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Opium:Abriefhistory

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Opium:ABriefHistory 2

OPIUM:ABRIEFHISTORY

byScottCalbeck

Introduction:A“WorldPainCrisis”? .......................................................................................................................................................2Opium:RelieffromSuffering..................................................................................................................................................................3TheSpreadoftheOpiumPoppy:FromtheGreekstotheChinese ........................................................................................................3Britain,China,andtheOpiumWars........................................................................................................................................................4OpiumintheWest.............................................................................................................................. ....................................................5TheEarlyModernEra ..................................................................................................................................................................5Nineteenth‐CenturyBritain..........................................................................................................................................................6TheNewWorld ............................................................................................................................................................................7OpiumDensintheNineteenthCentury...................................................................................................................................................7TheDiscoveryofMorphine(1806)...........................................................................................................................................................8TheDiscoveryofHeroin(1874)................................................................................................................................................................9TheScienceofPainToday......................................................................................................................................................................10TheCriminalizationofOpium................................................................................................................................................................11TheHarrisonAct(1914) .............................................................................................................................................................11ReactiontotheHarrisonAct......................................................................................................................................................12InternationalActivity.................................................................................................................... ............................................12InternationalDrugSmugglingSincethe1940s .....................................................................................................................................12HeroinandtheVietnamWar............................................................................................................………………………………………………….13TheWaronDrugs..................................................................................................................................................................................13OpiumToday.........................................................................................................................................................................................14

Introduction:A“WorldPainCrisis”?Foroverfivethousandyears,peoplehaverecognizedthemedicinalvalueofthepoppy.Itisjustaflower,buttheopiumitproducesisthesourceofthemostpotentpainrelieversknowntoman.Everydaydoctorsprescribethemorphineandcodeinethatderivefromopium.However,morphineisalsousedtoproduceheroin.Opiumisbotha“giftofthegods”andascourgeofmodernsociety.

Opium,morphine,andheroinformthebasisofamultinationaltrade,bothlegalandillegal,thatislargerthanthegrosseconomiesofsomecountries.TodayinAfghanistan,despiteeffortstointroducealternativecrops,poppycultivationisthebackboneoftheruraleconomy.Thebulkofthecountry’spoppycropcomesfromHelmandandKandaharprovinces,whereamajorityofresidentsareruralandtherearefewwaystoearnalivingfromthislandtoday.

BeforetheSovietUnion’sinvasionofAfghanistanin1979,Kandaharprovinceboastedawiderangeofcrops.Therewasfruit:manypeoplegrewapples,apricots,grapes,pears,plums,andpomegranates.Othersproducedcotton,barley,corn,sesame,sunflowers,andwheat.Butdecadesofwar,anddrought,havechangedthat.Somefarmersstillcultivatewheat.ButtheymaketentimeslessthanfarmerswhochoosetogrowPapaversomniferum–theopiumpoppy.

Cultivationofthepoppyislabourintensive,providingincomeforthousandsofpeople.TheplantthrivesinthearidconditionsofsouthernAfghanistan,asitishardyandrequireslesswaterthanothercrops.Rawopiumiseasytostoreforalongtime,withnospoilageandnolossofpotency.

Perhapsmostimportant,theworld’sconstantdemandforheroinmeansthatopiumdealersarewillingtopayfarmersinadvance.TheopportunitytoreceivemoneyinNovember’splantingseasonforacropthatwillnotbereadytoharvestuntilspringisapowerfulincentiveforpeasantswithnootherwaytoearncash.

FrommerchantsoftheBritishEastIndiaCompanyinthemid‐eighteenthcentury,togangstersoftheFrenchConnectioninthemid‐twentiethcentury,totheTalibananditssupportersinpresent‐dayAfghanistan,peoplehavesoughttoprofitfromtheopiumtrade.

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ButthefactthatAfghanistantreatscultivationoftheopiumpoppyasacrimenotonlydeprivesdestitutefarmersofthenecessitiesoflife–itdeprivestheworldofsomethingmanyofitscitizensdesperatelyneedtokillpain.

TheWorldHealthOrganizationestimatesthattherewillbetenmillioncasesofcancerperyearindevelopingcountries,inadditiontomillionsofpeoplewithHIV/AIDS.Itdescribesthelikelydemandforopium‐basedmedicinesasthesourceofaworldpaincrisis.

TheInternationalNarcoticsControlBoardlicensesthetrafficinmorphineandcodeine.Itreportsthattherichestnations–Australia,Britain,Canada,France,Germany,Japan,andtheUnitedStates–consumenearlyalloftheworld’slegalopiates,leavingeightypercentoftheglobe’spopulationvirtuallywithout.

MeetingglobaldemandforpainmedicationwouldrequireperhapsaboutdoublethecurrentAfghanproduction.PurchasingtheentireannualAfghanpoppycropatthecurrentmarketprice,whichdrugwarlordsset,wouldcostabout$600million–roughly10percentofwhattheUnitedStatesspendsinamonthontheAfghanwar.Opium:RelieffromSufferingOpiumanditsderivatives,whichincludemorphine,codeine,andthebaine,arenarcotics–fromtheGreeknarcosis(benumbingordeadening).Thesesubstancesnotonlyrelievepain;theyalsochangemoodandbehaviour,producingarelaxedfeelingofwell‐beingorrelief.Thereforetheyreducetheanxietythatoftenaccompaniesandcanevenworsenpain.Today,medicinesfromopiumtreatpainincrediblyeffectivelyinfourkeyclinicalareas:cancer,HIV/AIDS,post‐operativetreatment,andgeneralchronicpain.Mostpatientstakingnarcoticsstatethattheyareexperiencingjustasmuchpainastheydidwithoutthemedication,buttheyfindthepainlesstroubling.Narcoticsconstrictthepupilsoftheeyes,slowbreathing,andwidentheveinsoftheskin,whicheffectsmakethebodylookflushedandfeelwarm.Theyslowthedigestivesystemandareatraditionalremedyfordiarrhoea.Theyhaveacalmingactiononcoughsandhavelongbeenstandardtreatmentforthem.

Humanshavealwayssearchedforwaystorelievepain.Opiumwasprobablythefirstdrugthatearlypeoplesdiscovered,andoneoftheoldestcivilizationscultivatedopium:theSumerians,wholivedsixthousandyearsagointheFertileCrescent–theareasurroundingtheTigrisandEuphratesriversinpresent‐dayIraq.Theyvaluedhulgil(theplantofjoy)foritsabilitytorelievepain.TheyintroducedopiumtotheAssyrians,whointurnshareditwiththeBabylonians.TheBabylonianspassedontheirknowledgetotheEgyptians.

TheopiumpoppywashistoricallyindigenousthroughoutEurope,theMiddleEast,andNorthAfrica.Egyptianrecordsshowthattradeinandconsumptionofopiumflourishedunderseveralpharaohs,includingKingTutankhamun.Archaeologistshavefoundopium‐extractingequipmentinthetombsofpharaohs,forwhomitwastohelpharvestpoppiesinthenextlife.

Egyptiansusuallyatetheplant,althoughsomepressedtheentireflowertomakepoppyjuice.Mostfamilieskeptastockintheirhomesandusedittotreatasthma,digestivedisorders,andheadaches,aswellascolic.Archaeologistshaveuncovereda“RemedytoPreventtheExcessCryingofChildren”:“Mixopiumwiththeexcretionsoffliesfoundonthewalls,straintoapulp,passthroughasieve,andadministeronfoursuccessivedays.Thecryingwillstopatonce.”

