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Page 1: Open Access Peer-reviewed Journalarchive.ws-conference.com/wp-content/uploads/sr4_11.pdf · ISSN 2544-9346 Open Access Peer-reviewed Journal Science Review 4(11), May 2018 Publisher
Page 2: Open Access Peer-reviewed Journalarchive.ws-conference.com/wp-content/uploads/sr4_11.pdf · ISSN 2544-9346 Open Access Peer-reviewed Journal Science Review 4(11), May 2018 Publisher

ISSN 2544-9346

Open Access Peer-reviewed Journal

Science Review

4(11), May 2018

Publisher – RS Global Sp. z O.O.,

Scientific Educational

Center Warsaw, Poland

Numer KRS: 0000672864

REGON: 367026200 NIP: 5213776394

Chief editor Laputyn Roman PhD in transport systems, Associate Professor, Department of Transport Systems and Road Safety National Transport University Editorial board: Lina Anastassova Full Professor in Marketing, Burgas Free University, Bulgaria Mikiashvili Nino Professor in Econometrics and Macroeconomics, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Georgia Alkhawaldeh Abdullah Professor in Financial Philosophy, Hashemite University, Jordan Mendebaev Toktamys Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, LLP "Scientific innovation center "Almas",Kazakhstan Yakovenko Nataliya Professor, Doctor of Geography, Ivanovo State University, Shuya

Imangazinov Sagit Director, Ph.D, Pavlodar affiliated branch "SMU of Semei city" Peshcherov Georgy Professor, Moscow State Regional University, Russia Mustafin Muafik Professor, Doctor of Veterinary Science, Kostanay State University named after A.Baitursynov Ovsyanik Olga Professor, Doctor of Psychological Science, Moscow State Regional University Nino Abesadze Associate Professor Tbilisi State University, Faculty of Economics and Business Sentyabrev Nikolay Professor, Doctor of Sciences, Volgograd State Academy of Physical Education, Russia Harlamova Julia Professor, Moscow State University of Railway Transport, Russia

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CONTENTS

PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS

Кантаева М. Н., Байспай Г. Б., Умбеткулова К. М. АНАЛИЗ УСКОРЕНИЙ СВОБОДНОГО ПАДЕНИЯ ПРИ ПОМОЩИ МАТЕМАТИЧЕСКОГО МАЯТНИКА С ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕМ ЯЗЫКА ПРОГРАММИРОВАНИЯ R………………………………………………………………………

3

ECOLOGY

Sainova G. A., Anarbekova G. D., Aubakirov N. P., Baikhamurova M. O., Yesenbayeva Zh. Zh. COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY ON THE STATE OF THE MONUMENT OF THE WORLD HERITAGE "MAUSOLEIUM KHOJA AHMED YASSAWI"……………….

8

GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES

Смаханова К. Б. ӨНЕРКӘСІП ОРЫНДАРЫНЫҢ ШӨЛЕЙТТЕНУГЕ ӘСЕРІ....................................................

11

AGRICULTURE

Ибрагимов А. Г. ДИФФЕРЕНЦИРОВАНИЕ АГРОХИМИЧЕСКИХ МЕРОПРИЯТИЙ С ЦЕЛЬЮ ПОВЫШЕНИЯ УРОЖАЙНОСТИ ПОЧВ КУРА-АРАЗСКОЙ НИЗМЕННОСТИ……………

15

BIOLOGY

Alzhanuly B., Khanseitova A., Botbayev D. M., Aitkhozhina N. A. FUTURE OF STEM CELLS USE IN CELL THERAPY AGAINST DIABETES………………..

20

Бекас О. О., Степаненко І. О. СТАН ТА ЧИННИКИ ПОШИРЕНОСТІ ТЮТЮНОКУРІННЯ СЕРЕД СТУДЕНТОК ПЕДАГОГІЧНОГО УНІВЕРСИТЕТУ………………………………….

27

CHEMISTRY

Акмырза Зарипа, Мадиева Любовь, Рабаева Нагима, Кайырден Асем, Утегенова Анель ХИМИЧЕСКИЕ СВОЙСТВА ПЕНИЦИЛЛИНА………………………………………………..

31

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

Лела Апциаури, Василий Бакашвили СОЦИАЛЬНО-ПСИХОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ АСПЕКТЫ СОВРЕМЕННОГО СПОРТА…………..

34

LEGAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

Бакатова Ж. Е. УЧАСТИЕ ОБЩЕСТВЕННОСТИ В ПРИНЯТИИ УПРАВЛЕНЧЕСКИХ РЕШЕНИЙ КАК ПРИНЦИП СОВРЕМЕННОГО ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОГО УПРАВЛЕНИЯ……………..

37

Mila Ivanova EXPEDITING CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS - GUARANTEE OF THE REASONABLE TIME..

43

Mila Ivanova RECOGNITION, EXECUTION AND TRANSMITTING OF CONFISCATION OR SEIZURE DECISIONS AND DECISIONS IMPOSING FINANCIAL PENALTIES………...

48

Mila Ivanova RECOGNITION, ENFORCEMENT AND FORWARDING OF JUDGMENTS AND PROBATION DECISIONS WITH A VIEW TO THE SUPERVISION OF PROBATION MEASURES AND ALTERNATIVE SANCTIONS..........................................

55

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PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS

АНАЛИЗ УСКОРЕНИЙ СВОБОДНОГО ПАДЕНИЯ ПРИ ПОМОЩИ МАТЕМАТИЧЕСКОГО МАЯТНИКА С ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЕМ ЯЗЫКА ПРОГРАММИРОВАНИЯ R магистр естественных наук Кантаева М. Н., магистр технических наук Байспай Г. Б., магистр технических наук Умбеткулова К. М. Республика Казахстан, г. Алматы, АО «Университет Нархоз»; 1преподаватель ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Received 24 March 2018 Accepted 12 April 2018 Published 12 May 2018 KEYWORDS

In this article, we consider harmonic oscillations and analysis of free fallaccelerations using the R language on 5 different planets using a mathematical pendulum. The aim of the study was to graphically represent the dependencies of various physical quantities using the programming language R. In order to expand the scientific and educational activities of universities -the methods used in this study can be implemented in the work programs of the discipline "Physics". As a result of this study, it was possible to obtain graphical representations of various dependencies using the programming language R. It was also possible to calculate the acceleration of free fall, which is in good correlation with the theoretical data given in the literature. The results allowed to conclude that the language R is well applicable to various kinds of analysis of physical processes.

R programming language, physics, a mathematical pendulum, planets, programming © 2018 The Authors.

Введение. В данной статье рассматриваются гармонические колебания и анализ

ускорений свободного падения с использованием языка R на 5 различных планетах с помощью математического маятника.

Целью исследования было графически представить зависимости различных физических величин с использованием языка программирования R.

В целях расширения научно-образовательной деятельности ВУЗов – методы, использованные в данном исследовании можно внедрить в рабочие программы дисциплины «Физика» [1].

R – является объектно-ориентированными матричным языком программирования. Он широко используется в социальных науках, статистике, экономике, физике высоких энергий. С помощью языка R можно проводить анализ и визуализацию данных, а также графически представлять данные исследований, которые могут включать математические символы [2].

Математический маятник – это физическая модель материальной точки, подвешенной на невесомой нерастяжимой нити.

Исследование выполнялось с применением виртуальной модели математического маятника, которая представлена на Рисунке 1.

В вертикальном положении сила тяжести шарика полностью уравновешивается натяжением нити, и маятник остается в покое.

Рис. 1. Виртуальная модель

математического маятника

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Для того, чтобы рассчитать ускорения свободного падения на всех планетах,

необходимо использовать формулу g=ସమ்మ

. В данной формуле приведены следующие

физические величины: g – ускорение свободного падения; Число π = 3,14; l– длина нити, [м]; T – период колебаний математического маятника, [c]. Такие величины, как: длина нити маятника и время задавались исследователем. Длина

нити маятника варьировалась от 30 см до 150 см, а время измерений для каждого случая составляла 20 секунд. Были выбраны такие планеты как: Меркурий, Земля, Венера, Марс, Луна. Виртуальная лабораторная работа позволяет автоматически высчитывать период колебаний (Т), частоту колебаний математического маятника () и угол отклонения ().

Результаты исследования. С помощью языка R можно провести арифметические расчеты различной сложности. Поэтому, расчет ускорения свободного падения был высчитан с применением вышеуказанного языка.

Ниже приведены коды программ для расчетов ускорений свободного падения на 5 планетах. 1. Ускорения свободного падения на планете Меркурий:

l<-seq(from=0.3, to=1.5, by=0.1) T<-c(1.814, 2.094, 2.342, 2.565, 2.771, 2.962,3.142, 3.312,3.473, 3.628, 3.776, 3.918, 4.056)

g<-4*(pi^2)*(l//(T^2)) View(g)

2. Ускорения свободного падения на планете Луна: l<-seq(from=0.3, to=1.5, by=0.1)

T<-c(2.704, 3.122, 3.491, 3.824, 4.13, 4.415, 4.683, 4.937,5.177, 5.408, 5.629, 5.841, 6.046) g<-4*(pi^2)*(l//(T^2))

View(g) 3. Ускорения свободного падения на планете Марс:

l<-seq(from=0.3, to=1.5, by=0.1) T<-c(1.775, 2.049, 2.291, 2.51, 2.711, 2.898, 3.074, 3.24,3.398, 3.55, 3.695, 3.834, 3.969)

g<-4*(pi^2)*(l//(T^2)) View(g)

4. Ускорения свободного падения на планете Венера: l<-seq(from=0.3, to=1.5, by=0.1)

T<-c(1.180, 1.363, 1.524, 1.669, 1.803, 1.928, 2.045, 2.155,2.260, 2.361, 2.457, 2.550, 2.639) g<-4*(pi^2)*(l/(T^2))

View(g) 5. Ускорения свободного падения на планете Земля:

l<-seq(from=0.3, to=1.5, by=0.1) T<-c(1.099, 1.269, 1.419, 1.554, 1.678, 1.794,1.903, 2.006,2.104, 2.198, 2.287, 2.374,2.457)

g<-4*(pi^2)*(l//(T^2)) View(g)

Графическое представление в R осуществляется с использованием пакетов «plot», «ggplot2», «xts», «zoo» и т.д. В этом исследовании было решено использовать пакет «ggplot2», так как этот пакет предоставляет возможность строить более продвинутые графики с учетом многих параметров, как с точки зрения функциональности графика, так и с точки зрения его дизайна.

Вызвал неподдельный интерес выведения графической зависимости ускорений свободного падения от длины нити математического маятника на разных планетах. Результат приведен на рисунке 2 (единица измерения g – [м/с2] и l – [см]).

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Рис. 2. Зависимость ускорения свободного падения от длины нити математического маятника на разных планетах

Из данного рисунка видно, что теоретические данные, полученные во многих

источниках совпадают с экспериментальными данными, полученными с помощью расчетов в языке программирования R.

Код программы, с помощью которой был получен рисунок 2 представлен ниже: l.см<-seq(30,150,10) df<-data.frame(x=l,y=g,type="Меркурий, g=3.59") l.см<-seq(30,150,10) df1<-data.frame(x=l,y=g2,type="Луна, g=1.62") l.см<-seq(30, 150, 10) df2<-data.frame(x=l,y=g3,type="Марс, g=3.76") l.см<-seq(30, 150, 10) df3<-data.frame(x=l,y=g4,type="Венера, g=8.5") l.см<-seq(30, 150, 10) df4<-data.frame(x=l,y=g5,type="Земля, g=9.81") df6 <- rbind(df, df1, df2, df3, df4) ggplot(df6)+geom_line(aes(x,y,colour=type)) names(df6)[1]<-"l" names(df6)[2]<-"g" names(df6)[3]<-"Планеты" Также были получены графические зависимости количества полных оборотов от длины

нити маятника на рисунке 3, и зависимости частоты колебаний от длины нити маятника на рисунке 4.

Код программы, с помощью которой получено графическое представление зависимостей на рисунке 3:

library("ggplot2") library("reshape2") l.см<-seq(30,150,10) df<-data.frame(x=l.см,y=N,type="Меркурий") l.см<-seq(30,150,10) df1<-data.frame(x=l.см,y=N2,type="Луна") l.см<-seq(30, 150, 10)

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df2<-data.frame(x=l.см,y=N3,type="Марс") l.см<-seq(30, 150, 10) df3<-data.frame(x=l.см,y=N4,type="Венера") l.см<-seq(30, 150, 10) df4<-data.frame(x=l.см,y=N5,type="Земля") df6 <- rbind(df, df1, df2, df3, df4) ggplot(df6)+geom_line(aes(x,y,colour=type)) names(df6)[1]<-"l.см" names(df6)[2]<-"N" names(df6)[3]<-"Планеты" ggplot(df6)+geom_line(aes(l.см, N, colour=Планеты))

Рис. 3. Зависимость количества полных оборотов от длины нити математического маятника

на разных планетах Из графика видно, что с увеличением длины нити маятника количество полных

оборотов маятника уменьшается. Это связано с тем, что количество полных оборотов является обратно пропорциональной длине нити маятника.

Код программы, с помощью которой получено графическое представление зависимостей на рисунке 3:

install.packages("pnorm") install.packages("melt") library("melt") l.см<-seq(30, 150, 10) df1<-data.frame(x=l.см,y=n.Гц,type="Меркурий") l.см<-seq(30, 150, 10) df2<-data.frame(x=l.см,y=n2.Гц,type="Луна") l.см<-seq(30, 150, 10) df3<-data.frame(x=l.см,y=n3.Гц,type="Марс") l.см<-seq(30, 150, 10) df4<-data.frame(x=l.см,y=n4.Гц,type="Венера") l.см<-seq(30, 150, 10) df5<-data.frame(x=l.см,y=n5.Гц,type="Земля") df6 <- rbind(df1,df2,df3,df4,df5) ggplot(df6)+geom_line(aes(x,y,colour=type))

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names(df6)[3]<-"Планеты" names(df6)[2]<-"n.Гц" names(df6)[1]<-"l.см" ggplot(df6)+geom_line(aes(l.см,n.Гц,colour=Планеты))

Рис. 4. Зависимость частоты колебаний от длины нити маятника на разных планетах Из графика видно, что с увеличением длины нити маятника частота колебаний маятника

уменьшается. Такое поведение маятника связано с тем, что частота колебаний является обратно пропорциональной величиной по отношению к длине нити маятника.

