1

OPTICSTIMELINE(up to 1850)

SOLO HERMELIN

Updated: 6.08.08Run This

http://www.solohermelin.com

2

SOLO Glass History 2500 BC

Earliest known glass. Little is known about the first attempts to make glass. The Roman historian Pliny attributed it to Phoenician sailors. He recounted how they landed on a beach, propped a cooking pot on some blocks of natran they were carrying as cargo, and made a fire over which to cook a meal. To their surprise, the sand beneath the fire melted and ran in a liquid stream that later cooled and hardened into glass.

3

SOLO Glass History 1500 BC

After 1500 BC, Egyptian craftsmen are known to have begun developing a method for producing glass pots by dipping a core mould of compacted sand into molten glass and then turning the mould so that molten glass adhered to it. While still soft, the glass-covered mould could then be rolled on a slab of stone in order to smooth or decorate it. The earliest examples of Egyptian glassware are three vases bearing the name of the Pharaoh Thoutmosis III (1504-1450 BC), who brought glassmakers to Egypt as prisoners following a successful military campaign in Asia.

Thutmosis III statue In Luxor Museum

There is little evidence of further evolution until the 9th century BC, when glassmaking revived in Mesopotamia. Over the following 500 years, glass production centred on Alessandria, from where it is thought to have spread to Italy.

900 BC

4

Optics HistorySOLO

The earliest known lenses were made from ground crystal, often quartz, and have been dated as early as 700 BC for Assyrian lenses such as the Layard lens / Nimrud lens. There are many similar lenses from ancient Egypt, Greece and Babylon.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_lensmaking

LAYARD LENSLayard discovered this lens (right) which is considered the first used (or found) plano-convex lens. This lens however was not "ground" and polished round but had facets which limited it's ability to magnify. It has been said that this lens could actually have been only an ornament or menagerie. The reproduction shown here shows both a horizontal and straight view.

http://www.precinemahistory.net/900.htm

The Nimrud lens is a 3000 year old piece of rock crystal, which was unearthed by Austen Henry Layard at the palace of Nimrud in what is now Iraq (originally in Assyria. It may have been used as a magnifying glass, or as a burning-glass to start fires by concentrating sunlight. Assyrian craftsmen made intricate engravings, and could have used such a lens in their work.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nimrud_lens

Nimrud/Layard Lens 705 – 721 B.C.

Sir Austen Henry Layard1894 - 1817

5

SOLO Glass History 650 BCThe first glassmaking "manual" dates back to around 650 BC. Instructions on how to make glass are contained in tablets from the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (669-626 BC).

A major breakthrough in glassmaking was the discovery of glassblowing some time between 27 BC and AD 14, attributed to Syrian craftsmen from the Sidon-Babylon area. The long thin metal tube used in the blowing process has changed very little since then. In the last century BC, the ancient Romans then began blowing glass inside moulds, greatly increasing the variety of shapes possible for hollow glass items.

2700 BC – 1400 AD

Ashurbanipal )669-626 BC. (

The clay tablet library of the Assyrian king Assubanipal (700 BC) contains the oldest remaining glass recipe:“Take 60 parts sand, 180 parts ash from sea plants, 5 parts chalk- and you get glass.” http://www.schott.com/english/company/experience_glass/history.html

http://www.glassonline.com/infoserv/history.html

6

Optics HistorySOLO

c. 490-430 B.C.EmpedoclesSicily

Light constitute of small particles that were presumed to enter the eyes and then returned to visible bodies

c. 384-332 B.C.AristotelGreece

Light is the activity of “transparent” (i.e. visible) bodies.

c. 300 B.C.EuclidGreece

“Optica” 280 B.C.Rectilinear propagation of Light. Law of Reflection .

Light originate in the eye, illuminates the object seen,and then returns to the eye.

“Catoptrics”The Light travels the shortest path between two points.

c. 100 B.C-150 A.C.HeronAlexandria

100-170 A.D.Claudius PtolemeyAlexandria

“Optics” 130 A.D.Tabulated angle of incidence and refraction for several media.

7

SOLO Glass History 100 AD

The Romans also did much to spread glassmaking technology. With its conquests, trade relations, road building, and effective political and economical administration, the Roman Empire created the conditions for the flourishing of glassworks across western Europe and the Mediterranean. During the reign of the emperor Augustus, glass objects began to appear throughout Italy, in France, Germany and Switzerland. Roman glass has even been found as far afield as China, shipped there along the silk routes.It was the Romans who began to use glass for architectural purposes, with the discovery of clear glass (through the introduction of manganese oxide) in Alexandria around AD 100. Cast glass windows, albeit with poor optical qualities, thus began to appear in the most important buildings in Rome and the most luxurious villas of Herculaneum and Pompeii.With the geographical division of the empires, glass craftsmen began to migrate less, and eastern and western glassware gradually acquired more distinct characteristics. Alexandria remained the most important glassmaking area in the East, producing luxury glass items mainly for export. The world famous Portland Vase is perhaps the finest known example of Alexandrian skills. In Rome's Western empire, the city of Köln in the Rhineland developed as the hub of the glassmaking industry, adopting, however, mainly eastern techniques. Then, the decline of the Roman Empire and culture slowed progress in the field of glassmaking techniques, particularly through the 5th century. Germanic glassware became less ornate, with craftsmen abandoning or not developing the decorating skills they had acquired.

The Roman Connection

8

SOLO Glass History7 - 8 Centuries

Archaeological excavations on the island of Torcello near Venice, Italy, have unearthed objects from the late 7th and early 8th centuries which bear witness to the transition from ancient to early Middle Ages production of glass.

The early Middle Ages

Chemical investigation of the various glasses from different levels at Torcello indicates a slow transformation of glass techniques from Roman natron-based glass to what would become Venetian soda-ash based glass. The soda-ash based production allows the creation of an opaque glass for the first time.

http://www.glassonline.com/infoserv/history.html

Glass Making at Torcello

http://archaeology.about.com/od/tterms/qt/torcello.htm

Archaeological evidence suggests that Torcello was occupied by the Romans at least by the first century AD. Evidence for glass-working, in the form of crucibles, flat glass, glass waste, vessels and sherds, and tesserae from mosaics, have been consistently found in levels dated between 7th and the 13th centuries. A glass-making furnace, with chambers for fritting and annealing, has been discovered and securely dated to the 7th-8th century AD. The structure conforms mostly to Roman concepts of furnace construction, rather than later Venetian manufacturing constructs.

SOLO Glass History9 CenturyAbū-Yūsuf Ya’qūb ibn Ishāq al-Kindī

ال�كندي إسحاق ابن يعقوب يوسف أبو

Abū-Yūsuf Ya’qūb ibn Ishāq al-Kindī

)801 – 873(

Al-Kindi, was an Arab Iraqi polymath] an Islamic philosopher, scientist, astrologer, astronomer, cosmologist, chemist, logician, mathematician, musician, physician, physicist, psychologist, and meteorologist] Al-Kindi was the first of the Muslim Peripatetic philosophers, and is known for his efforts to introduce Greek and Hellenistic philosophy to the Ara world, and as a pioneer in chemistry, cryptography, medicine, music theory, physics, psychology, and the philosophy of science.

The factor which al-Kindi relied upon to determine which of the existing theories was most correct was how adequately each one explained the experience of seeing. For example, Aristotle's theory was unable to account for why the angle at which an individual sees an object affects his perception of it. For example, why a circle viewed from the side willappear as a line. According to Aristotle, the complete sensible form of a circle should be transmitted to the eye and it should appear as a circle. On the other hand, Euclidian optics provided a geometric model that was able to account for this, as well as the length of shadows and reflections in mirrors, because Euclid believed that the visual "rays" could only travel in straight lines (something which is commonly accepted in modern science). For this reason, al-Kindi considered the latter preponderant.[36]In his Kitab al-Shu'a'at (Book of the Rays), al-Kindi wrote the following criticism on Anthemius of Tralles for reporting how "ships were set aflame by burning mirrors during a naval battle" without empirical evidence.[

Optics

10

Optics HistorySOLO

Ibn-Sahl c 940-1000

Ibn Sahl (Abu Sa`d al-`Ala' ibn Sahl) (c. 940-1000) was an Arabian mathematician, physicist and optics engineer associated with the Abbasid court of Baghdad.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Sahl

About 984 he wrote a treatise On Burning Mirrors and Lenses in which he set out his understanding of how curved mirrors and lenses bend and focus light.

Ibn Sahl is credited with first discovering the law of refraction, usually called Snell's law.

He used the law of refraction to work out the shapes of lenses that focus light with no geometric aberrations, known as anaclastic lenses.

984

Reproduction of a page of Ibn Sahl's manuscript showing his discovery of the law of refraction (from Rashed, 1990).

Ibn-Sahl anaclastic lens(hyperbolic lens that focuslight with no geometricaberrations)

http://www.brayebrookobservatory.org/

In the remaining parts of the treatise, Ibn Sahl dealt with parabolic mirrors, ellipsoidal mirrors , biconvex lenses, and techniques for drawing .Ibn Sahl's treatise was used by Ibn al-Haitham (965–1039), one of the greatest Arabic scholars of optics.

11

Optics HistorySOLO

965-1040Ibn-al-Haytham

)Alhazen(Basra

Discussed concave and convex mirrors in both cylindrical and spherical geometries, anticipated Fermat law. Describes the optical system of eye and beliefs that light consists of rays which originate in the object seen, and not in the eye. Light travels with constant speed and the speed is smaller in more condense media.

The efforts of Alhazen resulted in over one hundred works, the most famous of which was Kitab-al-Manadhirn, rendered into Latin in the Middle Ages. The translation of the book on optics exerted a great influence upon the science of the western world, most notably on the work of Roger Bacon and Johannes Kepler. A significant observation in the work contradicted the beliefs of many great scientists, such as Ptolemy and Euclid. Alhazen correctly proposed that the eyes passively receive light reflected from objects, rather than emanating light rays themselves. The work also contained a detailed examination of the laws of reflection and refraction, which is accurately explained by the slower movement of light through denser substances. Furthermore, the question known as Alhazen's problem, which involves determining the point of reflection from a surface given the center of the eye and the observed point, is presented and answered through the use of conic sections.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/alhazen.html

12

SOLO Glass History 11 Century

The 11th century also saw the development by German glass craftsmen of a technique - then further developed by Venetian craftsmen in the 13th century - for the production of glass sheets. By blowing a hollow glass sphere and swinging it vertically, gravity would pull the glass into a cylindrical "pod" measuring as much as 3 metres long, with a width of up to 45 cm. While still hot, the ends of the pod were cut off and the resulting cylinder cut lengthways and laid flat. Other types of sheet glass included crown glass (also known as "bullions"), relatively common across western Europe. With this technique, a glass ball was blown and then opened outwards on the opposite side to the pipe. Spinning the semi-molten ball then caused it to flatten and increase in size, but only up to a limited diameter. The panes thus created would then be joined with lead strips and pieced together to create windows. Glazing remained, however, a great luxury up to the late Middle Ages, with royal palaces and churches the most likely buildings to have glass windows. Stained glass windows reached their peak as the Middle Ages drew to a close, with an increasing number of public buildings, inns and the homes of the wealthy fitted with clear or coloured glass decorated with historical scenes and coats of arms.

Sheet glass skills

13

Optics HistorySOLO

1175-1253Robert Grosseteste

Chancellor of Oxford University

andBishop of Lincoln

“De Natura Locorum” Considered that light was the basis of all matter andstressed the importance of mathematics and geometry intheir study. He belived that colors are related to intensity.

Optic studies from De Natura Locorum. The diagram shows light being refracted by a spherical glass container full of water.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Grosseteste

14

Optics HistorySOLO

Followed Grosseteste work at Oxford.Initiate the idea of using lens to correct vision “Opus Maius” he gives a description of a telescope. He is known by his insistence in conducting systematic observations and experiments. He also discover the camera obscura.

Optic studies by Bacon

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Bacon

His most important mathematical contribution is the application of geometry to optics. He said:

-Mathematics is the door and the key to the sciences .Bacon had read al-Haytham's Optics and this made him realise the importance of the applications of mathematics to real word problems. He followed Grosseteste in emphasising the use of lenses for magnification to aid natural vision. He carried out some systematic observations with lenses and mirrors. He seems to have planned and interpreted these experiments with a remarkably modern scientific approach. However many experiments are described in his writings which he never carried out in practice .

In “De mirabile potestate artis et naturae”, which is essentially a letter written around 1250, Bacon described his scientific ideas, in particular his ideas for mechanical devices and some of his optical achievements.

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Bacon.html

Roger Bacon (1214 – 1294)

15

Optics HistorySOLO

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Pecham

John Peckham or Pecham (circa 1230 – 1292)

John Peckham, was Archbishop of Canterbury in the years 1279–1292. He was a native of Sussex who was educated at Lewes Priory and became a Franciscan monk about 1250.

Peckham also studied optics and astronomy, and his studies in those subjects were influenced by Roger Bacon.

Perspectiva communis – Pecham 1504 Edition

Where Peckham met Bacon is not known, but it would have been at either Paris or Oxford. Bacon's influence can be seen in Peckham's works on optics (the Perspectiva communis) and astronomy.

http://www.brayebrookobservatory.org/

16

Optics HistorySOLO

1230-1275Witelo ErazmusSilezia - Poland

“Perspectiva” cc.1270 a standard text in optics for

several centuries. Covers geometrical optics, reflection and refraction

1270

Witelo’s classic treatise on optics is thought to have been completed around 1270. Similar to other texts of the period, it was copied by hand and circulated in manuscript form. The original manuscript has not been preserved, but a version of the text edited by the astronomer Regiomontanus was printed as a book in the mid-sixteenth century. Many scholars argue that Perspectiva is based at least partly on the Greek translation of the works of the Arab scholar Alhazen (965-1040), but the point is a contentious one. Undoubtedly many of the ideas proposed by the two men were similar. For instance, both Witelo and Alhazen rejected the common conception at the time that light rays were emitted from the eyes, instead suggesting that the eyes were passive receivers of light reflected from other objects. However, such parallels do not necessarily indicate that one text was copied from the other, and the modern scholarly debate about the matter is ongoing.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/witelo.html

17

SOLO Glass History

1271 In the Middle Ages, the Italian city of Venice assumed its role as the glassmaking centre of the

western world. The Venetian merchant fleet ruled the Mediterranean waves and helped supply Venice's glass craftsmen with the technical know-how of their counterparts in Syria, and with the artistic influence of Islam. The importance of the glass industry in Venice can be seen not only in the number of craftsmen at work there (more than 8,000 at one point). A 1271 ordinance, a type of glass sector statute, laid down certain protectionist measures such as a ban on imports of foreign glass and a ban on foreign glassmakers who wished to work in Venice: non-Venetian craftsmen were themselves clearly sufficiently skilled to pose a threat.

Venice

Until the end of the 13th century, most glassmaking in Venice took place in the city itself. However, the frequent fires caused by the furnaces led the city authorities, in 1291, to order the transfer of glassmaking to the island of Murano. The measure also made it easier for the city to keep an eye on what was one of its main assets, ensuring that no glassmaking skills or secrets were exported.

1291

Byzantine craftsmen played an important role in the development of Venetian glass, an art form for which the city is well-known. When Constantinople was sacked by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, some fleeing artisans came to Venice.

It wasn't long until Murano's glassmakers were the leading citizens on the island. Artisans were granted the right to wear swords and enjoyed immunity from prosecution by the notoriously high-handed Venetian state. By the late 14th Century, the daughters of glassmakers were allowed to marry into Venice's blue-blooded families.

18

Optics HistorySOLO

1230-1275Albertus Magnus

England

1275

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/magnus.html

The English Dominican scholar Albertus Magnus (later St. Albertus Magnus, the patron saint of the natural sciences) studies the rainbow effect of light and speculates that the velocity of light is extremely fast, but finite. He also examines the darkening action of bright sunlight on crystals of silver nitrate.

He has something to say on the refraction of the solar ray, notices certain crystals which have a power of refraction, and remarks that none of the ancients, and few moderns, were acquainted with the properties of mirrors. In his tenth book, wherein he catalogues and describes all the trees, plants, and herbs known in his time, he observes, 'all that is here set down is the result of our own experience, or has been borrowed from authors whom we know to have written what their personal experience confirmed; for in these matters experience alone can give certainty.' (Experimentum solum certificat de talibus.) Such an expression, which might have proceeded from the pen of Bacon, argues in itself a prodigious scientific progress and shows the medieval friar was on the track so successfully pursued by modern natural philosophy

http://www2.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/staamp3.htm

19

Optics HistorySOLO 1303

Bernard de Gordon of Montpelier

Bernard de Gordon, fl. c. 1285-1308, a French physician in Montpellier, was a contemporary of Gilbert the Englishman. In his “Lilium Medicinae” … describes spectacles for the first time. Eyeglasses were invented in Tuscany between 1280 and 1285. Merton College Library owned a copy of “Lilium Medicinae” between 1360 and 1385

http://www.columbia.edu/dlc/garland/deweever/B/bernard2.htmhttp://www.antiquespectacles.com/statements/1600.htm

Bernard of Gordon, a French physician, writes in a volume of his medical series Lilium Medicinae about the use of spectacles as a means of correcting far-sightedness--the first written record of lenses being used to correct vision

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1000-1599.html

20

Theodoric (Dietrich) of Freiberg. Theodoric explained the rainbow as a consequence of refraction and internal reflection within individual raindrops. He gave an explanation for the appearance of a primary and secondary bow but, following earlier notions, he considered colour to arise from a combination of darkness and brightness in different proportions

Optics HistorySOLO 1304

http://members.aol.com/WSRNet/D1/hist.htmhttp://www.cnusd.k12.ca.us/community_day_school/history/optics.html

Dietrich von Freiberg uses crystalline spheres and flasks filled with water to study the reflection and refraction in raindrops that leads to primary and secondary rainbows.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_electromagnetism_and_classical_optics

E.R. Huggins, “Geometrical Optics”, p.16

21

Camera ObscuraSOLO 1337

LEVI BEN GERSHON (ALSO GERSON or GERSEN) (1288 - 1344)

This Jewish philosopher and mathematician was also known as LEON DE BAGNOIS. Gershon wrote in his 'Hebrew De Sinibus Chordis Et Arcubus', ways of observing solar eclipses using the camera obscura. He commented that no harm came to his eyes when using this effect. His observances and writings are similar to those of his predecessor, Alhazen.

Levi observed a solar eclipse in 1337. After he had observed this event he proposed a new theory of the sun which he proceeded to test by further observations. Another eclipse observed by Levi was the eclipse of the Moon on 3 October 1335. He described a geometrical model for the motion of the Moon and made other astronomical observations of the Moon, Sun and planets using a camera obscura.Some of his beliefs were well wide of the truth, such as his belief that the Milky Way was on the sphere of the fixed stars and shines by the reflected light of the Sun. Gersonides was also the earliest known mathematician to have used the technique of mathematical induction in a systematic and self-conscious fashion and anticipated Galileo’s error theory.[9]

The lunar crater Rabbi Levi is named after him.

http://www.precinemahistory.net/900.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gersonides

22

SOLO Glass History

14 Century In the 14th century, another important Italian glassmaking industry developed at Altare,

near Genoa. Its importance lies largely in the fact that it was not subject to the strict statutes of Venice as regards the exporting of glass working skills. Thus, during the 16th century, craftsmen from Altare helped extend the new styles and techniques of Italian glass to other parts of Europe, particularly France.

Venice

In the second half of the 15th century, the craftsmen of Murano started using quartz sand and potash made from sea plants to produce particularly pure crystal. By the end of the 16th century, 3,000 of the island's 7,000 inhabitants were involved in some way in the glassmaking industry.

15 – 16 Century

What made Murano's glassmakers so special? For one thing, they were the only people in Europe who knew how to make glass mirrors. They also developed or refined technologies such as crystalline glass, enameled glass (smalto), glass with threads of gold (aventurine), multicolored glass (millefiori), milk glass (lattimo), and imitation gemstones made of glass. Their virtual monopoly on quality glass lasted for centuries, until glassmakers in Northern and Central Europe introduced new techniques and fashions around the same time that colonists were emigrating to the New World.

