nanocomposite with potential applications. In a similar fashion, OMC can be used as the template

for the synthesis of mesoporous electroactive material; then, it is not necessary to remove the

template, as the OMC template is indeed an important component of targeted nanocomposite. This

leads to the formation of a uniformly distributed nanocomposite, which is indeed a key goal for

electroactive nanocomposites in which carbon should contribute to the electrical conductivity and

fairly separating electroactive materials to become more electrochemically accessible. OMC has

been widely used as the nanocomposite component for various electroactive materials [115].

Since the size of mesopores is too small for conducting uniform reaction therein, it is a serious

challenge to uniformly fill the mesopores with the second component. For instance, sonochemical

synthesis can result in a more uniform distribution of reactants to form the electroactive material

uniformly distributed over the OMC pores [115].

A common issue for electroactive materials is the necessity of binders to form a solid electrode.

Binders are usually electrochemically inactive and may block the diffusion of electroactive species;

besides the fact that their mass reduces the specific energy and power of electrochemical power

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sources. In addition to the possible chemical interaction of OMC with electroactive materials, the

interconnected architecture of OMC provides a rare opportunity for in situ preparation of

nanocomposites in which the electroactive material is entangled through the OMC scaffold [116-

117].

While OMC mesopores can serve as local tubes for the formation of an electroactive material,

micropores are too small and will be blocked by the resulting material for electrochemical

performance [118]. This blockage is not necessarily physical filling, as mesopores are also filled

with the electroactive material, but its lattice network is still large enough to allow solid-state

diffusion. This feature is not limited to OMC, and 3D MCs with larger mesopores are indeed good

matrix for the formation of electroactive materials [119].

4. OMC in Electrochemical Energy Storage

4.1. OMC for Ultracapacitors (Double Layer Capacitors)

High surface area carbon has always been the first choice for double layer capacitors (aka

ultracapacitors). It is not difficult to prepare a carbon with an extremely high surface area, but not

all the surface area is electrochemically accessible. Thus, most carbon-based ultracapacitors have

specific capacitance below their theoretical capacities. OMC can provide an ordered matrix for the

interfacial interaction with charged ions within the electrolyte solution. However, the limitation is

the size of mesopores. If they are too small, ions cannot freely diffuse therein, and if too large, the

specific surface area is low. In fact, the mesopores should be tuned for a specific ultracapacitor

depending on the size, charge, and structure of the electroactive species forming the double layer

[120]. Gogotsi and Simon have elaborated that dependency of specific capacitance of OMC on pore

size [121]. In general, OMC with sufficiently large pores has a specific surface area around 1,000

m2/g, resulting in specific capacitance comparable with other types of carbon [64,122-123].

However, the capacitive behavior of OMC is not straightforward as the nature of double layer

within the mesopores is still ambiguous. Different values have been reported for the specific

capacitance of similar OMCs. It has been explained that the synthesis conditions and post-treatment

have huge impacts on the electrochemical performance of OMC [124].

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Highly ordered single crystals of mesoporous carbon show excellent electrochemical performance

for ultracapacitors [125]. The large crystalline particles dictate that the electrochemical process is

conducted through the particle matrix rather than the external interface (Figure 8). Although it is not

entirely a solid-state system because electrolytes are soaked within the mesopores, the

electrochemical performance relies on diffusion through interconnected pores. This clearly indicates

that internal mesopores are responsible for the high specific capacitance achieved (281 F g–1 at 0.5

A g–1 in a 6 M KOH electrolyte) rather than having high surface area because of smaller particles.

The importance of this feature is because of the essential requirement of the electroactive packing

within the electrode structure. It seems that larger particles, which are of practical interest, with

mesoporosity, can provide a large electrochemically accessible area. However, it should be taken

into account that the cyclic voltammetric behavior indicates that the system is not purely capacitive.

In addition to the complicated pseudocapacitive contribution, the solid-state diffusion is a rate-

determining step when the electrochemically accessible area is mostly spread through the internal

mesoporosity.

Figure 8. (a-h) SEM and TEM images of an N-doped OMC with Im3m symmetry and rhombic

dodecahedral single crystal morphology. (i) Cyclic voltammograms and (j) charge/discharge profiles

of the N-doped OMC as an ultracapacitor. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[125]. Copyright

2015, Royal Society of Chemistry.

The best capacitive behavior of OMC is obtained when the degree of graphitization is maximum

[126-127]. Since graphene basal plane is not electrochemically active [109-110], the formation of

graphitic walls along the 001 direction assists charge transfer between the electrode/electrolyte

interface and the current collector. Furthermore, the shape and structure of the double layer over the

basal plane of graphene is different from those on amorphous walls of mesopores.

The unique feature of OMC is its translational symmetry of its unit cell, but the internal structure of

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the unit cell of mesopores can have a rough texture. Although micropores are too small for long

diffusion of electroactive species, the presence of microporous texture on the walls of mesopores

can be beneficial for ultracapacitor performance as far as they are accessible [128-129].