Выводы. В результате данного исследования удалось получить графические представления различных зависимостей с применением языка программирования R. Также удалось произвести расчеты ускорений свободного падения, которые находятся в хорошем соотношении с теоретическими данными приведенными в литературных источниках. Результаты позволили сделать вывод, что язык R хорошо применим к различного рода анализам физических процессов.

ЛИТЕРАТУРА

1. Байспай Г. Б. Жоғары оқу орнының ғылыми білім беру кәсібін басқарудың

ақпараттық жүйесін жобалау/ ВЕСТНИК Казахской головной архитектурно-строительной академии, №1(63) 2017. – с. 142

2. Умбеткулова К. М. Большие данные в образовании. World science: Problems and innovations, 2017. – с.178

3. http://mpoctok.narod.ru/r/intro.htm?oprd=1 4. http://qaru.site/questions/16926/plot-two-graphs-in-same-plot-in-r 5. http://omen.perm.ru/learn/pgu1k/fiz109.html 6. http://mediadidaktika.ru/mod/page/view.php?id=429

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ECOLOGY

COMPREHENSIVE ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY ON THE STATE OF THE MONUMENT OF THE WORLD HERITAGE "MAUSOLEIUM KHOJA AHMED YASSAWI" 1Sainova G. A., 2Anarbekova G. D., 2Aubakirov N. P., 1Baikhamurova M. O., 1Yesenbayeva Zh. Zh. Kazakhstan; 1Turkistan, Khoja Akhmet Yassawi International Kazakh-Turkish University; 2Almaty, Kazakh National Agrarian University ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Received 31 March 2018 Accepted 15 April 2018 Published 12 May 2018 KEYWORDS

The article deals with a comprehensive ecological study on the state of World Heritage Monument "mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassawi" and the creation of optimal conditions for their sustainable conservation based on the development of ways to reduce the impacts of natural and anthropogenic factors. The real state of the monuments is characterized. On the basis of complex theoretical and experimental researches found on the application of various physical, physicochemical, chemical and visual (photographic fixation) methods. Also types of various affecting factors and their contribution to the state of monuments were revealed.

mausoleum, monuments, ecological monitoring, restoration, cultural heritage © 2018 The Authors.

Introduction. In Kazakhstan, the mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassawi occupies a special

place among the monuments of history and culture. It is an especially irreplaceable architectural monument of the late 14th and early 15th centuries. Since 2000, the mausoleum is on the list of UNESCO World Heritage sites and is protected by international organizations. The preservation of this unique monument of architecture of the entire religious Islamic world, considered by its importance as the second Mecca, is one of the main tasks in the field of protection and protection of the World Heritage. Every year, as a result of intensification of production activity, the rate of negative processes associated with the influence of anthropogenic factors increases in a geometric progression, which can lead to a violation of the integrity of this unique architectural ensemble. In this connection, studies on the assessment of the effects of natural-climatic and anthropogenic factors on the state of the architectural complex of the mausoleum Kh. Yassawi.

The concept of "ecological monitoring" in the system of preservation of historical and cultural monuments is based on the creation of a permanent observation of the impact of natural and anthropogenic factors on the physical state of monuments. The purpose of environmental monitoring on monuments of history and culture is to determine the extent to which external factors affect the state of structures and building materials of ancient structures. If serious dangers are discovered on the monuments, the environmental monitoring data will allow preventing the occurrence of serious damage and deformations in advance and take preventive measures to preserve the monument. The results and conclusions of environmental monitoring will serve as the basis for the development of restoration projects, engineering works, and other activities, implementation, which will reduce the negative impact of hazardous risks [1-6].

Anthropogenic factors of environmental risk include pollution of air and water basins, disturbance of the geological environment as a result of economic activity, chemical contamination of soils and soils, noise, vibration, visual pollution of the environment, etc. [6-8]. In addition, each

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monument "lives" in a certain historical environment, whether it is a city, village or open space; the environment is an integral part of the monument. The appearance in this environment of new, as a rule, dissonant elements is considered as a factor of environmental risk.

Main part. The objects of the study are the architectural monument-the mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassawi in Turkestan of the South Kazakhstan region.

The mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassawi is located in the south-eastern part of the city of Turkestan on the territory of a medieval settlement. This monument of architecture and town planning of the republican significance is included in the State list of monuments of history and culture of national importance, approved by the Decree of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated 21.03.2008 № 279. The category of protection since 2003 is international; the mausoleum is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List under № 1103.

The mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassawi is the largest medieval architectural structure on the territory of Kazakhstan. The construction of the mausoleum dates back to the 14th century. - the beginning of the XV century. This portal-dome structure, developed along the longitudinal axis. The overall dimensions in the plan are 65.5 x 46.5 m. The main volume of the building is a rectangular prism above which domes rise, from the south and the north there are two portals of various sizes. The building is oriented with corners to the sides of the world. The main facade is the south-east. This monumental complex has about 34 rooms, various in size and function. The large entrance portal and the main halls-Kazanlak and Gurkhana are located on the longitudinal axis and are the main building elements. On the west side are Kitchen, Library, Mosque, on the east side – draw-well, Small Aksaray, Big Aksaray. These rooms have a two-light solution and are divided among themselves by eight two-story corridors. In addition, the building has many small rooms - hujra, located on two floors and a roof [9-11]. The building material of the monument are burnt square bricks varying in size from 25-27 cm, thickness of 4.5-5 cm. The main walls are built on clay mortar, arches and domes on ganch (a kind of ancient gypsum). Three facades and two large domes are covered with glazed tiles.

For six hundred years of existence, the mausoleum is always under the influence of natural and climatic and anthropogenic factors. From history it is known about the flooding of its territory during the siege by the Kokand, walling at the capture of the city by the tsarist troops. At the end of the XIX century, he was in such a dilapidated state that there was a danger of destruction and the structure wanted to be dismantled [12]. Constant repairs and restorations maintain the state of the monument. Over the past hundred years, about five general restorations were carried out, covering the entire volume of the structure. Every general restoration has solved certain tasks for strengthening and rebuilding.

Turkestan is one of the few cities in the world where the temperature was directly recorded at +500 C, while at the same time; frosty frosts are possible in winter.

According to the results of climate surveys as the Turkestan districts of South Kazakhstan, the average air temperature is (13.0 ± 0.1) ° C, the relative air humidity is (55 ± 2.0) %, the average wind speed is (2.2 ± 0.3) m / s [13-14].

Results and Conclusions. Below in the table 1 are the main sources of influence on the mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassawi.

Table 1. Main sources of environmental impact on the state of the mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassawi

Sources of pollution Volume of hazardous waste emissions, t / year

Winter period t / year

Summer period t / year

Total emission, % In summer In the winter

Stationary sources Рower boilers 1417 ± 7,7 675 ± 8,8 667 ± 7,4 95,20 3,04 Schools, hotels, etc. 3874 ± 7,5 3865 ± 7,5 - - 15,88 Residential zones from the mausoleum 1500 m 98±3,5 49±5,2 48±5,5 7,15 0,19

The average volume of stationary sources 28 367±9,6 27 689±5,6 702± 4,0 100,0 100,0

Mobile pollution sources Motor transport 8342±1,4 4172±1,3 4172,127 99,97 99,97 Railway transports 2,1±0,1 1±0,1 1±0,1 0,031 0,025 Total waste from mobile sources 8344±2,5 4173±1,8 4209 ± 1,2 100,0 100,0

Total waste 30547±6,7 30842±7,4 4871±5,0 85,66 86,47

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The ecological situation is assessed on the impact of natural and anthropogenic factors on the state of monuments, and a conclusion has been made about their negative impact. The main sources of influence on the condition of the monument under study are transport, in the autumn-winter period, additional energy boilers for heat supply systems for production facilities, including heating ovens for private houses and communal services. At the same time, the following sources of pollution were noted: landfills of historical nature, solid household waste accumulated in the protection zone of the mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassawi: almost 40 % of the territory is littered with historical wastes of ash and other materials, more than 10 % with fresh solid household waste.

The influence of anthropogenic factors in nature can be either conscious, or accidental, or unconscious. Anthropogenic factors reflect the intense human influence (directly) or human activity (indirectly) on the environment and living organisms.

The conducted researches indicate the necessity of conjugation of ecological-geochemical and biological characteristics for spatial and temporal consideration of the elements of the ecological chain: the source of pollution - the surface atmosphere - the atmospheric precipitation - the soil cover - the plants - the water objects - for organizing and correcting the measures to reduce environmental risk.

REFERENCES

1. Akbasova A. D., Sainova G. A. Ecology. - Almaty: Bastau, 2003. - 290 p. 2. Beisembaeva L. S., Akbasova A. D., Toichibekova G. B., Influence of environmental risk

factors on the preservation of cultural heritage // Herald of the IKASU. - 2012. № 3. - P.12-15. 3. Bezuglaya E. Yu. Climatic characteristics of the conditions for the propagation of

impurities in the atmosphere. / Sat. reports XI All-Russian scientific and technical conference "Priority directions of development of science and technology." - Tula: Publishing house "Innovative technologies", 2012. - 171 p.

4. Engineering Ecology: A Textbook / Ed. Prof. V. T. Medvedev. - Moscow: Gardariki, 2002. - 687 p. 5. National report on the state of the environment in the Republic of Kazakhstan in 2010.

Edited by M. K. Baekenova. RSE "KazNIIEK" MEP RK-Almaty, 2011. 6. Kosygin E. V. Ecological and geotechnical monitoring of objects of engineering restoration

// Building science of production: Sat. scientific. tr. - Vladimir, 2003. - P. 102-104. 7. Hydrogeological conclusion and technical recommendations on protection of the protection

zone of the monument of Khoja Ahmed Yasavi in Turkestan from groundwater flooding. // Institute of Hydrogeology and Geophysics named after. MIND. Akhmedsafina of the Academy of Sciences of the KazSSR, 1989. Volume I, Archive of the NIPF RSE "Kazrestavratsiya" Arch. No. 137 - P. 23-36.

8. Isaev, A. A. Ecological Climatology.-2 nd ed. Correction. and add.- M.: Scientific world, 2003.- 470p.

9. Report of engineering and geological surveys at the mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yassawi in Turkestan. // LLP "Engineering Survey", Shymkent, NIPF Archive RSE "Kazrestavratsiya" Arch. No. 43-2011 - P. 3-6.

10. Mankovskaya L. Yu. To study the techniques of Central Asian architecture of the late XIV century. (Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi). - IZU, issue 1, 1962. - P. 137 - 138.

11. Tuyakbaeva B. T. Epigraphic decoration of the architectural complex of Ahmed Yassawi. - Alma-Ata: "Oner", 1989.

12. The mausoleum of Khoja Ahmet Yasawi / Muminov, S. Mollahanaanaty, B. Koranbek, M. Zh. Sadybekov, Zh. M. Nurbekov. - Almaty: "Effect" of the JHS, 2009. -200 p.

13. Mankovskaya L. Yu. Study of the architectural complex-mausoleum of Ahmed Yassawi in the city of Turkestan and the issues of its restoration. The dissertation author's abstract on competition of the scientific candidate of art criticism. - Tashkent, 1963. - 160 p.

14. Akbasova A. Zh., Toichibekova G. B., Vereikina G. E. Description of the natural and climatic conditions of the city of Turkestan // Herald of the MKTU named after Kh. A. Yassawi, - Turkestan, 2011. - No. 3. - P.148-151.

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GEOGRAPHICAL SCIENCES

ӨНЕРКӘСІП ОРЫНДАРЫНЫҢ ШӨЛЕЙТТЕНУГЕ ӘСЕРІ Смаханова К. Б. Қазақстан Республикасы, Астана қ., Л. Н. Гумилев атындағы Еуразия ұлттық университеті, 2 курс магистранты ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Received 30 March 2018 Accepted 19 April 2018 Published 12 May 2018 KEYWORDS

Desertification is the process of exhausting the ecosystem, reducing the fertility of soils and destroying its biological productivity. Desertification is influenced by anthropogenic and natural factors. Among the anthropogenic factors that have a strong impact on the environment, technogenesis occupies a special place. Active development of resources, processing of mineralresources, contamination of processing sites with oil products and radioactive compounds and other man-caused impacts lead to degradation of soil layers and desertification. This article discusses the impact of industrial enterprises in Kazakhstan on desertification.

desertification, technical consequences, soil degradation, pollutants, polluting industrial enterprises © 2018 The Author.

Кіріспе. Қазақстанның бірталай аумағын қамтыған, шешілмей жатқан мәселелердің

бірі-шөлейттену болып табылады. Шөлденумен күресудің БҰҰ Конвенциясының (Париж,1994ж) және UNEP Консультациялық кеңесінің (Найроби,1990ж) мәліметтері бойынша терминнің анықтамасы былай: «Шөлдену-әртүрлі факторлардың, соның ішінде климаттың өзгеруі және құрғақ, жартылай қуаң және құрғақ субгумидтік аудандардағы жерлердің азып тозуы». Мәселенің маңыздылығын түсіне отырып, себебі Қазақстан аумағының 2/3 бөлігі шөлденуге шалдыққан және де үдеріс ұлғаюда. ҚР Үкіметі Шөлденумен күресу конвенциясына 1994 жылы БҰҰДБ көмегімен екінші кезеңі ретінде «Қазақстан-2030» Ұлттық стратегиясы және жүргізу жолдары дайындалды.

Елдің тұрақты дамуының негізгі бір басты жағдайы ретінде шөлденумен күресудің Бағдарламасының мақсаты жерлердің азып-тозуын болдырмай, олардың өнімділігін арттырып, биологиялық алуантүрлілікті мінедетті сақтау жағдайында, азықтық қауіпсіздікті, саяси тұрақтылықты қамтамасыз етіп, адамдардың тұрмыс қалін жақсарту болып табылды. Шөлденумен күресу Конвенциясының шеңберінде жұмыстардың жоспарлануын және орындалуын бақылайтын негізгі жауапты орган –ҚР қоршаған ортаны қорғау министрлігі.

Шөлдену экожүйенің жүдеуі, топырақ құнарлығының төмендеп және оның биологиялық өнімділігінің жойылу үдерісі. Шөлденуге мүмкіндік беретін табиғи ландшафтылардың тұрақсыздығы және антропогендік жүктеме. Қазақстанның көп жерінде табиғи және антропогендік шөлдену үдерісі байқалады. Табиғи шөлдер 480 с.е.-тің оңтүстігінде кең алқапты алып жатыр, солтүстікте қоңыр дала топырақтары дамыған аумақпен жиектеліп, оңтүстік және шығыста Тянь-Шань, Жетісу Алатауы, Сауыр-Тарбағатай және Алтай иаулары етегіндегі жазықтармен шектеледі. Табиғи шөлейт және шөл зоналары республика аумағының 70 % -дайын алып жатыр, едәуір ауданын құмдар (32 млн га), сорлар (2,6 млн га) және тегіс жазықтағы тақырлар (0,3 млн га) алып жатыр.