Intheearlytwentiethcentury,NorthAmericanswerestillusingopiumtotreatcolic.Andthemethodofharvestingithasnotchangedinallthesemillennia.TheSpreadoftheOpiumPoppy:FromtheGreekstotheChineseOpiumpoppyplantsgrowintemperateclimatesaroundtheworld.Theybearflowersthatrangeincolourfrompurewhitetobrilliantpurple.Thefemalestructure–thepistil–liesatthecentreoftheflower.Afterpollination,seedsbegintomaturewithinthepistil,whichswellstoformaseedpod.Withinafewdays,theflowerpetalsfallofftoexposetheseedpod.Iffarmersleavetheseedpodontheplant,theseedsmatureanddryout.Poppyseedsareusefulincookingandbakingandarealsoconvertibletooil.

Butscoringthepodwithshallowcutsbyaknifereleasesopiumintheformofthick,whiteresinthatoozesfromtheslits.Asitcontactstheair,theresindarkensandcongeals.Peoplethenscrapeitfromtheseedpodandcombineitwithresinfromother

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plantstoformaballofcrudeopium.Theythenboilandfilterthiscrudeopiumandshapeitintoblocks.Incontrasttomanyotheragriculturalcrops,opiumisnon‐perishable,easytostore,lowinweight,andhighinvalue.

Homerknewaboutopium.IntheOdyssey,HelenaddsittothewinetolightenthemoodatagatheringfollowinganencounteronthefieldsofTroy.ManyGreeksbelievedthatopiumhadmetaphysicalqualities,butHippocratesdisagreed,seeingitaspotentiallybeneficialonlyifoneuseditsparinglyandundercontrol.Heworriedlittleaboutitspotentialabuse–tohim,alcoholseemedafarmoredangeroussocialaddiction.

AlexandertheGreatknewaboutopium,andintroducedittoIndiaandPersia.TheRomanslearnedaboutopiumandothermedicinesfromtheGreeks.Romancitizensusedopiumastheequivalentofaspirin;theyateitwithhoney,tosuppressitsbitterness,ordrankitasajuice.Opiumwasavailableinlocalshopsandfromtravellingsalesmen.Thegreatphilosopher‐emperorMarcusAureliuswasanaddict.

Arabphysiciansrecognizedthesubstanceforitsmedicinalvirtues.ButpartlybecauseIslamforbadealcohol,opiumbecameapopularsocialdrug.Bytheseventhcentury,nativesofwhatisnowTurkeydevelopedanewwaytousethesubstance.Insteadofeatingitorbrewingpartsoftheplanttomakeatea,theyfoundthatheatingaballofopiumandinhalingthesmokeitproducedallowedthemtoexperiencethebenefitsmuchfaster.Whattheydidnotknowwasthatsmokingopiumratherthaneatingitwasmorelikelytomakeusersdependent.

TheexpansionoftheArabworldintheMiddleAgesbroughttradersintocontactwithPersia(Iran),India,andChina.OpiumgrewwellinIndiaandbecameamajorsourceofrevenuefortheMogulempireinthenorth.ArabtradershadintroducedopiumtoChinaduringtheeighthcentury.Itsoonbecameavaluableiteminmedicinecabinetsthere,andremainedprimarilyaremedyratherthanarecreationaldrugfornearlyonethousandyears.ButbytheendofthenineteenthcenturyopiumwouldbecomeapoignantsymbolofChinesedecline,thanksinlargeparttooneofthelargestdrugcartelstheworldhaseverknown:theBritishgovernment.Britain,China,andtheOpiumWarsImaginethataColombiandrugcartellaunchesasuccessfulmilitaryoffensiveagainsttheUnitedStatesandforcesthecountrytolegalizecocaineandallowitsimportationintomajorcities,withoutsupervisionortaxation.ThecartelthenforcestheUnitedStatestoreimburseitforthecostsofthewar.Lessthantwohundredyearsago,theBritishdidjustthattoChina;thedruginquestionwasopium.

Onlyafewcenturiesago,Chinawasamysteriousandunknowncountrytomuchoftheworld.AsWesternpowersbegantheageofexplorationbysea,PortugalandSpainwerethefirsttomakecontactwithitandenjoyedavirtualmonopolyoftradethereinthesixteenthcentury.In1557theChineseemperorallowedthePortuguesetoleasethesmallpeninsulaofMacaointhesouth.

Therulingphilosophy,Confucianism,lookeddownontradersnomatterwhattheirculture.SotheChineseviewedtheforeignerswithcontemptasbarbarians,andwoulddealwiththeirtradersonlythroughtheportofCanton.ButwhiletheempirewouldsoonfindEuropeahugemarketforitstea,silk,andporcelain,itwasotherwiseself‐sufficientandhadlittleneedtoimportforeigngoods.

ManyChinese,however,developedapassion–whichwould,formillions,becomeanaddiction–forsmokingamixtureoftobaccoandIndianopiuminapipe.TheSpanishhadintroducedpipesmokingtoChina.Bytheearlyseventeenthcentury,IndianopiumwasforsaleinChina.Asthehabitofsmokingopiumspread,theemperorissuedanedictin1729banningthesmokingofthesubstanceanditsimportation.Butthevastcountryhadcloseto300millionpeople.Howtoenforceanyban–especiallyagainstasubstancethataddicteditsusers?Thepenaltyfordealinginopiumwasstrangulation.Butthereweresomanyaddictsthatsmugglerswerewillingtoignoretheimperialdecree.

TheBritishwerelatecomerstothetrade,butastheirinfluenceinIndiagrewtheytookovertherichopiumfieldsofBengal.In1772theBritishgovernorgeneral,WarrenHastings,establishedacolonialmonopolyonopiumandgavetheBritishEastIndiaCompanytheexclusiverighttopurchaseitfromBengal’sfarmers.

TheBritishhaddevelopedaloveaffairoftheirown–withtea.In1664KingCharlesIIreceivedtwopoundsofblack,strange‐smellingleavesfromChina.By1785,Britainwasimporting15millionpoundsofteaayearfromthatnation.Ahugetrade

Opium:ABriefHistory 5

imbalanceresulted,becausetheself‐sufficientChineseinsistedonpaymentinsilver.Thesolutionwasopium.Itwasanidealcargo–easytotransport,non‐deteriorating,lowinweight,andveryvaluable,producinghugeprofits.Itsaddictivepropertiesguaranteedanexpandingmarket.

AstheopiumtradewasofficiallyillegalinChina,theBritishEastIndiaCompanylicensed–andcontrolled–privatetraderswhosmuggledthesubstancetoMacao.RapidtravelfromIndiatoChinawasessential,toavoidbothstormsandpirates,andanewkindofshipemerged–thesleek,fastopiumclipper.CrewstransferredhugequantitiesofopiumontheislandofLintintofastChinesevesselswithflatbottoms–“fastcrabs”–whichuseduptofortyoarsmen.Thedeathpenaltyawaitinganyoneoncapturespurredtheprocess.

In1799theChineseemperordecreedatotalbanonopium,butincreasinglocaldemandmeantthatthetradecontinuedtoflourish.Bythe1830s,threemillionaddictswereconsuming1,500tonsofIndianopiumeachyear.

TherewasoppositioninBritaintothecountry’sinvolvementintheopiumtrade.SomepeoplefeltitinconsistentwiththehonouranddutyofaChristiankingdom;otherscalleditanationalcrime.ButtaxrevenuesfromopiumwereanimportantsourceofrevenueforthegovernmentinBritain.IftheChinesehadaphysicaladdiction,theBritishhadafinancialone.

ParliamentfinallyrevokedtheBritishEastIndiaCompany’scharterin1833.ButfreetradersflockedtoMacao,andtheillegalsaleofIndianopiumcontinuedtothriveallalongtheChinesecoast.Opiumwasbynowunderminingthecountry’ssocialandeconomiclife;itsusewasrampantamongsoldiersandcivilservants.Theemperor’sapparentpowerlessnessseemedathreattothesurvivalofhisdynasty.ThegovernmentdecidedtotargetBritishtradersanddemandthattheysurrendertheiropium.WhentheBritishrelinquishedonlyatokenamount,authoritiesbannedalltradeandmovementofBritishshipsalongtheCantonRiver.