23

Optics HistorySOLO 1435

Color theory principles first appear in the writings of Leone Battista Alberti (c.1435)

Color Theory

Late statue of Leon Battista Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi Gallery, Florence

Leon Battista Alberti1404 - 1472

His treatise (Della Pittura ) was also known in Latin as De Pictura, and it relied in its scientific content on classical optics in determining perspective as a geometric instrument of artistic and architectural representation. Alberti was well-versed in the sciences of his age. His knowledge of optics was connected to the handed-down long-standing tradition of the Kitab al-manazir (The Optics; De aspectibus) of the Arab polymath Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham, d. ca. 1041), which was mediated by Franciscan optical workshops of the 13th-century Perspectivae traditions of scholars such as Roger Bacon, John Peckham and Witelo (similar influences are also traceable in the third commentary of Lorenzo Ghiberti, Commentario terzo).[3]

24

Optics HistorySOLO 1480

Da Vinci was intrigued with the study of optics and conducted extensive investigations and made drawings about the nature of light, reflections, and shadows. Even though it was not until over 100 years later that the first telescope was invented by Hans Lippershey, da Vinci realized the possibility of using lenses and mirrors to view heavenly bodies. In his notebooks he writes of:

...“making glasses to see the Moon enlarged... and ...in order to observe the nature of the planets, open the roof and bring the image of a single planet onto the base of a concave mirror. The image of the planet reflected by the base will show the surface of the planet much

magnified”.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/davinci.html

Leomardo da Vinci (Italy) studies the reflection of light and compares it to the reflection of sound waves.

Leonardo's sketch of the Lens Grinding Machine for long focal length mirrors

http://leonardodavinci.stanford.edu/projects/mirror/jg_tj.html

Leonardo's sketch of the Lens Grinding Machine for short focal length mirrors

25

Camera ObscuraSOLO 1515

Vinci gives the fullest description known to date on the camera obscura. Due to Vinci's special form of writing (written backwards called Mirror Writing), his work on the camera would not become common knowledge in the civilized world for almost three centuries. His 'Codex Atlanticus' (Vinci, Leonardo, Ambrosian Library, Milan, Italy, Recto A of Folio 337), and 'Manuscript D' (Manuscript D, Vinci, Leonardo, Institut de France, Paris, Folio 8) both give detailed accounts of the camera obscura effect, observations, diagrams and explanations of it's principle. In all of Da Vinci's works there are 270 separate diagrams of the camera obscura. These descriptions would remain unknown of for 297 years when Professor Venturi would decipher and publish them in

1797

  

 

                   

Leonardo gave us this drawing (lower left) of a lantern showing clearly a condensing lens, candle and chimney. None of Leonardo's writings indicate any hint of him actually projecting images, however this illustration from the master strongly suggests a figure of some type between the candle and lens.

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1400.htm

26

Optics HistorySOLO 1520

Francisco Maurolico's “Photismi de lumine et umbra” concerns the refraction of light and attempted to explain the natural phenomenon of the rainbow. It was completed in 1521 but was published posthumously in 1611. He also studied the camera obscura.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_MaurolicoFrancisco Maurolycus

1494 - 1575

Franciscus Maurolycus,a Jesuit priest, astronomer and mathematician, writes “De Subtilitate”, in which he discusses theories on light, theaters, and light theaters. In 1521, he finishes “Theoremata De Lumine Et Umbra Ad Perspectivam”, an explanation about how to build a microscope. Maurolycus also observes that in a pinhole camera, an object's shadow moves in the opposite direction from the object and he observes solar eclipses with a camera obscura.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1000-1599.html

27

Camera ObscuraSOLO 1544

A Dutch mathematician and physician, Gemma-Frisius observes and illustrates (believed to be the initial account) the eclipse of January 24, 1544 using the camera obscura. He refers to his mentor's (Reinhold) commentary on Pauerbach when he says "we have also observed an eclipse of the sun at Louvain in 1544." He publishes his illustration in 1545 and titles it 'De Radio Astronomica Et Geometrico'. (Gemma-Frisius, Antwerp, 1545, leaf 31).

REINERUS GEMMA-FRISIUS (1508 - 1555)

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1400.htm

Reinerus Gemma-Frisius's illustration (left) of the solar eclipse he observed in Louvain on January 24, 1544.

28

SOLO

In 1550 Cardano published “De subtilitate libri” in which hedescribed the use of a bi-convex lens in conjuction with a cameraobscura.

1550

https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/cardano.html

Cardano (1501-1576), a professor of mathematics and a physician, published in his book 'De Subtilitate Libri' (XXI, Cardani, Nurnberg, 1550, Book IV, p107) his makings of a camera obscura with a diverting spectacle and a very graphic description of darkroom pictures and their appearances. Cardano appears also to have initiated the use of a convex lens in the aperture. Cardano was a showman, and projected wild scenes of the outdoors along with appropriate sound effects to audiences in the camera obscura (SEE VIIIENEUVE, c.1290).

http://www.a-website.org/persist/card.html http://www.precinemahistory.net/1400.htm

Optics History

29

SOLO 1551

https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/ 1000-1599.html

Optics History

Erasmus Reinhold (1511 – 1553), a German mathematician and astronomer, reports using a pinhole camera to observe solar eclipses and describes in detail how the camera is used. He also mentions observing his surroundings with the pinhole camera.

The studies in mathematics became the basis of his astronomical research. In 1540 he used the camera obscura for observation for the first time and proved, that the moon's orbit was not circular, but elliptic… After decades of research Erasmus Reinhold's most important work "The Prussian Tables of Coelestrial Motion" was printed in Tübingen, in which he as a supporter of Copernicanism published calculations of the movement of the planets and the to be expected solar eclipses.

http://www.erg.slf.th.schule.de/reinhold/kurzbio-e.htm

It seems that even Copernicus's famous “De revolutionibus”, was eagerly awaited by astronomers for its improved and more accurate tables. In reality, however, the tables in the “De revolutionibus” were not exhaustive and not terribly useful. Thus, Erasmus Reinhold set out to re-calculate afresh, from Copernicus's basic parameters, a new set of astronomical tables. This was the “Prussian Tables” (1551), dedicated to Albert, Duke of Prussia. Throughout his explanatory canons, Reinhold used as his paradigm the position of position of Saturn at the birth of the Duke, on 17 May 1490.

http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ490.HTM

30

SOLO 1558

https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/ 1000-1599.html

Optics History

In 1558, Giovanni Battista Della Porta, (Italy) publishes “Magiae Naturalis Libri” (Natural Magic), a reference containing detailed information about a number of sciences including physics, astronomy, and alchemy. He also mentions several details about the camera obscura. In a later work, he compares the human eye to the camera and refers to vision in terms of refraction, prisms, lenses, and discusses optics in general.

http://homepages.tscnet.com/omard1/jportat3.html

Giambattista della Porta(I538-I6I5)

Magiae Naturalis

Book by Della Porta:” De refractione optices” (1589)

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1400.htm

31

SOLO 1568

The camera lens evolved from optical lenses developed for other purposes, and matured with the camera and photographic film. In 1568, a Venetian nobleman, Daniel Barbaro, placed a lens over the hole in a camera box and studied sharpness of image and focus. His first lens was from an old man's convex spectacles.

http://www.madehow.com/Volume-2/Camera-Lens.html

The camera obscura started to evolve when it fell into the hands of Daniel Barbaro in 1568. Daniel also published a book called “Practice of Perspective” which explained how a smaller hole world create a sharper image on the screen, and how moving the screen closer to the hole, he could create a sharper image. Daniel Barbaro was the inventor of the lens for use in the camera obscura. These are some of his notes on its invention:

1. Seeing, therefore, on the paper the outline of things, you can draw with a Pencil all the perspective and shading and coloring, according to nature.

2. You should choose the glass (lens) which does the best, and you should cover it so much that you leave a little in the middle clear and open and you will see a still brighter affect.

The lens that Daniel used was a convex lens from a pair of glasses. He tried a concave lens but it wouldn’t work. Still this much more evolved form of the camera was only considered a novelty for use by an artist.

http://library.thinkquest.org/25780/slr.shtml

Optics History

DANIEL BARBARO (1514 - 1570)

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1400.htm

32

SOLO 1572

https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/ 1000-1599.html

Optics History

Freidrich Risner (Germany) translates works on optics by Alhazen and Witelo into a Latin edition that made the concepts and findings of these scholars accessible to the growing European community of scientists

Friedrich Risner (exact year of birth unknown; died 1580) was a German mathematician from Hesse who spent much of his scholarly life at the University of Paris. He is known for his 1572 publication of "Opticae thesaurus: Alhazeni Arabis libri septem, nuncprimum editi; Eiusdem liber De Crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus", a Latinicized translation of the works of Ibn-al Haitham and Erazmus Ciolek Witelo, who were both early pioneers in the study of optics. His translation had great influence on mathmaticians of that era, such as Kepler, Huygens, and Descartes.

Risner is also credited with construction of the first portable camera obscura to make artistic topographical drawings. He used a lightweight wooden hut, with a small holes and lenses in each wall, and had a cube of paper in the centre for drawing.

http://www.answers.com/topic/friedrich-risner

FREIDRICH RISNER ( - d. 1580)

http://www.brayebrookobservatory.org/

33

SOLO 1573Optics History

Florentine astronomer and mathematician Danti speaks of using a concave mirror in a darkened room to "upright" the image ) Danti's Edition Of Euclid's Optics, Florence, Italy, 1573(.

IGNATIO (PELLEGRINO RAINALDI) DANTI (1536 - 1586)

While correcting the vernal equinox in order to recalibrate deficiencies in the calendar, Danti used the camera obscura to assist him in determining the height of the mid-day sun. He accomplished this by placing a small hole in a window of the church to create his camera. To complete the project he made two other holes in the wall higher up the building to allow a line of sunlight to strike the aperture.

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1400.htm

34

SOLO 1575Glass History

In the sixteenth century domestic needs were supplied by glass imported principally from Venice, and Italian workers who settled in London but did not stay made some in the Venetian manner. In 1575 Queen Elizabeth I granted Jacopo Verzelini a privilege for twenty-one years, during which he should make Venice glasses in London and teach Englishmen the art; at the same time, importation of such glasses was prohibited by law but possibly not in fact.

Verzelini arrived in London in 1571 and joined the factory of Jean Carré at The Hall of the Crutched Friars in the City of London. The following year, after Carré’s death, he took charge of the factory and in 1574 Elizabeth I granted him exclusive rights for 21 years to produce 'Venetian' glass in England. Imports from Italy were forbidden, a ban that lasted until 1623 and which made Verzelini unpopular with London's tradesman.http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/pharos/collection_pages/northern_pages/C.4-1967/FRM_TXT_SE-C.4-1967.html

http://www.streetdirectory.com/travel_guide/33988/hobbies/the_story_of_glass_in_england.html

Jacopo Verzelini, 1522 - 1606 Glass goblet, 1578

Jacopo Verzelini was this glassmaker, who came to England in 1575 and brought great advances to English glassmaking. Queen Elizabeth granted Verzelini a patent for the Murano process of glassmaking. These techniques were then taken to the Americas by colonists, with the first American glass being produced in Jamestown, Virginia in 1608.

http://www.zimbio.com/Recycling+Glass/articles/2/A+History+of+Glass

35

SOLO 1585

https://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/ 1000-1599.html

Optics History

Giovanni Battista Benedetti (1530 – 1590), an Italian mathematician, writes “Diversarum Speculationum Mathematicarum”, and describes the use of concave mirrors and convex lenses to correct images

He made some small contributions to music and to optics. His work on the later topic included work on a camera obscura

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Benedetti.html

Lens Making in The Low Countries

Spectacle lens makers in Middelburg late C16th

Spectacles - The Treviso Fresco by Tommaso Barisinoda Modena (1326-1379) painted 1352

Spectacle Peddler

http://www.brayebrookobservatory.org/

37

SOLO Microscope

Hans Jensen or his son Zacharias Dutch lensmakers from Middleburgare credited for the invention of microscope about 1595.

http://microscopy.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/janssen.html

1595

Luckily, there was one true Jansen microscope which survived long enough to be studied. As was customary at the time, the Jansens made several versions of their new invention to give to royalty. We know that they sent one of their microscopes to Prince Maurice of Orange, and one to Archduke Albert of Austria. While neither of these instruments survived to modern times, the later of them was preserved until the early 1600's, when a Dutch diplomat and childhood friend of Zacharias Jansen named Cornelius Drebbel, examined it and recorded his observations.

The diagram shows the optics of the Jansen-style microscopes. Note that it contains a 2 lenses, and diaphragms between the tubes to cut down on glare from the crude lenses. The microscope at the Middleburg museum was said to have a magnification of 3X when fully closed, and 9X when fully extended

http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch773/zimmerman/c2.html

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/museum/janssen.html

38

Optics HistorySOLO

1604 Johannes Kepler, “Ad Vitellion Paralipomena, quibus astronomiae pars optica traditur ” (A Supplement toWitelo, on the optical part of astronomy ). Kepler assumed that the light propagates spherically from point-sources. Like Alhacen and Witelo he assumed that the transmission light and color can be resolved in individual rays within the sphere of propagation. He explained the formation of the image on the retina by the lens in a eye and correctly

described the causes of long-sightedness and short-sightedness.

http://www.aps-pub.com/proceedings/1482/480202.pdf#search='Kepler%20%26%20optics'

1604

Kepler did some work on optics, and came up with the first correct mathematical theory of the camera obscura and the first correct explanation of the working of the human eye, with an upside-down picture formed on the retina.

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Kepler.html

39

SOLO Telescope

On 2 October 1608 Hans Lippershey requested from States-General of Holland for a patent for a telescope.He failed to receive a patent but was handsomely rewarded by the Dutch overnment for copies of his design. A description of Lippershey's instrument quickly reached Galileo Galilei, who created a working design in 1609, with which he made the observations found in his Sidereus Nuncius of 1610. Galileo's telescope could see 30-times farther than the naked eye, while the "Dutch perspective glass" that Lippershey invented could only see 3-times farther than the naked eye. But Hans made a huge contribution to science by inspiring others like Galileo.

The practical invention of the telescope was done in Netherlandin 1608 and disputed by Hans Lippershey, Zacharias Jensen

spectacle makers from Middleburg and James Metius of Alkmaar.

http://microscopy.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/lippershey.html

1608

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Lippershey

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/lippershey.html

40

SOLO Telescope

In 1609 Galileo heard of Lippershey work and designed his own telescope.Galileo’s telescope had planar-convex objective (D=5.6 cm, f = 1.7 m, R = 93.5 cm) and a planar-concave eyepiece.

Galileo’s Telescope

1609

41

SOLO Telescope

The “Sidereus Nuncius” is the work in which Galileo announced the discovery of Jupiter's moons. Using drawings and illustrations, he analyzed the new celestial phenomena observed with the telescope in Padua in early 1610. The work initiated a process that would lead, in a few decades, to the acceptance of the Copernican system despite opposition from ecclesiastical authorities. The work's publication and its dedication to the Medici of Jupiter's moons (which Galileo named the "Medicean Stars") opened the path for the return of Galileo to Tuscany, Cosimo II having appointed him Granducal Mathematician and Philosopher. A few months after the “Sidereus Nuncius” appeared, the Pisan scientist observed "three-bodied Saturn," sunspots, and the phases of Venus, which provided further evidence against the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system .

1610

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=404002

42

SOLOCamera Obscura 1610

CHRISTOPHER SCHEINER (1575 - 1650)

This German Jesuit and pupil of Kircher designed and built what he called his "Pantograph" (also see 1611-1612) or, device for making optical copies. He illustrated this instrument in his 'Rosa Ursina Sive Sol' (Scheiner, C., Bracciano, Italy, 1630, Book II, ch.8, p107, and plate).

Christopher Scheiner's 'Pantograph' (above right ). The telescopic lens mounted in the front of the box (camera), can be seen extending out the window. It is believed the device was 22 metres long. The image of the sun, and sunspots were projected on the rear screen within the framework which was covered with material. Christopher Scheiner wrote his 'Rosa Ursina Sive Sol' in 1630. He illustrated this small portable camera obscura in book 2, chapter 8, and page 107 showing clearly a telescope in the aperture. Scheiner was a student of Athananius Kircher. In 1619 Scheiner shows an illustration highlighting the use of a second lens to invert the image in his 'Oculus' .

The next year he would observe sunspots. It is difficult to see in the image to the right, but the viewer is on the far side of the camera and has his head inserted in the device, and completing the drawing.

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1600.htm

Scheiner's sunspots seen through the heliograph were provided for us in his 'Rosa Ursina Sive Sol' by way of drawings (above). Clearly the camera obscura has played a vital role in other sciences. (Taken from William R. Shea, Scheiner, Christoph," Dictionary of Scientific Biography; idem, "Scheiner, and the Interpretation of Sunspots," Isis, 61 (1970):498-519).

43

Optics HistorySOLO

http://www.aps-pub.com/proceedings/1482/480202.pdf#search='Kepler%20%26%20optics'

1611 Johannes Kepler, “Dioptrics” Following Galileo’s using the telescope Kepler continued the study of light. Kepler presented the principles of convergent and divergent lens.

He suggested that a telescope can be built using a converging objective and a converging eye lens and described a combination of lenses that would later be known as telephoto lens.

Keplerian Telescope

Parabolicor

Spherical

1611

1618 Christopher Scheiner built a telescope of the type suggested by Kepler.

44

SOLOColor Theory

Finland - The oldest known color system is credited to astronomer, priest and Neoplatonist

Aron Sigfrid Forsius (1569-1637). In his color circle , between the colors Black and White, Red has been placed on the one side since the classical antiquity, and Blue on the other; Yellow then comes between White and Red, pale Yellow between White and Yellow, Orange between Yellow and Red.

http://www.coloryourcarpet.com/History/ColorHistory.html

The oldest colour system known today that's worth its name originates from the Finnish born astronomer, priest and Neoplatonist Aron Sigfrid Forsius (died 1637), sometimes also known as Siegfried Aronsen. Forsius became Professor of Astronomy in Uppsala (Sweden) in 1603, later moving as a preacher to Stockholm and beyond. He was removed from office in 1619, after being accused of making astrological prophesies.Eight years previously, a manuscript had appeared in which Forsius expounded his thoughts about colours, concluding that they could be brought into a spacial order. This 1611 text lay undiscovered in the Royal Library in Stockholm until this century, to eventually be presented before the first congress of the "International Colour Association" in 1969. It was in chapter VII — which was devoted to sight — of this work on physics that Forsius introduced his colour diagrams. He first of all discusses the five human senses, explains (for us in rather complicated and incomprehensible terms) how colours are seen, and then arrives at his colour diagrams, on the basis of which he attempts to provide a three-dimensional picture. Forsius states:"Amongst the colours there are two primary colours, white and black, in which all others have their origin." Forsius is here in agreement with Leonardo da Vinci who, more than three hundred years earlier, had included black and white amongst the colours, seeing them next to yellow, red, blue and green as primary colours. Forsius then continues:

http://www.colorsystem.com/projekte/engl/03fore.htm

1611

Aron Sigfrid Forsius )1569-1637 .(

45

Optics HistorySOLO 1612

In this work, published in 1612, Neri discusses how to produce "ordinary glass", Venetian "cristallo" glass and coloured glass, but not how to make mirrors. Concave mirrors in particular were made of metal throughout the 17th century.

Antonio Neri (1576 – 1614]) was a Florentine priest who published L’Arte Vetraria or The Art of Glass in 1612.

Neri's little book created a revolution—the elements required for high level glassmaking became widely known, and the industry spread rapidly throughout Europe, where most previous glass manufacturing undertakings had failed to approach to the quality of Venetian glasses

46

Optics HistorySOLO 1613

François d'Aguilon (also d'Aguillon or Aguilonius) (1546 - 1617) was a Belgian mathematician and physicist. .... His book, “Opticorum Libri Sex philosophis juxta ac mathematicis utiles” (Six Books of Optics, useful for philosophers and mathematicians alike), published in Antwerp in 1613, was illustrated by famous painter Peter Paul Rubens.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_d'Aguilon

Anguilonius’ system uses three basic colours, and can thus be seen as the forerunner of other systems which function in a similar way. In the pure combination of colors, he dispenses with the fourth, green, which had already caused difficulties for Leonardo da Vinci, but not without granting it a special position. In the same way as red (above), green is placed in the middle (although beneath). Both colours therefore stand opposite one another, and rightly so, since they do this in a complementary way, as Aguilonius quietly implies when he allocates a tip (a point) to red, whilst green is allowed to extend outwards as a bow. Thus, a restrained point of colour stands opposite the continuous colored line, to be combined using the stepped diagram.

http://www.colorsystem.com/projekte/engl/04ague.htm

François d‘Aguilon's color mixing theory (1613)

http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/color6.html

Peter Paul Rubens frontispiece of Aguilon's book

François d'Aguilon1567 - 1617

47

Optics HistorySOLO 1616

Nicholas Zucchi designed one of, if not the, earliest reflecting telescope in 1616. Though the practicality of the primitive instrument was poor (his design did not provide a way to keep the head of the user from intercepting most of the rays which are needed to form the focal image), by many accounts he was able to use his reflecting telescope to discover the belts of Jupiter in 1630 and examine the spots on the planet Mars ten years later. Also, at the urging of the Jesuit scientist Paul Guldin, Zucchi bestowed a reflecting telescope of his design to Kepler, who received it with such satisfaction that the dedication of his final book was to Guldin. … Zucchi described his reflecting telescope and his invention of it in the treatise Optica philosophia experimentalis et ratione a fundamentis constituta, which was published in the 1650s. The landmark work reportedly influenced James Gregory and Sir Isaac Newton, both of whom built improved reflecting telescopes in the 1660s

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/zucchi.html

The experiments of 1616 by Nicolas Zucchi or latinized Nicholaus Zucchius (1586-1670), where performed only about a decade after the first refracting telescope had been constructed in the Netherlands. Zucchius used a single concave mirror, tilted to avoid massive obstruction by the observer, and an eyepiece as telescope. His short instruments suffered heavily from astigmatism and produced only bad images

http://www.seds.org/~spider/scopes/schiefh.html

48

Optics HistorySOLO 1619

In this year Scheiner describes in his book 'Oculus' (Scheiner, 1619) the camera obscura utilizing a human figure as an actor and showing the inverted image. Scheiner, in this same manuscript shows an illustration highlighting the use of a second lens to invert the image.