Айта кету керек, ғылыми-техникалық революция ғасырында, адамның табиғи экожүйелерге кең масштабта араласуына байланысты, шөлдену проблемасы ғаламдық сипатқа айналады.

Шөлейттенудің белгілі себептерінің бірі- су жеткіліксіздігі, сусыздану, климаттың аридизациясы, ормандарды шабу, малды қайта жайлау, биологиялық өлім; дренирлен жеткіліксіздігі; тыңайтылған жерлерде тұз жиналуы тұз баланысының бұзылысы әсерінен; құнарлықтың жойылуы; тыңайтылудың доғарылуы; күлдің әсерінен тұз жиналуы; жоғары орналасқан жерлерден ағынның әсерінен тұз жиналуы – шөлейттену процессіне өнеркәсіп орындарының өндіру және пайдалы қазбаларды қайта өндіруге әсері: грунт суларының

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деңгейінің төмендеуі; су қоймаларының су балансының бұзылуы; жиілікті грунт суларының әсерінен тұз жиналуы, техногенді бұзылыстар әсерінен тұз жиналуы.

Зерттеу нәтижесі. Елімізде техногенді әсерді ірі кәсіби орындар табиғатқа тигізеді. – тау-кен өнеркәсіптері, пайдалы табиғи қазбалардың руларды ашық немесе ашық

емес тәсілмен өндіру, комбинирленген әдіспен, пайдалы қазбалармен толықтырылуы; – жер және теңізде мұнай өндіру кәсіптері – қара және түрлі түсті металлургия кәсіпорындары – жерасты бұрғылау жолымен қымбат металды өндіретін металл кәсіпорындары – машинажасау кәсіпорындары – химиялық өнеркәсіп пен мұнай химия кәсіпорындары – энергетикалық өндіріс кәсіпорындары 1-кесте. ҚР облыстар бойынша бұзылған жерлер 1999,2000 және 2010 жылдар [2]

Облыс Жалпы

Соның ішінде: Пайдалы қазбалар кен орнын

табуда өндіру мен қайта өндеу, сонымен қатар

геологотабушылық жұмыстар

Құрылыс жұмыстарын жасау үшін

1990 1995 2000 2005 1990 1995 2000 2010 1990 1995 2000 2010 ҚР 166,2 155,1 178,0 297778,7 106,7 95,9 104,4 1,20271 59,5 59,2 73,6 1315,991 Ақмола 16,7 15,8 16,5 22392,4 5,2 9,5 4,1 - 11,5 6,3 12,4 4,4 Ақтөбе 19,1 - 12,9 14621,9 10,4 - 4,7 - 8,7 - 8,2 0,17 Алматы 1,9 3,3 3,3 11866,9 - 1,2 1,1 0,218 1,9 2,1 2,2 Атырау 1,1 1,9 1,6 31638,1 1,1 1,8 0,5 - - 0,1 0,1 861,8 ШҚО 7,8 11,3 11,6 283468 5,4 6,9 7,2 - 2,4 4,4 4,4 - Жамбыл 2,7 6,3 6,4 14426,4 2,0 5,6 5,6 - 0,7 0,7 0,8 11,6 БҚО 1,7 - 1,0 13672,32 0,1 - 1,0 0,0547 1,6 - - 4,000 Қарағанды 38,7 42,9 44,8 42798,3 29,0 34,7 39,0 0,00001 9,7 8,2 5,8 - Қостанай 24,4 27,4 29,6 19600,2 14,1 14,8 16,5 - 10,3 12,6 13,1 36,1 Қызылорда 4,4 - 3,4 22601,9 1,0 - 0,4 0,55 3,4 - 3,0 391,5 Маңғыстау 24,8 8,1 21,2 16564,2 24,8 6,4 12,4 0,380 - 1,7 8,8 - Павлодар 22,1 230 15,9 12475,5 13,3 11,0 10,8 - 8,8 12,0 5,1 - СҚО 0,6 14,4 7,6 9804,3 0,1 3,3 0,6 - 8,8 12,0 5,1 - ОҚО 0,2 0,7 1,7 11725,8 0,2 0,7 0,1 - - - 1,6 2,021

1-кестеде облыстарды алып қарағанда, ең көп ластанған Шығыс Қазақстан, Қарағанды

және Павлодар облыстары. Шығыс Қазақстан және Қарағанды облыстарының басты экологияық проблемаларының

бірі топырықтың мышьяк құрамды қалдықтармен отвалдардың, хвостохранилещелердің ОАО «Қазцинк» пен ластануы. Негізгі ауқымдысы Шығыс Қазақстан облысын қамтиды – 90 % дан көп. Облыста мышьяк құрамды қалдықтардың басты көзі «Өскемен металлургиялық комплексі», ОАО «Казцинк» Өскемен қаласына кіреді. Өскемен аумағында эксплуатация жылдарында 2,5 га жерде 300 мың т мышьяк құрамды қауіптілігі 2 классты арсенатттар мен кальций карсениттері жиналған. Жыл сайын саны артуда. Ашық жерлерде мышьяк құрамды қалдықтарды сақтау қала атмосферасына мышьяк тәрізді газдардың желдену мен жерасты сулары мен топыраққа енуіне себеші.

Шығыс Қазақстан облысында еружер қорғасын, цинк, кадьми, мышьяктың токсикалық қосылысарымен ластанған. Ластану көздері түсті металлургия кәсіпорындары. Тау-кен және металлургия өнеркәсібінен облыс аумағының 97 га жеріне 1,36 млрд т токсикалық қалдықтар бөлінген.

Екіншілікті шикізатты қайта өндеу жоқтығынан жыл айын облыс аумағына 30млн тоннадай қалдықтар қосылады. жер қорғасын, цинк, кадьми, мышьяктың токсикалық қосылысарымен ластанған. Аномальды қорғасынмен ластану Шемонаихин, Глубоковский, Зырьянов аудандарын қамтиды. Жалпы ластанған жер аумағы 30 мың кв.м. Қаламқас елді-мекенінде 57,6 т радиоактивті заттар жиналған, жалпы активтілік 0,019 Кири.

Қарағанды облысында жерлердің ластануы тау-кен және металлургия өнеркәсібінен болады (көмір шаң-тозаңы және ауыр металлдар). Қарағанды облысындағы жалпы қалдықтардың (5 млрд тоннадан көп) негізінен тау және беткейлік тұқымдар құрайды, үлкен жер аумағын қамтиды (4 млрд т жуықтай). 2004 жылы 2003 жылмен салыстырғанда бөлінетін

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қалдықтар артқан, АҚ «Қазақмыс корпорациясы» өнімділігінің артуы негізінен. Ірі кәсіпорындар қалдықтарды арнайы қорға жинайды. Негізінен, токсикалық және токсикалық емес қалдықтар қайта өнделген бұзылған жерлердің техникалық кезеңінде қолданылады. Жалпы қор ауданы 13,0 мың га көп. [4]

Павлодар облысында жер ластануы жылу электрстанцияларынан, түсті және қара металлургия, мұнай өндеу өнеркәсібінен және көмір резрездерінен есебінен болады. Топырақ қорғасын, барий, сынап әсерінен жерлерінен ластанған. Облыста 5 млрд тонна қалдықтар жиналған. Өндірістік және тұрмыстық қалдықтар Павлодар қаласында саны артуда, ластаушы заттардың миграциясы есебінен. Қалдықтарды сақтауға арналған жертөлелердің ыңғайсыз болуы себебінен таиғатта қайтымсыз, негативті процесстер өтеді.

Семей сынақ полигонының негізгі проблемасы топырақтың радионуклетидтермен ластануы, ластанған территориялар тазалаудың жоғары эффективті технологияларын қажет етеді. 2004 жылы Семей сынақ полигонының 40 % жері Павлодар облысы Май ауданының мемлекеттік жер запастарына енді. Территорияны зерттеу нәтижесінде ағымдық мәліметтерше, халықтың сәулелену мен радиоактивті ластануының тарамдылығын көрсетеді.

Балқаш маңы аймағында топырақ токсикалық заттер мен ауыр металлдармен ластанды. Соан басқа, топырақтың тұздануы мен шөлейттенуі процесстері жалғасуда. Балқаш аймағын ең ірі қоршаған ортаны ластаушы Балқаш тау-металлургиялық комбинаты мен рудалық база.

Каспий маңы аудандарында жер аумағы техногенді-транспорты жүктеме мен мұнай битумды өнімдермен ластанады, 4-5 млн га.

Жыл сайын мұнай өндіру көлемі газ конденсатымен рациональды қолдану ережелерін сақтамауы және жерді қорғау топырақтың мұнай-химиялық ластануына әкеледі. Бөлінетін канцерогенді заттар мен қауіпті зиянды заттар үлкен аудандағы жерлерге таралады, топырақ бетінде қалады, оған негативті әсер етеді. Топырақтың мұнай және мұнай өнімдерімен ластануы БҚО, Атырау және Маңғыстау облыстарында байқалады.

1 сурет. Өнеркәсіптің жердің тозуына әсері.[3]

1-суретте Қазақстандағы өнеркәсіп орындарының шөлейттену процесіне әсер етуіне

байланысты 5 деңгей көрсетілген. Бірінші деңгей - әсер ету деңгейі өте төмен(1 млрл тенгеге дейін)деп бағаланады және

мемлекет территориясының жартысынан көбін(54,1 %) алып жатыр.

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Екінші деңгей – әсер етуі төмен (1-5млрд тенге арасы)деп бағаланады және мемлекет территориясының 30,2 % алып жатыр.

Үшінші деңгей – әсер ету деңгейі орташа(5-10 млрд) деп бағаланады және мемлекет территориясының 8,2 % алып жатыр.

Төртінші деңгей – әсер ету деңгейі жоғары (10-100 млрд тенге) деп бағаланады және мемлекет территориясының 4,7 % алып жатыр.

Бесінші деңгей – әсер ету деңгейі өте жоғары (100 млрд тенге жоғары) деп бағаланады және мемлекет территориясының 2,7 % алып жатыр.

Қорытынды. Зерттеу бөлімінде көрсетілген мәліметтерден мынадай қорытындыға келдім: «Өнеркәсіптің жердің тозына әсері» картасына қарап, Қазақстанның көп бөлігі шөлейттену аймағына айналып бара жатқанын көруге болады. Пайдалы қазбаларды өңдеу кезінде топырақтың жоғарғы қабаттарының бұзылысына, топырақ профилінің морфологиясының бұзылысына, топырақтың физикалық және химиялық құрамының бұзылысына әкеледі. Жане де өнеркәсіп орналасқан территорияның маңайында радиоактивті ластану болады. Бұл аймақта химиялық ластаушы элементтер өте көп болады. Горизондтар жүйесі де өзгеріске ұшырайды.

Шөлейттену – әлемдік деңгейде бұрын да, қазір де және болашақта да болатын жаһандық табиғи өзгерістердің қатарына жатады. Ол – циклық өзгерістердің туындысы. Оның әрі қарай дамуы, күрделенуі адамның іс әрекетімен тікелей байланысты. Сондықтан табиғаттың тепе-теңдігінің бұзылмасы үшін, жердің тозбасы үшін шөлейттену проблемасының алдын алу қажет. Ол үшін беткейлердің шлам мен автожолдардың, жел қорғаныстары мен су эрозиясын қорғау керек.

ӘДЕБИЕТТЕР

1. «Орталық Азияның шөлейттенуі: бағалау, болжау, меңгеру»-халықаралық ғылыми

конференция, Астана,2014, 212б 2. Национальный доклад о состоянии окружающей среды в Республики Казахстан за

2010г. Под ред. М. К. Баекеновой.-Астана,2011-241с 3. Қазақстан Республикасы. Қоршаған орта және экология.3 том. Алматы. 2006 4. Промышленность Казахстана и его регионов. 2007-2011гг. Статистический сборник.

–Астана, 2012, 229с.

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AGRICULTURE

ДИФФЕРЕНЦИРОВАНИЕ АГРОХИМИЧЕСКИХ МЕРОПРИЯТИЙ С ЦЕЛЬЮ ПОВЫШЕНИЯ УРОЖАЙНОСТИ ПОЧВ КУРА-АРАЗСКОЙ НИЗМЕННОСТИ д. ф. а. н., доцент Ибрагимов А. Г. Азербайджан, Гянджа, Азербайджанский Государственный Аграрный Университет ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Received 02 April 2018 Accepted 17 April 2018 Published 12 May 2018 KEYWORDS

The quantities of nutrients in the dark gray-brown, light gray-brown, gray-brown, gray and meadow-gray soils of the Kur-Araz lowlands have been analyzed in this article. The differentiation of fertilizer norms for increasing the fertility of soils and obtaining high yields under cotton was proposed. In addition, it has been shown that the reasons of the decline of fertility elements in the soil, which is a useful soil for cotton in the Kur-Araz lowland. To each hectare of dark gray-brown soils 85-100 nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer, to each hectare of light brown and saline gray-brown soils 110-120 kg phosphorus fertilizer, andto each hectare of irrigated gray-brown soils, 110-120 kg of nitrogen,100 kg phosphorus and 40-50 kg of potassium fertilizer should be given. To each hectare of gray and meadow-gray soils, 80-100 kg of nitrogen and 80-90 kg phosphorus fertilizers should be given.

soil, fertilizer, productivity, nutrients, fertility © 2018 The Author.

Введение. В нашей стране почвы, возделываемые под хлопчатником, различаются по

генетическому типу, свойствам и составу. Они зависят от условий почвообразовательного процесса, гидротермического режима и зональности почв [1,2,3]. Поэтому в пределах отдельных административных районов применяются разнообразные нормы удобрений, которые различаются в зависимости от используемого комплекса агротехнических мероприятий и уровня плодородности возделываемых почв[4,5,6].

В связи с этим необходим индивидуальный подход к использованию различных почвенных типов, применению соответствующих агротехнических методов при их возделывании и химизации почв [3,7,8].

Как известно, на поливаемых бороздами почвах, расположенных выше отметки 0,005, протекают эрозионно-аккумулятивные процессы, что приводит к формированию почв, характеризующихся различным уровнем плодородия [9,10,11]. Это положение надо обязательно учитывать при рекомендации агрохимических мероприятий.