From1839to1842(theFirstOpiumWar),aBritishexpeditionaryforceshelledandcapturedvariouscitiesinChina,whosearmedforceswereunabletodefendthem.ThispredicamenthumiliatedtheChineseandhighlightedtheirweakness.TheTreatyofNanjingforcedthemtocedetheislandofHongKongtoBritainfor175yearsandopenotherportstoforeigntrade.Overthenexttenyears,theempire’simportofIndianopiumdoubled.

In1856theChinese,furiousaboutthefloodofaproductthattheyhaddeclaredillegal,seizedashipsmugglingopium.ThevesselwasflyingtheUnionJack.TheBritishrespondedbybombardingCanton.Fightingwentonfrom1856to1860(theSecondOpiumWar)andculminatedwiththeinvadersdestroyingtheemperor’sSummerPalaceinPeking(Beijing).Thepalaceboastedeightysquaremilesofexquisiteparklandandgardens.Itstwohundredpagodas,palaces,andpavilionshousedlibraries,artwork,andothertreasures.Ittooktwodaysforthislivingmuseumtoburntotheground.

AnewtreatyopenedmoreChineseportstotradeandmadeimportationofopiumlegal.Overthenexttwentyyears,importsofopiumfromIndiacontinuedtorise.ChineseofficialsfosteredlocalproductiontocutintotheIndiantrade,butthisalsoencouragedmoreuseandaddictionathome.

By1906over13millionChineseaddictswereconsumingalmost40,000tonsofopiumayear.WhentheJapaneseoccupiedthecountryinthelate1930stheyfoundthatabouttenpercentofthepopulation–40millionpeople–wereaddicts,sotheyfloodedthenationwithopiumandmorphine.After1949,Communistrulersfinallyendedtheopiumproblem,executingdealersandforcingusersintotreatment.

InsomewaysthehavocthatheroinaddictionhasbroughttotheWestinthelastcenturyseemsalmostpoeticjusticeforitseconomicandpoliticalexploitationofadecayingChineseempire.SomeobservershavesaidthattheBritishempirereallybegantodeclinewhentheBritishgaveuptheopiumbusiness.OpiumintheWestTheEarlyModernEraBy1900opiumwasalsobecomingprevalentinEurope,eventhoughitwasnotnewthere.KnightsreturningfromtheCrusadeshadbroughtopiumwiththem,anditsoonbecameasubstanceoflegend.

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WhentheCatholicsdrovetheMoorsfromSpainandtheinfluenceofIslamictradersdiminishedinthefifteenthcentury,theVenetianstookovertheopiumtrade.MerchantsandrulersaskedColumbus,Cabot,daGama,andMagellantobringbackopiumfromtheirvoyagesofdiscovery.

Inthelate1500sParacelsus,aneccentricphysician,philosopher,andhealerfromSwitzerland,developedanewmethodofconsumingopium.Herealizedthatitscomponentsdidnotdissolveeasilyinwaterbecauseoftheiralkalinenature.

Byexperimenting,hefoundthathecouldcompletelydissolvethesubstanceinalcohol.Hecreatedamixtureofopiuminbrandythathenamedlaudanum–“somethingtopraise.”Heclaimedthatitcouldtreatanydiseasethatcausedpain.Heevenboastedthatpatientswhompainhadrestrictedtotheirbedsregainedmuchoftheirformer,activelivesaftertakingit.Interestinlaudanumsurged.Thedrinkbecamepopularasamedicineandforrecreationaluse.In1680ThomasSydenham,anEnglishphysicianandapothecary,revisedParacelsus’srecipetomake“Sydenham’sLaudanum.”Containingopium,sherrywine,saffron,cinnamon,andcloves,hisbrewnotonlytastedbetter–itcostless,too.Hebecameanenthusiasticproponent:“IcannotforebearmentioningwithgratitudethegoodnessoftheSupremeBeing,whohassuppliedafflictedmankindwithopiatesfortheirrelief;nootherremedybeingequallypowerfultoovercomeagreatnumberofdiseases,ortoeradicatethemeffectually.”Nineteenth‐CenturyBritainThomasdeQuinceywasoneofthefirstEuropeanstowriteaboutopium.Aftertakingittotreatpainfromatoothache,hecontinuedtouseitrecreationally.Hebegantosavehissupplyforeventssuchasatriptotheopera,becauseitenhancedhissensesandmadetheexperienceseemlargerthanlife.HisConfessionsofanEnglishOpiumEaterappearedin1822:“Thatmypainshadvanishedwasnowatrifleinmyeyes…Herewasthesecretofhappiness,thatwhichphilosophershaddisputedforsomanyages,atoncediscovered;happinessmightnowbeboughtforapenny,carriedinthewaistcoatpocket;portableecstasiesmightbehadcorkedupinapintbottle;andpeaceofmindcouldbesentdownbythemail.”DeQuincey’sConfessionspopularizedthedrug,butfewpeoplereadhislaterMiseriesofOpium,abouttheagoniesofhisaddiction.

Englishchemists(i.e.,pharmacists)stockedopiumliniment,opiumpills,opiumsoap,opiatelozenges,andopiateplasters.Manycoughsyrupsandelixirscontainedopium.ThomasDoverwasawell‐knownseacaptain,andrescuedthereal‐lifeRobinsonCrusoe.Whenhissailingcareerended,heannouncedplanstospendtherestofhislifehealingpeople.Buthewasalreadyfortyandunwillingtogotomedicalschool.Hepreferredtohealpeoplewithhisownopiumelixir.Hisfriendshipswithsailorsactiveintheopiumtradeallowedhimtoobtainalltheopiumheneeded.Dover’sPowderbecameoneofthebest‐sellingself‐remediesinEngland.

Opiumformedthebaseofseveralsoothingbabysyrups.In1862apharmacistinNottinghamestimatedthathesold12,000dosesaweek,mostlytopoorwomenwhohadtoworklonghoursandtakecareofchildren.Soothingsyrupshelpedtokeeptheyoungstersquiet;theyalsosuppressedhungerandthereforesavedonfood.Laudanumcontinuedinuse.Victoriandoctorsoftenprescribeditfor“neurasthenia”–fatigue,headache,andirritabilityor,lesscharitably,“women’stroubles”or“femalecomplaints.”ThegreatpoetElizabethBarrettBrowningconsumeditmostofheradultlife.Historiansdisagreeonheroriginalreasonsfortryingit,butmostconcurthatshecontinuedwithittotreatherneurasthenia: ItmightstrikeyouasstrangethatIwhohavenopain–no acutesufferingtokeepdownfromitsangles–shouldneed dopeinanyshape.ButIhavehadrestlessnessuntilitmade mealmostmad. AtonetimeIlostthepowerofsleepingquite–andevenin theday,thecontinualachingsenseofweaknesshasbeen intolerable–besidespalpitation–asifone’slife,insteadof givingmovementtothebody,wereimprisonedundiminished withinit,andbeatingandflutteringimpotentlytogetout, atallthedoorsandwindows. Sothemedicalpeoplegavemeopium–andeversinceI

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havecalleditmydrinkofthegods,myelixir–becausethe tranquilizingpowerhasbeenwonderful.TheNewWorldOpiumtravelledwithsettlerstotheNewWorldintheearly1600s.Newcomersplantedpoppyseedsandgrewfieldsofopium.Aspeoplehaddoneforcenturies–andcontinuetodotoday–theymadecutsintheseedpodandscrapedtheresinfromit.Thentheydissolvedthegooeysapinwhiskytotreatpainandcoughs.Theyalsoallowedsomeplantstomatureandcollectedthesmallblackseedsforbreads,pastries,andcookingoil.

