open science

alchemie

Negative results are disappearing from most disciplinesand countries

Daniele Fanelli

Received: 1 July 2011 / Published online: 11 September 2011! Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, Hungary 2011

Abstract Concerns that the growing competition for funding and citations might distort

science are frequently discussed, but have not been verified directly. Of the hypothesized

problems, perhaps the most worrying is a worsening of positive-outcome bias. A system

that disfavours negative results not only distorts the scientific literature directly, but might

also discourage high-risk projects and pressure scientists to fabricate and falsify their data.

This study analysed over 4,600 papers published in all disciplines between 1990 and 2007,

measuring the frequency of papers that, having declared to have ‘‘tested’’ a hypothesis,

reported a positive support for it. The overall frequency of positive supports has grown

by over 22% between 1990 and 2007, with significant differences between disciplines

and countries. The increase was stronger in the social and some biomedical disciplines.

The United States had published, over the years, significantly fewer positive results than

Asian countries (and particularly Japan) but more than European countries (and in par-

ticular the United Kingdom). Methodological artefacts cannot explain away these patterns,

which support the hypotheses that research is becoming less pioneering and/or that the

objectivity with which results are produced and published is decreasing.Keywords Bias ! Misconduct ! Research evaluation ! Publication !Publish or perish ! Competition

Introduction

Competition in science is changing, and concerns that this might distort scientific knowl-

edge are openly and commonly discussed (Young et al. 2008; Statzner and Resh 2010). The

traditional race for priority of important discoveries is increasingly intertwined with a

struggle for limited funding and jobs, the winners of which are determined by measures of

performance and impact (Young et al. 2008; Bonitz and Scharnhorst 2001; Statzner andD. Fanelli (&)ISSTI-Institute for the Study of Science, Technology and Innovation, The University of Edinburgh,

Old Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh EH1 1LZ, Scotland, UKe-mail: [email protected]

123

Scientometrics (2012) 90:891–904DOI 10.1007/s11192-011-0494-7

Negative results are disappearing from most disciplinesand countries

Daniele Fanelli

Received: 1 July 2011 / Published online: 11 September 2011! Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, Hungary 2011

Abstract Concerns that the growing competition for funding and citations might distort

science are frequently discussed, but have not been verified directly. Of the hypothesized

problems, perhaps the most worrying is a worsening of positive-outcome bias. A system

that disfavours negative results not only distorts the scientific literature directly, but might

also discourage high-risk projects and pressure scientists to fabricate and falsify their data.

This study analysed over 4,600 papers published in all disciplines between 1990 and 2007,

measuring the frequency of papers that, having declared to have ‘‘tested’’ a hypothesis,

reported a positive support for it. The overall frequency of positive supports has grown

by over 22% between 1990 and 2007, with significant differences between disciplines

and countries. The increase was stronger in the social and some biomedical disciplines.

The United States had published, over the years, significantly fewer positive results than

Asian countries (and particularly Japan) but more than European countries (and in par-

ticular the United Kingdom). Methodological artefacts cannot explain away these patterns,

which support the hypotheses that research is becoming less pioneering and/or that the

objectivity with which results are produced and published is decreasing.Keywords Bias ! Misconduct ! Research evaluation ! Publication !Publish or perish ! Competition

Introduction

Competition in science is changing, and concerns that this might distort scientific knowl-

edge are openly and commonly discussed (Young et al. 2008; Statzner and Resh 2010). The

traditional race for priority of important discoveries is increasingly intertwined with a

struggle for limited funding and jobs, the winners of which are determined by measures of

performance and impact (Young et al. 2008; Bonitz and Scharnhorst 2001; Statzner andD. Fanelli (&)ISSTI-Institute for the Study of Science, Technology and Innovation, The University of Edinburgh,

Old Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh EH1 1LZ, Scotland, UKe-mail: [email protected]

123

Scientometrics (2012) 90:891–904DOI 10.1007/s11192-011-0494-7 Incentives for Truth 1

Scientific Utopia: II. Restructuring incentives and practices to promote truth over publishability

Brian A. Nosek

Jeffrey R. Spies

Matt Motyl

University of Virginia

Authors’ note: Correspondence concerning this article may be sent to Brian Nosek, [email protected]. We thank Yoav Bar-Anan, Roger Giner-Sorolla, Jesse Graham, Hal Pashler, Marco Perugini, N. Sriram, Victoria Stodden, and E.J. Wagenmakers for helpful comments. The authors have no financial interests concerning the content of this article.

Prepared for a special issue of Perspectives on Psychological Science Version 1.2; May 25, 2012

Quelle: »Everything is fucked: The syllabus« https://hardsci.wordpress.com/2016/08/11/everything-is-fucked-the-syllabus/

1.Self citation and More Self Citation

2.Double publication

3.Rapid self citation

4.Goto SPIE Conference

5.Quote more references and cover up your act, the important is the number of self citation

7: 6Gschichtl 2: US-Patent No. 6,368,227

»A method of swinging on a swing is disclosed, in which a user positioned on a standard swing suspended by two chains from a substantially horizontal tree branch induces side to side motion by pulling alternately on one chain and then the other.«

idee: zeitlich befristeter schutz, damit autor/erfinder (eine zeit lang) alleine davon profitieren kann.

intellectual property

individuum

hat tolle idee will damit reich werden

will vor konkurrenz geschützt sein

gesellschaft

ist »framework« !ür kreativität will idee verwenden will davon profitieren

kritik »[Patents] projected an artificial idol of the single inventor, radically denigrated the role of the intellectual commons, and blocked a path to this commons for other citizens — citizens who were all, on this account, potential inventors too. [...]