CHRISTOPHER SCHEINER (1575 - 1650)

Illustration (left) from Scheiner's 'Oculus' of 1619. Here he gives a clear demonstration of a room-type camera obscura in the form of a cave or earthen hut. It clearly shows the use of a second lens in order to erect the image.

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1600.htm

49

Optics HistorySOLO 1619Cornelis Drebbel (1572 – 1633)

Cornelis Drebbel after Hendrick Goltzius

Cornelis Drebbel invented the microscope with two sets of convex lenses. He made compound microscopes as early as 1619. He also made telescopes, and he developed a machine for grinding lenses. He constructed a camera obscura with a lens in the aperture, and he had some sort of magic lantern that projected images http://www.drebbel.utwente.nl/main_en/Information/History/History.htm

Cornelis Drebbel invented (or is said to have invented) the microscope with two sets of convex lenses. He made compound microscopes as early as 1619. He also made telescopes, and he developed a machine for grinding lenses. He constructed a camera obscura with a lens in the aperture, and he had some sort of magic lantern that projected images. http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/drebbel.html

Drebbel became famous for his 1619 invention of a microscope with two convex lenses. It was the first microscope with two optical lenses. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Drebbel

Besides designing and building a workable submarine, this Dutch glass maker, engraver and engineer spoke of the camera obscura and had an important hand in the development of the magic lantern, perhaps alongside Kircher. Drebbel also commented on the relationship between art and the camera image.

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1600.htm

50

Reflection & Refraction SOLO

History of Reflection & Refraction

Willebrord van Roijen Snell1580-1626

Professor at Leyden, experimentally discovered the law of refraction in 1621

2v

1v

Refracted Ray

21ˆ n

2n

1n

i

t

1

2

sin

sin

n

n

t

i

1621

In 1621, or shortly thereafter, Snell discovered the law of refraction that today bears his name. When light rays pass obliquely from a rarer to denser medium (e.g. air to water) they are bent toward the vertical. Scientists from Ptolemy (fl. second century A.D.) to Johannes Kepler (1572-1630) had searched in vain for a law to explain this phenomenon. Ptolemy thought the angles of the incident and refracted light rays maintained a constant relationship, while Kepler had produced nothing more than approximate empirical relations. Snell's years of research revealed that it was the ratio of the sines of the angles of the incident and refracted rays to the normal that remains constant.

Though Snell never published his findings, the manuscript containing the discovery was examined by Isaacus Vossius (1618-1669) and Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695), who commented upon it in their own works. However, priority of publication goes to René Descartes (1596-1650), who presented the law without proof in his Dioptrique (1637). Huygens and others accused Descartes of plagiarism. Though Descartes's many visits to Leiden during Snell's life make the charge plausible, there seems to be no evidence to support it.

http://www.bookrags.com/biography/willebrord-snell-scit-031234/

51

Optics SOLO 1636

DANIEL SCHWENTER (1585 - 1636)

This professor of mathematics and oriental languages at Altdorf constructed what was called a scioptric ball (today's fish-eye lens). Movement of this lens-ball in the aperture of the camera allowed artists to draw or paint panoramic views. Schwenter describes this lens in his 'Deliciae Physio Mathematicae' (Schwenter, Daniel, Nurnberg, Germany, 1651, p255). Zahn (Oculus Artificialis, Zahn, Johann, Wurzburg, 1685-6) and Schott (Magia Universalis Naturae Et Artis, "The Wonders of Universal Nature and Art", Schott, Kaspar, Wurzburg, 1657, p76) both speak of the lens; Zahn as "scioptric" and Schott as "ox-eye".

Schwenter's illustration (right) of his scioptric ball, or as he called it, an "ox-eye lens". This lens provided the same effect as today's fish-eye lens (-28mm). It was constructed with two lenses mounted at opposite ends of a circular ball or sphere, made out of wood. It was secured enough to hold the lenses in place, and would also allow movement within, thereby providing a panoramic view of the image being viewed such as a landscape by simply swiveling the ball. This illustration comes from Schwenter's 'Deliciae Physio Mathematicae', published in 1636.

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1600.htm#SCHEINER

52

TelescopeSOLO 1636

Marin Mersenne1588 - 1648

Marin Mersenne proposed several forms of Reflecting Telescopesin “L’Harmonie Universelle” in 1636.

The Early Reflecting Telescopes

The invention of the compound reflecting telescope comprising of two curved mirrors,in both the Gregorian and Cassegrain forms.

Mersenne was first to propose the afocal reflecting telescope with a parallel beamentering and leaving the mirror system, i.e. a beam compressor.

He understood Cartesian theory and knew that the correction of spherical aberration for each mirror required confocal paraboloids.

http://www.brayebrookobservatory.org/

53

SOLO

History of Reflection & Refraction

René Descartes 1596-1650

René Descartes was the first to publish the law of refraction in terms of sinuses in “La Dioptrique” in 1637.

2v

1v

Refracted Ray

21ˆ n

2n

1n

i

t

Descartes assumed that the component of velocity of light parallel to the interface was unaffected, obtaining

ti vv sinsin 21

from which

1

2

sin

sin

v

v

t

i

correct1

2

sin

sin

n

n

t

i

Descartes deduced

wrong

http://www.astro.virginia.edu\class\majewski\astr511\lectures\humaneye

1637

Reflection & Refraction

54

TelescopeSOLO 1641JOHANNES HEVELIUS

Established the largest observatory in Europe spanning the rooftops of three adjoining buildings in Danzing (Gdansk).

Johannes Hevelius(Jan Hewelke)

(Jan Heweliusz)1602 - 1680

In 1641 he built an observatory on the roofs of his three connected houses, equipping it with splendid instruments, including ultimately a tubeless telescope of 45 m (150 ft.) focal length, constructed by himself.

In 1664 he was elected as a member of the Royal Society of London.

55

Camera ObscuraSOLO 1646ATHANASIUS KIRCHER (1602 - 1680)

The most mentioned name in reference to the magic lantern, Kircher describes it in his 'Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbra' (The Great Art of Light and Shadow, Kircher, A., 1st ed. vol.10, Rome, Italy, 1646) and illustrates a camera obscura of almost room size (plate 28 of vol.10, sec. 2). In the last volume he explains the magic lantern and it's use. Kircher describes a similar construction of a camera to that of Wotton's description (which was of Kepler's). Kircher also details in the book a revolving wheel of painted pictures, something which wasn't seen again until the 19th century. 'Ars Magna' (1st ed) did not include any illustration of the magic lantern however it did include a fine illustration of the camera obscura.

Camera Obscura (right) from Athanasius Kircher's Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbra (The Great Art of Light and Shadow) 1646. Originally, camera obscuras were the size of rooms and thus take their name from the latin 'dark room'. (Ars Magna, 1st ed. vol.10, plate 28 of vol.10, sec. 2, 1646)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1600.htm

56

Optics HistorySOLO 1647

Bonaventura Francesco Cavalieri

1598 - 1647

Cavalieri developed a general rule for the focal length of lenses and described a reflecting telescope.

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Cavalieri.html

http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/cavalieri.html

Bonaventura Cavalieri (Italy) describes the relationship between the radius of curvature for the surface of a thin lens and its focal length.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1600-1699.html

57

Optics HistorySOLO 1652JEAN-FRANCOIS NICERON (1613 - 1646)

In his 'La Perspective Curieuse' (Posthumously, Niceron, J., Paris, France, 1652) Niceron gives a full description of the camera obscura and it's use. Previous publications by Niceron (1638 and 1646), who wrote on perspective, drawings, lenses and mirrors, fail to mention the camera. Niceron told of charlatans who used the image making process to cheat patrons out of their purses.

From Niceron's 'La Perspective Curieuse' of 1652 (right). Niceron wanted to show that image size had to do with the distance the subject was from the lens. This illustration shows a room camera with a hung drape or sheet, and the image in it's natural state (inverted). The top half of the frame shows a subject closer to the hole and a corresponding image. The bottom half shows the object farther away and therefore proving a smaller image.

58

SOLO Speed of Light

Isaac Beeckman (1588-1637) proposed in 1629 an experiment in which one would observe the flash of a cannon reflecting off a mirror about one mail away.

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) proposed in 1638 an experiment to measure the speed of light by observing the delay between uncovering a lantern and its perception some distance away. This experiment was carried out by the Accademia del Cimento of Florence in 1667, with the lanterns separated about one mile. No delay was observed.

Robert Hooke (1635-1703) explained the negative results as Galileo had: by pointing out that such observations did not establish the infinite speed of light, but only that the speed must be very great.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people

Robert Hooke (1635-1703)

59

SOLO OPTICSEyepieces

Huyghenian eyepiece uses a large field lens, and a small eye lens. In this design, the field lens, instead of lying just past the focus of the telescope, is placed before it, preventing a graticule from being used. Christiaan Huygens

1629-1695

In 1654, Christiaan Huygens invented an eyepiece design using 2 plano-convex lenses with the curved sides toward the telescope objective. This design is an improvement over the Galilean and Keplerian designs and is still used today as original equipment in some department store telescopes. This design features a narrow field of view and short eye relief.

http://www.quadibloc.com/science/opt04.htm

http://casonline.org/focalpoint/0698.html

1654

60

SOLO Telescope

Petro Borello, published in Hague

“De Vero Telescopii Inventore”

First historical account of the

telescope and telescope makers.

1655

61

SOLO Foundation of Geometrical Optics

Fermat’s Principle (1657)

1Q

1P

2P

2Q1Q

2Q

1S

SdSS 12

2PS

1PS

2'Q

rd

s

s

The Principle of Fermat (principle of the shortest optical path) asserts that the optical length

of an actual ray between any two points is shorter than the optical ray of any other curve that joints these two points and which is in a certai neighborhood of it. An other formulation of the Fermat’s Principle requires only Stationarity (instead of minimal length).

2

1

P

P

dsn

An other form of the Fermat’s Principle is:

Princple of Least Time The path following by a ray in going from one point in space to another is the path that makes the time of transit of the associated wave stationary (usually a minimum).

The idea that the light travels in the shortest path was first put forward by Hero of Alexandria in his work “Catoptrics”, cc 100B.C.-150 A.C. Hero showed by a geometrical method that the actual path taken by a ray of light reflected from plane mirror is shorter than any other reflected path that might be drawn between the source and point of observation.

1657

62

SOLO Microscope

Marcello Malpighi (1635-1703) one of the first microscopists,considered father of embryology, observed capillarity.

1660

Malpighi used the microscope for studies on skin, kidney, and for the first interspecies comparison of the liver. He greatly extended the science of embriology. The use of microscopes enabled him to describe the development of the chick in its egg, and discovered that insects (particularly, the silk worm) do not use lungs to breathe, but small holes in their skin called tracheae. Later he falsely concluded that plants had similar tubules. However, he observed that when a ringlike portion of bark was removed on a trunk a swelling of the tissues would occur above the ring. He correctly interpreted this as growth stimulated by food coming down from the leaves, and becoming dammed up above the ring. He was the first to see capillaries and discovered the link between arteries and veins.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi

63

SOLO

James Gregory (1638 – 1675) a Scottish mathematician and astronomer professor at the University of St. Andrews and theUniversity of Edinburgh discovered the diffraction grating by passing sunlight through a bird feather and observing the diffraction produced.

Diffraction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Gregory_%28astronomer_and_mathematician%29

http://microscopy.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/gregory.html

Gregorian Telescope

James Gregory invented in 1661 the reflected telescope.His telescope uses a secondary concave mirror to collectthe reflection from a primary parabolic mirror and refocusthe image back trough a small hole in the primary mirrorto an eyepiece. Gregory didn’t built his telescope.

1661

64

SOLO Interference

Robert Boyle (1627-1691) first observed interference rings,Now known as Newton’s rings.

1663

http://thespectroscopynet.com/educational/Newton.htm

Robert Boyle 1627-1691

Boyle describes a "portable darkened room" in his 'Of The Systematicall And Cosmical Qualities Of Things" (Boyle, R., Oxford, England, 1669). This was a portable box camera which he constructed, and then described. He also talks of using oiled paper as a base and having the viewer look through a hole to see the image. He claims this camera obscura of his own, was shown years earlier (no trace of this has been found in all of Boyle's known works).

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htmhttp://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htm

65

SOLO Telescope 1664

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1600-1699.html

Robert Hooke (England) is the first to build a Gregorian reflecting telescope. He uses it to discover a new star in the constellation Orion and make observations of Jupiter and Mars.

Robert Hooke (1635-1703)

http://www.newuniverse.co.uk/hooke.html

Early attempts to build a Gregorian telescope failed, and it wasn't until ten years later, aided by the interest of experimental scientist Robert Hooke, that a working instrument was actually constructed. Gregory's design pre-dates the familiar form of reflector which Sir Isaac Newton first designed and made around 1670.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_telescope

66

SOLO Diffraction

The Grimaldi’s description of diffraction was published in1665 , two years after his death: “Physico-Mathesis de lumine,coloribus et iride”

Francesco M. Grimaldi, S.J. (1613 – 1663) professor of mathematics and physics at theJesuit college in Bolognia discovered the diffraction of light and gave it the namediffraction, which means “breaking up”.

http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/jmac/sj/scientists/grimaldi.htm

“When the light is incident on a smooth white surface it will show an illuminated base IK notable greater than the rays would make which are transmitted in straight lines through the two holes. This is proved as often as the experiment is trayed by observing how great the base IK is in fact and deducing by calculation how great the base NO ought to bewhich is formed by the direct rays. Furter it should not beomitted that the illuminated base IK appears in the middlesuffused with pure light, and either extremity its light iscolored.”

Single SlitDiffraction

Double SlitDiffraction

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Maria_Grimaldi

1665

http://www.coelum.com/calanca/grimaldi_de_lumine.htm

67

SOLO Microscope

Robert Hooke (1635-1703) work in microscopy is described in “Micrographia” published in 1665. Contains investigations of the colours of thin plates of mica, a theory of light as a transverse vibration motion (in 1672).

1665

Robert Hooke (1635-1703)

Robert Hooke reports in

“Micrographia” (Small Drawings), the discovery of the rings of light formed by a layer of air between two glass plates, first observed by Robert Boyle. In the same work he gives the matching-wave-front derivation of reflection and refraction. The waves travel through aether.

Robert Hooke also assumed that the white light is a simple disturbance and colors are complex distortion of the white light. This theory was refuted later by Newton.

Robert Hooke’s compoundmicroscope: on the leftthe illumination device(an oil lamp), onthe right the microscope.slices of cork flea

68

SOLO

Newton experiment white light and a dispersion prism

A beam of white light passing through a prismis decomposed in a spectrum of colors.

http://phyun5.ucr.edu/~wudka/Physics7/Notes_www/node58.html

Using a second prism the decomposedspectrum is composed obtaining the whitelight.

If only a single color is allow to reachthe second prism, using a screen, onlythis color will be at the output of theprism.

1666

Isaac Newton1542 - 1727

Optics History

69

SOLO Telescope

Using Gregory ideas Newton built a reflecting telescope in 1668.

Newtonian Telescope

http://microscopy.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1600-1699.html

1668

Isaac Newton1542 - 1727

70

Polarization

Erasmus Bartholinus, doctor of medicine and professor of mathematics at the University of Copenhagen, showed in 1669 that crystals of “Iceland spar” (which we now call calcite, CaCO3) produced two refracted rays from a single incident beam. One ray, the “ordinary ray”, followed Snell’s law, while the other, the “extraordinary ray”, was not always even in the plan of incidence.

SOLO

Erasmus Bartholinus1625-1698

CalciteCalcite

10971 e - ray

o - ray

e - ray

o - ray

http://www.polarization.com/history/history.html

1669

71

SOLO TelescopeParis Observatory

1671

Giovanni Domenico Cassini (1625 - 1712)

Its foundation lies in the ambitions of Jean-Baptiste Colbert promoted its construction starting in 1667 its being completed in 1671. The architect was probably Claude Perrault. Optical instruments were supplied by Giuseppe Campani. The buildings were extended in 1730, 1810, 1834, 1850, and 1951.

Cassini was an astronomer at the Panzano Observatory, from 1648 to 1669. He was a professor of astronomy at the University of Bologna and became, in 1671, director of the Paris Observatory, until his death

in 1712, when it was followed by his son Jacques Cassini (1677 -1756) . He thoroughly adopted his new country, to the extent that he became interchangeably known as Jean-Dominique Cassini.

Along with Robert Hooke, Cassini is given credit for the discovery of the Great Red Spot on Jupiter (ca. 1665). Cassini was the first to observe four of Saturn's moons, which he called Sidera Lodoicea; he also discovered the Cassini Division (1675). Around 1690, Cassini was the first to observe differential rotation within Jupiter's atmosphere.

72

SOLO 1671Camera ObscuraATHANASIUS KIRCHER (1602 - 1680)

Kircher published his second, and expanded edition of 'Ars Magna' and gives two illustrations of his lantern. On pages 768 and 769 Kircher names Walgensten as having a fine lantern, but still claims the magic lantern as his own. He also described a revolving disk similar to the rotating wheel of his 1646 edition. He referred to this as a 'Smicroscopin'. The story of Christ's death, burial and resurrection are depicted in eight separate slides, or scenes. His illustration of the magic lantern in this edition (Amsterdam) clearly show the direction of his thinking, when we see the possibility of movement using successive slides.

Kircher's revised Ars Magna of 1671 provides a wonderful cut-out illustration (above right) of his magic lantern. The drawing clearly shows the lens, mirror, light source (lamp), slides and image on the wall. Kircher claimed he was the inventor. The slides are offered in the inverted position in order to provide an upright presentation. Notice the reflecting mirror for greater illumination.

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athanasius_Kircher

73

SOLO

http://physics.nad.ru/Physics/English/index.htm

Prisms

Colorλ0 (nm)υ [THz]

Red

Orange

Yellow

Green

Blue

Violet

780 - 622

622 - 597

597 - 577

577 - 492

492 - 455

455 - 390

384 – 482

482 – 503

503 – 520

520 – 610

610 – 659

659 - 769

1 nm = 10-9m, 1 THz = 1012 Hz

1

2/1

1

221

1 sincossinsinsin iii n

In 1672 Newton wrote “A New Theory about Light and Colors” in which he said thatthe white light consisted of a mixture of various colors and the diffraction was color dependent.

1672Optics History

Run This

74

SOLO Telescope

Cassegrainian Telescope

Laurent Cassegrain (1629 - 1693) designed a reflecting telescope in 1672, similar to the Gregorian, but having a secondary hyperbolic mirror.

Gregorian Telescope

1672

75

TelescopeSOLO 1673JOHANNES HEVELIUS

Johannes Hevelius(Jan Hewelke)

(Jan Heweliusz)1602 - 1680

Hevelius built a 150-foot refracting telescope on the shore of the Baltic Sea in 1673.

The 150-foot telescope was too long to be encased in an expensive and heavy iron tube, and a paper tube would have fallen apart. So Hevelius arranged the lenses in a wooden trough, suspended the whole thing from a 90-foot pole, and used ropes, pulleys, and a team of workmen to operate it from the ground.

Hevelius used the new understanding of how lenses worked to improve his refracting telescopes. The flatter the telescope’s primary lens, the longer it took the light rays to meet and focus. This produced a clearer image but meant that the two lenses in a telescope had to be placed further apart.