На отдельных участках Кура-Аразской низменности развивающаяся ветровая эрозия привела к выветриванию маломощного плодородного слоя почвы, вследствие чего они потеряли свою плодородность. Это положение также необходимо учитывать при внесении удобрений. Своеобразная организация территории, её канализованность, древесные насаждения и микроклимат обусловливают определённую специфику процессов водной и ветровой эрозии на орошаемых землях. Для них характерны явления так называемой ирригационной эрозии, связанной с подачей на поля значительных объёмов поливной воды и отводом с орошаемой территории сбросных и дренажных вод. Интенсивность ирригационной эрозии зависит от крутизны и формы склона, техники полива, устойчивости почвы к разрушительному действию поливной воды, степени закрепления почвы, корневой системы растений и агротехнических приёмов обработки почвы (3,9,10,15).

Дифференцированному внесению удобрений способствуют многие факторы, к которым относятся посаженные до посева хлопчатника растения и их биологические свойства, степень засоления и эродированности почвы, а также уровень обеспеченности их питательными веществами.

Материал и методика. Исследования проводились на орошаемых серо-коричневых и лугово-сероземных почвах Кура-Аразской низменности, где рельеф местности характеризуется

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различным уклоном в разных направлениях, и, где высока вероятность возникновения ирригационной эрозии. Эксперименты проводились в полевых, камеральных и лабораторных условиях в 2003-2017 годах. Общий фосфор определялся по Мещерякову, подвижный фосфор – по Мачигину, общий калий– по Смиту, обменный калий – по Протасову, общий азот – по Тюрину[12].

Анализ и обсуждения. В зависимости от плодородности и характера возделываемых сельскохозяйственных растений, потребность почвы в биогенных элементах различна. Расчеты показывают, что для получения одной тонны урожая хлопчатника в среднем необходимо 60кг азота, 20 кг фосфора и 50 кг калия[13]. Поэтому одной из основных задач является обеспечение почв необходимым количеством питательных веществ. А для этого требуется точное исследование почвы. Особое внимание при этом следует уделять почвам с малым количеством гумуса, периодически подвергающимся различного типа эрозии.

Темные серо-коричневые почвы слабо обеспечены азотом и подвижными формами фосфора, а калием – средне. В каждом килограмме этих почв содержится 15-45 мгподвижного фосфора, 25-50 мг азота, 300-360 мгобменного калия. Отсюда следует, что для нормального обеспечения хлопчатника питательными веществами и для получения планируемого урожая на 1 гектар следует вносить минимум 85-100 кг азотных и фосфорных удобрений. Следует также отметить, что под первую вспашку нужно вносить сначала фосфорные, а затем азотные удобрения.

Исследования показали, что в составе светлых серо-коричневых почв и их солонцеватых форм указанных питательных веществ очень мало, что отражается и в урожайности хлопчатника. В составе светлых серо-коричневых и солонцеватых серо-коричневых почв содержание биогенных элементов незначительно. В каждом килограмме этих почв содержится 14-24 мг подвижного фосфора и 21-27 мг гидролизованного азота. Для получения высокого урожая хлопчатника и для защиты плодородности этих почв, в первую очередь необходимо на каждый гектар вносить 110-120 кг фосфорных удобрений. Затем необходимо постепенно заменить их увеличивающимся количеством азотных удобрений. В отличие от темных серо-коричневых почв, на каждый их гектар необходимо также внесение 40-50 кг калийных удобрений.

Среди почв, занятых под хлопчатником, издревле орошаемые серо-коричневые почвы и орошаемые серо-коричневые почвы занимают широкое место. Они распространены в основном на Кура-Аразской низменности. В связи с тем, что эти почвы продолжительное время использовались под сельскохозяйственными культурами, они были подвержены процессу дегумификации, и количество питательных элементов в них значительно уменьшилось. На этих почвах, по сравнению с ранее отмеченными, количество подвижного фосфора и азота, а также обменного калия значительно ниже. На килограмм этих почв приходится 28-38 мг азота, 17-24 мг фосфора, и 110-135 мг обменного калия. Поэтому, в связи с недостатком питательных веществ на этих почвах, количество вносимых удобрений должно быть высоким. В эти почвы необходимо вносить 110-120 кг азота, 100 кг фосфора и 40-50 кг калия в год.

С точки зрения плодородности, серозёмно и лугово-сероземные почвы на Кура-Аразской низменности, по сравнению с отмеченными выше, значительно слабее. Исследования показывают, что одним из основных отличий этих почв от серо-коричневых является более высокое содержание калия, тогда как количество азота, фосфора и гумуса в них значительно ниже. В пахотном горизонте количество гидролизованного азота в 1 кг почвы в общем количестве составляет 40-50 мг, а подвижного фосфора – 20-35 мг. Эти свойства необходимо учитывать при их удобрении и на 1га вносить 80-100 кг азота, 80-90 кг фосфора. В удобрении калием эти почвы не нуждаются.

Почвы под хлопчатником характеризуются зональностью. По морфологическим признакам почвы, расположенные на относительно высоких участках делювиальной полосы, на территории Гёранбойского и Евлахского административных районов, вблизи Боздагского массива, отличаются очень низкими показателями плодородности [14]. Урожайность хлопчатника здесь также всегда была очень низкой. В каждом килограмме этих почв содержится по 20-25 мг гидролизованного азота и по 10-15 мг подвижного фосфора, что говорит о высокой потребности этих почв в азоте и фосфоре. При внесении на гектар почвы по 120 кг азота и фосфора, урожайность здесь может возрасти на 20-30 % и больше.

Почвы под хлопчатником в отдельных регионах значительно различаются между собой. Например, почвы в верхней и средней частях конуса, приносимые реками Ширвана, – это почвы, долгое время используемые под посадки. Вокруг них сформировались достаточно легкие по своему гранулометрическому составу почвы. Длительное использование этих почв в значительной степени улучшает их физические, химические и биологические показатели [9,15],

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а орошение создаёт мощный мелкоземистый почвенный горизонт. На указанной территории распространены в основном лугово-сероземные почвы, что делает их склонными к засолению. Эти свойства также необходимо учитывать при проведении агрохимических мероприятий. У этих почв очень мощный гумусовый горизонт, одной из причин образования которого является создание аккумулятивного горизонта. Хотя содержание гумуса на этих горизонтах, сформированных за счёт приносимых материалов, относительно высоко, количество многих питательных веществ в них очень низко. Особенно мало здесь содержание гидролизованного азота. На этих орошаемых с давних пор почвах, в верхнем пахотном горизонте величина гумуса составляет 1,5-1,9 %, общего азота – 0,12-0,16 % и общего фосфора – 0,15-0,17 %. Количество гидролизованного азота и подвижного фосфора здесь очень низко, что говорит о недостатке этих элементов.

Учитывая низкое содержание гумуса в лугово-сероземных почвах, внесение навоза в них является необходимым. Согласно опыту фермерских хозяйств, внесение навоза в большом количестве даёт высокий урожай. Можно сказать, что по сравнению с почвами, не удобряемыми навозом, урожай возрастает на 2,5-3,0 ц.

Исследования показывают, что при внесении навоза, необходимо также вносить и минеральные удобрения. Урожай значительно возрастает при внесении на гектар 120-150 кг азота и 100-120 кг фосфора. Во многих случаях, в семейных фермерских хозяйствах, где посев проводится в условиях высоких агротехнических требований, с окружающих земельных участков собирается на 6,8-7,0 ц больше чистого хлопка.

На Ширванской и Муганской равнинах, расположенных в основном на участках над уровнем океана и ниже его, распространены лугово-сероземные почвы. Эти почвы, будучи низко плодородными, были в различной степени засолены, и в большинстве своём потеряли свою плодородность [16,17]. На участках с высоким уклоном, в частности, Кюрдамирском, Агдашском и Гёйчайском районах, орошаемые почвы постепенно подвергались ирригационной эрозии, в результате чего верхние участки потеряли свою плодородность. Высокий уклон местности здесь повышает вероятность изменения потенциала ирригационной эрозии. В связи, с чем здесь внесение навоза и минеральных удобрений за вегетационный период является необходимым. Расчеты в первую очередь необходимо проводить в зависимости от смыва почвы (табл.1).

Таблица 1. Дифференциальное внесение годовой нормы азотных удобрений на почвах,

подверженных ирригационной эрозии

Показатели Среднегодовая норма кг/га

Степень эродированности

Не смытая Сильно не смытая

Средне не смытая

Величина наносов

Годовая норма азотных удобрений 262,5 250 350 300 150 Перед посадкой 112,5 100 200 150 - Внесение в 1-ую подкормку 75 75 75 75 75 Внесение во 2-ую подкормку 75 75 75 75 75

В таблице 1 показаны годовые нормы дифференциального внесения азотных удобрений

в почвы, подвергшиеся ирригационной эрозии. Такое дифференциальное внесение удобрений рекомендуется в Средней Азии, в частности, в Узбекистане, на почвы под хлопчатником [12].

В результате проведенных исследований была определена общая годовая норма азотных удобрений, установлено количество первой и второй подкормки. При этом выдача самой высокой годовой нормы подразумевается на смытые участки почвы, а самой низкой– на участки скопления наносов в нижней части. Исследования показывают, что основная часть нормы удобрений должна вноситься до посадки, а на участках скопления наносов внесение удобрений не целесообразно, потому что на этих участках скапливается богатая питательными веществами почвенная масса.

В результате проведенных исследований на почвах, подверженных ирригационной эрозии была определена и рекомендована дифференциальная норма фосфорных удобрений (табл.2). В это время в первую очередь необходимо обеспечить почву фосфором. Параллельно с этим необходимо определить биологические потери фосфора за одну вегетацию. Исследования показывают, что на участке возделывания хлопчатника за год усваивается или теряется 45 кг фосфора. В таблице 2 была установлена дифференциальная норма с учетом потери и

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обеспеченности почвы фосфором. Для ее определения был использован коэффициент равенства. Из таблицы ясно видно, что самая низкая обеспеченность фосфором составляет 0-15 мг/кг. На этих участках для внесения удобрений, коэффициент равенства составляет 5, а количество вносимых удобрений 225 кг/га. При возрастании в почве содержания фосфора, уменьшается коэффициент равенства. Для одной единицы предусмотрено внесение 45 кг/га удобрений. Самая высокая обеспеченность фосфором превышает 61 кг/га. На таких почвах коэффициент равенства составляет 1, а норма внесения удобрений – 45 кг/га. Предложенный нами этот метод очень эффективен как с экологической, так и с экономической точки зрения.

Таблица 2. Определение дифференциальной нормы внесения фосфорных удобрений на

почвах, подверженных ирригационной эрозии

Количество Р2О5в почве

Биологическая потеря фосфора, кг/га

Коэффициент равенства

Дифференцированная норма, кг/га

0-15 45 5 225 16-30 45 4 180 31-45 45 3 135 46-60 45 2 90

свыше 61 45 1 45 Практика показывает, что при посеве семян хлопчатника внесение фосфорных

удобрений, можно проводить как отдельно, так и совместно с азотными удобрениями. В зависимости от содержания в почве фосфора и азота, доза фосфора колеблется в пределах 15-20 кг, а доза азота – 10-15 кг.

До 80 % фосфорных удобрений необходимо вносить перед посадкой и под вспашку. По сравнению с неудобренными участками, на участках под вспашку, где вносили фосфорные удобрения, возможна прибавка урожая на 5-7 ц/га.

При внесении фосфорных удобрений совместно с навозом перед зяблевой вспашкой урожайность хлопчатника бывает более высокой. Поэтому эту практику целесообразно использовать для увеличения продуктивности почв и получения оптимального урожая.

Во время проведения исследований было установлено, что большая часть орошаемых сероземно-луговых и сероземных почв солонцеваты. При внесении удобрений этот фактор имеет первостепенное значение. На почвы, обладающие таким свойством, целесообразно вносить 250кг/га азота и 150кг/га фосфора. На сероземах Кура-Аразской низменности, в частности, на Муганской и Ширванской равнинах, параметры плодородности очень низкие. Это обстоятельство необходимо учитывать при внесении удобрений.

В дополнении к вышеизложенному, в применении микроудобрений, эти удобрения имеют большое значение. Исследования показывают, что эти удобрения, содержащие ряд микроэлементов, могут увеличить продуктивность почвы на 3-4 ц с гектара. Для получения высокого урожая хлопчатника микроэлементы необходимо вносить в основном перед поливами.

Выводы. 1. Была установлена низкая обеспеченность почв Кура-Аразской низменности

параметрами плодородности – гумусом, азотом и фосфором. 2. В связи с тем, что для почв исследуемой территории, актуальны засоление,

солонцеватость, ирригационная эрозия, наряду с минеральными удобрениями обязательно внесение органических удобрений.

3. Для повышения продуктивности почв Кура-Аразской низменности, дифференциация агрохимических мероприятий и определение степени обеспеченности питательными веществами повышает биологическую урожайность.

4. Дифференциальное внесение минеральных удобрений целесообразно как с экономической, так и с экологической точки зрения, что способствует сведению к минимуму количества вносимых удобрений и уменьшению поступающих в почву отходов.

ЛИТЕРАТУРА

1. Стебаев, И. В. "Экологическое своеобразие и пространственная структура почвенно-

зоологических комплексов каштановых и сопутствующих им почв гор юга Сибири." Евразиатский энтомологический журнал 9.2 (2010): 127-149.

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2. Рамазанова Ф. М. Влияние промежуточных посевов кормовых культур на плодородие орошаемых почв Азербайджана // Сибирский вестник сельскохозяйственной науки. 2017. – том 47. - № 4.- С.108-114.

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4. Лошаков В. Г., Сычев В. Г. Севооборот и плодородие почвы. 2012. 5. Сычев В. Г. Основные ресурсы урожайности сельскохозяйственных культур и их

взаимосвязь 2003: 228-228. 6. Гречишкина Ю. И, Есаулко А. Н, Горбатко Л. С, Беловолова А. А, Коростылев С. А,

Айсанов Т. С. Экологические аспекты применения удобрений в современном земледелии. Вестник АПК Ставрополья. 2012(3):112-5.

7. Измайлов А. Ю., Личман Г. И., Марченко Н. М. "Точное земледелие: проблемы и пути решения." Сельскохозяйственные машины и технологии 5 (2010): 9-14.

8. Гречишкина Ю. И. и др. Экологические аспекты применения удобрений в современном земледелии / Вестник АПК Ставрополья, 2012: с. 112-115.