DuringtheCaliforniagoldrush(1849‐60),largenumbersofChinesepeopleimmigratedtoNorthAmerica,bringingwiththemmanyoftheircustoms.Someestablishedopiumdens–quietroomswherecustomerscouldbuyandsmokethesubstanceundertheproprietor’swatchfuleye.

ForthefirsttwentyyearsChineseimmigrantswerethedens’onlycustomers;whitesettlers,viewingtheplaceswithsuspicion,didnotenter.Somelocalsfearedtheactivitybecausetheythoughtitdangerous;othersdislikedtheChineseimmigrants.Manyotherssimplythoughtitastrangeandsinfulpractice.However,by1868,Americansbegantosmokeopium.

ThefrontiertownofDeadwood,SouthDakota,wasinfamousintheOldWest:itcateredtoeveryconceivablevice,includingprostitution,drinking,andgambling.Butthesheriffwasshockedwhenhefoundmembersofthemiddleclasssmokingopium.Afraidthatthisvicewouldrobamanofallsemblanceofmanhood,heclosedalltenopiumdens.

ButsomehistorianshavesuggestedthatpeopleintheOldWestusedmoreopiumthanalcohol.FamouscowboyssuchasKitCarsonandWildBillHickokwereregularcustomersinopiumdens.TheOldWestmightconjureupforusimagesofsaloonsfullofcowboys,butinrealitymanycowboyswerelyingoncotsinopiumdens–anovelwaytopassthedayinapleasant,pain‐freestupor.

InSanFranciscointhe1890s,aphysicianestimatedthatatleasttenthousandlocalshadthehabit:“Alargeportionofthecityhadtakenupsmokingopium,hittingthepipeasoftenasthreetimesaday.Ifoundgirlsfromsixteentotwentyyearsofagelyinghalf‐undressedonthefloororcouches,smokingwiththeirlovers.”Bythistime,theBritishwereconsumingaround60,000poundsofopiumayear.TherewastradeinBristol,Dover,andLiverpool,andauctionstookplaceeverytwoweeksinLondon.OpiumDensintheNineteenthCenturyThereweredensallovertheworldinthenineteenthcentury,inlargeportcitiessuchasHongKong,London,NewYork,SanFrancisco,andSydney.Thephrase“tobehip”describedtherecliningpositionofthecustomers.Thebestsmokerequiredthattheflameandtheballofopiumcombineattherighttemperatureandtherightangle.

NovelistGrahamGreeneexplainedhisstateofmindaftertryingopiumforthefirsttime:

Mymindfeltalertandcalm–unhappinessandfearofthefuturebecamelikesomethingdimlyrememberedwhichIhadthoughtimportantonce.I,whofeelshyatexhibitingthegrossnessofmyFrench,foundmyselfrecitingapoemofBaudelairetomycompanion.

WhenIgothomethatnight,Iexperiencedforthefirsttimethewhitenightofopium.Oneliesrelaxedandwakeful,notdesiringsleep.Wedreadwakefulnesswhenourthoughtsaredisturbed,butinthisstateoneiscalm–itwouldbewrongeventosayoneishappy–happinessdisturbsthepulse.

Andthensuddenlywithoutwarningonesleeps.Neverhasonesleptsodeeplyawholenight‐longsleep,andthenthewakingandtheluminousdialoftheclockshowingthattwentyminutesofso‐calledrealtimehavegoneby.

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WhetherinadeninthesouthofFrance,inaroomoffanalleyinSanFrancisco,orinthehomeofarichmandarininCanton,thesmokerfollowedatraditionalprocedure.Thelayoutusuallyconsistedofapipe,aspiritlamp,alargeneedleandacontainerofopiumpaste,ascraperforcleaningoutthebowl,asponge,scissorsfortrimmingthewickofthelamp,andasetofscalesformeasuringouttheopium.

AnewtypeofopiumpipewasdevelopedinChina,andconsistsofalongstemortube,aceramicbowl,andametalsaddlethatholdsthebowl.Theopiumisnotburnedbutconvertedtoavapourandinhaled.Opiumpipesrangefromsimplebambootubestoexquisiteivoryorjadecarvings.

Thesmokermakeshimselforherselfcomfortable–themostefficientpositionforsmokingisreclining.Hetakesapea‐sizedball,orpill,ofthepastewiththeneedleandholdsitoverthelamp’sflameuntiltheopiumbubblesandswellsandturnsgolden.Pushingtheopiumintotheholeinthebowl,heholdsthebowlclosetothelampsothattheflamehitstheballofopiumandtakesdeeppullsatthepipeuntiltheopiumiscompletelyconsumed.

Somepeoplehadalternativestoopiumdens:intheUnitedStatesinthelatenineteenthcentury,themajorityofmaleaddictswerephysicians.Someopiumdenswerehousesofprostitution,anditbecameeasyforWesternerstodemonizeopiumdensasplaceswhereChinesemenseducedmiddle‐classwhitegirls.UnfamiliarChinesehabits,languages,andmannerismscouldseemmenacingtoWesterners.Chineseopiumdensbecameafocusofinternationalcontempt.

Formanypeople,however,opiumwasrepresentativeoftheintriguingandexoticwaysofforeignlands.Butanti‐drugcrusadersforcedgovernmentstoheeddemandsforahalttothetrade.Inthecourseofafewdecades,takingopiumchangedfromanexoticiflegalvicetoacriminalactivityrunbygangssellingdrugsonthestreets.Heroinwaseasiertosurreptitiouslyconsume,andbytheturnofthetwentiethcenturyopiumdenshadbecomeathingofthepast.TheDiscoveryofMorphine(1806)Scientistshadlongworriedaboutopium’saddictivenature.Anumberofthemstudieditintheearlynineteenthcenturyinthebeliefthatitsactivepain‐relievingingredientalonewouldnotbeaddictive.

In1806aGermanpharmacist’sassistant,FriedrichSerturner,changedmedicineandthetreatmentofpain.Hedilutedopiuminacidandthenneutralizeditwithammonia.Hisresearchshowedthatopiumwasamixtureofsugars,resins,waxes,water,andmorethantwentyalkaloids.Oneofthesealkaloidshadadramaticsleep‐inducingeffectonanimals.SerturnernameditmorphineafterMorpheus,theGreekgodofdreams.Healsoexperimentedwithitonhimself,andtheresultsfrightenedhim:“Iconsideritmydutytoattractattentiontotheterribleeffectsofthisnewsubstanceinorderthatcalamitymaybeaverted.”

Butmanyexpertshailedmorphineasthenextwonderdrug.Bythemid‐1820sitwaswidelyavailableinwesternEurope.FlorenceNightingale,asanursewiththeBritisharmyintheCrimeainthe1850s,usedsharpenedquillstoadministerit.Itsvalueasapainrelievergreatlyincreasedin1853,whenDr.AlexanderWoodperfectedthehypodermicsyringe.

Ratherthanhavepatientseatordrinkamorphineelixir,doctorscouldnowdeliverameasureddose.Bypassingthedigestivesystemalsogavefasterresults.Inaddition,doctorsbelievedthatopiumwasaddictivebecauseitwasdigestedinthestomach.Introducingmorphinedirectlyintothebloodstream,theyassumed,avoidedthethreatofaddiction.