76

SOLO Glass History 1674

The development of lead crystal has been attributed to the English glassmaker George Ravenscroft (1618-1681), who patented his new glass in 1674. He had been commissioned to find a substitute for the Venetian crystal produced in Murano and based on pure quartz sand and potash. By using higher proportions of lead oxide instead of potash, he succeeded in producing a brilliant glass with a high refractive index which was very well suited for deep cutting and engraving.

George Ravenscroft (1618-1681)

Ravenscroft’s glass works were set up in two locations, the primary facility being established in Savoy, London in 1673 and a secondary, temporary facility set up between 1674 and 1675 in Henley-on-Thames

]]. Early Ravenscroft glass (1674-1676) developed crizzling (gradual, unstoppable deterioration

characterized by numerous cracks, making the glass look cloudy) quickly (within 1-2 years) because of some fault in the type or components of the glass-making mixture; excessive alkaline salts or insufficient amounts of lime, which acts as a stabilizer, have been suggested as possible causes. No early pieces are known to exist today.

The crizzling resulted in damage to the reputation of the company, and Ravenscroft and his team worked to fix the problem[2]. Ravenscroft announced in 1676 that the crizzling problem had been resolved and that the new, improved glass vessels would bear a raven’s head seal to distinguish them from earlier, faulty pieces[4]. A small number of glass vessels bearing the raven’s head seal exist today, some of which have crizzled and some of which have not[3].

More pieces created by Ravenscroft may exist, but in the absence of the raven’s head seal, which he stopped using in about 1677[5], or any descriptions or drawings of his designs it is difficult to positively attribute particular pieces to him[4]. Some pieces thought to strongly resemble Ravenscroft’s work bear an “S” seal; some have suggested that the “S” stands for “Savoy,” Ravenscroft’s main production facility [5], while others believe that the “S” stands for “Southwark,” indicating the South London glassworks of John Bowles and William Lillington

SOLO Camera Obscura 1674

CLAUDE FRANCOIS MILLIET DE CHALES (1621 - 1678)

Well versed in many sciences, this French mathematician, and professor of humanities and hydrography at the University of Marseilles, actually said he did not invent the magic lantern. He wrote two editions of his monumental 'Cursus Seu Mundus Mathematicus' (De Chales, F., M., 1st ed. 1674, 2nd ed. 1690, Paris, France) where he improved on the already well known lantern by tackling focus, focal point, better illumination and a sharper image. He also illustrates (1st ed. 1674, vol.ii, p666) the lantern of Walgensten in this book. De Chales also suggested the idea of introducing glass slides from the side, and showing them in succession.

The 'motion' of the magic lantern comes to life in this slide of German origin. Four simple pictures from left to right tell the story of the painter and the prankster. De Chales introduced the idea of successive glass slides on a horizontal plain in 1674. See also Zahn 1685. (Courtesy The International Arts, Antiques and Collectibles Forum)

78

SOLO Microscope

Antoine van Leeuwenhoek 1675

1675

Leeuwenhoek is known to have made over 500 "microscopes," of which fewer than ten have survived to the present day. In basic design, probably all of Leeuwenhoek's instruments -- certainly all the ones that are known -- were simply powerful magnifying glasses, not compound microscopes of the type used today. A drawing of one of Leeuwenhoek's "microscopes" is shown at the left. Compared to modern microscopes, it is an extremely simple device, using only one lens, mounted in a tiny hole in the brass plate that makes up the body of the instrument. The specimen was mounted on the sharp point that sticks up in front of the lens, and its position and focus could be adjusted by turning the two screws. The entire instrument was only 3-4 inches long, and had to be held up close to the eye; it required good lighting and great patience to use.

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/leeuwenhoek.html

79

SOLO TelescopeThe Greenwich Royal Observatory

1675

The Greenwich Royal Observatory was designed and built by Sir Christopher Wren in 1675.

The Octagon Roomhttp://www.brayebrookobservatory.org/

Sir Christopher Wren1632 - 1723

In 1661, Wren was elected Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford, and in 1669 he was appointed Surveyor of Works to Charles II. From 1661 until 1668 Wren's life was based in Oxford, although the Royal Society meant that he had to make occasional trips to London.

His scientific works ranged from astronomy, optics, the problem of finding longitude at sea, cosmology, mechanics, microscopy, surveying, medicine and meteorology. He observed, measured, dissected, built models, and employed, invented and improved a variety of instruments. It was also around these times that his attention turned to architecture.

80

SOLO

Röemer’s Method

In 1676 Röemer measured the speed of light using the times of the eclipses of theSatellites of the planet Jupiter.

Speed of Light

Röemer studied at Copenhagen under Erasmus Bartholinus who discovered the double refraction of light passing to a crystal ofIceland Spar. He went to Paris as an astronomer of the Académie Royale des Sciences.

Röemer measured the time of the eclipse of the Jupiter innermost moon (that has the orbit in the same plan as Jupiter orbit around the sun). He found that the interval T, between the successive eclipsesof the satellite by Jupiter, increased as the Earth – Jupiter distanceincreases and vice versa. He attribute this to the finite speed of light.

Röemer measurements to travel a distance of radius ofEarth was 11 min (the correct number is 8 min 18 s).Röemer calculated the speed f light to be 137.000 miles/sor 220,000 km/s which is 25% lower than the real value.

1676

81

SOLOMicroscope

1677

The first binocular microscope was invented by the Capuchin monk . Because his instrument consisted of two inverting systems, it produced a pseudoscopic impression of depth by accident, although not recognized by microscopists of the time.

CHERUBIN D'ORLEANS (1613 - 1697)

The instrument subsequently fell into complete neglect for nearly two centuries. It was revived in 1852 by Charles Wheatstone, who published his ideas in his second great paper "On Binocular Vision," in the Philosophical Transactions for 1852. Wheatstone's paper stimulated the investigation of binocular vision and many variations of pseudoscopes were created, chief types being the mirror or the prismatic. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudoscope

A Capuchin father and distinguished physicist, Chérubin d'Orléans (real name François Lasséré) devoted himself to the study of optics and to vision-related problems, which he discussed in La Dioptrique Oculaire and La vision parfaite (Paris, 1671 and 1677 respectively). He invented the first binocular telescope. He devised and may also have built a special type of eyepiece that replaced the lens with a short tube. Chérubin is also credited with producing models of the eyeball for studying the lens function of the eye.

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=300133 http://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htm

An illustration (right) from the book 'La Dioptrique Oculaire' of 1671 by Cherubin d'Orleans. D'Orlean's version of a camera obscura showing the light rays and their inversion at the aperture.

82

SOLOMicroscope

1677CHERUBIN D'ORLEANS (1613 - 1697)

The instrument consists of four rectangular sections containing two small telescopes: the eyepieces are at the larger end, the objectives at the smaller. All the sections are made of wood; they are painted black on the inside, and on the outside, the largest section is covered with black grained leather, the others are covered with green leather with gold tooling and with the coat-of-arms of the Medici family in the centre. On the edges is the image of a cherub, the symbolic signature of the maker. The two inner tubes, in parchment, are now incomplete in some parts. The composite eyepiece is formed of three lenses. This binocular telescope is described for the first time in the work by the Capuchin friar Chérubin d'Orléans, La dioptrique oculaire [Ocular dioptrics], published in 1671 in Paris. The presence of the Medici coat-of-arms indicates that Chérubin himself made the instrument for Cosimo III de' Medici, probably in the 1670s. This instrument can enlarge objects 15 times.

V.43 Binocular telescope c. 1675Medici Collection Chérubin d'OrléansWood, leather, grained leatherLength circa 1050 mm

http://www.imss.fi.it/news/cielimedicei/06/estrumento2.html

83

SOLOMicroscope

1678

Jan Swammerdam (1637 – 1680)

Dutch naturalist, considered the most accurate of classical microscopists, who was the first to observe and describe red blood cells (1658). Swammerdam completed medical studies in 1667 but never practiced

medicine, devoting himself to microscopical investigations instead .

In March of 1678, Swammerdam included drawings of the microscope illustrated here in a letter to his mentor that described several experiments and observations. The single-lens microscope bears a striking resemblance to instruments made during this period by Johan Joosten van Musschenbroek in Leiden. Effectively a very small magnifying glass, the microscope is designed to be held in one hand while observing specimens. In practice microscopes having this design are very difficult to use because the specimen almost touches the lens, while the observer has to place their eye close to the lens in order to view the specimen.

http://microscope.fsu.edu/primer/museum/swammerdam1670.html

http://www.janswammerdam.net/portrait.html

84

Reflection & Refraction SOLO

History of Reflection & Refraction

Christiaan Huygens1629-1695

In a communication to the Academie des Science in 1678 reported his wave theory (published in his “Traité de Lumière” in 1690). He considered that light is transmitted through an all-pervading aether that is made up of small elastic particles, each of each can act as a secondary source of wavelets. On this basis Huygens explained many of the known properties of light, including the double refraction in calcite.

1678

http://posner.library.cmu.edu/Posner/books/book.cgi?call=535.3_H98T_1690

85

Telescope SOLO

Christiaan Huygens1629-1695

1681

Christiaan Huygens invented the Aerial Refractor in 1681.

Aerial Refractor 123-foot telescope with 7.5 inch object glassmounted in a short iron tube on a ball andsocket joint.

Lens carrier slid in a groove within a tall pole.

Eyepiece supported by pair of wooden feet,and attached by a wire.

http://www.brayebrookobservatory.org/

OpticsSOLO1683

Trade card for John Yarwell, St Paul’s Church Yard, London, 1683.

Trade card of English optical instrument maker, John Yarwell of St Paul's Churchyard, London dated 1683. The card is illustrated with a wide selection of drawtube telescopes, one of which is shown being used by a seated gentleman. Next to this telescope is a triangular glass prism displayed lengthways along with two compound microscopes on the table. The remaining instruments on Yarwell's card are eye glasses in the form of hand lenses and a pair of pince-nez armless spectacles that are worn on the nose.

87

SOLO Camera Obscura

1685JOHANN ZAHN (1631 - 1707)

http://www.luikerwaal.com/newframe_uk.htm?/boeken_uk.htm

Zahn published in Wurzburg 'Oculus Artificialis Teledioptricus Sive Telescopium' (Zahn, J., Wurzburg, 1685-6). In this wondrous book, we find many descriptions and illustrations of both the camera obscura and magic lantern. Zahn used the lantern for anatomical lectures, illustrated a large workshop camera obscura for solar observations using the telescope and scioptric ball, demonstrated the use of mirrors and lenses to erect the image, enlarge and focus it. Zahn also designed several portable camera obscuras for drawing using the 45 degree mirror, and used side flaps to shield unwanted light. Zahn's camera obscuras were the closest thing to what 19th century cameras were. Zahn gave credit for the magic lantern to Kircher and mentions Schott and De Chales in his references. Zahn also suggested the presentation of images under water and proceeded to explain, and stressed the importance of hiding the magic lantern out of sight of the audience. This book also goes on to show how time (a clock) can be projected onto a larger screen, and how wind direction can be seen by having a connection from the lantern to a wind vane on the roof of the building. Zahn even foresaw the use of the lantern to project the image on glass which allowed several to view at one time, as opposed to the camera obscura which was limited largely to one observer at a time [excepting the room camera] (as the kinetoscope surpassed the mutoscope for the same reason).

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1650.htm

88

SOLO Microscope

1686Campani's Wooden Screw-Barrel Microscope

Joseph (Giuseppe) Campani ( 1635-1715 ), a well-known and popular Italian microscope and telescope designer, built this screw-focusing compound microscope about 1686. This simple microscope conforms to typical Italian design motifs of the period.

The Campani microscope features a dual screw-barrel focus that allows for adjustment between the specimen and the objective and also between the objective and eyepiece. The total body extension of this microscope covers a large range with the fully extended microscope being five inches tall and falling to three inches when the objective and eyepiece are positioned as close to the sample as possible. The specimen slide is secured between two plates located at the base of the microscope. Illumination for the microscope could be derived from either reflected ambient light or the microscope could be inverted to use the sky or a candle as a transmitted light source. This dual purpose illumination design allowed microscopists to examine both transparent specimens and the surface of opaque objects, such as wounds and scars (a major interest at the time).He worked in close assistance with the other famous Italian optician, Eustachio Divini. Divini and Campani competed in making better microscope and telescope lenses, and according to an anonymous correspondent of the Parisian correspondent of the Philosophical Transactions, in 1665 Campani’s telescope lenses were found to be of superior quality.Campani published a volume on microscopes in 1686, entitled Descriptio Novi Microscopii. Many Campani microscopes have survived to our days. Nowadays, they can be found in the Museum Boerhaave, Leiden, in the Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris, at the University of Bologna, in the Landesmuseum Kassel,  and in the Billings Collection.

89

SOLO Glass History

1688

Advances in Glass Making from France

In 1688, in France, a new process was developed for the production of plate glass, principally for use in mirrors, whose optical qualities had, until then, left much to be desired. The molten glass was poured onto a special table and rolled out flat. After cooling, the plate glass was ground on large round tables by means of rotating cast iron discs and increasingly fine abrasive sands, and then polished using felt disks. The result of this "plate pouring" process was flat glass with good optical transmission qualities. When coated on one side with a reflective, low melting metal, high-quality mirrors could be produced.France also took steps to promote its own glass industry and attract glass experts from Venice; not an easy move for Venetians keen on exporting their abilities and know-how, given the history of discouragement of such behaviour (at one point, Venetian glass craftsmen faced death threats if they disclosed glassmaking secrets or took their skills abroad). The French court, for its part, placed heavy duties on glass imports and offered Venetian glassmakers a number of incentives: French nationality after eight years and total exemption from taxes, to name just two.

'Polished Plate' first produced in France in larger sizes by casting and hand polishing. Polished plate is made by casting glass from a crucible into pan-shaped moulds and then grinding and polishing the surface until it is smooth. This was originally down by hand but later by machine

http://www.glassonline.com/infoserv/history.html

http://www.tangram.co.uk/TI-Glazing-Glass_Timeline.html

90

Telescope SOLO1690

Elisabeth Hevelius

Elisabeth Catherina Koopmann Hevelius (1647 - 1693) also called Elżbieta Heweliusz (in Polish) was the second wife of Johannes Hevelius. Like her husband, she was also an astronomer.Elisabeth Koopmann (or Kaufmann, German: merchant) was, like Hevelius and his first wife, a member of a rich merchant family in the Hanseatic League city of Danzig.Her marriage to Hevelius in 1663 allowed her to pursue her own interest in astronomy by helping him manage his observatory in Danzig. Following his death in 1687, she completed and published Prodromus astronomiae (1690), their jointly compiled catalogue of 1,564 stars and their positions.She is considered the first female astronomer, and called "the mother of moon charts".

Johannes Hevelius and Elisabeth making observations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth_Hevelius

91

SOLO

Huygens Principle

Christiaan Huygens1629-1695

Every point on a primary wavefront serves the source of spherical secondary wavelets such that the primary wavefront at some later time is the envelope o these wavelets. Moreover, the wavelets advance with a speed and frequency equal to that of the primary wave at each point in space.

Wavefront

tvSources

“We have still to consider, in studying the spreading of these waves, that each particle of matter in which a wave proceeds not only communicates its motion to the next particle to it, which is on the straight line drawn from the luminous point, but it also necessarily gives a motion to all the other which touch it and which oppose its motion. The result is that around each particle there arises a wave of which this particle is a center.”

Huygens visualized the propagation of light in terms of mechanical vibration of an elastic medium (ether).

Diffraction 1690

Page from “Traité de Lumière”

92

SOLO

Reflection Laws Development Using Huygens Principle

A

Medium with refractive index n1and light velocity v1

Medium with refractive index n2and light velocity v2

B

C

D

A G

HFi r

Suppose a planar incident waveAB is moving toward the boundary AC between two media. The velocityof light in the first media is v1.

The incident rays are reflected at the boundary AB. At the time the incident ray passing through B isreaching the boundary at C, thereflected ray at A will reach D andthe ray passing through F will be reflected at G and reaches H.

According to Huygens Principle a reflected wavefront CHD, normal to the reflected rays AD, GH is formed and CBGHFGAD

ADCABC

DCABAC ri &From the geometry

DCABAC

ri

Reflection & Refraction

Page from “Traité de Lumière”

Run This

93

SOLO

Refraction Laws Development Using Huygens Principle

A

Medium with refractive index n1and light velocity v1

Medium with refractive index n2and light velocity v2

B

C

E

A G H’

F

i

t

Suppose a planar incident waveAB is moving toward the boundary AC between two media. The velocityof light in the first media is v1.

The incident rays are refracted at the boundary AB. At the time the incident ray passing through B isreaching the boundary at C, therefracted ray at A will reach E andthe ray passing through F will be refracted at G and reaches H.

According to Huygens Principle a reflected wavefront CH’E, normal to the refracted rays AD, GH’ is formed and tvCBtvAE 12

ECABAC ti &From the geometry

ACAEECAACBCBAC /sin&/sin 2

1

sin

sin

v

v

EA

BC

t

i

Reflection & Refraction

Page from “Traité de Lumière”

Run This

SOLO 1692Optics History

WILLIAM MOLYNEUX

A professor at Trinity College in Dublin, Molyneux in his 'Dioptica Nova' (Treatise on Dioptics, Molyneux, W., Dublin, 1692) which was published two years after it was written, devoted a whole section to the magic lantern and the camera obscura. His book also contained on the last page, an advertisement for such things, from a London dealer. On page 181, table 38, figure 2, Molyneux illustrates his lantern clearly showing a condensing lens, and described the painted scenes as "frightful and ludicrous". A combination of lenses were used to provide telescopic effects and a long throw. Molyneux's work is very likely the first English account in scientific terms of this art-science.

Molyneux's magic lantern (above) of 1690, (published in 1692) from 'Dioptica Nova' (Treatise on Dioptics, Molyneux, W., Dublin, fig2, tab38, p181, 1692). This illustration shows a simple candle as the source of illumination and a condensing lens. Notice the object being projected is a cross, and is upside down in front of the lens (h) in order to give an upright image, as opposed to the other way around which was the norm in almost all other illustrations you see of the magic lantern (excepting Cheselden and Kircher).

Molyneux had completed work on his book Dioptrica Nova while in Chester. The book had the full title Dioptrica Nova, A treatise of dioptricks in two parts, wherein the various effects and appearances of spherick glasses, both convex and concave, single and combined, in telescopes and microscopes, together with their usefulness in many concerns of humane life, are explained; It was published in the first months of 1692. The first part of the book consists of telescope optics, microscopes, and magic lanterns. It presents 59 propositions, three of which were due to Flamsteed, and Molyneux acknowledges this. He had obtained Flamsteed’s permission to include them but somehow Flamsteed was displeased and their friendship came to an end at this point. The second part of the book contains miscellaneous material such as refraction and light, grinding lens for telescopes, how to find foci of lenses, testing a telescope, an the relationship between the focal lengths of the objective and the eyepiece.

William Molyneux1656 - 1698

95

SOLO

Newton published “Opticks”1704

In this book he addresses:• mirror telescope• theory of colors• theory of white lite components• colors of the rainbow • Newton’ s rings • polarization• diffraction • light corpuscular theory

Newton threw the weight of his authority on thecorpuscular theory. This conviction was due to thefact that light travels in straight lines, and none of the waves that he knew possessed this property.

Newton’s authority lasted for one hundred years,and diffraction results of Grimaldi (1665) and Hooke (1672), and the view of Huygens (1678) were overlooked.

Optics History

96

SOLO 1704MicroscopeJohn Marshall's Compound Microscope This instrument was illustrated in John Harris' "Lexicon Technicum" on 1704.  It features significant improvements in the design of the compound microscope.  A fine focus knob (letter "F" in the illustration) lowered and raised the microscope over the subject.  It is set up here to show the circulation of blood in a fish.

John Marshall (1663-1712)

Born in London, he was—with John Yarwell—the leading English microscope maker of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. In his workshop he sold telescopes and microscopes, but his catalogues also advertised other instruments such as burning mirrors, magic lanterns, and spectacles.

97

SOLO Fiber Optics History

René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur (France 1683-1757)

1713

Réaumur was in his own time regarded--correctly--as one of the greatest of scientists. Réaumur did productive work on a remarkable range of subjects, including iron and steel technology, slate-working, porcelain manufacture, egg incubation and preservation, the malleability of metals, tin-plating, temperature measurement (he invented both the Réaumur alcohol thermometer and the Réaumur temperature scale), locomotion in invertebrates, insect behavior (especially of bees), parthenogenesis in aphids, lost limb regeneration, digestion in birds (he showed digestion to be primarily a chemical instead of mechanical process), and much more.