9. Мустафаев, М. Г. "Влияние дренажа на физические свойства и водно-воздушный режим почв (на примере Мугано-Сальянского массива Азербайджана)." Корректор–АГ Кузнецова Перевод–ВВ Романов 3 (2011): 6.

10. Бабаев М. П., Гурбанов Е. Исследование деградации почв и опустынивания (методическая рекомендация) Баку, Наука, 2008, 47 с.

11. Бабаев М. П., Гурбанов Е., Гасанов В. Х. Деградация и защита почв в Азербайджане. Наука-2010, 215 с.

12. Аринушкина Е. В. Руководство по химическому анализу почв. Москва. Изд-во МГУ. 1970. 476 с.

13. Яровенко Г. И. Физиолого-агрохимические основы повышения эффективности азотных удобрений в хлопководстве // Ташкент. Изд. «Узбекистан», 1969, с. 22-26.

14. Азизов Г. З. Солевой баланс почвы и почвы Кура-Аракской низменности и ее научный анализ. Баку, Наука, 2006 с. 260.

15. Бабаев М. П., Исаева Ф. Х., Джафарова С. Ф. Восстановление и сохранение плодородия орошаемых почв / Баку, Наука, 2010, 220 с.

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BIOLOGY

FUTURE OF STEM CELLS USE IN CELL THERAPY AGAINST DIABETES 1,2Alzhanuly B., 1Khanseitova A., 1,2Botbayev D. M., 1Aitkhozhina N. A.

Kazakhstan, Almaty;

1Aitkhozhin Institute of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry Laboratory of Structural and Functional Genomics; 2Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Received 03 April 2018 Accepted 19 April 2018 Published 12 May 2018 KEYWORDS

A very promising solution to the problem of diabetes mellitus can be the use of medical biotechnology, namely cellular technologies, which are based on the use of stem cells. Various cell populations have been studied for this purpose until now. The most physiologically justified is the use of stem cells of the pancreas itself and their further differentiation into β-cells. This review is devoted to new methods of diabetes therapy with the use of cellular technologies and the perspectives of using cells such as C-kit-positive cells, desmin-positive stellate cells and some others for the cell therapy of diabetes mellitus.

diabetes mellitus, pancreatic β-cells, cell therapy, stem cells, differentiation, pancreas, cellular technology © 2018 The Authors.

Introduction. Diabetes mellitus (DM) is one of the big problems of modern medicine due to a

steady increase in the number of patients in most countries of the world. According to forecasts, by 2030 the number of people suffering from diabetes mellitus will increase to 552 million [1]. DM is a chronic disease in which autoimmune processes destroy the insulin-producing β-cells of the pancreas. The main way to correct hyperglycemia in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes is the administration of exogenous insulin. However, insulin therapy does not allow to restore the normal physiological regulation of blood glucose level and eliminate the risk of possible complications [2].

Depending on the nature of its development, DM is classified into two types. In type 2 diabetes, the tissues of the body lose sensitivity to insulin, the function of which is to regulate the level of blood glucose. This most common (up to 80-90 % of cases) type of diabetes mellitus, which is also called insulin-independent, develops mainly in old age and is characterized by a relatively easy flow [3]. In type 1 diabetes, autoimmune lesions of beta cells of the pancreas are observed. This type of diabetes leads to a full lifelong dependence on insulin injections - at the moment this is practically the only way to treat this serious illness. The patient should constantly monitor the level of glucose in the blood and, depending on the "jumps" of glucose level, adjust the doses of insulin independently. In any case, the patient develops complications: dysfunction of the kidneys and the cardiovascular system, eye damage (diabetic retinopathy), necrotic tissue damage. The result is a significant reduction in the quality of life of patients, and often disability and early death [3].

Therefore, the development of severe and irreversible complications that determine the quality of life of patients allows us to classify diabetes as a disease with medical-social significance. Significant economic losses of the state, related to the costs of treatment of the disease and its complications, early disability of patients with disability, mortality in working age are a weighty argument in determining the social significance of the DM problem.

Treating Diabetes Mellitus. At present, the only possible way to cure patients with type 1 diabetes is the transplantation of pancreatic islets, as well as the organ itself [3]. Transplantation of

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the whole organ is an effective way to achieve and maintain a long-term physiological glucose level in the blood. However, this method is rarely used to treat diabetes due to various risks associated with performing a surgical procedure [4]. Transplantation of the islets of the prostate requires a minimally invasive surgical procedure [5]. Nevertheless, at present, this procedure can not be considered a standard of treatment, because it has its drawbacks. First of all, this is a problem of lack of donors as well as the need for lifelong immunosuppression. One of the most obvious ways to obtain a large number of islets required for transplantation in diabetes is the use of Langerhans islets derived from other mammalian species. Most attempts in this area have been directed toward the use of porcine pancreatic islets [6-8]. The main problem with the use of xenogenic material, in addition to the risk of zoonosis, is the development of an immunological response to graft rejection [9]. To overcome the problem of the immunogenicity of porcine cells, donor cells were immunized. Thus, the pancreas (macroencapsulation) or individual islets (microencapsulation) of the recipient are placed in the capsule made of a semipermeable membrane [10]. The semipermeable membrane interferes the contact of the transplanted material with the immunocompetent cells of the recipient, but the supply of nutrients to the cellular material, the secretion and the yield of insulin are preserved [11]. However, this method has its drawbacks: capsules are perceived by the recipient organism as foreign body; there is a pronounced proliferative reaction around the capsules which leads to inadequate nutrition of the islets; cell apoptosis and islet cell death [12].

Another reason of restraining the clinical use of porcine islet cells is the detection in the cells of these animals of the endogenous retrovirus (ERV), which potentially can infect the cell lines with human [13, 14]. However, at present there is no information about the disease of patients who have undergone xenotransplantation of porcine islet cells earlier. Serologic studies in recipients, conducted 4-7 years after xenotransplantation of pigs islands, did not find marker genes of ERV infection [15].

In recent years, studies have been conducted on the possibility of using bone marrow, hematopoietic, multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells (MMSC), cells producing insulin as a result of differentiation or genetic modification of bone marrow, and MMSC for correction of diabetes mellitus [16-19].

Pancreas stem cells. From the physiological point of view, the most suitable are the stem cells of the pancreas itself. However, in this case, the problem that hinders the use of stem cells in regenerative medicine is the complexity of their identification and isolation because of the lack of clear information about their phenotype. To date, one of the most promising markers of precursor cells of pancreatic endocrinocytes is the receptor of the stem cell factor C-kit, or CD117, since it is located on the cell membrane and can be used as a marker for their isolation. C-kit is a transmembrane receptor protein of tyrosine kinase, which is encoded in rodents by the dominant allele white-spotting (w), located on the 5-chromosome; the human homologue is located on 4-chromosome. This receptor is also called CD 117, stem cell factor receptor (SCF-R), Kit/SCF-R, receptor for the growth factor of mast cells (cell growth factor receptor (MGF) receptor) are there too [20, 21].

C-kit-positive cells were found in 14-16-week-old human fetuses in pancreatic islets that, when cultured in the presence of an exogenous stem cell factor (SCF), began to synthesize glucagon and insulin. It was shown that SCF / C-kit interaction can play an important role in the differentiation of human pancreatic endocrine gland cells at a period of 14-16 weeks gestation [22]. Expression of C-kit was also found in the islets of the pancreatic rat gland [23]. In addition, it was found that the first C-kit-positive cells appear in the epithelium of the ducts at a period of 8.5 weeks gestation, further formed C-kit-positive islets, reminiscent of the islets of Langerhans, which persist after birth. It is interesting that at a time of 11.5 weeks intrauterine development in the islets, cells were found that simultaneously synthesized the both insulin and glucagon, as well as remaining in the islets after birth. The authors suggest that the population of C-kit-positive cells can serve as a common source of both β- and α-cells, which first synthesize glucagon, and then insulin [24]. When studying the regeneration of the prostate after the ligation of the duct system, the appearance of C-kit-positive cells in the ducts and islets of Langerhans with maximal expression of the marker for 3 days is also shown experimentally [25]. In experimental alloxan diabetes in the islets of the pancreas in rats, C-kit-positive cells synthesizing insulin appear after a day of experimental hyperglycemia, and these cells are present in the prostate gland at all experimental times. It has been shown that C-kit-positive cells participate in the correction of morphological changes in the islets and the level of glucose in the blood of rats in experimental diabetes (ED) by differentiation into β-cells through the stage of glucagon-producing cells [26]. Thus, C-kit-positive pancreatic cells are the main candidates for the role of stem cells of the prostate - the precursors of β-cells. An interesting fact is that with ED, along with an increase in the expression of C-kit, desynine-positive stellate cells appear in the acini and islands of the pancreas. These cells, by their phenotype and properties, are very similar to stellate cells

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of the liver. The cells of both populations accumulate vitamin A, secrete a wide range of growth factors, synthesize the macromolecules of the intercellular substance. In the literature, there is evidence that these cells can be a source of development of endocrine cells [27]. It was shown that with ED, the stellate cells increased quantitatively, however, in these cells, hormone secretion was not detected. According to the authors, stellate cells provide the necessary microenvironment for the differentiation of C-kit-positive cells into endocrine cells. Thus, the authors make the assumption that with ED there is activation of stellate cells of the prostate, which begin to synthesize growth factors and cytokines. The synthesized growth factors interact with the receptors of the progenitor cells, in particular the C-kit stem cell receptor. This interaction leads to differentiation of C-kit + cells into β-cells through the stage of glucagon-producing cells [28].

The ability of C-kit-positive cells to differentiate into α- and β-cells of the pancreas allows us to state that this marker is the is true for the progenitor cells of endocrinocytes. This opens the way for the development of new methods for the treatment of Type I diabetes mellitus by transplantation of C-kit-positive pancreatic cells, which will synthesize hormones and contribute to the correction of disorders of carbohydrate metabolism. In addition, the available data on the change in the population of stellate cells of the prostate at ED suggest that simultaneous transplantation of stellate cells of the pancreas and C-kit + cells may be more effective than isolated transplantation of only C-kit-positive cells. Thus, the use of C-kit-positive pancreatic cells can be one of the promising methods of cell therapy for diabetes.

Differentiation of pluripotent stem cells. As was mentioned above, transplantation of donor β-cells is the only successful practice of diabetes treatment for now. After such transplantation, the patient becomes independent of insulin injections for several years. Problems of this therapy are associated with the quality and quantity of donor material, not to mention the tissue incompatibility of the recipient and the donor. After the transplant, patients need to take drugs that suppress the activity of the immune system, moreover, after some time, the transplant rejection still occurs. Another obstacle is the ethical problems associated with the use of embryonic tissues [29].

However, there is another technic that allows us to way the issue out: β-cells of the pancreas can be obtained in vitro (in the laboratory) from cell cultures (Figure 1). Their source can be pluripotent human stem cells, that is, "primary" undifferentiated cells, from which all cells of our organs and tissues are derived. To obtain β-cells, both embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells can be used, which are obtained from ordinary adult somatic cells by "reprogramming" them [29].

Technologies for producing induced pluripotent stem cells are known and well developed. But to get mature β-cells from them is much more difficult, because for this it is necessary literally in a Petri dish to reproduce the most complicated processes occurring during the embryonic development of a person, using signal molecules and chemical compounds that direct the development of cells in the right direction [30].

Fig. 1. In vitro derivation of β-cells from pluripotent SCs obtained from somatic cells The list of outstanding scientific studies of the past year published by the journal Science

includes the work of two research groups: the Harvard Stem Cell Institute (USA) and the Medical School of Massachusetts University in Worcester (USA), under the direction of D. Melton and the

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University of the Province of British Columbia (Canada) and BetaLogics (USA), led by T. Kiefer, devoted to in vitro technologies for producing β-cells of the pancreas [30-31]. Taking as a starting material the stem cells of the human embryo, as a result, the scientists received cells exhibiting all the basic qualities of β-cells.

Fig. 2. Clusters of transplanted human β-cells. Fluorescence microscopy: two weeks after implantation into a renal capsule (a fibrous layer of connective tissue around the kidney) of a lab mouse, a "diabetic

patient", of β-cells obtained "in vitro" from human embryonic stem cells. It can be seen that the transplanted cells formed clusters and began to produce the hormone insulin. Insulin and glucagon (the

hormone of the alpha cells of the islets of the pancreas of Langerhans) are colored with antibodies in green and red, respectively; The DNA of the cell nuclei is a DAPI fluorescent dye in blue [31].

That is, they "worked" certain genes and there were specific proteins, so these cells were able

to produce insulin in response to the presence of glucose. Transplanted to laboratory mice from a clean line serving as an experimental model of diabetes mellitus, these cells functioned normally and compensated for the initial absence of insulin (Figure 2) [30-32].

The tremendous advantage of this method is that with its help it is possible to obtain functioning β-cells in a rather large amount. In the final process, up to 300 million cells can be obtained from a single 0.5 liter culture bottle - this number is enough to compensate for the missing insulin in one person weighing about 70 kg. Or for screening among 30 thousand individual chemical compounds - potential medicinal substances, if you use cells not for "direct use", but for pharmacological studies.

It is obvious that the described technologies need to be improved. In particular, the development of detailed protocols for the production of β-cells from induced pluripotent stem cells is required. This will allow not only in any period of the patient's life and practically from any cells of his own organism, if necessary, to obtain the necessary amount of β-cells, but will also solve the problem of immunological incompatibility of the donor and recipient.

However, another problem remains: since type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease, the new β-cells will again be attacked by the immune system, as once their "native" cells of the patient. Therefore, the transplanted cells must be learned to protect! Only in this case such treatment can become accessible and widely applicable, because the use of immunosuppressants is justified only in the most severe cases.

Treating DM with differentiated stem cells. A functioning transplant in a patient with type 1 diabetes mellitus can eliminate episodes of hypoglycemia, correct the level of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), reduce or completely eliminate the risk of secondary complications associated with this disease and, in the most optimal cases, allows achieving independence from insulin. According to the data provided in the Collaborative Islet Transplant Registry (CITR) [33], the independence of insulin in terms of 3 years after transplantation is constantly improving. About 27 % in the early stages (1999-2002), then 37 % in the middle stage (2003-2006), and 44 % in the last years (2007-2010). Unlike blood, skin or intestines, the tissues of which are characterized by a relatively high rate of cell replacement, β cells of pancreatic islets are an inactive cell population, while in annual mice the

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proliferation rate of these cells is 0.1-0.3 % per day. In humans, the natural expansion of the β-cell pool occurs in the neonatal period, gradually fading out in early childhood; in adults, increased β-cell replication can occur in certain physiological and pathological conditions, such as pregnancy, or in the development of insulin resistance caused by obesity [34]. Thus, in patients with diabetes (diabetes mellitus), special drugs can be used to increase the number of β cells in ex vivo for transplantation, and endogenous cell proliferation can be stimulated in vivo in order to increase the β-cell pool. In fact, in patients suffering from CD1, β-cell regeneration was observed both at the time of diagnosis and several years after the detection of the disease.