Highly ordered nanofibers of OMC provide an architecture for more effective diffusion of the

electroactive species across the electrode matrix. OMC nanofibers display a well-defined capacitive

behavior [130]. On the other hand, as the nanofibers can be prepared by an AAO hard template, it is

possible to directly grow them on the current collector, which is in favor of the overall electrical

conductivity and suitable for high-power micro-supercapacitors [131]. The hollow structure can

provide a better accessibility of the mesopores from both sides, and the specific capacitance of a

fibrous-structured hollow OMC has been reported to be very high (359 F g–1), and particularly an

extremely large power density (10 kW kg–1) in a 6 M KOH electrolyte [132].

In a similar fashion, OMC can be directly synthesized on a polymer substrate to form a flexible film

[133]. It is a general demand to make the electrochemical cells flexible for wearable electronics,

which is realistic by the development of gel electrolytes; however, electrode materials are usually

fragile, and the main obstacle still exists in this direction.

The superiority of OMC for supercapacitors is not limited to its high surface area. It is well known

that purely double layer capacitor based on the carbonaceous material is not realistic, as there are

always some faradaic redox reactions. This is preliminary because of the functional groups formed

or adsorbed on the active surface of the carbon. This behavior is more studied for the functional

groups on graphene, particularly chemically-derived reduced graphene oxide [134-136], but similar

mechanisms are also applied to surface-modified OMC. The presence of various functional groups

can significantly alter the electrochemical performance of OMC [137]. Chemical treatment or

activation of OMC results in the formation of such functional groups, which are responsible for part

of the superior ultracapacitor performance [138].

Similarly, graphene edges play particular roles in electrochemical systems, as the charge transfer

mechanism and barrier can be utterly changed through the dangling bonds at kinks, steps, and

vacancies at the edge that produce a high density of defect states near the Fermi level [139].

Therefore, the graphite edge plane offers a capacitance 20 times larger than the basal plane. This

feature can also be the case for OMC pores having sharp edges. Nevertheless, the structural

arrangement of carbon atoms in OMC has not been fully understood yet. The peculiar charge

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transfer can be controlled by the morphological structure or degree of graphitization of OMC.

Similar to the role of functional groups, doping alters the uniformity of charge distribution across

carbon atoms, and chemical reactivity to have more contributions of pseudocapacitive nature.

Nitrogen is the most common element for doping of various types of carbon, which also enhance

their electrical conductivity. It has also been widely used for the doping of OMC [140-149]. Owing

to the pseudocapacitive contribution, the specific capacitance of N-doped OMC is over 300 F g–1 in

a 1 M H2SO4 electrolyte [150].

Another important feature of doping is to enhance the wettability of OMC, which is a serious

requirement for ultracapacitors, and also other electrochemical applications. Pristine OMCs

normally have hydrophobic nature, and thus, poorly forming the electrode/electrolyte interface. N-

doping can scientifically contribute to the surface polarity of OMC, but it is not easy to dope a high

content of nitrogen. The presence of a Pluronic surfactant having a high content of oxygen in the

OMC synthesis interact with N-rich carbon precursor to decompose it. This results in deformed

mesostructure, and thus, N-doping sacrifices the uniformity and order of OMC [151-153]. On the

other hand, simply increasing the amount of nitrogen dopant is not beneficial for the ultracapacitor

performance. Although nitrogen doping generally increases the electrical conductivity of carbon

because of a higher charge/electron carrier mobility [154-155], too much N can increase the

interfacial resistance too [156]. Moreover, the pseudocapacitive process contributed by the N

presence can blocks the original double layer capacitance (because the electrode surface does not

have a uniform charge distribution for the formation of the classic Helmholtz layer), resulting in a

lesser overall specific capacitance. A comparative study showed that the optimum amount of N

doping for an OMC ultracapacitor is about 6% [156].

In any case, N-doping can significantly improve the specific capacitance of OMC-based

ultracapacitors [154,157-163]. The surface of mesoporous silica template plays a substantial role in

the chemical structure of OMC, as can results in the formation N-rich surface having significant

redox system. This significantly improves the electrochemical performance [157]. The presence of

N adatoms and surface groups paves the path for new faradaic reactions, which can contribute to the

pseudocapacitive performance, e.g., by facilitating H insertion [164]. The specific capacitance of an

OMC-based ultracapacitor can be directly increased by increasing the presence of nitrogen while

the presence of oxygen functional groups has a slight influence [165].

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Although the role of N dopant is to cause chemical inhomogeneity, its influence depends on the

OMC architecture too. This effect is extremely higher for a 3D architecture of OMC (e.g., FDU-16),

as the specific capacitance is increased 7 times by N-doping [166]. While the original FDU-16

OMC is not considered as a promising material for ultracapacitors, N-doped FDU-16 OMC is

among the best candidates. The cyclability is impressive, as the specific capacitance is actually

increasing during the first 10,000 cycles due to the structural rearrangement opening new channels

for diffusion [166].

Another common dopant of carbon is boron [167]. Doping of OMC with boron also increases the

specific capacitance [168]. When substituting carbon, boron atoms are natively bonded with oxygen

atoms. The change in charge distribution across the carbon network and the oxygen functional

groups directly bonded with the OMC lattice causes a significant contribution of pseudocapacitance

in addition to the original double layer charging [169]. Nevertheless, this chemical reactivity results

in poor cyclability due to structural changes in the course of faradaic reactions [169].