MorphineandthehypodermicsyringewerereadyforuseintheU.S.CivilWarandtheFranco‐PrussianWar.Medicalpersonneladministereditorallyandbyinjectiontohelpquellthepainofinjuriesandemergencysurgery.Theydistributeditliberallytotreatdysenteryandmalaria.AccordingtohistorianMartinBooth,"UnionSurgeonMajorNathanMayerdidnotevendismountfromhishorsetodispenseopium.Hepouredoutwhathetermed'exactdoses'intohishandsandletrecipientslickitfromhisgloves."Sadly,Serturner'swonderdrugturnedsoldiersintoaddicts–ithasbeenclaimedthatwhatcametobecalledthe"soldiers'disease”afflictedasmanyas400,000CivilWarveterans.

Atonetime,surgeonWilliamHalstedwassufferingfromaddictiontococaine,ahighlystimulatingdrug.Advertisementspromotedmorphineasasafe,non‐addictivedrugthatcouldtreataddictiontootherdrugs.Halstedtrieditandweanedhimselfoffcocaine.However,hewasneverabletoescapehisdailyfixofmorphine.Medicalprofessionalsoftenexperimentedonthemselveswithnewdrugswhenmanufacturersintroducedthem.Ineducatinghimselfaboutmedicationstohelphispatients,Halstedlearnedatfirsthandabouttheaddictivepowersoftheopiates.

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Eventhoughmorphineaddictionanditssymptomsweregainingrecognition,veryfewpeoplefullyunderstooditsdangers,anditsusecontinuedtospreadthroughthecentury.InbothEuropeandtheUnitedStates,manymembersofthemiddleclassandhighsocietyinjectedthedrugdaily,asa"cure"foropiumaddiction,totreatpain,orforthepleasurablefeelingsitgave.Storesandmagazinesopenlysoldmorphineandsyringes;theSearscataloguefeaturedsyringekits.By1900theUnitedStateshadperhaps100,000morphineaddicts.

Mosthabituésbeganthroughmedicaluseofthesubstance.Pharmaciessoldavarietyofremediesthatcontainedeithermorphineoropium.Paregoric,amixtureofopiumandalcohol,wasadvertisedasatreatmentforbabieswithupsetstomachs.Itisoneofthefewearlyopiumremediesstillavailabletoday.Asdoctorsdocumentedmoreandmoremorphineaddiction,theirconcernsgrew.Eventually,theycouldnolongerignorethenewdrug'sdarkerside.JohnWitherspoon,laterpresidentoftheAmericanMedicalAssociation,beggedhiscolleaguesto"saveourpeoplefromtheclutchesofthishydra‐headedmonsterwhichstalksabroadthroughthecivilizedworld,wreckinglivesandhappyhomes,fillingourjailsandlunaticasylums,andtakingfromtheseunfortunates,thepreciouspromiseofeternallife."TheDiscoveryofHeroin(1874)Soonresearchersturnedbacktothelaboratoryinpursuitofthatelusive,non‐addictingpainkiller.In1874EnglishpharmacistC.R.AlderWrightcookedmorphinewithaceticanhydrideandobtainedawhite,crystallinepowderthathenameddiacetylmorphine.Aftertestingthechemicalondogs,Wrightfoundthatitcaused"greatprostration,fear,sleepinessspeedilyfollowingtheadministrationandaslighttendencytovomiting."Hedecidedagainstanyfurtherresearchonit.

In1897,GermanscientistsatBayerPharmaceuticalCompanyre‐examinedhisfindingwithadifferentperspective.HeinrichDreser,headofthelab,realizedthecommercialpossibilitiesofamorphine‐relatedmedication.Hesetouttotestdiacetylmorphineonavarietyofanimals,includingfish,frogs,andrabbits.HeeventesteditontheworkersattheBayerplant.Thedrugprovidedthemwithinstantpainreliefalongwithintenseeuphoriaandseveralhoursofdreamyrelaxation.Mostofthemlovedit,andsomereportedthatitmadethemfeelstrong,even"heroic"–hencethenameheroin.

By1898Bayerwasmanufacturingthechemicalandpromotingitasatreatmentforasthma,bronchitis,andcoughing,aswellasacureformorphineaddiction.Optimistically,Bayerclaimedthatthetreatmenthadthepain‐killingpropertiesofmorphinebutnoneofthetroublesomeaddictiveeffects.

Bayersentsamplestodoctorsallovertheworldandbegananaggressiveadvertisingprogram.By1899itwasproducingatonayear.Heroinbecameoneofitsmostvaluableproducts,makingup5percentofitsdrugsales.ThemajorityofitsheroinlandedintheUnitedStates,wherethedrugwasanimmediatesensation.InitiallytheAmericanandothernationalmedicalcommunitieswereaskeenaboutthesubstanceastheyhadbeenaboutmorphine.In1900theBostonMedicalandSurgicalJournalcommented:"Itpossessesmanyadvantagesovermorphine.It'snothypnoticandthere'snodangerofacquiringahabit."

Manydoctorsprescribedittorelieveconstant,hackingcoughs.Physicianswerealsoseekingnewwaystotreatfatalrespiratorydiseasessuchastuberculosisandpneumonia.Antibioticsheldpromisebutwererelativelynewandnotyetabletoeliminatemanydeadlyrespiratoryconditions.Heroinquicklybecametheirchoiceforincurabletuberculosis,anddoctorsprescribedittohundredsofpatientstostoptheirpainfulcoughs.

Slowly,reportsofaddictiontrickledbacktotheU.S.medicalcommunity,andwarningsbegantoappearintheliterature.In1903DrGeorgeE.Petteywrote"TheHeroinHabit:AnotherCurse"intheAlabamaMedicalJournal.Hereportedthatinthelast150caseshehadtreatedforaddiction,heroinwastheculpritineightcases,threeofthemduringtreatmentbymedicalprofessionals.

Evenso,somephysiciansdidnotreadilybelievethedrugwasdangerous.Acrossthecountry,medicalpractitionerscontinuedtoprescribeheroin.In1911JohnD.TrawickofKentuckydescribedthedilemma:"Ifeelthatbringingchargesagainstheroinisalmostlikequestioningthefidelityofagoodfriend.Ihaveuseditwithgoodresults,andIhavegottensomebadresults,suchasapeculiarband‐likefeelingaroundthehead,dizziness,etc.,butinsomecasesreferredto,ithasbeenalmostuniformlysatisfactory."

Opium:ABriefHistory 10

Manyproponentshadreadreportsthatdirectlyconflictedwiththeirownobservations.Thediscrepancywasduetotwofactors.Mostofthesephysiciansprescribedheroininpillform,whichcausedaddictionsograduallythatneithertheynorpatientsnoticedit.Also,scoresofpatientssufferedfromlife‐longhealthproblems,sotheyneverstoppedtakingthemedicine,andthereforeneversufferedwithdrawalsymptoms–thestandardsignalofaddiction.

In1913Bayerdecidedtostopmakingthewonderdrug.IthadreceivedhundredsofreportsofhospitaladmissionsforoverdosesintheUnitedStates.Itwasclearthatthesubstancehadafollowingofrecreationalusers.Observershadidentifiedalargegroupofhabitualusersandnicknamedthem"junkies"becausetheyraisedmoneyfortheirhabitsbycollectingandsellingjunkmetal.WithoutBayerasasourceofdrugs,manyusersturnedtoillegalmarkets.

By1925itwasimpossibleforanyonetoignorethewarningsanylonger.ResearchersreportedthatintheUnitedStatesthereweremorethan200,000heroinaddicts.Thedrugprovedtobemuchmoreaddictivethanmorphine.Eventually,U.S.authoritiesbanneditfrommedicaluse.