At Harvard University, in conjunction with the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Professor Yuval Dor and his colleagues observed a significant increase in the mitotic index of β-cells after mild traumatization of the pancreas by resection of 50-70 % of the organ or selective genetic ablation (lat ablatio - removal) of β-cells. Transfection of various molecules involved in the regulation of the cell cycle, such as cyclin-dependent kinases and cyclins, into pancreatic islets of rodents and humans under ex vivo conditions, leads to an increase in the rate of replication of β-cells, however prolonged expression of these molecules also increases the risk of oncogenesis. A safer option is to add various growth factors to the cell culture, such as growth hormone (GH), glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) or hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), which are known to increase the rate of β-cell replication rodents [35]; but, unfortunately, increased proliferation is accompanied by loss of β-cells of their basic properties, such as the ability to express Pdx-1 (the gene responsible for the synthesis of insulin localizing in the short arm of chromosome 11) or insulin [36]. According to preliminary clinical efficacy studies conducted with patients receiving GLP-1, in vivo therapy with long-acting GLP-1 analogues is believed to stimulate the replication of β-cells in patients with type 2 diabetes [37]. However, it is necessary to obtain long-term results proving the presence of such a positive effect in patients. It has also been shown that the proliferation of β-cells can be influenced by a new hormone-betatrophin, which is expressed in the liver and adipose tissue. Short-term expression of betatrophin in the liver in mice causes significant proliferation of β-cells, an increase in β-cell mass and improves glucose tolerance [38]. Considering the question of clinical use, it should be said that a second-generation human β-cell line is being developed using the reversible "immortality" methods of cells, which avoids the risk associated with the use of cells massively treated with genes potentially associated with oncogenesis. Another completely different point of view is the assumption that in such states as pregnancy or obesity, the mechanism responsible for the growth of the number of β-cells is neogenesis, and not proliferation. The proof is the pathoanatomical study of Butler A. Ye. and his co-workers. The subject of the study was the human pancreas taken during or after pregnancy. In the study, an increase in the number of new small islands was observed, rather than an increase in the replication of β-cells, an increase in the size of islands, or a change in the severity of apoptosis. Butler A. Ye., And his colleagues also observed an increase in the number of insulin-positive cells in the ducts during the study, which indicates the ability of the duct cells under different conditions to differentiate into β-cells or that the stem pancreatic progenitor cells are located in the ducts pancreas. In this study, the authors also observed an increased rate of proliferation of β-cells. Accordingly, replication and neogenesis are not mutually exclusive processes, and contribute to maintaining the required mass of the β-cell pool after birth. In 2009, Patrick Collombat studied the ability of α-cells to transform into β-cells due to the expression of the Pax4 gene, capable of accelerating the conversion of mature α-cells to β-cells. The presence of such an opportunity in humans has not been established, and the results of experiments with chemically-induced diabetes mellitus in lower primates have not revealed the ability of β-cells to regenerate.

Conclusions. Attempts to cure diabetes by inducing functioning insulin-producing cells have never stopped. Despite the existence of problems in the development of new methods for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, there is now a real possibility of using cell therapy in the near future for the treatment of diabetes mellitus

The main issues requiring further studies are the procedure for isolating cells, which can be converted into β-cells, and developing methods for the expansion of those cells in culture to produce necessary amount for the transplantation procedure. In any case, already available technologies inspire hope that the problem of treatment of diabetes will soon be solved. The use of β-cells derived from the patient's stem cells, even with the continued use of immunosuppressants, can be a huge relief for patients with severe diabetes that constantly face life-threatening changes in blood sugar levels.

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СТАН ТА ЧИННИКИ ПОШИРЕНОСТІ ТЮТЮНОКУРІННЯ СЕРЕД СТУДЕНТОК ПЕДАГОГІЧНОГО УНІВЕРСИТЕТУ к. б. н. Бекас О. О., 1Степаненко І. О. Україна, Вінниця, Вінницький педагогічний університет імені Михайла Коцюбинського; 1студент аспірантури кафедри біології ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Received 04 April 2018 Accepted 21 April 2018 Published 12 May 2018 KEYWORDS

The paper highlights the results of the survey of students at the pedagogical university so that to identify the outspread, intensity, causes and age of initiation (commencement) of tobacco smoking. The survey included 600 17-20- year-old female students. Among the respondents, there are 13,3 %smokers. The vast majority of female respondents – 82,5 % – began to smoke at school and only 17.5 % began to smoke while studying at the university. It is established that family stereotypes are not a reason for the formation of smoking habits among the students. Among the reasons that contributed to the beginning of smoking, the respondents mentioned negative emotions and a bad mood - 50 %, positive emotions and a good mood – 25 %, interest in cigarettes – 25 %. The vast majority of smokers with low motor activity are 82,5 %. Generally, such circumstances provoke students to smoke the cigar: a good mood, passive rest in the company of friends (75 %), and only 25 % of respondents smoke alone. Half of the interviewed students smoke occasionally, not every day, which indicates that they do not have a stable smoking habit; 17,5 % of the students smoke 1-2 cigarettes per day, the same amount of respondents smoke up to 10 cigarettes a day. Sustainable tobacco addiction was observed in 17,5 % of the respondents who smoked from 10 to 20 cigarettes per day. So, smoking habit is formed in women during a student's life.

Tobacco smoking, causes, female students, pedagogical university © 2018 The Authors.

Вступ. За оцінками експертів серед населення світу число курців щороку збільшується,

у 2020 році прогнозується його зростання до 19 %. За останніми соціологічними дослідженнями у світі налічується біля 1,3 млрд людей, що курять, у країнах Європи – до 28 % [4]. В Україні споживається 1,5 % світової тютюнової продукції, хоча населення нашої країни складає всього 0,85 % від населення планети. Таким чином, за споживанням цигарок, Україна посідає 17-те місце серед усіх країн світу і має найвищий показник серед країн Європи [6]. Станом на 2014 рік споживання цигарок серед українців збільшилося у 5 разів [5].

Поширеність куріння серед жінок у 2005 році становила 20 % (найвищий показник у країнах пострадянського простору) [7]. За останніми даними, кількість жінок, які курять, в Україні зросла у 3 рази. Наразі можна стверджувати, що в Україні курить кожен другий чоловік і кожна п’ята жінка [5].

За результатами соціологічних досліджень проведених серед підлітків та молоді студентського віку, встановлено, що систематично курять серед студентів 30,5–34 % хлопців і 16–17 % дівчат, а серед учнів старших класів – 18 % хлопців і 6,5 % дівчат. Найбільше курців серед учнів (студентів) професійної технічної освіти (38 %, з них 49 % – хлопців, 24 % дівчат) [1]. Отже, спостерігається тенденція до збільшення частоти куріння з віком у представників обох статей.

Науковими дослідженнями не виявлено різниці у кількості курців серед студенток закладів вищої освіти І – ІI та III – IV рівнів акредитації [1]. У вітчизняній науковій літературі недостатньо уваги приділяється поширеності куріння серед студентської молоді педагогічних вишів, зокрема майбутніх педагогів жінок.

Метою дослідження було дослідити поширеність тютюнокуріння серед студенток університету педагогічного профілю та здійснити аналіз результатів опитування щодо причин, інтенсивності та поширеності тютюнокуріння.

Методи дослідження: анкетне опитування, об’єктом якого стали студентки 1-2 років навчання різних факультетів педагогічного вузу, віком від 17 до 20 років.

Всього опитано 600 осіб. За предмет анкетування було прийнято поширеність тютюнокуріння серед студенток та їх ставлення до цієї звички. Опитувальник нараховував 33 питання.

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Для аналізу результатів, запитання анкети були об’єднані в окремі блоки за тематичним і проблемним принципами.

Перший блок охоплював питання щодо ставлення студенток та їх рідних до тютюнокуріння.

Другий блок запитань дозволив з’ясувати причини формування та підтримки звички куріння серед студенток.

Третій блок стосувався їхньої самооцінки щодо степеня сформованості звички куріння та намірів її позбутися.

Наступний – четвертий блок дозволив охарактеризувати позицію студенток щодо запровадження у навчальних закладах програм боротьби з тютюнокурінням та ефективності їх реалізації.

Останній (п’ятий) блок об’єднував питання самооцінки власного здоров’я, скарг на здоров’я, рівня рухової активності та успішності навчання студенток.

Результати досліджень. Проведене анкетування виявило дві категорії респондентів: перша група нараховувала 520 осіб, це 86,7 % від усіх опитаних, - студентки, які не курять; 80 осіб (13,3 %) - студентки, які курять.

Аналіз опитування у визначених групах не виявив будь-якої залежності між поширеністю куріння у сім’ях студенток (курить хтось із батьків або близьких родичів) і серед самих дівчат. Встановлено приблизно однаковий відсоток студенток в обох групах, які вказали на те, що члени їх родин не мають звички тютюнокуріння. Зокрема, у першій групі -55,3 %, а в другій – 58,7 % опитаних. У групі осіб, які не курять, – 44,6 % вказали, що курить один з членів родини; у групі курців, таких виявлено, відповідно, 33,8 %. Такий результат, на нашу думку, свідчить, що позиція сім’ї (стереотипи, які склалися в родині), не є приводом до формування звички тютюнокуріння. Слід зазначити, що батьки більшості студенток, які курять, це 58,7 %, не знають про вживання цигарок їхніми дітьми; невеликій кількості батьків (8,8 %) – байдуже; 33,8 % батьків негативно ставляться до тютюнокуріння взагалі і дітей зокрема.

Одним із завдань нашого анкетування було з’ясувати, коли і за яких обставин, дівчата могли «познайомитися» з цигарками. Результати засвідчили, що серед категорії осіб, які не курять, 40 % респондентів все ж пробували цигарки в шкільному віці, а 60 %, не мали такого досвіду і на даний момент не курять. У групі курців переважна більшість респондентів – 82,5 %, почали курити до університету, і лише 17,5 % почали курити під час навчання в університеті (рис1.).

В обох групах опитаних студенток виявленні особи, які спробували курити перший раз через власну цікавість до цигарок, це 40,3 % осіб серед некурців і 25 % серед курців. На фоні позитивних емоцій та гарного настрою спробували цигарки 46,1 % респондентів у групі некурців та 25 % у групі курців (рис 2.).

Негативні емоції та поганий настрій, як головну причину початку куріння, вказали 50 % респондентів у групі курців та лише 13,5 % респондентів у групі не курців.

На сьогоднішній день продовжують курити через інтерес до цигарок або через вподобання 50 % опитаних; на сформованість звички вказали 17,5 %, заради підтримки компанії курців – 17,5 % і 25 % вказали на те, що палять, коли у них поганий настрій і проблемні життєві ситуації. Як правило, провокують студенток до куріння гарний настрій, пасивний відпочинок у компанії друзів (75 %), а курять на самоті, лише 25 % респондентів.

Слід відзначити, що переважна більшість опитаних студенток, незалежно від вживання цигарок, мають низьку рухову активність. У групі тих, що не курять, це 84,2 %, а в іншій групі – 82,5 %. Відповідно, вказали на те, що відвідують спортивний або тренажерний зали, серед некурців, - 15,8 %, а серед курців – 17,5 %. Таким чином рівень рухової активності студенток не впливає на їхнє ставлення до куріння.

Самооцінку значимості куріння, як сформованої звички, за результатами анкетування, виявлено у 58,7 % студенток, 17,5 % респондентів вказали куріння необхідним компонентом свого життя. Однак, опитуванням виявлено, що половина опитаних студенток курять зрідка, не щодня, що свідчить про відсутність в них стійкої звички курити; 1-2 цигарки протягом дня, викурює 17,5 % і стільки ж викурюють до 10 цигарок на день. Про стійку тютюнову залежність можна говорити при викурюванні 10-20 цигарок протягом дня, таку категорію студенток було виявлено, це 17,5 % опитаних.

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Рис. 2. Причини, що спонукали студенток спробувати цигарку перший раз

Студентки, які курять, вважають, що якість цигарок залежить від їх ціни, це 82,5 %, однак

брендові вартісні цигарки обирають лише 25 % опитаних, а 75 % дівчат дотримуються середньої цінової політики при купівлі цигарок.

Про своє бажання позбутися шкідливої звички найближчим часом, висловилися 33,8 %; в подальшому житті – 16,2 %; не розглядають такого варіанту – 16,2 % респондентів. На даний час опитування реалізовують спробу покинути курити 33,8 %. (Рис. 3)

Встановлено, що в обох групах опитаних студенток переважають особи, котрі постійно або зрідка цікавляться науковими дослідженнями в області вивчення впливу тютюнокуріння на людський організм. Серед категорії курців таких виявлено більше – 82,6 %, а в іншій – 70,9 %.

Майже всі студентки, які курять (93,1 %), вважають тютюнокуріння – шкідливою звичкою, у цій же групі 75 % проінформовані про негативні наслідки пасивного куріння, однак 25 % опитаних курців не бачать проблеми в тому, що їхнє куріння шкодить оточуючим.

0

20

40

60

80

100

Курці Некурці

17,5

60,4

82,5

39,6

Ні Так

%

Рис. 1. Перші спроби студенток куріння цигарок до навчання в університеті

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Більшість респондентів (некурців – 76,4 %, серед курців – 83,7 %) сходяться на думці, що

антитютюнова компанія, проведена в університеті в більшій або меншій мірі має сенс. Отже, більшість студенток цікавиться проблемами впливу тютюнокуріння на людину і

організм жінки зокрема. Як правило, хвороби, які прямо або опосередковано пов’язані з курінням, проявляються

після двадцятирічного стажу куріння. Серед опитаного контингенту студенток, що курять, 33,8 % відмічають зміни у стані здоров’я, які пов’язані з появою задишки після незначного фізичного навантаження, змінами у стані шкіри (сухість, зміна кольору – 66,3 % опитаних). Оцінюють свій рівень здоров’я, як низький, лише 16,2 % опитаних, як задовільний – 33 %, як добрий – 33,8 %, як відмінний – 18,3 %. Більшість респондентів (75 %) не пов’язують тютюнокуріння з рівнем успішності у навчанні і лише 25 % вважають, що тютюнокуріння негативно впливає на успішність.