While neighbor elements (B and N) just alter the uniformity of charge distribution across the carbon

network, doping with larger elements such as P can alter the morphology too resulting in substantial

changes in surface area and pore volume [170].

While hydrophilicity can improve the electrode wettability in electrochemical systems,

hydrophobicity can reduce corrosion. Doping of OMC with P increases the hydrophobicity, and

thus, protection against corrosion [171]. Sulfur functional groups can also contribute to the

pseudocapacitive behavior of OMC [172]. This also emphasizes that the influence of doping is not

only due to the presence of doping element in the carbon network (changing the charge distribution)

but also the functional groups formed on the dopant.

In fact, while the uniform architecture of OMC is beneficial for electrochemical performance,

chemical uniformity is not desirable, because chemical inhomogeneities of atoms at the

electrolyte/electrode interface facilitate charge transfer and electrochemical reaction. While gaining

the ordered structure of OMC, doping can create chemical inhomogeneity. Increasing this

inhomogeneity by multi dopants can significantly increase the specific capacitance; e.g., N/P

[170,173-174], B/P [175], N/S [176-179].

Although large surface area provides a significant double layer capacitance, the faradaic

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pseudocapacitance (or more precisely pseudocapacitive mechanism) of N-doped OMC is becoming

dominant at high dopant concentration [180]. Therefore, impedance spectroscopic spectra of N-

doped OMC represent the characteristics of faradaic systems with charge transfer semi-circle

followed by Warburg impedance.

An important issue, which is usually neglected, is the electrolyte solution. It is evident that

capacitive behavior is affected by the electroactive species due to their charge, but the influence of

size is of critical importance for OMC, as the sizes of hydrated/solvated ions are comparable with

that of mesopores. This means that some ions are larger or smaller than OMC mesopores, leading to

different capacitive behaviors [181-182].

It is worth to emphasize that nitrogen-doped nano-tubular ordered mesoporous few-layer carbon

(OMFLC) structure [80] has a large surface area (1580 m2/g), a large total pore volume (2.20 cm3

g–1), and an average pore width 2.25 nm. After composition optimization, a specific capacitance as

high as 855 F g–1 at a current density of 1 A g–1 was obtained in an aqueous solution of H2SO4

(Figure 9a,b). Ragone plot of energy vs. power densities of symmetric cells based on this material

in two different electrolytes (H2SO4 and Li2SO4) shows extraordinary performance when

comparing to other conventional batteries and supercapacitors (Figure 9c,d).

Figure 9. a) Cyclic voltammetry test and galvanostatic test of the cells using different components.

Ragone plot of specific energy vs. specific power in c) and energy density vs. power density in d) of

the cell performance, in comparision to other conventional batteries and supercapacitors. Reproduced

with permission from Ref.[80]. Copyright 2015, American Association for the Advancement of

Science.

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4.2. OMC for Pseudocapacitors

In pseudocapacitors, the so-called pseudocapacitance is the result of facile faradaic redox reactions

at the surface or sub-surface of the electroactive material. Better rate capability and

pseudocapacitive behavior are obtained when the ratio of surface reaction is significant in

comparison with the solid-state reaction. This dominance can be formed by increasing the specific

surface area; thus, a significant fraction of faradaic reaction is occurring at the surface with no need

for slow solid-state diffusion to reach the reactive redox sites, with the latter being characteristics of

charge storage in a battery.

Transition metal oxides are the common candidates for pseudocapacitors. Due to their electronic

insulating nature, carbon nanostructures are commonly used as a conductive framework for these

electroactive oxides. Increasing the specific surface area is indeed a common strategy in developing

electroactive materials for supercapacitors. High surface area nanocomposites with carbon is an

appropriate design, as nanostructured carbon can assist in distributing the electroactive material

while contributing to the electrical conductivity. In addition to common advantages of

carbonaceous nanomaterials, OMC can serve as an ideal template for the formation of

nanostructured electroactive material. Because of inter-connections of OMC pores, the electroactive

material is widely exposed to the electrolyte to shorten the diffusion paths by minimizing solid-state

diffusion [183].

OMC can chemically interact with the precursors for in situ synthesis of the electroactive

nanocomposites [184]. This is obviously accompanied by higher mechanical stability and

electrically conductivity. Owing to the mechanical stability of electroactive materials within the

OMC architecture, supercapacitors based on OMC nanocomposites shows practical cyclability over

thousands of cycles [185].

Conductive polymers are good candidates for supercapacitors, as their redox systems are normally

spread over wide ranges of potentials delivering pseudocapacitive behavior. Although diffusion

through polymer matrix is not very slow, it is still necessary to reduce the solid-state diffusion.

Interestingly, monomers can be injected within the OMC mesopores to initiate the polymerization

from within the pores [186]. Electrochemical polymerization of aniline has also been conducted

within the graphite interlayers [139]. The specific capacitance of OMC/polyaniline can be over 900

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F g-1 with an excellent cyclability over thousands of cycles in a 1 M H2SO4 electrolyte [186].