TodayscientistsknowmoreaboutherointhanWrightorDresercouldeverhavehopedtolearn.Itisapowerfuldrug,evenmorepotentthanmorphine.Heroin'spotencycomesfromitsabilitytodissolveinfat.Sincemuchofthetissueinthebraincontainsfat,heroinpassesintobraincellsfasterthanmorphine.Thereforeitgivesquicker,moredramaticresults.Itspowerisclearinoneyoungman'sdescription:"Afterthatfirstshotofheroin,Ithought'WOW,wherehaveyoubeenmywholelife,thisiswhereit'sat.’ItgavemethatfalseeuphoricfeelingIhadneverknownbefore;itbecamemygirlfriend,myGod,mymotherandmycareer."TheScienceofPainTodayInthemid‐twentiethcenturyresearchersbeganexploringhownarcoticsblockpain.Previousexperimentshadshownthatdrugsentercellsinoneoftwoways:directlythroughthecellmembraneorbyspecialreceptors.Inexperiments,theymixedbraintissuewithnarcoticsthattheyhadtaggedwithradioactivematerialsandfoundthatthetissuequicklyattacheditselftosmallamountsofopiates.Thisindicatedthatbraincellsmighthavereceptorsforopiates.SolomonH.SnyderandCandacePert,workingatJohnsHopkinsUniversitySchoolofMedicine,locatedthesereceptorsin1973.

Someareasofthenervoussystemhavemoreopiatereceptorsthanothers.Therearealotinthepartofthespinalcordthatdeterminestheabilitytotoleratepain.Snyderexplains,"Opiatesrelievepainatthespinalcordlevelbyraisingpainthresholds.Thus,ifyouweretreatedwithmorphine,anexperimenterwouldhavetoadministeramorepainfulstimulusthannormalinorderforyoutonoticeanypainatall."Thesegmentofthebrainthatrecognizespainalsohasplentyofopiatereceptors.Snydersaysthatopiatesreducepainnotsomuchbyraisingthepainthresholdasbybluntingthebrain'ssubjectiveappreciationofpain.Patientswhohavereceivedmorphinetotreatseverepost‐operativediscomfortorextremepainfromcancerfrequentlytelltheirdoctors:"It'safunnything.Thepainisstillthere,butitdoesn'tbotherme."Inshort,whenthebrainstopsworryingaboutthepain,thepainbecomesmoremanageable.Theeuphoriathatopiatesproducealsohasabiochemicalbasis.Inthebrain,severalstructuresarecollectivelyreferredtoasthelimbicsystembecausetheyformaring,or'limbus,'surroundingthebrainstem.Alargebodyofresearchsuggeststhatthesestructuresarethemajorregulatorsofemotionalbehaviour.Thepresenceofopiatereceptorstheretiesopiumusetofeelingsofhappiness.Opium'sextraordinarypowertoaltersensationflowsfromtheclosefitofopiummoleculeswiththereceptorsinthehumanbrain.Opiumanditsderivativesmatchstructuresinthebrainlikekeysslippingintolocks.AfterresearchersSnyderandPertfoundthatthebodypossessednaturalopiatereceptors,theyaskedthenextlogicalquestion:sincethebodydoesnotmakeopiates,whydoesthebrainhavespecialreceptorsforthem?Scientiststheorizedthatthebodymakescompoundsthatnormallyfitthesereceptorsandthatthesesubstanceshaveachemicalstructuresimilartothatofopiates.Evenbeforetheylocatedthesenaturalchemicals,scientistsnamedthem“endorphins"(endogenousmorphine).Theynowknowthatendorphinsareneurotransmittersthatthebodyreleasesinresponsetodeeppain.Endorphinsareshort‐lived,naturalchemicalsthatbindtothereceptorsandthenrapidlydegrade.Becausetheydonotremaininbraincellsforalongtime,theyhavenoneoftheharmfuleffectsofnarcotics–forexample,theyarenotaddictive.

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Endorphinsplayvaluablerolesinhumansurvival.Whenapersonisindanger,endorphinsfloodthebody,preventingtheperceptionofpain.Thisenablesapersontoescapefromdangerevenifheorshehasaninjury.Runnersandotherathletesproducelargeamountsofendorphinswhentheypushtheirbodiestotheirphysicallimits.Manyathletesreportthattheyneverfeelbadorsufferanypainuntilafteracompetition,whentheirendorphinlevelsbegintodrop.TheCriminalizationofOpiumTheHarrisonAct(1914)Americanstatesintroducedlegislationagainstopiumsmokersinthelatenineteenthcentury.Itwasthefirstdruglegislationanywheretocriminalizeusersratherthantoregulatesubstances.Atonetime,addictsweregenerallyviewedastheunfortunatevictimsofanillness.Butbytheendofthenineteenthcentury,societytreatedaddictsasinsane,criminal,depraved,ormentallydeficient.IntheUnitedStatesalone,overhalfamillionpeoplewereopium,morphineorheroinaddictsby1900.IntheearlytwentiethcenturytheUnitedStatesbegantoenforceageneralpolicyofdrugprohibition.ThiswasthebeginningoftheconceptualizationofaddictionascrimeandderivedfromAmericanreactionstocannabis,cocaine,andopiates.Heroinhadnotbeenconsideredaproblemuntilthepassageoflawsagainstillicitorrecreationaluseofdrugs.Restrictionsonthesupplyofcocaineandopiumdirecteduserstowardsheroin.

In1914theU.S.CongresstookacriticalsteptowardslimitinguseofnarcoticswhenitpassedtheHarrisonNarcoticsAct.Thislegislationstatedthatonlydoctorsandpharmacistscouldbuy,sell,ordispenseopiates,andthosewhodidsomustfirstregisterwiththefederalgovernmentandpayatax.Additionally,theyhadtorecordalltransactionsrelatingtoheroin.Thepunishmentfornotdoingsowasafineandaprisonsentence.Theneedforatax‐collectingagencytoassesspenaltiesfornon‐complianceledtocreationoftheBureauofNarcotics.

TheHarrisonNarcoticsActhadatremendousimpactontwogroupsofpeople‐‐addictsandtheirphysicians.Theaddictswereinabadpositionforseveralreasons.Oncetheactwentintoeffect,itbecameverydifficulttoobtainopiates.Atthesametime,addicts’statusfell;peopleviewedthemnolongerasill,orvictimsoffaultymedicaltreatment,butassocialoutcasts.Oneyoungheroinusersaidthathewasnow"oneofabandsetapartbythewillofsociety,too,andharriedforournonconformity.Atleastitseemedtomethatwewerebeingpersecutedonlybecauseweweredifferent,notbecauseweweredangerous."

Notonlydidittreataddictionasacrime,butlawenforcementensuredthatvirtuallyalladdictshadtobehavelikecriminals.Addictslookedfortreatmentprograms,buttherewereveryfewavailable.Thousandsofthemwhoturnedtothemedicalcommunityfoundacoldshoulderthattheyhadnotexpected.ManydoctorsdecidedtoavoidthembecausetheHarrisonActmadeitcumbersomeandcomplicatedtotreatthem.

Thefewwillingtotreatthemfoundthemselvesinanawkwardsituation.Doctorsandpharmacistsassumedthattheycouldcarefordrugaddictsinthewaytheysawfitaslongastheycompletedallthenecessarypaperwork.Thereforemanyofthemcontinuedwritingprescriptionsformaintenancedosesofopiates.ButtheTreasuryDepartmentfrownedonthispracticebecauseitwantedtoendtheuseofdrugs.Consequently,itrequiredthatdoctorswriteprescriptionsforincreasinglysmallerdoseswiththegoalofweaningaddictsofftheirdrugs.

Thelogicgrewoutofatraditional,buterroneousbeliefthataprofessional’scarecouldeasilycureaddiction.Noonerealizedthatevenifapractitionercouldhelp,relapsewasverycommon.Manydoctorsanddruggistswhofailedcontinuedtoprescribemaintenancedoses,andquiteafewofthemexperiencedarrestandfines.