Patentees were the equivalent of squatters on public land — or better, of uncouth market traders who planted their barrows in the middle of the highway and barred the way of the people.«

(TL;DR: lange kette von quellen, die bei wikipedia endet.)

kritik –› niederlande schafft patentsystem 1869 ab –› schweiz verzögert ein!ührung von patentrecht bis 1907 –› alle anderen: reformen.

heute üblich: 20 jahre

beispiel lego: › jan 1958 zum patent angemeldet › 1988 ausgelaufen

zb. patentrecht

ergebnis ›

patentierbarkeit von software uspto

patentierbarkeit von software europäisches patentamt

patentierbarkeit von software

Vorsitzender der BSA als Autor der Direktive!

0

100000

200000

300000

400000

1790

1800

1810

1820

1830

1840

1850

1860

1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

AngemeldetBewilligt

Software- Patente

beispiel »A system and process for ensuring the smooth flow of electronic ink is described«

U.S. Patent 7,212,296

beispiel

priority queues

»A system and process for ensuring the smooth flow of electronic ink is described«

»The invention is operational with numerous other general purpose or special purpose computing system environments or configurations. Examples of well known computing systems, environments, and/or configurations that may be suitable for use with the invention include, but are not limited to, personal computers, server computers, hand-held or laptop devices including smart phones, smart watches, and personal data assistants, multiprocessor systems, microprocessor-based systems, set top boxes, …«every imaginable computing system

problem software-patente oft unspezifische trivialpatente

zb »Mobile entertainment and communication device«, erteilt am 22.1.2008


»...Further, the device includes sensors for sensing unusual conditions that may also be transmitted to a remote telephone...«

beispiel »Bread refreshing method« (U.S. Patent 6080436 A)

This invention is concerned with the process and apparatus for refreshing bread products, particularly open face items such as sliced rolls, buns, muffins, and the like. An oven is provided that is capable of producing high intensity infrared radiation from a relatively high temperature source, in the range of 2500-4500 F., using fast cycle methods. A bread product is placed in an oven at ambient and then exposed to the above mentioned infrared radiation for a period of 3 to 90 seconds as appropriate.


»First, we conclude that, as measured by the stock market’s reaction to legal decisions expanding the patentability of software, there is no evidence that the expansion of software patentability benefited firms in the software industry.«

»There is limited evidence of relatively negative effects on some types of software producers...«

Bronwyn H. Hall, Megan MacGarvie, 2006: The Private Value of Software Patents.

National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.


»...we should also emphasize that the majority of the software patents acquired during the past twenty years have been acquired by non-software firms in the ICT sector...«

Bronwyn H. Hall, Megan MacGarvie, 2006: The Private Value of Software Patents.

National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.

wie bitte?


»patent troll«

Patent troll is a pejorative term used for a person or company that enforces its patents against one or more alleged infringers in a manner considered unduly aggressive or opportunistic, often with no intention to manufacture or market the patented invention.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pejorative

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patent_infringement

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invention

»The door to Oasis's office was locked, and through the crack under the door we could see there were no lights were on inside.

It turns out a lot of those companies in that corridor, maybe every single one of them, is doing exactly what Oasis Research is doing. They appear to have no employees. They are not coming up with new inventions. The companies are in Marshall, Texas because they are filing lawsuits for patent infringement.«

When Patents Attack http://www.npr.org/sections/money/2011/07/26/138576167/when-patents-attack

»Academic Patenting: How universities and public research organizations are using their intellectual property to boost research and spur innovative start-ups«

http://www.wipo.int/sme/en/documents/academic_patenting.html

»Patenting University Research Has Been A Dismal Failure, Enabling Patent Trolling. It's Time To Stop«

http://http://innovationamerica.us

»Using tech transfer office expenses information, Valdivia estimates that 130 universities did not generate enough licensing income in 2012 to cover the wages of their technology transfer staff and the legal costs for the patents they file.«

Walter D. Valdivia: University Start-Ups: Critical for Improving Technology Transfer. Center for Technology

Innovation, Brooking Research Institute.

»Intellectual Ventures is the world's largest patent troll […] The crew at IV saw all the problems with tech transfer offices and saw an opportunity: IV went around from university to university and offered to buy patents in bulk.

Mike Masnik: Patenting University Research Has Been A Dismal Failure, Enabling Patent Trolling. It's Time To Stop

wir brauchen…

… neue modelle des austauschs

… publikations-stopp in pay-per-view medien

… systematische berücksichtigung von »non-impact« leistungen

… patentverzicht in öffentlichen forschungseinrichtungen

… forschungsfinanzierung nur mit offenheitsklausel

polymath project galaxy zoo

http://theconversation.com/should-writing-for-the-public-count-toward-tenure-63983

http://www.openscience.org/blog/?p=728

http://thecostofknowledge.com

@peterpur