OMC/polyaniline show a good mechanical stability because of molecular interactions within the

nanocomposite matrix [187]. It has been shown that the rate capability of an OMC/polypyrrole

supercapacitor is about 50% better than pure polypyrrole [188]. OMC/PEDOT supercapacitor

showed only 14% capacity loss after 10,000 charge/discharge cycles [189].

The conductive polymer formed within the 3D meso-architecture of OMC can be the matrix for

additional electroactive materials too. The interesting feature is that all the reactants can chemically

interact for designing an in situ synthesis. For instance, polyaniline and manganese oxide directly

synthesized within OMC showed a good supercapacitor performance [190-192]. An extremely high

specific capacitance of 1668 F g–1 has been reported for ruthenium oxide/iron oxide embedded

within OMC in a 0.5 M H2SO4 electrolyte [193]. In general metal oxides embedded in OMC

display high specific capacitance [194].

It should be taken into account that the size of mesopores is somewhat comparable to the lattice size

of the electroactive material. Thus, the presence of an appropriate amount of reactants within the

mesopores is highly effective. For the case of metal oxide, the size, shape, and charge of the

reactant anion plays a substantial role in the structure and pseudocapacitive behavior of the metal

oxide formed within the OMC [118].

Comparison of 1D, 2D, and 3D OMCs made from different templates revealed that the ion mobility

significantly depends on the diffusion direction in an OMC/Fe2O3 nanocomposite. 1D architecture

showed the best rate capability in electrochemical performance, probably because of fewer

interactions between the diffusing species [195].

The presence of nitrogen heteroatoms in the structure of OMC can significantly improve the

interaction with electroactive materials resulting in enhanced specific capacitance [196].

4.3. OMC for Lithium Ion Batteries

The important roles of carbonaceous materials whether as active materials or conductive agents in

both anodes and cathodes of lithium ion batteries are evident. On the other hand, knowing the fact

that the main challenge of lithium batteries has always been related to the slow solid-state diffusion,

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the ordered interconnected channels of OMC can provide a new opportunity.

Most of the electrode materials of lithium ion batteries are poorly conductive. Carbon is a good

conductive agent, but it also blocks the Li diffusion. For instance, LiFePO4 is a promising cathode

material, but its needs a conductive agent to reach an acceptable conductivity for charge transfer

from the redox sites to the current collector. LiFePO4/OMC has been synthesized by a one-pot route

[197]. In this direction, OMC paves the path to employ novel candidates, which are not practical

standalone [198]. The 3D structure of OMC is an excellent matrix for the inclusion of electrode

materials for battery performance [199].

Synthesizing hollow OMC does not result in a high specific surface area (usually in the order of

500 m2 g–1), but as the outer structure has a better electrochemical accessibility, the material

displays a high rate capability for lithium ion batteries by reducing the struggles of Li cation in

solid-state diffusion [200-201].

The OMC scaffold provides an excellent matrix for the preparation of electroactive nanocomposites

as both anode [202-206] or cathode [197-198] materials. The majority of these nanocomposites are

prepared by in situ pore-filling approaches. In this case, the material density and mechanical

stability are high enough for practical applications.

In this direction, the OMC architecture is of key importance, as the diffusion of Li-ion is the rate-

determining step. Lithium battery performance of Sn nanoparticles embedded within an OMC with

larger pores and thinner pore walls has been reported to be better [159].

Most of OMCs are prepared based on silica templates, and the template removal can be a harmful

process. Quite interestingly, silica is a promising candidate as an anode material in lithium ion

batteries; and preparation of silica/carbon nanocomposites is an effective approach to overcome the

low electrical conductivity of silica. This suggests that the OMC and its template can be an active

anode material for lithium ion batteries [207]. In other words, this is indeed an in situ synthesis of a

highly ordered nanocomposite.

Pure OMC can be a candidate for anode material similar to other graphitic carbon nanomaterials.

However, the electrochemical performance is significantly poor in comparison with conventional

graphite in which Li can be intercalated [208]. In fact, although diffusion through mesopores is

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facilitated, intercalation within the carbon lattice is not favorable in the case of OMC.

In a similar fashion, OMC can be used as an electrode material for other metal ion batteries. For

instance, N-doped OMC has been utilized as an anode material in sodium ion battery [209].

4.4. OMC for Metal-Sulfur Batteries

Metal-sulfur batteries have recently attracted considerable attention due to their high specific

capacity resulting in an incredibly high energy density. The main challenge of this type of batteries

is the sulfur cathode. Since sulfur is non-conductive, cathode should be prepared by a conductive

agent. Like similar battery systems, carbon is the first choice as the conductive agent, and various

forms of carbon have been employed for the fabrication of Li-S cathodes [210-213]. Octasulfur

(cyclo-S8) is the common allotrope of sulfur, and its reduction into the final product of Li2S during

the discharge process is a stepwise process, producing Li2Sn (n = 4– 8) polysulfide intermediates

which are dissoluble in the electrolyte. The dissolved polysulfides shuttle between and react on the

sulfur cathode and lithium anode, resulting in a “chemical shortcut” inside the cell [214]. This

shuttle phenomenon causes irreversible loss of active materials, capacity fade, self-discharge, anode

etching, among many other detrimental effects. This is the most formidable challenges for the sulfur

cathode. Nazar and her coworkers prepared OMC/S as a promising cathode material for Li–S

batteries for the first time in 2009 [215]. The interesting feature of this idea is that sulfur can be

entrapped within the OMC structure if the pores are of the right size. This work started a new era in

developing Li-S batteries by physically trapping and chemically binding polysulfides in the cathode

matrix.