1713: invents spun glass fibers (such as are still used in fiber optics)

98

SOLO

Robert Smith (1689 – 1768) “A Compleat System of Opticks”

Optics History 1726

This is a French translation by L. Pézenas (1767) of the English original by Robert Smith “A Compleat System of Opticks” (1726)

http://www.coelum.com/calanca/smith_cours_optique.htm

In the first part it addresses the experimental optics.The second part discusses geometrical optics, refraction, reflection and aberrationof telescopes and microscopes.

99

SOLO

Bradley’s Method The Aberration of Light

In 1727 the English astronomer James Bradley discovered an apparent motion of the stars which he explained as due to the earth motion in its orbit.

Speed of Light 1727

100

Microscopes SOLO 1728

This is an instrument made by the Englishman, Edmund Culpeper (c. 1670-1738). He also made other instruments such as theodolites, sectors, sundials and quadrants. His output of microscopes included not only the three-pillar instrument shown here, but screw-barrel microscopes as well.The wooden pyramidal case for this instrument has Culpeper's trade card glued to the inside of the back panel. The exact date of its construction in not known, but it is likely in the period of 1730 to 1735.The sliding body tubes, made of cardboard covered by tooled green leather (inner tube) and shagreen (the rough dried skin of sharks or rays, on the outer tube), are connected by brass, turned tripod legs to a circular stage with a recessed central opening. The stage, in turn, rests on three similar legs which are fixed into the circular wooden base.The concave mirror attaches to the base as well, an original idea of Culpeper's, allowing transparent objects to be viewed by reflection of light from the mirror .

http://gen.culpepper.com/interesting/medicine/edmund.htm

The most common compound microscope of the 18th C. First sold by the Englishman Edmund Culpeper (1660-1738), who modernized the Italian tripod microscope by adding a substage reflecting mirror. The body-tube, made of wood, glued pasteboard, and leather, is inserted in a cylindrical support covered in rayfish skin. The cylinder is held by three supports fastened to a circular wooden base. Later models featured a box foot with a drawer for accessories.

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=202401

Edmund Culpeper’s Microscopes

http://microscope.fsu.edu/primer/museum/culpeper.htmlCulpeper was the first to use a concave mirror placed in the optical path to illuminate the

sample .

101

SOLO

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optics

From “Cyclopaedia” or “An Universal Dictionary of Art and Science”,Published by Ephraim Chambers (1680 – 1740)in London in 1728

1728Optics History

http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/HistSciTech/subcollections/CyclopaediaAbout.shtml

102

SOLOColor Theory

1731 - France - Jacques Christopher Le Blon, (1667-1742), invented the fundamental three-color palette and demonstrated his system with many dyes, however he did not extend his ideas to a properly organised colour-system.

Jacob Christoph Le Blon was a German-born painter and engraver who invented the system of three-color and four-colour printing (similar to the modern CMYK system). He used several metal plates (each for an individual colour) for making prints with a wide range of colours. His methods formed the foundation for modern colour printing.His names are sometimes spelled Jakob, Jacques, Christophe, Leblon, Le Blond.[3]

1731

The First Tri Color Printing Process

103

MicroscopeSOLO 1738

Johann Nathanael Lieberkuhn was a German physician, anatomist, and physicist. He is most widely known for development of the solar microscope, studies of the intestine, and invention of a reflector for improving microscopic viewing of opaque specimens. He was also a member of the mathematics department at the Berlin Academy of Sciences and created a lens that enhanced the use of early portable microscopes for botanical fieldwork.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/lieberkuhn.html

Johann Nathanael Lieberkuhn (Germany) invents a reflective attachment (speculum) for microscopes. Made of polished metal, it increases the amount of light illuminating a specimen.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1700-1799.html

In 1738 Lieberkuhn invented a microscope for illuminating opaque objects. Its principle was based on Fahrenheit's solar microscope, and it had a small, concave, highly polished silver speculum. This enabled the sun's rays to reflect directly on the object being examined. This speculum was later named after him. Lieberkuhn described for the first time the structure and function of the glands attached to the villi, in the intestine. These became known as Lieberkuhnian glands. He also devised special microscopes which enabled fluid motion in living animals to be seen in detail, and to better understand the circulatory vessels. http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image=10419526&wwwflag=2&imagepos=8

104

MicroscopeSOLO 1738

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1700-1799.html

Benjamin Martin, an English instrument maker, develops the "First Universal Microscope," a portable and versatile microscope. He later designs a small simple microscope he calls the "pocket reflecting microscope." Later it is called the drum microscope and becomes very popular, remaining so throughout most of the 1800s.

http://microscopy.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/martin.html

Basic construction of the pocket microscope consists of two tubes, the body tube housing two bi-convex lenses and the outer tube, which acts as a stand for the body tube. The outer tube is made of cardboard and covered with dyed rayskin, a popular choice of finishing material in the period. Focusing is accomplished by sliding the body tube up and down within the outer tube. The microscope is relatively small, being only about six inches tall with the draw tube fully extended. The outer tube has a large opening at the front of the base to allow the entry of light to illuminate the specimen by means of a large concave mirror fitted into the base. The specimens were mounted on a special slider, usually made from ivory or wood, that was placed into a small opening in the back of the microscope. In the many variations of this microscope, the body tube was made of either lignum vitae (a hard black wood), brass, or cardboard. The eyepiece used a bi-convex lens and the microscope was not fitted with a field lens. Several interchangeable low-power objectives were used with the microscope, which was one of the first to feature a built-in micrometer (a thin wire connected to a circular dial).

105

SOLO

Chester Moor Hall (1704 – 1771) designed in secrecy the achromatic lens. He experienced with different kinds of glass until he found in 1729 a combination of convex component formed from crown glass with a concave component formed from flint glass, but he didn’t request for a patent.

http://microscopy.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/dollond.html

In 1750 John Dollond learned from George Bass on Hall achromatic lens and designedhis own lenses, build some telescopes and urged by his sonPeter (1739 – 1820) applied for a patent.

Born & Wolf,”Principles of Optics”, 5th Ed.,p.176

Chromatic Aberration

In 1733 he built several telescopes with apertures of 2.5” and 20”. To keep secrecyHall ordered the two components from different opticians in London, but they subcontract the same glass grinder named George Bass, who, on finding that bothLenses were from the same customer and had one radius in common, placed themin contact and saw that the image is free of color.

The other London opticians objected and took the case to court, bringing Moore-Hall as a witness. The court agree that Moore-Hall was the inventor, but the judge Lord Camden, ruled in favor of Dollond saying:”It is not the person who locked up his invention in the scritoire that ought to profit by a patent for such invention, but he who brought it forth for the benefit of the public”

1733 - 1750Optics History

106

SOLO 1740History of Optics

Louis Bertrand Castel (15 November 1688 – 9 January 1757) was a French mathematician born in Montpellier, and entered the order of the Jesuits in 1703. Having studied literature, he afterwards devoted himself entirely to mathematics and natural philosophy. He wrote several scientific works, that which attracted most attention at the time being his “Optique des Couleurs” (1740), or treatise on the melody of colors

Louis Bertrand Castel published a criticism of Newton's spectral description of prismatic colour in which he observed that the colours of white light split by a prism depended on the distance from the prism, and that Newton was looking at a special case. It was an argument that Goethe later (1810) developed in his Theory of Colours Castel himself theorized that vibrations produced color, just as they produced sounds.  He concluded, therefore, that colors and sounds were analogous, which led him to attempt to develop the “ocular harpsichord” described in this book.  The harpsichord was supposed to display colors in correspondence with particular notes.  He had originally meant for the harpsichord to remain theoretical, but the skepticism of his critics caused him to spend thirty years trying to construct such an instrument.

107

SOLO 1742Microscope

Baker published two books on microscopy, “The Microscope Made Easy” (1742) and “Employment for the Microscope “ (1753), that were extremely popular throughout the eighteenth century. In fact, “The Microscope Made Easy” had run through five editions by 1769, and both were translated into French and Dutch. Continually enthralled with the wonders of the universe revealed through a microscope, Baker spent many years of his life dedicated to instilling the same reverence in others. In “The Microscope Made Easy”, he writes:"The works of nature are the only source of true knowledge, and the study of them the most noble employment of the mind of man.... Microscopes furnish us as it were with a new sense, unfolding the amazing operations of nature, and presenting us with wonders unthought of by former ages."

In 1744, his study of crystal morphology garnered Baker the Copley Gold Medal for his microscopical work and inspired other scientists to engage in systematic microscopic studies of crystalline formations. Many of the materials he examined were observed through a compound microscope made by the English optics expert John Cuff (1708-1772), which he designed at Baker's behest.

108

SOLO

Born & Wolf, “Principles of Optics”, 5th Ed., Historical Introduction, p. xxiii

Wave Theory

1746

Because of the authority of Isaac Newton the wave theory was rejected for a century.

A supporter of the wave theory, in this period, was Leonhard Euler, who published“Opuscula varii argumenti”, Berlin, 1746

Euler made important contributions in optics. He disagreed with Newton's corpuscular theory of light in the Opticks, which was then the prevailing theory. His 1740's papers on optics helped ensure that the wave theory of light proposed by Christian Huygens would become the dominant mode of thought, at least until the development of the quantum theory of light.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler

Leonhard Euler1707 – 1783

Portrait by Johann Georg Brucker

Optics History

“Nova theoria lucis et colorum” (A new theory of light and colors) 1746an article from “Opuscula varii argumenti”,

http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/

109

SOLO 1748Optics History

Buffon’s studied light, mirrors, and lenses. His method of constructing concave mirrors continues to be used in modern times and one of his inventions was a special mirror that could be used as a weapon by focusing sunlight intensely onto flammable objects. He is most important in optics, however, for his realization in 1748 that only the outer surface of a lens is necessary for the bending of light. This discovery was especially significant to the shipping industry, which was heavily dependent on lighthouses to keep ships from running aground or becoming lost at sea. In the eighteenth century, France was interested in constructing numerous new lighthouses along its coasts, but the traditional two-sided lenses used were extremely large and heavy as well as costly. By cutting away the inner surface of lighthouse lenses, however, as suggested by Buffon, the government could more easily establish the new structures and at a much more reasonable price. Notably, Buffon’s redesign of the lens did not increase its magnification capacity. This important improvement would come several decades later at the hands of the French physicist Augustin Fresnel.

http://microscopy.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/buffon.html

110

SOLO

John Cuff microscope

1750Microscope

Cuff - type Compound microscope mounted on a wooden box foot containing many accessories. The brass body-tube is supported by a square-sectioned pillar on which it travels thanks to a threaded rod for focusing. The illumination mirror is held by a fork hinged to the base. Above it, fixed to the pillar, is a cruciform stage with holes for inserting several of the accessories, such as a lens to concentrate light on opaque objects and a forceps for handling specimens. There are five objectives, a lieberkuhn, tweezers, and other accessories for preparing specimens. Provenance: Lorraine collections.

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=408011

Height 305 mm, Base 170x169x54 mm; Case 220x212x415 mm

Developed by the English microscope-maker John Cuff (1708-72), who used the suggestions of Henry Baker (1698-1774) to improve the microscope designed by Culpeper (1660-1738). Cuff introduced more sophisticated 18th-C. focusing mechanisms, and fitted the new model with a very long eyepiece. Cuff's innovation was the compound side-pillar, which allowed easy access to the specimen stage and the option of installing a fine-focus mechanism. The Cuff-type microscope is generally mounted on a wooden base, on which a square-sectioned pillar supports the body-tube.

http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/whipple/explore/microscopes/partsofthemicroscope/#index_d6e2323

111

SOLO 1752Spectroscopy

Thomas Melvill (Scotland) observes bright lines in spectra of flames when introducing different elements to the flame. http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1700-1799.html

http://www.discover.ac.uk/sciences/timeline4.html

In 1752, the Scottish physicist Thomas Melvill discovered that putting different substances in flames, and passing the light through a prism, gave differently patterned spectra. Ordinary table salt, for example, generated a "bright yellow". Furthermore, not all the colors of the rainbow appeared - there were dark gaps in the spectrum, in fact for some materials there were just a few patches of light. By the 1820's, Herschel had recognized that spectra provided an excellent way to detect and identify small quantities of an element in a powder put into a flame.

http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/252/spectra.html

http://www.dcassidybooks.com/UP_Text/chapt14_p621-660.pdf

112

SOLO 1752Optics History

Benjamin Franklin (USA) performs a series of experiments, including the celebrated kite flying experiment, and establishes that lightning is an electrical phenomenon.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1700-1799.html

http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/info/kite.htm

"The kite being raised, a considerable time elapsed before there was any appearance of its being electrified. One very promising cloud had passed over it without any effect; when, at length, just as he was beginning to despair of his contrivance, he observed some loose threads of the hempen string to stand erect, and to avoid one another, just as if they had been suspended on a common conductor. Struck with this promising appearance, he immediately presented his knuckle to the key, and (let the reader judge of the exquisite pleasure he must have felt at that moment) the discovery was complete. He perceived a very evident electric spark. Others succeeded, even before the string was wet, so as to put the matter past all dispute, and when the rain had wet the string he collected electric fire very copiously. This happened in June 1752, a month after the electricians in France had verified the same theory, but before he heard of anything they had done."

Run This

SOLOColor Theory

1755 - Germany - Mathametician Tobias Mayer  (1723-1762) develops color theory by math, but his selection of triad colors (Red, Blue and Yellow) created . Two years later, Mayer tried to identify the exact number of colors which the eye is capable of perceiving.

1755

In 1758 — more than half a century after Newton's Opticks had appeared — the German mathematician and astronomer Tobias Mayer (1723-1762) gave a lecture to the Göttingen Academy of Science entitled "De affinitate colorum commentatio" (historical system), in which he tried to identify the exact number of colours which the eye is capable of perceiving. He chose red, yellow and blue as his basic colours, and vermillion, massicot and azurite as their representatives amongst the pigments. Black and white were considered to be the agents of light and darkness, which either lighten of darken the colours.

Tobias Mayer  )1723-1762(

114

SOLO 1759Microscope

Benjamin Martin’s 1759Universal Microscopeintroduced the use of anextra lens (the “betweenlens”) between theobjective and the twolenses above (ocularfield lens) to reduceSpherical Aberration.

115

SOLO

Gaspare Bazzanti’s solar microscope

1760Microscope

This solar microscope is consists of two main parts: the light housing and the body-tube. The light housing is composed of a frame on which an adjustable mirror is hinged and a tube containing a condenser to concentrate the light on the specimen. In the light housing is inserted a second tube made of cardboard covered in decorated paper, with a wooden mount. Screwed into this is a wooden cylindrical body with the stage and projection lens. The instrument, housed in a wooden box (lid missing), is signed by Isidoro Gaspare Bazzanti, about whom no information is known.

Plate 150x150 mm, Mirror 182x76 mm, Box 200x213x187 mm

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=408012

116

SOLO

George Adams Senior’s microscope

1761Microscope

In 1761, British instrument maker George Adams (1709 – 1772), produced this beautifully detailed and ornate silver microscope at the request of England's King George III.

http://www.micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/museum/adamssilver.html

http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/collections/exhiblets/george3/kingmicro.asp

George Adams made two almost identical silver microscopes, one for George III and one for the Prince of Wales, the future George IV. This is the one made for the Prince of Wales. Although it is richly decorated and very ornate, it is based on Adams's standard design for a microscope

117

SOLO 1762 - 1777Glass

Encyclopedie, a Dictionnaire Raisonne de Sciences des Arts et des Metiers" by D. Diderot. (Plate 209). 1762-1777

A 18th-century glass factory

118

SOLO

Georg Friedrich Brander’s compound microscope

1765Microscope

Compound microscope built by Georg Friedrich Brander(1713 – 1783). The instrument is mounted on wooden box containing the accessories. The side-pillar is attached to the box, which also carries the adjustable illumination mirror. The stage inserted in the pillar is fitted with a sophisticated micrometer for moving specimens laterally. Focusing is performed by turning a knob screw that slides the body-tube vertically. The wooden tube is partly covered with rayskin. The field lens is present in the eyepiece; there is also a micrometer, consisting of a point advanced by means of an iron screw. Provenance: Lorraine collections.

Height 320 mm,Box base 135x132x45 mm

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=408013

119

SOLO Color Theory1766 - England - The first known use of a color wheel was developed by Moses Harris (1731-1785), this one had Red, Yellow and Blue but he included Black as the only neutral.

1766

In 1766, one hundred years after Newton's separation of white light through a prism, a book appeared in England with the title The Natural System of Colours (historical illustration). In this work, Moses Harris (1731-1785), the English entomologist and engraver, examines the work of Isaac Newton and attempts to reveal the multitude of colours which can be created from three basic ones. As a naturalist, Harris wishes to understand the relationships between the colours, and how they are coded, and his book attempts to explain the principles, "materially, or by the painters art", by which further colours can be produced from red, yellow and blue. Harris builds upon the discovery by the Frenchman Jacques Christophe Le Blon (1667-1742). Le Bon is credited with the invention of colour printing. In 1731, during the course of his work, he observed something which every school child now learns: namely, that three paints coloured red, yellow and blue are sufficient to produce all other colours. Although Le Blon invented the fundamental three-colour palette and demonstrated his system with many dyes, he did not extend his ideas to a properly organised colour-system; that was for Harris to accomplish. Harris introduced the first printed colour-circle in 1766, specifying his primary colours very exactly: red was cinnabar, which could be made from sulphur and mercury; yellow was King's yellow (an artificial orpiment); and ultramarine was used for blue. Harris distinguished between the harmony of the "prismatic or primitive colours", which are assigned a "prismatic circle" (we show this to the left, large) and "compound colours", which are allotted their own circle (to the right, and smaller). The word "prismatic" could at first lead to confusion. In fact, Harris did not mean the spectral colours observed by Newton after light had passed through his prism and then arranged in a circle; he meant the unmixed pigments ("grand or principal colours"). A mixture ("compound") of the three basic colours will result in the three intermediate colours ("mediates") mentioned: orange, green and purple, which also appear in the prismatic circle and are all brought to life with natural descriptions ("fruit or flower"). According to Harris, the three main colours, red, yellow and blue, are: "the greatest opposites in quality to each other and naturally take their places at the greatest distance from each other in the circle". In order to arrange this "greatest distance" evenly within the circle, Harris requires an even number of circle segments (illustration), and Newton's seventh colour, indigo, is therefore dispensed with.

120

SOLO

Duc de Chaulnes's microscope

1768Microscope

This microscope was invented by Michel-Ferdinand d'Albert d'Ailly, Duc de Chaulnes (1714 – 1769). The optics were not particularly innovative by comparison with contemporary microscopes. The most interesting feature is the set of three micrometers with graduated disks. Two of the micrometers are fixed to the stage at right angles to each other. They allow a precision movement of the specimen under observation. The third is an eyepiece micrometer mounted crosswise on the tube. The microscope, originally equipped with numerous accessories, is similar to those installed on the dividing engines also invented by de Chaulnes.

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=406049

270x180x365 mm

http://www.patrimoine.polytechnique.fr/collectionhomme/BioChaulnes.html

This instrument was minutely described by the inventor in the small volume “Description d'un microscope et de différents micromètres destinés à mesurer des parties circulaires ou droites avec la plus grande précision” (Paris, 1768).

SOLO 1769Optics History

http://www.patrimoine.polytechnique.fr/collectionhomme/BioChaulnes.html

In optics, Euler entered the debate on the nature of light and argued, contrary to the more popular view at the time, that light was not composed of particles. Instead, Euler’s theory of light was founded upon the existence of ether, which he believed served as a pervasive medium for light vibrations. As Euler and many other later scientists viewed the matter, the phenomenon of diffraction could be more readily explained by a wave theory of light. Though it was eventually proved in the late 1800s that ether does not exist, many of Euler’s other views on optics turned out to be correct. For example, although Isaac Newton had declared it theoretically impossible to produce achromatic lenses, Euler disagreed based on the fact that the eye is composed of lenses that can create a near- perfect image. Moreover, Euler proved his case that certain combinations of lenses with different refracting characteristics could correct aberration through analytical means, though he was never able to actually build the achromatic system he suggested. Much of Euler’s work on light was published in the three-part work Dioptrica, the first volume of which was published in 1769. Within Dioptrica, the properties of lenses are discussed, the groundwork for the calculation of optical systems is established, and descriptions of microscopes and telescopes are provided.