Висновки. Отже серед студенток 1-2 року навчання педагогічного університету виявлено категорію курців, які становлять 13,3 %. Серед них 25 % респондентів вказали на те, що відчувають сильний непереборний потяг до куріння, 33,8 % відчувають потребу у курінні, але можуть себе перебороти, інша частина респондентів (41,2 %) – не задумуються про куріння, курять ситуативно, не відчуваючи тягу до цигарок. Таким чином в студентські роки відбувається формування звички до куріння у жінок. Перспективи подальших досліджень пов’язані з вивченням впливу тютюнокуріння на розумові працездатність і функціональний стан кардіореспіраторної системи студенток педагогічного вишу, які курять.

ЛІТЕРАТУРА

1. Тютюнокуріння серед учнів та студентів: динаміка та чинники поширення /Міжнародний

проект “Здоров’я та поведінкові орієнтації учнівської молоді” / “Health Behaviour School-aged Children” (HBSC) Балакірєва О. М., Бондар Т. В., Слабкий Г. О., Шевченко М. В., Сакович О. Т. – Режим доступу: http://www.uisr.org.ua/img/upload/files/HBSC/Buklets/buklet %2004.pdf

2. Риски для здоровья молодых людей: информационный бюлетень [Электронный ресурс]. – 2010. – №345. – Режим доступу: httр://www.who.int/ediacentre/factsheets/fs345/ru/index.html.

3. MPOWER: a policy package to reverse the tobacco epidemic/ World Health Organization. – Geneva, 2008. – 72 p.

4. World Health Organization. WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008: The MPOWER Package. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2008..

5. Дедишина Л. У путах рабської залежності / Л. Дедишина // Фармацевтична практика. – 2014. – № 5-6. w.w.w.com.ua

6. Красовський К. С. Наслідки глобальної тютюнової епідемії / К. С. Красовський // СЕС. Профілакт. мед. –2009. – № 4. – С. 7-74.

7. Кваша Е. А. Значимость факторов риска для смертности мужчин (проспективное эпидемиологическое исследование) / Е. А. Кваша // Український кардіологічний журнал. – 2008. – № 2. – С. 83-88.

8. Шувалова И. Н. Поведенческие факторы здоровья и физической активности подростков /И. Н. Шувалова //Проблеми сучасної педагогічної освіти: педагогіка і психологія. –2010,–Вип.24. –Ч.2. –С. 172-177.

16,2

33,8 33,8

16,2

0

10

20

30

40

Не маю бажання покидати Планую покинути в перспективіПланую покинути найближчим часом Вже покинула, на даний момент

Рис. 3. Наміри студенток курців щодо куріння цигарок в майбутньому

%

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CHEMISTRY

ХИМИЧЕСКИЕ СВОЙСТВА ПЕНИЦИЛЛИНА

1Акмырза Зарипа, 1Мадиева Любовь, 1Рабаева Нагима, 2Кайырден Асем, 3Утегенова Анель Республика Казахстан, г. Атырау; 1АГУ им. Халела Досмухамедова, преподаватель; 2АГУ им. Халела Досмухамедова, факультет естествознания, студент 2 курса; 3Назарбаевская интелектуальная школа г. Атырау, учащаяся 12 класса ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Received 06 April 2018 Accepted 22 April 2018 Published 12 May 2018 KEYWORDS

Penicillin is the first antibiotic known to mankind. The discovery of penicillin is one of the first chemical and medical discoveries of the 20th century. Penicillin is used in medicine as an antibiotic, which is a crystalline substance of white color, little soluble in water. Penicillin,

chemical properties of penicillin, use of penicillin © 2018 The Authors.

В 1928 году Александр Флеминг проводил рядовой эксперимент в ходе исследования

болезнетворных бактерий. Вырастив колонии стафилококков, он обнаружил, что некоторые из них заражены обыкновенной плесенью Penicillium, которая растёт на лежалом хлебе, делая его зелёным. Вокруг каждой колонии плесени была область, в которой бактерий не было. Флеминг сделал вывод, что плесень вырабатывает вещество, убивающее бактерии, которое он назвал пенициллин.

Пенициллин – первый антибиотик, известный человечеству. Открытие пенициллина является одним из первых химических и медицинских открытий 20 века.

Пенициллин применяется в медицине в качестве антибиотика, который представляет собой кристаллическое вещество белого цвета, мало растворимое в воде.

Химические свойства пенициллинов обусловлены β-лактамным кольцом. 1. Реакция гидролиза. Щелочи и пенициллиназагидролизуютβ-лактамное кольцо с

образованием неактивной пенициллоиновой кислоты. Тиазолидиновый цикл ускоряет процесс разложения β-лактамного цикла и образует динатриевую соль пенициллоновой кислоты, например

Рис. 1. При окислении динатриевой соли пенициллоиновой кислоты реакция протекает с

образованием соединений пенальдиновой кислоты, а также пеницилламина

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Рис. 2. Для получения продуктов реакции используют реакцию на альдегидную группу открывают

с помощью следующих реагентов, т.е. реактивом Несслера, реактивов Марки и аммиачным раствором нитрата серебра, а также реакцией на алифатическую аминогруппу, т.е. нингидрином.

Под действием кислот пенициллины образуют пенициллоиновую кислоту. Затем происходит конденсация –СООН группы (пеницилленовая кислота) или амидной группы (пенилловая кислота) с гидроксильной группой ацильного радикала, которую можно показать химическиой реакцией

Рис. 3.

Качественные реакции пенициллиновой кислоты проводятся с солями ртути (II) и

меди (II), где реакция протекает с образованием цветных солей.

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2. Гидроксамовая реакция. Вначале происходит щелочной гидролиз препарата с образованием пенициллоиновой кислоты, которая реагирует с гидроксиламином, образуя гидроксамовую кислоту. Окислением получают гидроксаматы железа (III) красно-фиолетового цвета или зеленый осадок гидроксамата меди (II).

Рис. 4.

Пенициллины представляют собой белые или почти белые кристаллические порошки.

Пенициллины со свободной карбоксильной группой в 3-м положении (например, феноксиметилпенициллин, ампициллин, амоксициллин) мало растворимы в воде. Соли щелочных металлов (натриевая и калиевая соли бензил пенициллина, натриевые соли оксациллина, ампициллина, динатриевая соль карбенмциллина) легко растворимы в воде; соли органических оснований (новокаиновая соль бензил пенициллина) мало растворимы в воде. Соли бензилпенициллина неустойчивы в растворах и разрушаются при приеме внутрь (в кислой среде), феноксиметилпенициллин более устойчив в кислой среде и может применяться внутрь в виде таблеток.

ЛИТЕРАТУРА

1. Тюкавкина Н. А. Органическая химия.Основной курс. М., Дрофа, 2008 2. Овчинников Ю. А.Биорганичекая химия.М., Просвещение, 1987 3. https://www.segodnya.ua/lifestyle/food_wellness/pochemu-antibiotiki-perectajut

dejctvovat.html

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PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

СОЦИАЛЬНО-ПСИХОЛОГИЧЕСКИЕ АСПЕКТЫ СОВРЕМЕННОГО СПОРТА 1доктор педагогики, профессор Лела Апциаури, 2доктор педагогики, профессор Василий Бакашвили Грузия, Тбилиси; 1Учебный Университет ГЕОМЕДИ; 2Грузинский гос. учебный университет физического воспитания и спорта ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Received 14 April 2018 Accepted 30 April 2018 Published 12 May 2018 KEYWORDS

Currently, sport is not just a specific kind of human activity, it is a social phenomenon that promotes the elevation of the prestige not only of individuals, but of whole communities, including the state. The level of success in sports activities is provided by the relations in the system "athlete-coach", "athlete-team", and “athlete-athlete" with the leading organizing role of "athlete-coach". The psychological and pedagogical potential of this system determines the effectiveness both at the level of sports achievements of the athlete and the team, and at the level of the attitude to sport in the space of social relations.

Modern sport, specificity of sports activity, sports activity © 2018 The Authors.

Введение. В настоящее время спорт – это не просто специфический вид человеческой

деятельности, это социальное явление, способствующее поднятию престижа не только отдельных личностей, но и целых общностей, в том числе и государства.

Уровень успешности спортивной деятельности обеспечивается отношениями в системе «спортсмен-тренер», «спортсмен-команда», «спортсмен-спортсмен», «спортсмен-болельшик» при ведущей организующей роли «спортсмен-тренер». Психолого-педагогический потенциал этой системы определяет эффективность как на уровне спортивных достижений спортсмена и команды, так и на уровне отношения к спорту в пространстве социальных отношений.

Обострение спортивной конкуренции в мире, повышение требований к уровню выступлений и подготовке спортсменов обуславливает необходимость научно-обоснованного обеспечения спортивной деятельности.

Обзор результатов исследования. Современный спорт, особенно спорт высших достижений, — это не только большие физические нагрузки на организм в ходе тренировочного процесса и во время соревнований, но и высокая психическая напряженность. Спортсмен нередко попадает в экстремальные ситуации, к которым необходимо адаптироваться и научиться их преодолевать, в противном случае успех в соревнованиях будет для него недостижимым. В последние десятилетия психические нагрузки в спорте существенно увеличились, в связи со значительно возросшим уровнем спортивных результатов и обострившейся конкуренцией как на Олимпийских играх и чемпионатах мира, региональных и других важнейших международных и национальных чемпионатах (где психическая напряженность усиливается факторами престижности этих соревнований для самого спортсмена, и для его команды), так и коммерческих соревнованиях (где стремление спортсмена к победе, а следовательно, и повышенные психические нагрузки, испытываемые им, в значительной степени обусловлены высокими призовыми суммами, устанавливаемыми организаторами для победителей и призеров).

Решение существующих в спорте взаимозависимых проблем психической подготовки заметно осложняется, когда речь идет о сильнейших и, выдающихся спортсменах, которые, как правило, являются людьми с особой организацией психики. Это следует учитывать тренерам и спортивным врачам, занимающимся подготовкой таких спортсменов, и организаторам спорта, связанным с обеспечением подготовки и выступлений сильнейших спортсменов, команд, звезд спорта. Не менее сложные проблемы связаны с психологическими аспектами физического воспитания и спорта, особенно адаптивного физического воспитания, где различные виды

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двигательной активности используются для укрепления здоровья, профилактики заболеваний, повышения работоспособности и творческого потенциала, организации гармоничного досуга, борьбы с вредными привычками и т.д. Здесь нет специфических экстремальных ситуаций, характерных для спорта высших достижений и связанных с конкурентной борьбой за победу в соревновании или за установление рекорда.

Необыкновенная насыщенность спорта самыми различными по качеству и интенсивности эмоциональными переживаниями, огромная роль, которую в нем играют различные формы взаимоотношений личности и коллектива, также способствуют данным исследованиям.

Для понимания специфики спортивной деятельности актуальное значение приобретает проблема классификации видов деятельности, свойственных человеку. В психологии существует традиционное деление деятельности на 3 вида, к которым почти все авторы относят труд, игру и учение с их многочисленными подразделениями. Непосредственное ознакомление с деятельностью человека во всем ее многообразии заставляет признать эту классификацию недостаточной, упускающей наличие других важных видов деятельности человека, требующих серьезного психологического изучения.

Изучая психологическую структуру деятельности, необходимо учитывать все ее конкретные виды, среди которых спортивная деятельность приобретает все большее значение в жизни современного общества.

Анализ социальной и психологической структуры спортивной деятельности не может быть выполнен, если соответствующие исследования не будут опираться на анализ человеческой деятельности вообще. Поэтому в план данного исследования включена также и задача выявить структурно-психологические особенности деятельности человека.

В трудах по общей психологии до сего времени не дано адекватного психологического определения понятия деятельности, хотя и указывалось неоднократно на большое значение этой проблемы для психологии. Так, С. Л. Рубинштейн в своей работе «Основы психологии», отводя большое место проблеме деятельности в психологии, не дает такого определения, ограничиваясь перечислением основных свойств или отдельных существенных психологических черт человеческой деятельности. Некоторые авторы выдвигают определение понятия деятельности как совокупности действий человека, направленных на удовлетворение его интересов и потребностей. Однако и такое определение не является совершенным, поскольку у человека нередко наблюдаются виды деятельности, не связанные с его потребностями и интересами и даже находящиеся в противоречии с ними.

Спорт помимо специфических содержит также и основные общие черты человеческой деятельности, которые часто играют не меньшую роль в обеспечении эффективности спортивной деятельности, чем ее специфические черты. Эти общие для всех видов деятельности черты выступают в спорте не менее ярко, чем специальные, что позволяет использовать психологическое изучение спортивной деятельности также и для решения ряда вопросов общей психологии, касающихся проблемы деятельности.

Человек представляет собой биосоциальное существо, и это накладывает определенный отпечаток на его личность. Будучи членом общества, он выступает перед нами как личность, будучи природным существом, - как животный организм. Эти две стороны личности человека, биологическая и социальная, взаимосвязаны и представляют собой определенное единство, причем биологические особенности участвуют в структуре личности в основном в снятом виде, преломленными в его социально-психологических чертах, являющихся главными в человеческой личности.

Проблема социальной направленности спортивной деятельности приобретает в современном спорте все большее и большее значение. Она является основной для решения вопроса о природе и сущности физического воспитания как социального явления.

Спорт, как и всякий другой вид деятельности, определенно и неминуемо отражает в себе специфические социальные стороны того общества, в котором он существует. Об этом свидетельствует весь ход исторического развития физического воспитания и спорта.

В соответствии с такой постановкой вопроса проблема социальной направленности физического воспитания и спорта должна рассматриваться в связи с мотивацией спортивной деятельности и социально обусловленными формами организации спортивных занятий и соревнований.

Спортивная деятельность, как и всякая иная, не может существовать сама по себе: она всегда возникает и направляется определенными мотивами и всегда протекает в определенных

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организационных формах, которые в своем существе диктуются данным обществом и потому обязательно отражают (несут в себе) его социальные особенности.

В связи с этим в различных общественных формациях спорт, казалось бы, имеющий одно и то же содержание, будет решать различные, иногда диаметрально противоположные социальные задачи.

Это положение встречает возражения у некоторых психологов спорта, которые считают, что вопросы Социально-психологические стороны спортивной деятельности не могут игнорироваться при организации и проведении спортивных тренировок и соревнований, поскольку они органически (неотъемлемо) в той или иной классово обусловленной форме обязательно в них присутствуют, составляя, таким образом, органическую структурную социально-психологическую черту спортивной деятельности. Эти социально-психологические аспекты спортивной деятельности ставят перед тренерами задачу огромной педагогической важности — воспитание целостной личности спортсмена, как члена социалистического общества, не ограничивая свои задачи формированием только спортивно-технических навыков и способностей.