The point is that OMC provides a good permeability for the electroactive species; thus, sulfur can

be incorporated within the OMC structure [216-218]. This protects sulfur from dissolution while

electrochemically accessible. It is evident that the key challenge for improving the battery

performance of OMC/S cathodes is to control the morphology to increase the amount of sulfur

entrapment. In general, OMC particles of 200 – 500 nm with mesopores of 3 – 10 nm have shown

good battery performance with specific capacities over 1,000 mAh g–1.

The OMC scaffold can keep a high amount of sulfur, ca. over 50% therein [219]. Owing to the

mechanical stability of entanglement within the interconnected mesopores, the OMC cathode

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displays an excellent cyclability. Since sulfur is not a concrete electrode material with a rigid

structure like metal oxides, it is subject to severe dissolution. The size of OMC mesopores well fits

with the S8 structure formed therein, and thus, OMC/S cathode shows an excellent cyclability in

comparison with other carbonaceous materials [220]. However, the performance is not

straightforward in practice, as the irreversible inclusion of sulfur within microporosity of the

mesopores results in a severe capacity fading. As a matter of fact, OMC can be a good candidate as

an S electrode if its architecture is thoroughly designed.

In addition to physically entrapping of polysulfides to retard their diffusion out of the cathode, To

further protect the release of sulfur, binding these polar species chemically onto the carbon matrix is

another strategy. Since carbon itself is intrinsically non-polar with a less binding capability to the

polar polysulfides, surface functionalization of OMC, including heteroatom doping, conductive

polymer or transition metal oxides and sulfides decoration can dramatically enhance the binding

capability of OMC to polysulfides [221]. With a surface of S-embedded OMC covered by a

conductive polymer, a high specific capacity over 1,000 mAh g–1 is achieved with an acceptable

capacity retention for over 1000 cycles [222]. Using PEDOT decorated ordered mesoporous carbon

nanocube to load sulfur, Wang et al. [223] demonstrated a sulfur cathode with large capacity, long

cycling stability and high rate capability (Figure 10).

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Figure 10. (a) Schematic of PEDOT decorated mesoporous carbon nanocubes for sulfur cathode. b)

Cycling performance of at 0.5C and 5C and the corresponding Coulombic efficiencies. Reproduced

with permission from Ref.[222]. Copyright 2015, Elsevier.

4.5. OMC for Li-Air Batteries

In metal-air batteries, such as Li–O2, the key challenge is the porous catalytic cathode material in

which Li2O2 is formed and decomposed. It forms the bottleneck since the sluggish ORR/OER

kinetics increase the overpotential and limit the recharge capacity and rate performance. The

insoluble discharge product (Li2O2) will gradually block the flow of electrolyte and O2. It has been

demonstrated that the OMC skeleton is suitable for the formation of Li2O2 [224]. The ordered

matrix of OMC provides an opportunity for uniform distribution of catalyst nanoparticles. This is of

particular importance, as metallic nanoparticles should not block the Li diffusion, which is the main

charge carrier. Using an ordered hierarchical mesoporous/macroporous carbon, a high-performance

cathode was demonstrated [112].

The cathode of metal-air batteries resembles fuel cells and needs ideal electrocatalysts for both

oxygen evolution reaction (OER) and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) during the charge and

discharge processes, respectively. Whether employing the classical Pt catalyst or a new alternative

such as metal oxides [225], a key requirement is a uniform distribution of the catalyst over the

catalyst support to make the catalyst more accessible electrochemically. Using OMC as

electrocatalyst will be summarized in section 4.6. Wang et al. fabricated a three-dimensional

ordered mesoporous carbon by growing a thin layer of FeOx using atomic layer deposition; when

decorated with Pd nanoparticle catalysts, the new cathode exhibits a capacity greater than 6000

mAh/g and cyclability of more than 68 cycles [224]. Figure 11 shows the morphological structure

and the performance of OMC/FeOx/Pt electrode.

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Figure 11. a) Schematic of the catalyst loaded OMC structure. b) Pore size distribution change after

FeOx coating. c) TEM images of pristine OMC, after FeOx coating, and after Pd NP decoration. d)

Schematic illustrating the influence of Li2O2 deposition on the ORR activity of carbon and the

subsequent effects of the FeOx coating and Pd NP decoration. e) Cycling curves for the bare, FeOx

coated, and Pd decorated OMC electrodes. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[224]. Copyright

2015, Wiley-VCH.

Although the current focus is on Li–O2 battery among metal-air batteries, the possibility of

employing OMC is not limited to Li–O2 only. For instance, OMC has been successfully employed

for other metal-air cells such as Zn-air cells [226].

4.6. OMC as Electrocatalyst Support

Electrocatalysts participate in electrochemical reactions by lowering the reaction activation energy

and by lowering the excess energy consumed by the activation barrier. They playing critical roles in

the electrochemical fuel (H2, CO, CH4, etc.) production and energy generation (e.g., in fuel cells).