Euler’s Dioptrica (3 Volumes)

122

SOLO

George Adams Senior’s compound microscope

1770Microscope

Rare example of the sophisticated compound microscope made by George Adams Senior (1709 – 1772), which he described as a variable microscope. The instrument is mounted on a toothed wheel, which enables its inclination to be varied on a pillar resting on a tripod. On the wheel is fastened a rod carrying the mirror, the stage, and the body-tube. Focusing is by turning a threaded rod. The microscope has an eyepiece with two lenses, a field lens, and an additional lens, all converging. Below the eyepiece is inserted a micrometer moved by rackwork, followed by a screw for micrometric adjustment. The instrument can be taken apart and put back in the wooden box, which contains many accessories including three series of objectives, a brass compressor with glass disks, and various objects for holding specimens. Also present is a lamp fitted with a converging lens to concentrate light on the specimens. Provenance: Lorraine collections.

Height 470 mm,Box 444x253x91 mm

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=408015

123

SOLOColor Theory 1772

Johann Heinrich Lambert

(1728-1777)

Germany - Astronomer J. Heinrich Lambert (1728-1777) presented the first three-dimensional color-system

In his main philosophical work, New Organon (1764), Lambert studied the rules for distinguishing subjective from objective appearances. This connects with his work in the science of optics. In 1760, he published a book on light reflection in Latin, the Photometria, in which the word albedo was introduced and the Beer–Lambert law was formulated that describes the way in which light is absorbed. Lambert also wrote a classic work on perspective and also contributed to geometrical optics.

In the course of his deliberations, he consulted measurements taken by Tobias Mayer in Göttingen, and thus became aware of Mayer's colour-triangle dating from 1758, the publication of which he was to subsequently support. Lambert recognised that Mayer had discovered a means of constructing and naming many of the possible colours, and at the same time also recognised that, to extend its coverage to include their full abundance, the only element missing from this triangle was depth. After carrying out his own experiments, Lambert suggested a pyramid constructed from a series of triangles (historical illustration) to accommodate the full richness of natural colours in one geometrical form. These differ from Mayer's triangles not only in their size, but also in the position of black

124

SOLOColor Theory

1772 - Austria - Ignaz Schiffermüller published his color-circle in Vienna based on four colours, red, blue, green and yellow

A color-circle based on four colors, red, blue, green and yellow, divided into  3 x 4 = 12 segments. His color-circle is provided with fanciful names: blue, sea-green, green, olive-green, yellow, orange-yellow, fire-red, red, crimson, violet-red, violet-blue and fire-blue.

1772

In the same year that J.H.Lambert constructed his colour pyramid and demonstrated for the first time that the complete fullness of colours can only be reproduced within a three dimensional system, another colour circle was published in Vienna by Ignaz Schiffermüller. The circumference of Schiffermüller's circle is filled with twelve colours to which he has given some very fanciful names: blue, sea-green, green, olive-green, yellow, orange-yellow, fire-red, red, crimson, violet-red, violet-blue and fire-blue. The transitions are continuous — in marked contrast to Moses Harris — and the three primary colours of blue, yellow and red are not placed at equal distances from each other; between them come three kinds of green, two kinds of orange and four variations of violet (excluding the secondary colour violet). Schiffermüller selects a total of 12 colours and thus draws upon the system originated by the French Jesuit Louis Bertrand Castel, who had published his Optique des couleurs in 1740 in order to extend Newton's circle with its seven colours up to twelve. His choice sounds unusual: bleu, celadon (pale green), vert, olive, jaune, fauve (pale red), nacarat (orange), rouge, cramoisi, violet, agathe (agate blue) and bleu violant. Castel linked his system to music — more specifically, the twelve semi-tones of the musical scale.

Ignaz Schiffermüller1726 - 1806

SOLO 1775Microscope

Cuff design: This simple microscope is of the type designed by the British naturalist John Ellis (1707-1776). It became a popular design and was manufactured in various forms by a number of British and Continental makers.

John Ellis (1707-1776).

An Ellis aquatic microscope c.1775

British naturalist, highly regarded by the great Swedish naturalist Linnaeus (1707-1778), who called him one of the brightest stars of natural history. In 1754, elected member of the Royal Society of London. In 1755, published in London a book on corals, translated into French the following year, which won him an international reputation. His name is linked to a type of simple microscope suitable for the study of small aquatic organisms placed in a glass vessel. The device became very popular in the mid-18th C. It was also used by Felice Fontana (1730-1805), Director of the Museo di Fisica e Storia Naturale in Florence.

SOLO

William Withering Microscopes

1776Microscope

William Withering1741 - 1799

Pocketable BotanicalMicroscope 1776

Folding BotanicalMicroscope 1796

This instrument is a brass simple microscope similar to the "Botanical Microscope" described in 1776 by William Withering (1741-1799). It is a later form of Withering's design, as it exhibits several differences from the original. This instrument has three interchangeable lenses, all-brass tools, and a reduced top lens carrier. The original design had a single lens, tools with ivory handles, and a third circular tier for the lens mount. The instrument shown here is one of two Withering botanical microscopes in the Golub Collection

William Withering was an English botanist, geologist, chemist, physician and the discoverer of digitalis.

127

SOLO Telescope 1781

William Herschel began making his own telescope in 1773.

Using his 7 foot reflector William Herschel discovered Uranus on 13 March 1781.In the same year he built his 20 foot reflector.

William Herschel’s 7 foot reflector telescope.

http://www.brayebrookobservatory.org

William Herschel’s 20 foot reflector telescope.

http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/explorations/groundup/lesson/scopes/herschel/scope.php

SOLO Optics 1784Benjamin Franklin - Bifocals

In 1784, Ben Franklin developed bifocal glasses. He was getting old and was having trouble seeing both up-close and at a distance. Getting tired of switching between two types of glasses, he devised a way to have both types of lenses fit into the frame. The distance lens was placed at the top and the the up-close lens was placed at the bottom.

Benjamin Franklin1706 - 1790

Benjamin Franklin: “By this means, as I wear my spectacles constantly, I have only to move my eyes up or down, as I want to see distinctly far or near, the proper glass being always ready. This I find more particularly convenient since my being in France, the glasses that serve me best at table to see what I eat, not being the best to see the faces of those on the other side of the table who speak to me; and when one’s ears are not well accustomed to the sounds of a language, a sight of the movements in the features of him that speaks helps to explain, so that I understand French better by the help of my spectacles

129

DiffractionSOLO

M.C. Hutley, “Diffraction Gratings”, Academic Press., 1982, p. 3

Diffraction Gratings

1786

The invention of Diffraction Gratings is ascribed to David Rittenhouse who in 1786had been intriged by the effects produced when viewing a distant light source througha fine handkerchief.

In order to repeat the phenomenon under controlled conditions, he made up a square of parallel hairs laid across two fine screws made by a watchmaker. When he looked through this at a small opening in the window shutter of a darkened room, he saw three images of approximately equal brightness and several others on either side “fainter and growing more faint, coloured and indistinct, the further they were from the main line”. He noted that red light was bent more than blue light and ascribed these effects to diffraction.

http://experts.about.com/e/d/da/david_rittenhouse.htm

David Rittenhouse1732 - 1796

130

SOLO Telescope 1787

Caroline Lucretia Herschel (sister of William Herschel) became the first woman officially recognized for a scientific position when she was given a £50 per year salary by King George III. In 1783 she discovered three new nebulae. Today, these objects are know as NGC 2360, NGC 205, and NGC 253. On August 1, 1786, Caroline discovered her first comet

Caroline Lucretia Herschel

131

SOLO Telescope

Herschel astronomer and telescope builder born in Germany but was appointed as England Royal Astronomer.

Herschel bought equipment for pouring metal mirrors, and tools for grinding and polishing mirrors.

During his life Herschel built many telescopes that he sold inEngland and to other foreign countries.

1789

1789--Sir William Herschel constructs a forty foot long telescope with a four-foot diameter mirror. Reflector telescopes have become popular again because they can be built with enormous mirrors, capable of gathering hundreds or even thousands of times more light than a refractor. Today we call them "light buckets."

http://www.antiquetelescopes.org/history.html

132

SOLO 1790Optics History

French engineer Claude Chappe invents the semaphore visual telegraph. His system uses a series of signaling stations mounted on high locations, with two-armed semaphores for signaling and telescopes for viewing signals from other stations.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1700-1799.html

Claude Chappe1763 - 1805

Optical Telegraf of Claude Chappe on the Litermont near Nalbach

The Chappe brothers determined by experiment that the angles of a rod were easier to see than the presence or absence of panels. Their final design had two arms connected by a cross-arm. Each arm had seven positions, and the cross-arm had four more permitting a 196-combination code. The arms were from three to thirty feet long, black, and counterweighted, moved by only two handles. Lamps mounted on the arms proved unsatisfactory for night use. The relay towers were placed from 10 to 20 miles (12 to 25 km) apart. Each tower had a telescope pointing both up and down the relay line.

In 1792, the first messages were successfully sent between Paris and Lille. In 1794 the semaphore line informed Parisians of the capture of Condé-sur-l'Escaut from the Austrians less than an hour after it occurred. Other lines were built, including a line from Paris to Toulon. The system was widely copied by other European states, and was used by Napoleon to coordinate his empire and army.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Chappe

Run This

133

SOLO

George Adams Junior’s compound microscope

1790Microscope

Compound microscope built by George Adams Junior (1750 – 1795), who described it as an improved compound microscope. A pillar mounted on a tripod bears a ball-and-socket joint to which a rod is fitted. The rod carries the illumination mirror, the stage, and the body-tube. The tube contains an eyepiece with two double-convex converging lenses and a field lens. The box for the microscope contains eight objectives and several accessories for preparing specimens. Provenance: Lorraine collections. Height 500 mm,

Box 380x220x118 mm http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=408019

This all-brass monocular was made by the son of George Adams, Sr. (1704-1773), a self-taught artisan in London, who established his shop on Fleet Street at the sign of Tycho Brahe's Head. It is signed on the tripod, "G. Adams, N. 60 Fleet Street, London." The Adams, father and son, not only produced quality instruments, but also published books on microscopy.

http://golubcollection.berkeley.edu/18th/s6.html

134

SOLO 1790Microscope

http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/adamsg.html

George Adams, Jr. wrote several books related to other areas of science including: "Essays on the Microscope" (1787) and "Geometrical and Graphical Essays“ (1791).

135

SOLO

George Adams Junior’s Lucernal and Compound microscope

1791Microscope

The lucernal microscope is mounted on a pillar supported by a tripod. A ball-and-socket joint on the pillar supports a horizontal rod to which is fixed the pyramidal projection box. The box carries the objectives at one end and is fitted at the other end with a ground glass screen (protected by a wooden shutter) on which the images are projected. The rod also carries the frame for observing opaque objects, a mirror, and a converging lens. There are about ten objectives and many accessories for preparing specimens

The compound microscope is mounted on a square-sectioned pillar fitted with a tripod. The illumination mirror is hinged near the base and above it travels the stage. The body-tube is attached to the top of pillar and its eyepiece is fitted with two converging lenses and a field lens. The instrument, which fits into the same box as the lucernal microscope, also has an objective.

height 495 mm, support 477 mm; projection box 417 mm

height 272 mm; box 353x251x92 mm

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=408020

136

SOLO 1800Microscope

Peter Dollond Solar microscope

Brass solar microscope built by Peter Dollond (1730 – 1829) (son of John Dollond (1706 – 1761) ), formerly in the Lorraine collections. The plate to be attached to a window shutter carries the adjustable mirror on one side and the body-tube on the other. There is also a box containing six objectives, four condensers, a mount, and other devices for preparing specimens.

Plate 122x121 mm, Mirror 188x55 mm; Box 128x88x40 mm

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=408021

Peter Dollond (1730 – 1829)

http://www.brayebrookobservatory.org/

137

SOLO

In 1800 Friedrich William Herschel discovered the infrared radiation.

1800

Herschel discovered the infrared radiation by passing sunlight through a prism and holding a thermometer just beyond the red end of visible spectrum. The thermometer indicated a temperature increase and this lead to Hershel’s conclusion that there must be an invisible form of light.

John Herschel

Optics History

http://www.infraredsurveys.co.uk/hist-1.htm

138

SOLO

History (continue)

1801

In 1801 Johann Wilhelm Ritter discovered the ultraviolet radiation.

A year before, William Herschel announced the existence of the infrared region, which extends past the red region of visible light. Ritter, who believed in the polarity of nature, hypothesized that there must also be invisible radiation beyond the violet end of spectrum and commenced experiments to confirm this speculation. He began working with silver chloride, a substance decomposed by light, measuring the speed at which different colors of light broke it down. As a result, Ritter confirmed that violet light was more effective than red (in decomposing silver nitrate) and also demonstrated that the fasted rate of decomposition occurred with radiation that could be seen, but that existed in a region beyond the violet.

http://microscopy.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/ritter.html

Optics History

139

SOLO

In 1801 Thomas Young uses constructive and destructive interference of waves to explain the Newton’s rings.

Thomas Young1773-1829

1801 - 1803

In 1803 Thomas Young explains the fringes at the edges of shadows using the wave theory of light. But, the fact that was belived that the light waves are longitudinal, mad difficult the explanation of double refraction in certain crystals.

Optics History

Run This

140

SOLO

History

In 1802 William Hyde Wollaston discovered that the sun spectrumis composed by a number of dark lines, but the interpretation of thisphenomenon was done by Fraunhofer in 1814. Wollaston developed In 1802 the refractometer, an instrument used to measure the refractiveindex. The refractometer wa used by Wollaston to verify the laws of double refraction in Iceland spar, on which he wrote a treatise.

Wollaston Prism

In 1807 William Hyde Wollaston developed the four-sided Wollaston prism, usedin microscopy.

1802 - 1807Polarization

141

SOLO Optics History 1805

Pierre Louis Guinard, Swiss instrument maker by Ms Ilaria Meliconi The Swiss Pierre Louis Guinand is usually credited with the development of flint glass of

high quality, fundamental for achromatic doublets. The history of his work and his life portrays him as the typical nineteenth century hero: from modest origins, he devoted himself completely to the manufacture of glasses in parallel with his commercial activity of metal working in a very quiet place near Brenets in Switzerland. While working for the Munich lawyer Utzschneider, who was financing a company making high-quality surveying instruments, he met and instructed the young Fraunhofer. However, due to personality contrasts between the two, Guinand returned to Switzerland in 1814 where, after a suspension of the works, demanded by Utzschneider, he and his wife continued working on glasses. Guinand also entered the English market, submitting his glasses to the Royal Society, which declared them of very high quality.This story shows Guinand rising to well-deserved fame and fortune from a modest background, through hard work and dedication. It has been shown, however, that this heroic view is seriously distorted, and that a variety of factors influence the process of discovery and invention. Maybe also the figure of Guinand should be investigated further, analysing his relationship with Fraunhofer and the contribution that each of them gave to research in glass making, and the motivations that influenced Guinand in his choices.

http://www.sic.iuhps.org/conf2000/ox_pstrs.htm

Pierre Louis Guinand1748 - 1824

In the early 19th century, advances in the production of optical glass led to better refracting telescopes. Between 1784 and 1790, Pierre Louis Guinand, a Swiss craftsman, taught himself the basic skills of glassmaking and began to experiment with optical glass. His first attempts were unsatisfactory. Not until the late 1790s was Guinand able to make high-quality lenses as large as six inches. Guinand's big breakthrough came in 1805, when he replaced the long wooden rods used to mix the hot glass in the furnace with stirrers made of clay. The new stirrers brought unwanted bubbles to the surface and mixed the glass well enough to produce a nearly flawless material.

http://www.aip.org/history/cosmology/tools/tools-refractors.htm

142

SOLO

Theory of Colors

Thomas Young1773-1829

1807

In 1807 physicist Thomas Young’s theory that all colours can be mixed from the three basic colours of red, blue and yellow

An authority on the mechanism of vision and on optics, he stated (1807) a theory of color vision now known as the Young-Helmholtz theory, studied the structure of the eye, and described the defect called astigmatism

http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0853151.html

Helmholtz later discovered that people with normal color vision need three wavelengths of light to create different colors. Helmholtz used color-matching experiments where participants would alter the amounts of three different wavelengths of light to match a test color

http://psychology.about.com/od/sensationandperception/f/trichrom.htm

http://physics.nad.ru/Physics/English/optics.htm

Optics History

Run This

143

SOLO

History

Étienne Louis Malus1775-1812

Etienne Louis Malus, military engineer and captain in the army ofNapoleon, published in 1809 the Malus Law of irradiance through aLinear polarizer: I(θ)=I(0) cos2θ. In 1810 he won the French AcademyPrize with the discovery that reflected and scattered light also possessed“sidedness” which he called “polarization”.

Source ofNaturalLight

Polarizer

Analyzer

20

20 E

cI

2220 cos0cos2

0 IEc

I

Detector

1809Polarization

144

Malus-Dupin TheoremSOLO

History

Étienne Louis Malus1775-1812

A surface passing through the end points of rays which have traveled equal optical pathlengths from a point object is called an optical wavefront.

1808 1812

If a group of ray is such that we can find a surface that is orthogonal to each and every one of them (this surface isthe wavefront), they are said to form a normal congruence.

The Malus-Dupin Theorem (introduced in 1808 by Malusand modified in 1812 by Dupin) states that:“The set of rays that are orthogonal to a wavefront remainnormal to a wavefront after any number of refraction or reflections.”

Charles Dupin1784-1873

Using Fermat principle '' BQBAVApathoptical

2'' OAVAAQA

VQ is a small quantity 2'' OBQBAQA

Since ray BQ is normal to wave W at B 2OBQAQ 2'' OQBQA ray BQB’ is normal to wave W’ at B’

Proof for Refraction:

n 'n

P

Q

VAP’

A'

B B'

Wavefrontfrom P Wavefront

to P'

Return toHamilton

145

SOLO

Goethe’s color wheel from his 1810 Theory of Colours

Theory of Colors 1810Optics History

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe1749 - 1832

“Theory of Colors” (original German title, Zur Farbenlehre) is a book by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe published in 1810. The work comprises three sections:

i) a didactic section in which Goethe presents his own observations,

ii) a polemic section in which he makes his case against Newton, and

iii) an historical section. It contains some of the earliest and most accurate descriptions of phenomena such as colored shadows, refraction, and chromatic aberration.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_Colours

Light spectrum, from Theory of Colors – Goethe observed that color arises at the edges, and the spectrum occurs where these colored edges overlap

146

SOLOColor Theory

In 1810, the year in which Goethe's Theory of Colours with its colour-circle (original drawing of Goethe) was published, the painter Philipp Otto Runge presented his work on a "colour-sphere". As suggested by its title, Runge was concerned with the "construction of the proportion of all mixtures of the colours with each other, and their complete affinity"(original drawing of Runge). Runge's sphere appeared in the year of his death — the painter died at the age of only thirty three. His colour system, once described in an encyclopedia as "a blend of scientific-mathematical knowledge, mystical-magical combinations and symbolic interpretations", represented the sum total of his endeavours. Runge's colour globe is seen as marking the temporary end to a development which had led from linear colours via the two-dimensional colour-circles to a spacial arrangement of colours in the form of a pyramid.

Philipp Otto Runge Colour Sphere

Philipp Otto Runge (1777 – 1810)

1810

147

SOLO

Polarization by Reflection

The Pile-of-plate Polarizer

The problem encounter using the Brewster Effect is that the reflected beam although completely polarized is weak and the refracted beam is only partially polarized.

The solution is to use a pile-of-plates polarizer as in Figure.

This was invented by F.J. Arago in 1812.

Dominique François Jean Arago1786-1853

1811/12Polarization

148

SOLO

In 1811 Arago shows that some crystals alter the polarization of light passing through them.

Polarization 1811 - 1812

Dominique François Jean Arago1786-1853

In 1812 Biot shows that Arago’s crystal rotate the plane of polarization about the propagation direction.

http://www.thespectroscopynet.com/educational/Fraunhofer.htm

Optical activity was first observed in quartz crystals in 1811 by a French physicist, François Arago. Another French physicist, Jean-Baptiste Biot, found in 1815 that liquid solutions of tartaric acid or of sugar are optically active, as are liquid or vaporous turpentine.

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31875/Francois-Arago/31875rellinks/Related-Links

149

SOLO 1811Microscope

Robert Banks compendium

This optical compendium is signed by Robert Banks and includes a solar microscope, a lucernal microscope, and a compound microscope.

• The solar microscope, comprises two parts: a mirror holder with a mobile mirror, and a body-tube in which projection lenses with different powers can be inserted. Focusing is by rackwork. Also present are a fitting to screw onto the mirror holder for observing opaque objects.