Congresshadintendedtheacttoprohibitrecreationaluseofopiatesandonlytoallowdoctorstoprescribethemin"goodfaith"aspartofalegitimatemedicalpractice.Although"goodfaith"mayhaveoriginallybeenambiguous,zealousTreasuryagentssoonmadeitquiteclear.TheoveralleffectoftheHarrisonActwastoprohibitmostmedicaluseofopiates.

Treasuryagentswerequicktoinvestigateandtoprosecuteopiate‐prescribingphysicians.Infact,between1915and1938,authoritiesreceivedmorethanover25,000reportsofdoctorsviolatingtheHarrisonAct.Itisnotsurprisingthatthemedicalcommunitybegantoshunopiatesfortreatingnotonlyaddictionbutalsotheorganicallyill.

Opium:ABriefHistory 12

ReactiontotheHarrisonActTheHarrisonActunintentionallyprovidedalucrativebusinessopportunityforlesssavouryelementsofsociety.Withsofewplacesforaddictstobuydrugs,anewmarketappeared:thousandsofpeoplewhodesperatelywantedheroin.ArnoldRothsteinwasoneofthemanycrimebosseswhotookadvantageofthismarketinthe1920s.Aninnovatorofsorts,hecreatedasystemforsmugglingillegaldrugsintotheUnitedStates.HeknewthatpushersintheNewYorkareahadverylittlestocktosell.WhattheydidhavetheyhadsmuggledinfromChina,stolenfromdrugmanufacturers,ororderedviafakecompaniesthatsetuptemporaryaddressesinMexico.

NoneofthesesourcescouldsupplyRothstein’svastmarket,sohesenthisrepresentativestolegitimatedrugmanufacturersinEurope.Theretheyboughthundredsofpoundsofnarcoticswithnoquestionsfromthesellers.Theycratedthesepurchases,labelledthemasplumbingsupplies,engineparts,orotherbogusitems,andshippedthemtotheUnitedStates.Rothstein'smenpickedupshipmentsatU.S.portsanddistributedthemtosellersinmajorcities.Innotime,othercriminalswerecopyinghistechniques,andillegaldrugswerepouringintoAmericanharbours.However,by1930authoritieshadfiguredoutRothstein'sruseandwereseizingdrugsassoonastheyarrivedonAmericansoil,forcingmanyillegaldrugentrepreneursoutofbusiness.InternationalActivityIn1926theBritishgovernmentannouncedaplantoprogressivelyscalebackthecultivationofpoppiesinIndia.Persia(Iran)immediatelybecameamajorsourceofopium.LargeshipmentswenttoRussiaandJapan,whichmanufactureditasheroin.HongKongprocessedChineseopium.Bulgaria,Serbia,andTurkeyalsobecamesourcesofopium.Bytheearly1930stherewerethreefactoriesinIstanbul,eachproducingupto2,000kilogramsofheroineverymonth.

TheJapanesegovernmentpromoteddrugaddictionamongtheChineseinterritoriesthatitoccupiedinthelate1930s.AccordingtoSirThomasRussell,it“haddecidedonheroinaddictionasaweaponofaggressionanddeliberatelyconvertedtheterritoriessheconqueredfromChinaintoonehugeopiumfarmandheroinden.”Theanti‐opiummovementhadarousednewdemandforopiumderivatives,asmorphineandheroinwereeasiertotransportandconsumesurreptitiouslythanopium.Withopiumanditsderivativesoutofreachoftheordinaryperson,theybecamethecentreofanemergingcriminalclass.Violence,gangwarfare,andsmugglingescalatedonaninternationalscale.InternationalDrugSmugglingsincethe1940sIn1946theUnitedStatesdeportedtoSicilyabout400gangsters,whointerestedthelocalMafiaindrugtrafficking,somethinginwhichtheyhadnotpreviouslyparticipated.TheybeganbuyingrawopiumfromTurkey,processingitinSicilianheroinlabs,andsmugglingitintotheUnitedStatesandCanada.

Atthesametime,theAmericangovernmentwasfightingtheColdWarandintentonstemmingCommunistthreatseverywhere.TheCentralIntelligenceAgencysuppliedarmsandmoneytoCorsicangroupsthatattackedandharassedFrenchtradeunionistsandCommunists.SoontheseCorsicangangscontrolledtheMarseillesdocks,whichby1950constitutedaninternationaldrugcentre–theFrenchConnection.

BecauseofitsfearofCommunism,theAmericangovernmenttoleratedtheFrenchConnectionasanecessaryevil.HeroinwasproducedfromTurkishopiumconvertedtomorphinebaseinLebanonandshippedtoclandestinelabsinFrance.By1969uptotentonsofheroinwentfromMarseillestotheUnitedStatesannually.

TheCIAalsosupportedanti‐CommunistelementsinSoutheastAsiaandprotectedtheirheroinbusinessinexchangefortheirco‐operation.MuchoftheheroinintheUnitedStatesarrivedillegallyfromAsia.Oneregioninparticular,theGoldenTriangle–inthehighlandsofBurma,Laos,andThailand–hadlongbeenasourceofopium.Poorfarmerstherestillgrowopiuminremoteareas.

Opium:ABriefHistory 13

Opiumandmorphineextractedfromopiumtravelledfromnorth‐easternBurmainhorseanddonkeycaravanstorefineriesalongtheThailand‐Burmaborderforconversiontoheroin.MostoftheresultingproductscrossedtheborderintovarioustownsinnorthernThailandandsouthtoBangkokfordistributiontoforeignmarkets.

MajorThai‐ChineseandBurmese‐ChinesetraffickersinBangkokcontrolledmuchoftheforeignsalesandmovementofSoutheastAsianheroinfromThailand,butacombinationoflawenforcement,publicity,anddroughtsignificantlyreducedtheirrole.Asaconsequence,manyminortraffickersinBangkokandotherpartsofThailandcontrolledsmallerquantitiesoftheheroingoingabroad.

HeroinfromSoutheastAsiareachedtheUnitedStatesmostoftenviacouriers,typicallyThaiandU.S.nationalsandHongKongChinese,travellingoncommercialairlines.CaliforniaandHawaiiweretheprimaryentrypoints,butsmallamountsreachedNewYorkandWashington,D.C.

WhileSoutheastAsiangroupshavehadsuccessintraffickingherointotheUnitedStates,theyinitiallyhaddifficultyarrangingstreet‐leveldistribution.However,incarcerationofAsiantraffickersinAmericanprisonsduringthe1970sallowedthemcontactswithU.S.inmatesandhenceaccesstoindividualsandorganizationsdistributingheroinattheretaillevel.HeroinandtheVietnamWarTheavailabilityofheroininVietnamduringthewarthere,inpartbecauseofU.S.supportforopiumwarlordsopposedtotheCommunistsinChina,causedproblemsforU.S.forces.Manyservicementriedheroin,anattractiveescapefromthepainfulrealitiesofcombat.In1972theConsumer'sUnionReportonLicitandIllicitDrugsbyEdwardM.BrecherandtheeditorsofConsumerReportsmagazinequotedonesoldier:

"Ihadmyall‐expense‐paidvacationinsunnySEAsiain1970‐71.IstillremembersteppingoffbaseontoHighway1atPhuBaiCombatBasesouthofHueonemid‐morningandbeingapproachedbyakidabouttenyearsoldwhohadjumpedoffthebackofacyclotooffermeasmallvialof'skag'(heroin)foronlytwodollars."

During1971,theU.S.mediareportedthataddictionamongsoldiersranashighas10to15percent,afigurethatmanyAmericansfoundunbelievable.However,930returneespassingthroughthearmyterminalatOakland,California,voluntarilyansweredanonymousquestions,and16percenthadusedheroinwithinthepreviousthirtydays.