A wide range of electrochemical systems utilizing Pt or similar precious metals or transition metal

oxides as an electrocatalyst. The role of catalyst support is critically important in these systems to

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fairly disperse the catalysts to improve the system efficiency and reduce the amount of expensive

catalyst required. Carbon is an ideal catalyst support because of its electrical conductivity and high

specific surface area, and mesoporous structure is the best choice for two reasons: simultaneous

synthesis of the catalyst can result in the formation of uniform nanoparticles over the mesopores as

a template, and catalyst nanoparticles can be uniformly distributed over the mesoporous structure.

However, preparation of carbon/catalyst nanocomposites is not as easy as it seems; a significant

part of the catalyst is actually covered by carbon and becomes electrochemically inaccessible [227-

228].

A preliminary study showed that OMC capability for dispersing Pt nanoparticles is higher than

those of similar carbon nanomaterials [229]. This named OMC as a promising catalyst support for

various applications, particularly fuel cells. The morphology of micropores is basically responsible

for the desirable arrangement of metallic catalysts to be well dispersed while electrochemically

accessible [230]. In addition to the physical entrapment of metallic nanoparticles within the OMC

scaffold, chemical interactions can also improve the catalytic activity of OMC supported Pt [231].

Functionalizing OMC with oxygen groups can assist in anchoring Pt catalyst while preserving the

originally ordered structure [232]. For the electrochemical oxidation of CO, this reduces the

overpotential about 100-150 mV. Although the fundamental mechanism for this improvement has

not been elaborated yet, similar values for various OMCs have been reported by different authors

[232-233].

Quite interestingly, the catalytic activity of OMC-supported Pt depends on the OMC architecture

rather than mesopore size [234]. Figure 12 compares the structure and electrocatalytic activities of

two OMCs having inverse structure; while one is an excellent catalyst support, the other is quite

poor.

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Figure 12. (a) Schematic model, (b) TEM images and (c) electrocatalytic activities of two OMC

samples synthesized using CMK-3 and FDU-15 templates. Reproduced with permission from

Ref.[234]. Copyright 2011, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Pt/OMC nanocomposites show excellent electrocatalytic behavior, e.g., for fuel cells [235-237].

The electrocatalytic activity of Pt catalyst supported by OMC for oxygen reduction is two times

higher than that supported by commercial conductive carbon [238]. Similar behavior has been

reported for the electrocatalytic activity of Pd in alkaline fuel cells[239].

It has been reported that in the preparation of OMC-supported Pt/Ni bimetallic catalyst, the amount

of Ni controls the surface hydroxyl groups, which cause hydrophilicity of the OMC catalyst support

[240]. This significantly enhances the electrocatalytic activity for the oxidation of methanol by

facilitating the formation of Pt-OH. Another important phenomenon is that increasing the Ni

content reduces the size of bimetallic nanoparticles, which can become smaller than the size of

mesopores. This is accompanied by a better distribution of Pt and higher accessibility. This

enhanced electrocatalytic activity of the bimetallic catalyst is not limited to Ni. PtFex, for example,

displays exactly similar behavior [241]. A vital necessity for optimum electrocatalytic activity is the

integrity of bimetallic nanoparticles over the OMC matrix. The shape and size of nanoparticles

should match those of mesopores.

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OMC is a good compositing agent for metal oxides, which are promising candidates for ORR

electrocatalysis, due to the interaction of oxygen groups [242-243].

Nitrogen doping improves the properties of OMC as a catalyst support due to the presence of

nitrogen coordinated metal centers [140]. This can facilitate platinum-free electrocatalyst [244]. As

explained for the case of supercapacitors, bi-dopants can further contribute to the chemical

inhomogeneity of OMC resulting in better charge transfer in electrocatalytic reactions [245]. The

electrocatalytic activity of nitrogen and sulfur co-doped OMC is comparable with that of Pt/C for

ORR [246]. Doping of OMC with N and a metal can lead to superior electrocatalysts. N and Fe co-

doped OMC shows a superior electrocatalytic activity for ORR, even stronger than that of Pt [247].

However, the influence of doping is not straightforward as several factors are changed

simultaneously. Figure 13 shows the effect of N-doping on Pt/OMC and Pt-Co/OMC

electrocatalysts. Contrary to the enhanced capacitive behavior of N-doped OMC described before,

N doping of Pt/OMC reduces both capacitance and electrocatalytic activity. However, N-doping

strongly improves both capacitive and electrocatalytic activity of Pt-Co/OMC. This can be ascribed

to several factors. The presence of Co can enhance the graphitization of OMC. As discussed for the

bimetallic catalysts before, the presence of Co results in smaller nanoparticles, which are

comparable with the mesopore sizes [68]. Therefore, the systems are significantly different. This

difference is more visible for direct electrochemical oxidation at the electrocatalysts (Figure 13b). N

doping strongly improves the electrocatalytic activity of Pt-Co/OMC but at the price of higher

overpotentials, due to the electrochemical redox systems of N-rich functional groups.