• The lucernal microscope, consists of a projection box and a mobile stage mounted on a pillar placed on a tripod support. The box contains lenses, objectives, and accessories for preparing specimens.

• The compound microscope, mounted on a pillar resting on a tripod, comprises a tilting limb carrying the mirror, a converging lens, the stage, and the body-tube. The instrument fits into a box containing many accessories including seven objectives, a lieberkuhn, and two lenses that, when substituted for the body-tube, turn the device into a simple microscope.

There is also a box containing many glass slides, as well as various substances and specimens.

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=408022

150

SOLO 1812

The earliest photographic objective lens was a single positive (meniscus) lens.  The shape of the lens, and the location of the stop were chosen to optimize the image quality over as large of an image field as possible.  This lens was developed by the English scientist W. H. Wollaston around 1812, probably for the development of the camera obscura.  Note that this was 25 years before the actual invention of photography! W. H. Wollaston, "On a periscopic camera obscura and microscope“, Phil. Mag. 41, 124 (1813).

http://www.optics.arizona.edu/Nofziger/OPTI%20200/Lecture%2020/L20P4.htm

Optics History

Wollaston’s photographic objective lens

SOLO

Fraunhofer’s solar dark lines

In 1813 Joseph Fraunhofer rediscovered William Hyde Wollaston’s dark lines in the solar system, which are known as Fraunhofer’s lines.He began a systematic measurement of the wavelengths of the solar Spectrum, by mapping 570 lines.

Diffraction

http://www.musoptin.com/spektro1.html

1813

Fraunhofer Telescope.

Fraunhofer placed a narrow slit in front of a prism and viewed the spectrum of lightpassing through this combination with a small telescope eypiece. By this technique he was able to investigate the spectrum bit by bit, color by color.

SOLO

Fraunhofer’s solar dark lines Diffraction 1813

Designation

ElementWavelength (nm)

Designation

ElementWavelength (nm)

yO2898.765cFe495.761

ZO2822.696FHβ486.134

AO2759.370dFe466.814

BO2686.719eFe438.355

CHα656.281G'Hγ434.047

aO2627.661GFe430.790

D1Na589.592GCa430.774

D2Na588.995hHδ410.175

D3 or dHe587.5618

HCa+396.847

eHg546.073KCa+393.368

E2Fe527.039LFe382.044

b1Mg518.362NFe358.121

b2Mg517.270PTi+336.112

b3Fe516.891TFe302.108

b4Fe516.891tNi299.444

b4Mg516.733

Fraunhofer independently rediscovered the lines and began a systematic study and careful measurement of the wavelength of these features. In all, he mapped over 570 lines, and designated the principal features with the letters A through K, and weaker lines with other letters.[1] Modern observations of sunlight can detect many thousands of lines.

The major Fraunhofer lines, and the elements they are associated with, are shown in the following table

153

SOLOReflection and Refraction 1815

David Brewster , “On the laws which regulate the polarization of light by reflection from transparent bodies”, Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc., London 105, 125-130, 158-159 1815).

Brewster discovered that when light strikes a reflective surface at acertain angle (now known as Brewster angle), the reflected light from the surface is plane-polarized. He found that this happens whenthe sum of the incident and refracted beam is 90º.

iE

iE

rE

ik rk

tE

tE

tk

21n

z

x yi

r

t

i r

t

tE tE

tk

rE

rk

iE

iE

ik

21n

Boundary

90 ti Using Snell’s Law

ii

ti

nn

nn

cos90sin

sinsin

22

21

12 /arctan nnBrewster Brewster’s Law

Brewster’s Law

154

SOLOBrewster’s Kaleidoscop 1816

In 1816 Brewster invented the kaleidoscop kalos = beautiful, eidos = form, scopos = watcher

Brewster kaleidoscop was a tube containing loose pieces of colored glass and other objects, reflected by mirrors or glass lenses when viewed through the end of the tube. Sir David Brewster

(1781-1868)

155

SOLO

Between 1805 and 1815 Laplace, Biot and (in part) Malus created an elaborate mathematical theory of light, based on the notion that light rays are streams of particles that interact with the particles of matter by short range forces. By suitably modifying Newton’s original emission theory of light and applying superior mathematical methods, they were able to explain most of the known optical phenomena, including the effect of double refraction (Laplace 1808) which had been the focus of Huyghen’s work.

http://microscopy.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/gregory.html

http://www.schillerinstitute.org/fid_97-01/993poisson_jbt.html

Pierre-Simon Laplace(1749-1827)

1805 - 1815

In 1817, expecting to soon celebrate the final triumph of their neo-Newtonian optics,

Laplace and Biot arranged for the physics prize of the French Academy of Science to be proposed for the best work on theme of diffraction – the apparent bending of light

rays at the boundaries between different media.”

Diffraction Competition

156

SOLO

In 1818 August Fresnel supported by his friend André-Marie Ampère submitted to the French Academy a thesis in which he explained the diffraction by enriching the Huyghens’ conception of propagation of light by taking in account of the distinct phases within each wavelength and the interaction (interference) between different phases at each locus of the propagation process.

http://microscopy.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/gregory.html http://www.schillerinstitute.org/fid_97-01/993poisson_jbt.html

André-Marie Ampère(1775-1836)

Dominique François Jean Arago1786-1853

Siméon Denis Poisson1781-1840

Pierre-Simon Laplace(1749-1827)

Joseph Louis Guy-Lussac1778-1850

JudgingCommittee

ofFrench

Academy

1805 - 1815Diffraction Competition

157

SOLO

http://microscopy.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/gregory.html http://www.schillerinstitute.org/fid_97-01/993poisson_jbt.html

Dominique François Jean Arago1786-1853

Siméon Denis Poisson a French Academy member rise the objection that if the Fresnel construction is valid a bright spot would have to appear in the middle of the shadow cast by a spherical or disc-shaped object, when illuminated, and this is absurd.

Soon after the meeting, Dominique Francois Arago, one of the judges for the Academy competition, did the experiment and there was the bright spot in the middle of the shadow. Fresnel was awarded the prize in the competition.

Siméon Denis Poisson1781-1840

Poisson’s or Arago’s Spot

1805 - 1815Diffraction Competition

158

Arago and Fresnel investigated the interference of polarized rays of light and found in 1816 that tworays polarized at right angles to each other never interface.

SOLO

Dominique François Jean Arago1786-1853

Augustin Jean Fresnel

1788-1827

Arago relayed to Thomas Young in London the resultsof the experiment he had performed with Fresnel. This stimulate Young to propose in 1817 that the oscillationsin the optical wave where transverse, or perpendicular to the direction of propagation, and not longitudinal as every proponent of wave theory believed. Thomas Young

1773-1829

1816 - 1817

longitudinalwaves

transversalwaves

Polarization

159

Diffraction SOLO

Augustin Jean Fresnel

1788-1827

In 1818 Fresnel, by using Huygens’ concept of secondary wavelets and Young’s explanation of interface, developed the diffraction theory of scalar waves.

1818

160

Diffraction SOLO

Augustin Jean Fresnel

1788-1827

In 1818 Fresnel, by using Huygens’ concept of secondary wavelets and Young’s explanation of interface, developed the diffraction theory of scalar waves.

P

0P

Q1x

0x1y

0y

Fr

Sr

r

O

' 0O

1O

Sn1

- Screen Aperture

Sn1 - normal to Screen

From a source P0 at a distance from a aperture a spherical wavelet propagates toward the aperture: Srktj

S

sourceQ e

r

AtU ''

According to Huygens Principle second wavelets will start at the aperture and will add at the image point P.

drerr

AKdre

r

UKtU rrktj

S

sourcerkttjQP

S 2/2/' ',',

where: ',K obliquity or inclination factor SSS nrnr 11cos&11cos' 11

0',0

max0',0

K

K Obliquity factor and π/2 phase were introduced by Fresnel to explain experiences results.

Fresnel Diffraction Formula

Fresnel took in consideration the phase of each wavelet to obtain:

Run This

161

SOLO

Fraunhofer’s Diffraction Theory

In 1821 Joseph Fraunhofer build the first diffraction grating, made up of 260 close parallel wires. Latter he built a diffractiongrating using 10,000 parallel lines per inch.

Diffraction

Utzshneider, Fraunhfer, Reichenbach, Mertzhttp://www.musoptin.com/fraunhofer.html

1821 - 1823

In 1823 Fraunhofer published his theory of diffraction.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/fraunhofer.html

http://physics.nad.ru/Physics/English/optics.htm

Fraunhofer diffraction

162

SOLO

The equations of reflection and refraction ratio are called Fresnel Equations, that first developed them in a slightly less general form in 1823, using the elastic theory of light.

Augustin Jean Fresnel1788-1827

The use of electromagnetic approach to prove those relations, as described above, is due to H.A. Lorentz (1875)

Reflections and Refractions Laws

Hendrik Antoon Lorentz1853-1928

iE

iH

rE

rHik rk

tH

tE

tk

21n

z

x yi

r

t

i r

t

tH

tE

tk

rH

rk

rE

iH

iE

ik

21n

Boundary

iE

iH

rErH

ik rk

tH

tE

tk

21n

z

x yi

r

t

i r

ttH

tE

tk

rH

rk

rE

iH

iE

ik

21n

Boundary

ti

ti

i

r

E

Er

sin

sin21

0

0

ti

it

i

t

E

Et

sin

cossin221

0

0

1823Reflection and Refraction

ti

ti

i

r

E

Er

tan

tan21

||0

0||

titi

it

i

t

E

Et

cossin

cossin221

||0

0||

163

SOLO

http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~coddingtons/15763.htm

History of Reflection & Refraction

Reverent Henry Coddington (1799 – 1845) English mathematician and cleric.

He wrote an Elementary Treatise on Optics (1823, 1st Ed., 1825, 2nd Ed.). The book was displayed the interest on Geometrical Optics, but hinted to the acceptance of theWave Theory.

Coddington wrote “A System of Optics” in two parts:1. “A Treatise of Reflection and Refraction of Light” (1829), containing a

thorough investigation of reflection and refraction. 2. “A Treatise on Eye and on Optical Instruments” (1630), where he explained

the theory of construction of various kinds of telescopes and microscopes.

He recommended the ue of the grooved sphere lens, first described by David Brewster in 1820 and in use today as the

“Coddington lens”.

Coddington introduced for lens:

Coddington Shape Factor: Coddington Position Factor:

12

12

rr

rrS

ss

ssP

'

'

M”

M

f

s

AxisA1

A2C1

1rC2

F”

F

''f

''s

2r

n 'n n

Coddington Lenshttp://www.eyeantiques.com/MicroscopesAndTelescopes/Coddington%20microscope_thick_wood.htm

1823Reflection and Refraction

164

SOLOc.1820Microscope

Cary-Gould Pocket Microscope

William Cary (1759 – 1825)

William Cary was a well-respected London microscope and instrument designer who employed Charles Gould, an apprentice who designed a popular microscope that later came to be widely known as a Cary-style microscope (they are designated Gould-style in this museum).

Charles Gould, an instrument maker in William Cary's London shop, constructed a pocket microscope in the 1820s designed to be portable enough for both laboratory and routine field work. Gould described this microscope in an 1827 publication entitled The Companion to the Microscope, which included detailed information about both single-lens and compound versions of the microscope.

SOLO

Invention of Cylindrical Lens

1825/ 1827Optics

Suffering from astigmatism, George Biddell Airy manufactured the first correcting eyeglasses (1825), with a cylindrical lens design that is still in use. The diffraction disks that bear his name (Airy Disks) were discovered in the spherical center of a wavefront traveling through a circular aperture. These diffraction patterns form the smallest unit that comprises an image, thus determining the limits of optical resolution.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/airy.html

Sir George Biddell Airy1801 - 1892

BK7 Plano-convex Cylindrical Lens

In 1827, Airy was the first to successfully correct for astigmatism in the human eye, using a cylindrical eyeglass lens.

http://www.brooksphotopedia.com/history/george-biddell-airy.shtml

ThaumatropeSOLO 1825

John Ayrton Paris was a British physician. He is most widely remembered as the probable inventor of the thaumatrope, which he used to demonstrate persistence of vision to the Royal College of Physicians in London in 1824;

John Ayrton Paris )1785 - 1856 (

Paris began manufacturing what he called a Thaumatrope. It is a simple illusionary toy meant to imitate motion. It consists of a circular disk made of paper, which has an image on each side. When twirled by connected string, the images combine to give an animated effect. The bird-in-a-cage was a popular theme.

Thaumatrope is Greek and means 'Magic Motion'. The Thaumatrope of Paris is a simplistic toy of motion, and supremely illustrates the concept of persistence of vision. This circular Thaumatrope (right) is a round piece of firm paper with a birdcage on one side and the bird on the other. Holes at each end allow string to be tied, and when the string is held taught in the fingers, can be rolled between the finger and thumb. When this happens the two images combine to create the Bird Cage effect. (Animation courtesy Ruth Hayes, Randon Motion).

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1800.htm

167

Photography SOLO 1827 Niepce (pronounced Nee-ps) is universally credited with producing the first successful photograph in June/July 1827. He was fascinated with lithography, and worked on this process. Unable to draw, he needed the help of his artist son to make the images. However, when in 1814 his son was drafted into the army to fight at Waterloo, he was left having to look for another way of obtaining images. Eventually he succeeded, calling his product Heliographs (after the Greek "of the sun"). Lady Elizabeth Eastlake, writing in 1857, informs us that he was a man of private means, who had began his researches in 1814.

Joseph Nicéphore Niepce

1765 - 1833

First known photograph

http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/history/niepce.htm

When he eventually succeeded, he came over to England later that year and sought to promote his invention via the Royal Society (then as now regarded as the leading learned body concerned with science). However, the Royal Society had a rule that it would not publicize a discovery that contained an undivulged secret, so Niepce met with total failure. Returning to France, he teamed up with Louis Daguerre in 1829, a partnership which lasted until his death only four years later, at the age of 69. He left behind him some examples of his heliographs, which are now in the Royal Photographic Society’s collection.

© Robert Leggat, 1999.

Daguerre

168

Geometrical Optics SOLO

In 1828 Hamilton published

1828

William RowanHamilton

(1805-1855)

http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Hamilton/Optics.html

“Theory of Systems of Rays”

“Supplement to an Essay on the Theory of Systems of Rays” (1830)

“Second Supplement to an Essay on the Theory of Systems of Rays” (1831)

“Third Supplement to an Essay on the Theory of Systems of Rays” (1837)

followed by

The paper includes a proof of the theorem that states that the raysemitted from a point or perpendicular to a wavefront surface, and reflected one ore more times, remain perpendicular to a series of wavefront surfaces (Theorem of Malus and Dupin).

The paper also discussed the caustic curves and surfaces obtained when light rays are reflected from flat or curved mirrors. This is an enlargement of Caustics, a paper published in 1824. Hamilton introduced also the characteristic function , V, that, in an isotropic medium, the rays are perpendicular to the level surface of V.

This work inspired Hamilton’s work on Analytical Mechanics.

'

','',

PtoPPathOptical

dsnrrVrPrPV

n 'n

Q

VA A'

B B'

Wavefrontfrom P Wavefront

to P'

r

'r

rP '' rP

Vsn ''

169

SOLO

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html

Methods of Achieving Polarization

Polarization by Birefrigerence

Polarization can be achieved with crystalline materials which have a different index ofrefraction in different planes. Such materials are said to be birefringent or doubly refracting.

Nicol Prism The Nicol Prism (1828) is made up from two prisms of calcite cemented with Canada balsam. The ordinary ray can be made to totally reflect off the prism boundary, leving only the extraordinary ray.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Nicol

1828

William Nicol (1770 - 1851) was a Scottish physicist and geologist who invented the first device for obtaining plane-polarized light - the Nicol prism - in 1828. He was born in 1770 in Humbie (East Lothian), not 1768 as previously thought

Polarization

170

Chromatic AberrationsSOLO

In 1829 Joseph Lister developed the achromatic objective.

1829

Joseph Lister developed the spaced system of lenses which corrects chromatic aberrationand reduces spherical aberration. He gave a mathematical solution published in Philosophical Transactions in 1830.

Microscope built by Lister

171

SOLO Stroboscopy 1832

JOSEPH ANTOINE FERDINAND PLATEAU (1801 - 1883)

Plateau stated the law of the ‘Stroboscopic Effect’. The law stated in effect; "If within one second, a series of images (14-16) showing successive movement can be seen with the eye, and if these pictures are shown in succession, the laggard sense of sight causes these pictures to be seen as movement and not as single pictures." Studying the illusion of the forward-turning wheel appearing to move backwards, Plateau designs the Anorthoscope to reverse the phenomenon when viewed.

In 1836, Plateau invented an early stroboscopic device, the "phenakistiscope". It consisted of two disks, one with small equidistant radial windows, through which the viewer could look, and another containing a sequence of images. When the two disks rotated at the correct speed, the synchronization of the windows and the images created an animated effect. The projection of stroboscopic photographs, creating the illusion of motion, eventually led to the development of cinema. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Plateau

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1830.htm

172

SOLO Stroboscopy 1832

SIMON RITTER VON STAMPFER (1792 - 1864)

It is not known whether Stampfer (of Vienna) knew Plateau or of his work. Stampfer would build his ‘Stroboscope’ this year with almost exact dimensions as that of Plateau. The Stroboscope and Phenakistoscope were so similar in construction, operation, looks and achievement, that they have oft times been mistaken as the other, by non historians of the craft without a careful look see. Stampfer also developed something he called a Magic Drum which he fashioned around the Zoetrope.

The disk presentations of Stampfer and Plateau were very similar that few knew the difference at the time. The fundamental understanding of how these disks appeared to move is based on the fact that an image remains on our retina (back of the eye) for approximately 1/14 of a second. This is known as 'persistence of vision', and is easily seen by viewing a disk, Zoetrope presentation or Thaumatrope.

http://www.precinemahistory.net/1830.htm#LEAVES

Run This

173

SOLO Optics History

Conical Refraction on the Optical Axis

OpticalAxis

E

E

E Take a biaxial crystal and cut it so that two parallel facesare perpendicular to the Optical Axis. If a monochromaticunpolarized light is normal to one of the crystal faces, theenergy will spread out in the plate in a hollow cone, thecone of internal conical refraction.

When the light exits the crystal the energy and wave directions coincide, and the light will form a hollow cylinder.

This phenomenon was predicted by William Rowan Hamiltonin 1832 and confirmed experimentally by Humphrey Lloyd, a year later (Born & Wolf).

Because it is no easy to obtain an accurate parallel beam ofmonochromatic light on obtained two bright circles (Born & Wolf).

1832William Rowan

Hamilton(1805-1855)

Humphrey Lloyd(1800-1881)

174

SOLO 1833Microscope

A French optician, Camille Sébastien Nachet (1799-1881), introduces one of the first microscopes to feature crossed-polarized illumination for the examination of birefringent samples.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1800-1833.html

The body tube contains two Nicole prisms that are oriented with the light vibration directions being perpendicular to one another. One prism is fitted underneath the stage, while the other is placed in the removable eyepiece, just below the intermediate image plane. The microscope has a brass body tube that is fastened to the central pillar with a rack mount. A circular stage is also mounted in a fixed position on the pillar and has two spring clips to secure the specimen in place. Focusing is accomplished with a knurled knob that translates the body tube up and down in the rackwork. The substage plano-concave mirror is used to concentrate light into the single-lens condenser. Accessories include several interchangeable objectives and a higher power eyepiece.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/museum/nachetpolarizing.html

175

SOLO 1835Microscope

Andrew Pritchard’s compound microscope

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=408028

This instrument, built by Andrew Pritchard (1804 – 1882), can be used as either a compound microscope or a simple microscope. A pillar set on a tripod holds a tilting limb carrying the mirror, converging lens, body-tube and stage. The image is focused by rackwork, inserted in the tilting limb that supports the body-tube. The eyepiece is Huygenian. The arm supporting the body-tube carries a collar in which a lens can be inserted when the instrument is used as simple microscope. There are objectives, a micrometer, and accessories for handling specimens.

Height 230 mm; Box 278x200x74 mm

176

SOLO

Airy Rings

In 1835, Sir George Biddell Airy, developed the formula for diffraction pattern, of an image of a point source in an aberration-free optical system, using the wave theory.