Dr.PeterOlsson,apsychiatristinNewHampshire,workedfortheU.S.Armyandconductedextensiveinterviewswithservicemenabouttheirdruguse.HeknowsofpeoplewhoenlistedinordertohavereadyaccesstoheroininVietnam.HealsopointsoutthatmanysoldiersgaveuptheirheroinhabitupontheirreturntotheU.S.,whichsuggestedthatthestressofcombatwasamajorfactorinheroinusebysoldiers.TheWaronDrugsThroughoutthe1960sand1970s,organizedcrimegroupsranextensivenetworkstodistributetheirillegalgoods.Asthenumbersofheroinusersswelledthroughthe1970s,governmentofficialsworriedthattheAmericanwayoflifemightbeindanger.BythetimeRichardNixonbecamepresidentin1969,drugusewasupintheUnitedStates,withestimatesof750,000heroinaddicts.NixonthoughttheWaronDrugswasAmerica’s“secondCivilWar.”InJuly1969heannouncedaglobalcampaignagainstdrugsandtraffickers,eventhoughhewassaidtohavedependedonafriendtoprovidehimwithDilantin(foritsanti‐anxietyeffects).TheU.S.governmentcreateditsDrugEnforcementAgencyin1973.SuchorganizationshaveavestedinterestinescalatingtheWaronDrugs.TheDEAgrewfrom1,800agentsin1980to9,000in2000.AftertheendoftheColdWar,thefightagainstdrugsreplacedthatagainstCommunismastheprincipalmoralimperativeofAmericanforeignpolicy.

Opium:ABriefHistory 14

WiththeendoftheVietnamWar,SoutheastAsianheroinproducersfocusedonEurope.HeroinmadefromTurkishopium,alreadyreachingtheUnitedStatesbywayoftheFrenchConnection,filledevenmoreofAmericanmarketdemand.AmemofrompresidentialaideDanielMoynihantoAttorneyGeneralJohnMitchellillustratedtheurgencywithwhichtheNixonadministrationviewedtheheroinproblem: IftheUnitedStatesmoveswithenergyanddetermination wecouldcrippletheherointrafficinthecourseoftwelve totwenty‐fourmonths.Ifwedonotdisrupttheheroin trafficnow,itislikelyshortlytodriftintothehandsof middle‐classAmericans,andmaybecomeunstoppable. Whatisneededisamajordiplomaticinitiative,accompanied byeconomicinducements,andifneedbe,sanctions designedtogetTurkeyoutofthebusiness.

ButTurkishPrimeMinisterSuleymanDemirelknewthathisfarmersdependedonopium.Healsoknewthathisgovernmentdependedonthefarmers:“Eradicationwouldcreateaclashbetweenthegovernmentforcesandthepeople,andwouldmaketheproblemworse,sinceitwouldcreatepublicsupportforplantings.”Turkishauthoritiesinsistedthateradicationwouldbringdownthegovernment.Instead,theybegantoimplementalicensingprogramfortheproductionofpain‐relievingmedicines.TheUnitedNationseventuallygrantedthemtechnicalassistancefortheconstructionofpoppy‐processingfacilitiesandresourcesforthecontroloflicensedcultivation.EachyeartheTurkishGrainMarketingBoardlicensesapproximately100,000farmers,andabout600,000peopleearntheirlivingfrompoppycultivation.Thenationalprocessingfactoryproduces75tonsofmorphineannually.Insteadofthelabour‐intensivescoringandscrapingrequiredtocollectopium,theentirepoppyplantisharvestedandprocessed.Concentratedpoppystraw(CPS)istheextractedopiatescrystallizedoutofsolution.Closeto95percentofTurkey’sopiumproductionisforexport.OpiumTodayOpiumisstillconsumedsociallythroughouttheworld.TheopiumpoppyisalsocultivatedlegallyinAustralia(Tasmaniaistheworld’slargestproducerofopiatesforthepharmaceuticalmarket),FranceandIndia.EnglandisusingdomesticopiumtoproducepainmedicationforitsNationalHealthService.Theprohibitionofopiumisquestionedbymany,includingPeterLeeinthebookOpiumCulture:“It’sawell‐knownfactofmedicalsciencethatopiumreadilyrelievessuchcommonconditionsasinsomnia,hypertension,depression,andchronicpain,forreliefofwhichsomanymillionsofpeopletodayhavebecomeaddictedtoexpensivetranquilizers,antidepressants,painkillers,andotherpatentedpharmaceuticaldrugs.Themoreoneinvestigatesthetruthaboutopium,themoreonerealizesthattherealreasonithasbeenprohibitedistoprotecttheprofitsofthepoliticallypowerfulpharmaceuticalcartels,whichhaveestablishedalucrativeinternationalmonopolyinthevastmarketsformedicaldrugsthroughouttheworld.”Today,mostAfghanopiumisconvertedtoheroininthatcountryandshippedeastthroughIran,norththroughTajikistan,andsouththroughPakistantoworldmarkets.OpiumgrowninColombiaandMexicoalsoreachesNorthAmericanmarkets.Iranhasmoreopiumusersandheroinaddictsthananyothercountry.Opium‐basedpainmedicationisvirtuallynon‐existentinmostThirdWorldcountries,includingAfghanistan,whichproducesmorethan90percentoftheworld’sillicitopium.Aninternationalthinktank,theICOSGroup,hascalledfortestingofalicensingprogramforpoppyfarmersinAfghanistan.Selectedvillageswouldproduceopiumforconversiontomorphine,foruseinlocalhospitalsandclinics.

Criticsarguethatuntilthecountryenjoysaminimumlevelofsecurity,anylicensingprogramisunmanageable.TheICOSGroupbelievesthatthetraditionalvillage‐levelstructureofgovernanceiscapableofmonitoringpoppycultivationanddiscouraginganyillicittrade.

Forfivethousandyears,peoplehaveknownofopium’sbenefits.Itsnegativeaspectsmustalsoberecognized.Butprohibitionofanythingthatpeopledemandhasalwaysresultedinthechaosofblackmarketsandunregulatedcriminalenterprise.Thechallengeistofindwaystoharnessthepowerofthepoppythatbenefitsociety.

Opium:ABriefHistory 15

ProducedforRawOpium:Pain,Pleasure,Profits,afeaturedocumentaryByAssociateProducerScottCalbeck,© 2011.

Forfurtherinformationaboutthefeaturedocumentaryvisitwww.rawopium.com

Forfurtherreading:DeQuincey,Thomas ConfessionsofanEnglishOpium‐Eater(1822)Dikotter,Frank NarcoticCulture:AHistoryofDrugsinChina(2004)Glenny,Misha McMafia:AJourneyThroughtheGlobalCriminal

Underworld(2008)Hafvenstein,Joel OpiumSeason:AYearontheAfghanFrontier(2007)Hodgson,Barbara Opium:APortraitoftheHeavenlyDemon(1999)Hodgson,Barbara IntotheArmsofMorpheus(2001)Lee,Peter OpiumCulture:TheArt&RitualoftheChinese

Tradition(2006)Mate,Gabor,M.D. InTheRealmofHungryGhosts:CloseEncounters withAddiction(2008)McCoy,Alfred ThePoliticsofHeroin:CIAComplicityinthe

GlobalDrugTrade(2001)Peters,Gretchen SeedsofTerror:HowHeroinisBankrollingtheTalibanandAlQaeda

(2009)Robbins,Christopher AirAmerica:TheStoryoftheCIA’sSecret Airlines(1979)Scott,PeterDale Drugs,OilandWar:TheUnitedStatesin Afghanistan,ColombiaandIndochina(2003)Shearing,Colin Opium:AJourneyThroughTime(2004)Tosches,Nick TheLastOpiumDen(2004)Zheng,Yangwen TheSocialLifeofOpiuminChina:AHistory(2005)