Figure 13. CV curves of Pt/OMC, Pt/N-OMC, Pt/Co-OMC, and Pt/Co-N-OMC samples in 0.5 M

H2SO4 (a) and 2.0 M CH3OH 1.0 M H2SO4 (b) with a scan rate of 20 mV s-1. Reproduced with

permission from Ref.[68]. Copyright 2013, American Chemical Society.

The electrocatalytic capability of OMC is not limited to catalyst support, as it can be directly used

as a metal-free catalyst [248]. For this purpose, it is necessary to alter the lattice and surface

structure of OMC by doping and surface functionalization. Doping of OMC with various elements

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such as boron [249], sulfur [250], etc. showed an acceptable electrocatalytic activity for ORR.

Similar to the case of supercapacitors, co-doping can further improve the electrocatalytic activity of

OMC [251].

Although OMC is chemically stable in various media including the alkaline electrolyte, there is a

gradual decrease in catalytic activity. In the case of pure OMC, the capacitive behavior is weakened

while pseudocapacitive behavior is strengthened, because of the formation of reactive defects and

functional groups. For doped OMCs in which there are active redox sites, aging cause a decrease in

chemical reactivity [252].

The ordered mesoporous structure of OMC provides an excellent opportunity for the formation of

1D catalysts within the OMC structure. This feature has been utilized for in situ synthesis of various

catalysts supported on OMC[253-254].

Since the pores are usually long along the OMC structure, diffusion of electroactive species is

normally unidirectional. Modifying OMC by carbon nanotubes can create shortcuts for charge

transfer perpendicular to the pores, and thus, significantly improve the electrocatalytic activity

[119,181]. Since the electrocatalytic activity is not controlled by the amount carbon nanotubes,

carbon nanotubes are not real channels for diffusion, but shortcuts opening gates in other directions

(for charge transfer rather than ion diffusion) [255]. The same behavior has been reported for

OMC/CNT architecture as an ultracapacitor [256]. This is similar to the phenomenon reported for

electrodeposition in the presence of carbon nanotubes in which the presence of carbon nanotubes

within the diffusion layer just changes the electrodeposition pathway without physical entrapment

in the depositing film [257-258]. Although the silica/carbon nanocomposite was originally an

intermediary template, it can be prepared as a free-standing film with excellent casting capability

for practical applications [259].

4.7. Electrochemical Hydrogen Storage

Hydrogen is ideally the greenest fuel, but its applications have been limited by difficulties in

storage. In the past two decades, carbon was a promising candidate to store hydrogen in lieu of

metal hydrides storing hydrogen in bulk. Thus, the surface structure of carbon is of particular

importance to achieving an acceptable hydrogen storage capacity. A key problem in hydrogen

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storage on carbon surface is that adsorbed H atoms can interact with each other to form H2 and

leave the material in gaseous form. OMC seems a promising candidate, as adsorbed atoms are

somehow entrapped within the mesopores. In addition to the morphological structure, chemical

functionality also plays a substantial role in the hydrogen storage capacity of OMC. It has been

reported that while oxidized nitrogen functional groups may prevent the adsorption of hydrogen, N-

doped OMC showed 1.5 times enhancement in electrochemical hydrogen storage [260-261].

While OMC stores hydrogen by surface interaction, metals can store hydrogen in the form of metal

hydride. Mixing metal nanoparticles with OMC can assist catalytic hydrogen to dissociate for

absorption on the carbon surface while contributing to the hydrogen storage in the form of metal

hydride. Ni/OMC nanocomposite showed a good capacity for electrochemical hydrogen storage

[262]. As mentioned above, Ni can improve the hydrophilicity nature of OMC due to the hydrogen

functional groups. The capability of an OMC-supported Pt/Ni for electrochemical hydrogen storage

is increased three times when the Ni content is increased from 2 to 15% [240]. Similar behavior has

also been observed for OMC-supported NiFe too [263].

There is a great flexibility for doping of OMC targeting electrochemical applications. Cu and N

were utilized as dopants to improve the capacity of OMC for electrochemical hydrogen storage

[264].

5. Summary and Outlook

OMC has attracted considerable attention during the past years for potential applications in

various electrochemical energy storage and conversion systems. However, a possible misleading is

that OMC is somewhat considered as a standard material with well-defined architecture. In practice,

at least in electrochemical systems, OMCs are very complicated materials which represent some

kind of order at a mesoscale. Both the chemical structure of the pore walls and edges are critically

important in electrochemical systems, but less attention is usually paid to compare similar OMCs in

a specific application. On the other hand, not only the interconnection of the mesopores is of

essential importance, the packing of the material particles can define the overall accessibility of the

mesopores. In other words, in a compact electrode, the OMC architecture is not as ordered as seen

in the TEM images.

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Along with the growing interest in OMC, there have appeared reports in the literature claiming the

unsuitability of OMC for many electrochemical systems. Here, we attempted to highlight two

aspects of this potential material: (i) it is a fact that OMC is not as charming and ideal as it is seen

in TEM images, and (ii) possible weak performance in electrochemical systems is not necessarily

incapability of OMC for conducting the electrochemical reaction within its ordered architecture. In

general, OMC should be specifically tuned for various applications including those of

electrochemical energy storage and conversation. Some of the reports available in the literature

clearly show the potentials of OMC for various electrochemical systems, but the "one size fits all"

strategy does not work here.