E. Hecht, “Optics”

Diffraction 1835

177

SOLO

Dffraction Grating

Diffraction 1835

By 1835 at the latest, the physicist F. M. Schwerd was able to take exact measurements of the visible spectrum with the aid of such a diffraction grating, and show that red light has a longer wavelength than blue light, and that yellow and blue light lie in the middle of the spectrum.

http://colorsystem.com/projekte/engl/16haye.htm

1835 - Schwerd developed a "wave" theory of the diffraction grating.

http://www.thespectroscopynet.com/Educational/Masson.htm

“Die Beugungserscheinungen aus den Fundamentalgesetzen der Undulationstheorie”

http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/3e723a9c5ac2a2b2.html

Friedrich Magnus Schwerd1792 - 1871

http://193.174.156.247/FMSG/wir_ueber_uns/wer_war_Schwerd.php

178

SOLO Stereoscopy 1838

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/wheatstone.html

Wheatstone was also highly concerned with optics, a field he originally entered because of his interest in expressing acoustic phenomena visually. His various studies and experiments led him to develop the theory of stereoscopic vision, which involves the idea that each eye sees a slightly different view of a single scene, which combine in a way that results in depth perception. He then used his new understanding of vision to invent the stereoscope, which he presented to the Royal Society in 1838. The instrument was designed so that it could present a slightly different two-dimensional image to each eye, which the viewer would then interpret as a single three-dimensional picture. Primarily used for entertainment purposes, various versions of the stereoscope became extremely popular in Victorian England.

Sir Charles Wheatstone (England) describes the theory of stereoscopic vision and his invention of the stereoscope to the Royal Society.

179

SOLO Color Theory 1839

Michel-Eugène Chevreul a chemist developed many of the laws of color harmony generally accepted today.He published his researches on colour contrasts (De la loi du contraste simultané des couleurs, in 1839; the 1854 English translation is titled The Principles of Harmony and Contrast of

Colors). Michel Eugène Chevreul

1786 – 1889 !Chevreul discovered some of the problems involved with the interaction of colors on a surface. Specifically, Chevreul was concerned with the way that the depth of a black dye changed with the different colors that surrounded it. He studied this problem carefully and produced his "Law of the Simultaneous Contrast of Colors," stated as such:"In the case where the eye sees at the same time two contiguous colors, they will appear as dissimilar as possible, both in their optical composition and in the height of their tone."

180

SOLO Photography 1839

Niepce's crude photographic technique (1822) is refined by his colleague, a painter named Louis-Jaques-Mandé Daguerre pictures, or "daguerreotypes," using silver-coated copper treated with a better quality light-sensitive chemical .

Finding the proper developing agent was the key to Daguerre's success, and occurred quite by accident. Daguerre had placed one of his treated copper plates in a cabinet that contained a variety of chemicals and was surprised to later find a clear image had developed on the plate. Through the process of elimination, he found that the substance he was seeking was mercury vapor that had leaked from a broken thermometer. The discovery meant that images could be exposed in about twenty minutes, rather than several hours. Daguerre further improved the photographic process that he and Niepce had developed by utilizing sodium chloride to permanently fix pictures and, by 1839, was ready to release his knowledge to the public. He called the photographic system the daguerreotype and attempted to sell the process by subscription, but met with little success. However, Daguerre gave a full description of his process at the French Academy of Sciences on January 9, 1839 and gained the notice of Francois Arago, a prominent member

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/daguerre.html

http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/history/daguerr.htm

181

SOLO Photography 1839 - 1840

Chevalier, Charles Louis (1804 – 1859)

Charles Louis Chevalier was a Frenchoptician and camera obscura manufacturer.He made an apparatus for Niècpe and gave his address to Daguerre for whom he was also working. In 1839 he made lenses for Daguerre-Giroux cameras.In 1840, he introduced the Photographe, aportable daguerreotype camera. He producedphotom-iconograps as early as March 1840.Chevalier was one of the earliest FrenchPhotographic writers and dealers.

Chevalier Appareil Universal No 1cc. 1856

182

SOLO Photography 1839

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/talbot.html

William Talbot (England) invents a photographic process using paper coated with light-sensitive chemicals. Exposure through a camera obscura creates a photographic negative from which many prints can be produced. Later that year, Talbot accidentally discovers the latent image phenomenon, the invisible configuration of silver halide crystals on a piece of film. This dramatically reduces exposure time from one hour to one to three minutes. Talbot names the improved photographic process calotype.

A picture by William Fox Talbot made in 1853

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Fox_Talbot

In February 1841, Talbot obtained a patent for the calotype process. At first he was selling individual patent licenses for £20 each, but later he lowered the fee to £4 and waived the payment for those who bought photographic materials from him. Professional photographers, however, had to pay up to £300 annually. Talbot's behavior was widely criticized, especially after 1851 when Frederick Scott Archer publicized the collodion process he had invented. Talbot declared that anyone using Archer's process would still be liable to get a license from Talbot for calotype (Archer himself never obtained a patent for collodion).

183

SOLO

Camera Lens 1840

In 1840 Joseph Max Petzval (1807 – 1891) made the first portrait camera lens.

http://www.thespectroscopynet.com/Educational/Masson.htm

A Hungarian optician, Petzval was professor of Mathematics at the University of Vienna. He played a leading part in early photography by devising a portrait lens with an aperture of approximately f3.6 - gathering sixteen times more light than lenses currently in use at the time. which brought exposure times down to less than a minute, therefore began to pave the way for portraiture. This lens, which was made by his compatriot Peter Friedrich Voigtlander in 1841, was popularly used well into this century. Sadly Petzval did not profit from this invention, unlike Voigtlander, with whom he had fallen out because he felt he had been cheated. Petzval died an embittered and impoverished man; Voigtlander old and rich two years later, having seen his firm expand from a small optical shop to a major industrial enterprise thanks to the success of the Petzval lens.

© Robert Leggat, 1998. http://www.rleggat.com/photohistory/history/petzval.htm

Petzval portrait lens

Joseph Max Petzval1807 - 1891

Optics History

184

SOLO Spectroscopy 1840

John Herschel (England) discovers Fraunhofer lines in the infrared region, the spectral region his father, William, discovered 40 years earlier.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/jherschel.html

infrared radiation

Sir John Herschel (1792-1871); Sir William's son; was an astronomer, chemist, and mathematician of note.   In 1840 he became the first to transfer a thermal image of the sun onto a piece of (specially prepared) paper.   He called this image a ‘thermogram’ - the term still used today.

http://www.infraredsurveys.co.uk/hist-1.htm

185

SOLO Microscopy 1840 - 1855

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/amici.html

In 1840, Amici introduced the oil-immersion technique to microscopy that minimizes optical aberrations, followed by the water-immersion objective (1855). Many innovations by this nineteenth century Italian designer have led important developments in the modern microscope, including a compound "periscope" instrument (1833) that moved microscopic viewing from the horizontal to vertical position, and a series of horizontal compound achromatic microscopes (circa 1850). One achromatic microscope had a quad-observation tube that allowed four individuals to simultaneously observe the specimen. The Amici prism, a combination of three prisms, is still used in refracting spectroscopy.

This type of reflecting compound microscope, used in the early decades of the 19th C., was invented by Giovanni Battista Amici (1786-1863). It eliminates the effects of chromatic aberration by means of a mirror placed opposite an opening in the body-tube. The mirror reflects the light to another concave mirror placed at the end of the tube, which in turn sends it to the eyepiece. This microscope was very popular for a time, but some of its drawbacks (including the fact that the magnification could be varied only by changing the eyepiece) eventually caused the system to be abandoned. Chromatic aberration was later eliminated by an effective combination of different lens types.

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=202401

Amici’s oil-immersion technique

186

SOLO

First Order, Paraxial or Gaussian Optics

In 1841 Gauss gave an exposition in “Dioptrische Untersuchungen”for thin lenses, for the rays arriving at shallow angles with respect toOptical axis (paraxial).

Karl Friederich Gauss1777-1855

Derivation of Lens Formula

'y

s 's

M’A F’M

T

F

'ffx 'x

Q

Q’'y

y

S

Axisy From the similarity of the triangles

and using the convention:

''

''~'

f

y

s

yyTAFTSQ

Lens Formula in Gaussian form

f

y

s

yyFASQTS

''~

0' y

Sum of the equations:

'

'

'

''

f

y

f

y

s

yy

s

yy

since f = f’ fss

1

'

11

1841Optics History

187

SOLO Fiber Optics History

Jean-Daniel Colladon (1802-1893)

1841

Jean-Daniel Colladon was a Swiss physicist. He studied law but then worked in the labs of Ampère and Fourier. He received an Académie des Sciences award with his friend Charles Sturm for their measurement of the speed of sound in water in Lake Geneva in 1826. He then became professor of mechanics at Ecole Centrale Paris in 1829. He returned to Switzerland in 1839 and organized the gas lighting of Geneva and Naples.

1841: Daniel Colladon demonstrates light guiding in jet of water Geneva

The first attempts at guiding light on the basis of total internal reflection in a medium dates to 1841 by Daniel Colladon. He attempted to couple light from an arc lamp into a stream of water. The large metal tube to the left is filled with water and the cork removed from the small hole near the bottom. It demonstrates the parabolic form of jets of water. Light from a lamp placed by the window opposite the jet opening follows the jet to illustrate total internal reflection

188

SOLO Fiber Optics History 1842

Jacques Babinet ( 1794–1872)

1842: Jacques Babinet reports light guiding in water jets and bent glass rods Paris

Among Babinet's accomplishments are the 1827 standardization of the Ångström unit for measuring light using the red Cadmium line's wavelength, and the principle (Babinet's principle) that similar diffraction patterns are produced by two complementary screens. He was the first to suggest using wavelengths of light to standardise measurements. His idea was first used between 1960 and 1983, when a meter was defined as a wavelength of light from krypton gas.

Jacques Babinet ( 1794–1872)

Babinet was interested in the optical properties of minerals throughout his career. He designed and created many scientific instruments utilized to determine crystalline structure and polarization properties, including the polariscope and an optical goniometer to measure refractive indices. The Babinet compensator, an accessory useful in polarized light microscopy, was built with twin, opposed quartz wedges having mutually perpendicular crystallographic axes, and is still widely employed in microscopy. This design avoids the problems inherent in the basic quartz wedge, where the zero reading coincides with the thin end of the wedge, which is often lost when grinding the plate during manufacture.

189

SOLO

Doppler Efect

1842

In 1842 Doppler completed and published the paper “On the Colored Light of Double Stars and Certain Other Stars of the Heavens”. Within the work, he proposed that observed frequency of light and sound waves is dependent upon how fast the source and observer are moving relative to each other, a phenomenon commonly referred to as the Doppler effect. He also correctly predicted that his theory would some day be utilized by astronomers to more accurately measure the movements and distances of stars

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/doppler.html

Optics History

A wave radiated from a point source when stationary (a) and when moving (b). Wave is compressed in direction of motion, spread out in opposite direction, and unaffected in direction normal to motion.

A wave radiated from a point source when stationary (a) and when moving (b). Wave is compressed in direction of motion, spread out in opposite direction, and unaffected in direction normal to motion.

VELOCITY

The Doppler effect

tdRd

ff

2

0

Run This

SOLO 1842

Alexandre Edmond Becquerel (1820 – 1891) (France) photographs the sun's spectrum using a slit, a flint glass prism, and a lens to focus the image onto a daguerreotype plate. The photograph reveals the Fraunhofer lines of the solar spectrum, from the red region through the ultraviolet.

Edmond Becquerel was associated with his father in much of his work, but he himself paid special attention to the study of light, investigating the photochemical effects and spectroscopic characters of solar radiation and the electric light, and the phenomena of phosphorescence, particularly as displayed by the sulphides and by compounds of uranium. It was in connection with these latter inquiries that he devised his phosphoroscope, an apparatus which enabled the interval between exposure to the source of light and observation of the resulting effects to be varied at will and accurately measured.

http://www.answers.com/topic/a-e-becquerel

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1834-1866.html

Spectroscopy

SOLO 1842Photography

Edward Anthony starts the first American camera manufacturing company “E. Anthony”. His brother Henry joins him in 1852 to form “E. H. Anthony”, the largest supplier of photographic materials in America. Anthony later merges with the Scoville Company, and the two names were combined and abbreviated to Ansco.

Edward Anthony (1819 – 1888)

Edward Anthony was a famous photographer, publisher, and photographic supplier in nineteenth century America. Anthony had gone to school for civil engineering at Columbia University, New York. However, it was a love of photography that led him to take lessons with Samuel F.B Morse, and to become an expert in a type of photography known as the daguerreotype. The daguerreotype process was invented by a Frenchman, Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre, in 1839. (For a full explanation of the process, see third link below.) In 1842, Anthony opened a Daguerreotype gallery in New York City. One of the many projects he worked on was a survey of the northeastern boundary of the United States; several of the resulting photographs from this survey were used to establish the border between Maine and Quebec.

SOLO

Joseph Puchberger

1843Panoramic Camera

Joseph Puchberger a chemist from the city of Retz, Austria, patented on a swing lens panoramic camera with a hand crank, entitled ‘Ellipsen Daguerreotype’. It used curved Daguerreotype plates 19 to 24 inches long. The camera had an 8-inch focal length lens and produced a view image of around 150 degrees. His associate, Wenzel Prokesch also was named on the patent at the end of the description with the notation ‘optics and mechanics’

193

SOLO

Filippo Pacini’s microscope

1844Microscope

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=202401

This type of compound microscope, invented for biological observations in 1844 by the Pistoia physician Filippo Pacini (1812-83), is mainly characterized by its stability and its sophisticated, efficient focusing system. The filters are inserted into a disk on the stage. Was particularly appreciated by some outstanding microscopists.

Filippo Pacini 1812 - 1883

http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/museum/esim.asp?c=300442

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/museum/pacinidesign1845.html

Panoramic CameraSOLO

1845

FRIEDRICH VON MARTEN

Friederich von Marten invents and introduces a Panoramic Camera which takes panoramic photographs 5 inches by 4 3/4, on a curved plate.

Von Martens camera was the first to use a swing lens and curved film plate. On the far right image - hand crank (a) turned gear (b) which swiveled lens (c) slit (d) projects the image onto film (e)

The Von Marten camera is considered a true panoramic camera. The photo does not need to be cropped to get a panoramic result. The view is exposed onto film through a narrow slit and a continuous image is built up as the slit is moved across the film. (Image Courtesy Clayton Tume - Bigshotz Panorama Photography)

Friedrich von Martens, a german living in Paris, made the Megaskop camera, featured a swing lens, operated by a handle and gears.. The first model used 4.7" x 15" curved daguerrotype plates that had a 150 degree arc. A later model usedwet plate curved glass emulsions.

195

PolarizationSOLO

Faraday Effect Michael Faraday (England) 1845 described the rotation of the plane of polarized light that passed through glass in a magnetic field.

1845-1946

“On the Magnetization of Light, and the Illumination of Magnetic Line Forces”

http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/faraday.htm

In a public lecture, given in 1946, physicist/chemist Michael Faraday (England), who established that electricity and magnetism are two aspects of the same force, speculates that light may be yet another aspect of this force.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1834-1866.html

196

SOLO

http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/faraday.htm

Group of scientists: (from left to right) English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday (1791 - 1867), English biologist Thomas Huxley (1825 - 1895), English physicist Sir Charles Wheatley (1802 - 1875), Scottish physicist Sir David Brewster (1781 - 1868) and Irish physicist John Tyndall (1820 - 1893).

Optics History

197

TelescopeSOLO 1845

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1834-1866.html

William Rosse, third Earl of Rosse, completes building the Birr Castle 72-inch optical reflecting telescope in Parsonstown, Ireland

During the 1840's and starting from virtually first principles, the third Earl of Rosse designed and had built the mirrors, tube and mountings for a 72 inch reflecting telescope which was the largest in the world at that time and remained so for three quarters of a century. With this instrument, situated near the middle of Ireland, Lord Rosse was able to study and record details of immensely distant stellar objects and to provide evidence that many of these mysterious nebulae were actually galaxies located far outside our own.

http://www.birrcastle.com/index.htm?mainFrame=http%3A//www.birrcastle.com/main.htm

William ParsonsThird Earl of Rosse

1800 - 1867

Leviathan of Parsonstown

198

InterferenceSOLO

Haidinger Fringes1846

Wilhelm Karl, Ritter von Haidinger

1795 - 1871

Lens

Beam-splitter

ExtendedSources

ViewingScreen

Dielectricfilm

Blackbackground

Circularfringes

Haidinger Fringes are the type of interference pattern that results with an extended source where partial reflectionsoccur from a plane-parallel dielectric slab.

199

Optics HistorySOLO

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Zeiss

1846

In 1847 Carl Zeiss started making microscopes full-time. His first innovation was making simpler microscopes that only used one lens, and were therefore only intended for dissecting work. He sold around 23 of them in his first year of production. He soon decided that he needed a new challenge so he began making compound microscopes. He first created the Stand I which went to market in 1857.

Carl Zeiss(1816 – 1888)

In 1861 he was awarded a gold medal at the Thuringen Industrial Exhibition for his designs. They were considered to be among the best scientific instruments in Germany. By this point he had about 20 people working under him with his business still growing all the time. In 1866 the Zeiss workshop sold their 1000th microscope. He then continued on for a few years, and assumed he had reached his fullest potential, but he met Dr. Ernst Abbe, a physicist that he joined up with in 1872. Their combined efforts lead to the discovery of the Abbe sine condition.

In 1846 Carl Zeiss founded the Zeiss company. He became a notable lens maker when he created high quality lenses that were "wide open", or in other words, had a very large aperture range that allowed for very clear images. He did this in the city of Jena at a self opened workshop, where he started his lens making career. At first his lenses were only used in the production of microscopes but when camera were invented, his company began manufacturing high quality lenses for cameras.

200

TelescopeSOLO 1847Harvard 15-inch Refractor

Year completed:1847 Telescope type:Refractor Light collector:Glass lenses

Lens diameter:15 inches (38 cm)Light observed:VisibleDiscovery Highlights:First telescope to make photographic images of the Moon and the bright star, Vega .

http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/explorations/groundup/lesson/scopes/harvard/index.php

Director William Cranch Bond, a watchmaker, brought his facility one of its greatest triumphs. Using clockwork to keep the telescope steadily focused on the Moon as it crossed the sky, he cast the Moon’s image on a photographic plate. After several seconds ticked by, he had the first picture of the Moon taken by a telescope.

201

SOLO Stereoscope 1849

Sir David Brewster (Scotland) develops a model of the stereoscope, a viewer for stereoscopic prints that will become a popular item in Victorian drawing rooms

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/1834-1866.html

Brewster wrote hundreds of papers on optics and also designed a famous variation of the stereoscope—the Brewster Stereoscope. He studied the theory of this instrument and improved the performance by adding refractive lenses to his model. Brewster also wrote what many consider the definitive treatise on the stereoscope, The Stereoscope: Its History, Theory, and Construction. He also wrote his famous Treatise on Optics in 1831, and Memoirs of the Life, Writings, and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton in 1855.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timeline/people/brewster.html

202

SOLO

Fizeau Experiment

Armand Hyppolite Louise Fizeau used, in 1849,an apparatus consisted of a rotating toothed wheel and a mirror at a distance of 8833 m.

Speed of Light

Source

m8633

2f

1L

3L

ToothedWheel

(720 teeth)

HalfSilveredMirror

SphericalMirror

2L

Fizeau Apparatus of 1849

A toothed wheel rotated at the focal point of the lens L2 in Figure above. A pulse oflight passes at the opening between teeth passes through L2 and is returned by thespherical mirror back to the toothed wheel. The rotation speed of the wheel is adjustedsuch that the light can either pass or be obstructed by a tooth (it was 25 rev/sec). The apparatus is not very accurate since the received light intensity must be minimized to obtain the light velocity.

Fizeau obtained 315,300 km/sec for the light velocity.

st 000,18/125/1720/1 skmt

dv /000,311

000,18/1

633,822

1849

203

SOLO Microscope 1850

Powell & Lealand Microscope

The microscope illustrated in Figure 5 was manufactured by Hugh Powell and Peter Lealand about 1850. The tripod base provided a sturdy support for the microscope, which many people consider the most advanced of its period.

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/anatomy/introduction.html

204

Optics TimelineSOLO

(continue to1850 – 2000)

April 12, 2023 205

SOLO Optics History

TechnionIsraeli Institute of Technology

1964 – 1968 BSc EE1968 – 1971 MSc EE

Israeli Air Force1970 – 1974

RAFAELIsraeli Armament Development Authority

1974 – 2013

Stanford University1983 – 1986 PhD AA

206

Optics HistorySOLO

LUDWIG BOLTZMANN(1844 - 1906)

WILHEL WIEN(1864 - 1928)

Hermann von Helmholtz1821-1894

Helmholtz students ZEISS Victory FL