The main obstacle for the practical application of OMC in electrochemical energy systems is the

lack of an appropriate synthesis route for mass production of OMC while designing its architecture

for the electrochemical cell. While the conventional silica template method is ideal for the

preparation of highly ordered mesopores at a lab scale, there is still no practical approach for

scaling up this synthesis route. On the other hand, soft-templates methods or other hard templates

are more practical for the mass production, but at the cost of losing the highly ordered architecture

of OMC to some extent. Combining these methods might be the subtle approach for the practical

production of OMC. Owing to the essential importance of the pore directions in the OMC

architecture, not only the synthesis but also the arrangement of the OMC particles in the electrode

composite is of practical importance. Therefore, the OMC should be prepared as a film or directly

grown on the current collector to guarantee the original electrochemical properties. In conclusion,

we need more fundamental studies to understand how the OMC atomic structure is controlling the

electrochemical processes, instead of typical examinations of OMCs in different systems.

Acknowledgements

Z.F. acknowledges the support from the National Science Foundation (1611060).

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Figure Captions

Figure 1. Schematic comparing a) hard-template based and b) soft-template based synthesis

strategies. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[19]. Copyright 2006, Wiley-VCH.

Figure 2. a) Schematic of MGB synthesis from drop-casting functionalized beads/FeCl3 solution, to

thermal annealing for graphene growth, and etching away Fe domain to obtain MGB. b,c) TEM

images of MGB. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[78]. Copyright 2013, American Chemical

Society.

Figure 3. a) Schematic of the OMG synthesis from colloidal Fe3O4 NPs. b,c) TEM images of the

as-synthesized OMC superlattice after catalytic carbonization at 500 oC with fcc symmetry. d,e)

TEM images of OMG after further graphitized at 1000 oC, imaged for (111) plane. Reproduced

with permission from Ref.[22]. Copyright 2015, Wiley-VCH.

Figure 4. a) Schematic to synthesize nitrogen doped OMG. b) Low-angle x-ray diffraction patterns

of the synthesized sample with or without N-doping, showing the characteristic peaks of hexagonal

packing. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[80]. Copyright 2015, American Association for the


Figure 5. a) Schematic of CMK-3G OMG consisting of hexagonal arrays of carbon nanorods,

while the nanorods is formed by a stacking of the discoid graphene sheets oriented perpendicular to

the rod orientation. b) TEM images of CMK-3G showing the rod array. c) TEM images showing

the stacked discoid graphene sheets. The inset is the corresponding electron diffraction pattern.

Reproduced with permission from Ref.[83]. Copyright 1971, The Electrochemical Society.

Figure 6. SEM and TEM images of the ordered hierarchical mesoporous/macroporous carbon at

different scales. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[112]. Copyright 2013, Wiley-VCH.

Figure 7. An illustration for designing carbon-supported Pt electrocatalyst with

macroporous/mesoporous architecture. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[113]. Copyright

2015, Wiley-VCH.

Figure 8. (a-h) SEM and TEM images of an N-doped OMC with Im3m symmetry and rhombic

of 56

dodecahedral single crystal morphology. (i) Cyclic voltammograms and (j) charge/discharge

profiles of the N-doped OMC as an ultracapacitor. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[125].

Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Figure 9. a) Cyclic voltammetry test and galvanostatic test of the cells using different components.

Ragone plot of specific energy vs. specific power in c) and energy density vs. power density in d) of

the cell performance, in comparision to other conventional batteries and supercapacitors.

Reproduced with permission from Ref.[80]. Copyright 2015, American Association for the


Figure 10. (a) Schematic of PEDOT decorated mesoporous carbon nanocubes for sulfur cathode. b)

Cycling performance of at 0.5C and 5C and the corresponding Coulombic efficiencies. Reproduced

with permission from Ref.[222]. Copyright 2015, Elsevier.

Figure 11. a) Schematic of the catalyst loaded OMC structure. b) Pore size distribution change after

FeOx coating. c) TEM images of pristine OMC, after FeOx coating, and after Pd NP decoration. d)

Schematic illustrating the influence of Li2O2 deposition on the ORR activity of carbon and the

subsequent effects of the FeOx coating and Pd NP decoration. e) Cycling curves for the bare, FeOx

coated, and Pd decorated OMC electrodes. Reproduced with permission from Ref.[224]. Copyright

2015, Wiley-VCH.

Figure 12. (a) Schematic model, (b) TEM images and (c) electrocatalytic activities of two OMC

samples synthesized using CMK-3 and FDU-15 templates. Reproduced with permission from

Ref.[234]. Copyright 2011, Royal Society of Chemistry.

Figure 13. CV curves of Pt/OMC, Pt/N-OMC, Pt/Co-OMC, and Pt/Co-N-OMC samples in 0.5 M

H2SO4 (a) and 2.0 M CH3OH 1.0 M H2SO4 (b) with a scan rate of 20 mV s-1. Reproduced with

permission from Ref.[68]. Copyright 2013, American Chemical Society.

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