Психологический анализ спортивной деятельности показывает, что в ней проявляются многочисленные психические функции, свойственные человеку, а также разнообразные черты его личности, в том числе и социально-психологические.

В спортивной деятельности мы имеем дело с многообразными и достигающими высокого совершенства двигательными навыками. Но в спорте эти навыки, во-первых, представляют собой, как правило, целостные, законченные в своей структуре действия, а не их отдельные компоненты.

Спортивная деятельность в целом, особенно спортивные соревнования, требует от спортсменов огромной затраты не только физической, но и психической энергии. Практический опыт показывает, что даже очень хорошо физически и технически подготовленный спортсмен не способен одержать победу в соревновании (к которой он потенциально по своим физическим данным вполне подготовлен), если у него имеются изъяны в психологической подготовке. Без должной психологической подготовки он не сможет выявить во всей полноте положительные стороны своей физической и технической готовности.

Практика спорта показывает, что спортсмены, как правило, плохо владеют своим эмоциональным состоянием. Они не справляются с отрицательными эмоциями, стихийно возникающими у них в процессе той или иной смены спортивных ситуаций, не всегда могут правильно, в оптимальных пределах, использовать положительные эмоции. Общеизвестны случаи, когда чрезмерный характер положительных эмоций также приводил спортсмена к потере контроля над своими действиями. Все это вызывает настоятельную необходимость воспитания у спортсменов способности управления своими эмоциями.

Всякую эмоцию мы переживаем как определенное субъективное состояние, выражающееся в чувстве удовлетворения (приятное) или неудовлетворения (неприятное), в их различной степени и характере (качестве). Но одновременно всякое эмоциональное состояние связано с целым рядом определенных изменений в деятельности организма.

Саморегулирование эмоций основывается на возможности воздействия на все эти три группы эмоциональных проявлений в организме человека. Известно, что человек способен научиться подавлять мимические и пантомимические проявления эмоций: в нужных случаях он способен воздержаться от плача или от бурных внешних проявлений радости (громкий смех, порывистые движения) и таким образом скрыть от окружающих охватившую его эмоцию или, по крайней мере, ее степень.

Выводы. Проанализировав научную литературу по проблеме и проведя педагогическое исследование по данной теме, было получено подтверждение того, что тема актуальна на сегодняшний день. Спортивная деятельность характеризуется крайним многообразием и высокой специфичностью двигательных действий в отдельных видах спорта. Однако при всем своем разнообразии эти действия в любом виде спорта отличаются некоторыми общими психологическими особенностями, требующими исследования и анализа.

ЛИТЕРАТУРА

1. Леонтьев А. Н. Деятельность. Сознание. Личность. М., 1977. С. 84. См. также: 2. Шютц А. Смысловая структура повседневного мира: очерки по феноменологической

социологии. М., 2003. 3. Уотсон Дж. Психология как наука о поведении. М., 1926. С. 6.

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LEGAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

УЧАСТИЕ ОБЩЕСТВЕННОСТИ В ПРИНЯТИИ УПРАВЛЕНЧЕСКИХ РЕШЕНИЙ КАК ПРИНЦИП СОВРЕМЕННОГО ГОСУДАРСТВЕННОГО УПРАВЛЕНИЯ Бакатова Ж. Е. Казахстан, Астана, Академия государственного управления при президенте Республики Казахстан, специальность «Государственное и местное управление» по программе «Государственная политика» ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Received 03 April 2018 Accepted 20 April 2018 Published 12 May 2018 KEYWORDS

Стабильное, поступательное развитие нашей страны в XXI веке невозможно без укрепления взаимодействия общества и государства. Образ успешного будущего нашей страны формируется во взаимодействии гражданского общества и государства. Задачи создания эффективно действующего механизма взаимодействия граждан и гражданского общества с органами государственной власти и местного самоуправления, их участия в выработке государственных решений по важнейшим социальным, экономическим и иным общественно значимым вопросам в современном Казахстане весьма актуальны. Однако решение этих важных проблем невозможно без взаимодействия между различными секторами общества (государством, бизнесом, некоммерческими организациями), для чего требуется найти универсальные инструменты, которые помогут раскрыть и реализовать имеющийся в стране потенциал.

государственная политика, принятие решений, гражданское общество, государственное управление, участие общественности, общество © 2018 The Author.

Возможность граждан влиять на происходящее в стране – это основной показатель

состояния гражданского общества. Развитие институтов демократии и предпосылок формирования гражданского общества

в Казахстане все больше приводят к необходимости всесторонней оценки управленческих решений. Проекты, рассматриваемые и принимаемые органами государственной власти в одностороннем порядке, без учета мнения общественности, на сегодняшний день, известны своим пагубным влиянием на благосостояние жителей, экологию регионов, культурно-исторический облик городов и т.п.

Актуальность исследования общества и его участия в принятии управленческих решений продиктовано также поиском политического и гражданского согласия, необходимостью преодоления кризиса в отношениях между государством и обществом, формирования более эффективного механизма взаимодействия. Проблематика гражданского общества имеет в посткоммунистических странах, в частности, в России и Казахстане, которые в силу целого ряда причин вынуждены в исторически короткие срои осуществить беспрецедентны по своим масштабам социальные преобразования. Гражданское общество представляет собой наиболее высокую степень цивилизованного процесса, определенный этап в развитии цивилизации. Вместе с тем, качественная особенность гражданского общества на путях цивилизованного процесса, охватывающая общечеловеческие интересы и новые ценностные отношения (человек-государство, собственность-справедливость и т.д.) позволяет возвысить смысл формирования гражданского общества до уровня общенациональный идеи Казахстана 21 века, т.е. идеи всех народов, населяющих эту огромную и богатую природными и человеческими ресурсами страну.

В современной ̆ действительности в условиях курса на транспарентность, внедрения принципов открытого Правительства и готовности поддержания диалога с общественностью велика доля профанации общественного участия. Такие тенденции отчетливо видны в создании

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различных комиссий и советов из представителей общественности, которые, в большинстве своем не имеют реальных ресурсов для влияния на принятие управленческих решений.

Мировая практика дает множество примеров общественного участия и контроля со стороны общества за действиями органов государственной власти (США, Канады, страны Западной Европы), причем в самых разных сферах жизни общества.

Так, одним из наглядных примеров является Хорватия, в которой 1 декабря 2013 года был проведен референдум по вопросу об определении в конституции понятия брака. На референдуме гражданам было предложено ответить на вопрос, согласны ли они с тем, что в конституции брак должен быть определен как союз мужчины и женщины. В связи с нарастающими европейскими тенденциями к узакониванию однополых браков Парламент страны обращается к мнению общества при внесении каких-либо изменений в основной закон страны. По итогам референдума, жители страны высказались за конституционный запрет однополых браков. По результатам всенародного голосования 66 % хорватов поддержали введение в Конституцию страны определения брака как союза мужчины и женщины. При этом явка избирателей составила всего лишь 38 %. Также стоит отметить, что референдум сопровождался масштабными митингами и демонстрациями. Данный референдум стал первым в истории независимой Хорватии референдумом, инициированным населением страны.

Общественное участие граждан может происходить не только в сфере внесения изменений в основной закон государства или, что чаще всего бывает, при разработке градостроительных решений и их экологических последствий, но практически в любом направлении государственного управления. Ведь именно общественность, конкретные жители тех или иных территорий, прежде всего, оказываются затронутыми последствиями реализации проектов и решений.

Взаимодействие государства с гражданами имеет целый ряд преимуществ. Благодаря этому правительства могут проводить политику, действительно учитывающую потребности населения. Граждане редко интересуются механизмами политики, однако их, как правило, волнуют политические решения, непосредственно влияющие на повседневную жизнь. Привлечение граждан к разработке таких инициатив, скорее всего, приведет к формированию политик и услуг, наиболее соответствующих потребностям населения, будь то помощь по уходу за детьми или новая транспортная инфраструктура, школы и больницы.

Опрос правительств стран ОЭСР показал, что основными целями взаимодействия с гражданами в сфере предоставления услуг являются: вовлечение населения (71 % респондентов), оценка качества обслуживания (60 %), повышения эффективности затрат (55 %) и повышение доверия к правительству (48 %). [1, 152 стр.]

В социологической энциклопедии определяется участие как неотъемлемое свойство любой управляемой (или самоуправляемой) общности людей, которое является одним из средств выражения и достижения их интересов. В большинстве источников можно встретить определение общественного участия с позиции реализации права граждан на получение достоверной и актуальной информации, участия в процессе выработки и принятия решений.

В данной статье рассматривается общественное участие не только с учетом представленных выше позиций, но и как необходимое условие для улучшения социально значимых проектов, обсуждения альтернатив, минимизации социальных, экономических, экологических рисков при принятии управленческих решений, и, что немаловажно, как средство налаживания эффективного диалога власти с обществом. [2, 6 стр.] То есть целью управленческой деятельности становится принятие решения с учетом мнений всех заинтересованных лиц.

Следует также отметить, что общественное участие часто связывают с деятельностью по связям с общественностью (public relations) или по выстраиванию отношений с властью (government relations). Эти три вида общественной активности объединяет общая коммуникативная природа, однако цели, задачи, формы и методы существенно отличаются. Все эти виды деятельности могут пересекаться и при организации общественного участия, поскольку, например, информирование граждан может происходить через СМИ, а взаимодействие со СМИ или медиарилейшнз является технологией PR. Представляется целесообразным считать все три вида коммуникативной деятельности отдельными направлениями работы и ни в коем случае не утверждать их тождественность.

Нормативно-правовой основой общественного участия в Казахстане является, прежде всего, Конституция Республики Казахстан. В соответствии с пунктом 1 статьи 1 наша страна утверждает себя демократическим, светским, правовым и социальным государством, высшими

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ценностями которого являются человек, его жизнь, права и свободы. [3, 1 стр.] Кроме того, единственным источником государственной власти является народ. Правовое государство – это государство, ограниченное в своих действиях правом, защищающим свободу личности и подчиняющим власть воле суверенного народа.

Также в соответствии с пунктом 1 статьи 33 Конституции Республики Казахстан, который закрепляет за гражданами Республики Казахстан право участвовать в управлении делами государства непосредственно и через своих представителей, обращаться лично, а также направлять индивидуальные и коллективные обращения в государственные органы и органы местного самоуправления.

В соответствии с пунктом 3 статьи 18 Конституции Республики Казахстан устанавливается право доступа к информации, которая непосредственно затрагивает права и интересы: «Государственные органы, общественные объединения, должностные лица и средства массовой информации обязаны обеспечить каждому гражданину возможность ознакомиться с затрагивающими его права и интересы документами, решениями и источниками информации». Кроме того, в соответствии с пунктом 2 статьи 20 Конституции Республики Казахстан, «каждый имеет право свободно получать и распространять информацию любым не запрещенным законом способом. Перечень сведений, составляющих государственные секреты Республики Казахстан, определяется законом».

Механизмом согласования интересов общества и органов власти на местном уровне является местное самоуправление, которое признается статьей 89 Конституции Республики Казахстан как обеспечивающееся населением самостоятельное решение вопросов местного значения. В соответствии с пунктом 2 вышеуказанной статьи, местное самоуправление осуществляется населением непосредственно, а также через маслихаты и другие органы местного самоуправления в местных сообществах, охватывающих территории, на которых компактно проживают группы населения.

Таким образом, право на общественное участие закреплено на самом высоком уровне, однако достаточно завуалировано. На это указывал французский политолог М. Мендрас, объясняя следующим образом: «Расплывчатость и поддающееся приспособлению незамедлительно избавляет от хлопот больше, чем подчинение ясным и твердым правилам, регулирующим цели и обязанности каждого». [4, 145 стр.]

На наш взгляд, не столько расплывчатость правовых норм, сколько монополия органов государственного управления на их истолкование позволяет последним толковать их по-своему и то, что носит рекомендательный характер (например, заключение общественности по какому-либо проекту), с юридической точки зрения не является обязательным к исполнению.

С учетом всего перечисленного, можно заключить следующее: Законодательное закрепление участия общественности в обсуждении и принятии

управленческих решений. Право на участие граждан в государственном управлении возможно через письменные

запросы, внесение предложений, общественное обсуждение, участие в принятии решений и др. Существование контроля граждан (общественного контроля) за деятельностью

государственного аппарата, который является мерой по профилактике коррупции. Основным принципом построения и функционирования государственной службы в

Республике Казахстан соответствии с Законом Республики Казахстан от 23 ноября 2015 года № 416 «О государственной службе Республики Казахстан» является приоритет прав, свобод и законных интересов граждан перед интересами государства, а также учета общественного мнения и гласности, за исключением деятельности, составляющей государственные секреты или иную охраняемую законом тайну. [5, 2 стр.]

Однако действующее законодательство не закрепляет статус «общественного участия», поскольку все инициативы носят рекомендательный характер. Выбор и принятие решения остаются все равно за представителями органов государственного управления.

Учитывая все возрастающую активность нашего государства в развертывании больших и долгоиграющих проектов, которые, несомненно, оказывают влияние на жизнь и здоровье людей, а также желание граждан Казахстана быть «услышанными» властями, в нашей стране постепенно начинают формироваться принципы общественного участия. Данная проблематика является особенно актуальной, на мой взгляд, в связи с большими рисками и многогранными современными проектами. Кроме того, механизмы общественного участия позволяют гражданам испытывать чувство сопричастности к решению общественно значимых проблем, уважения своего мнения со стороны властей.

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Институт общественного участия еще не получил должного оформления в Казахстане, что во многом обусловлено недостатками законодательства, а также равнодушием и пассивностью самих граждан. Это обусловлено отсутствием доверия к власти, неуверенностью в том, что конкретные предложения общественности будут услышаны и учтены, а не станут очередной частью кипы бумаг, растворяющейся в бюрократической рутине. Однако в нашей стране существуют положительные примеры эффективного общественного участия (кампания 2016 года против введения частной собственности на земли сельхозназначения, а также по передаче земли в аренду иностранцам на 25 лет, например), что лишний раз подтверждает необходимость обращения к теме организации общественного участия в принятии управленческих решений по различным направлениям на всех уровнях государственного управления.

Государственное управление базируется на объективных основах, предопределяющих структуру и процесс управления, т.н. принципах. Участие общественности в принятии управленческих решений, на наш взгляд, должно стать одним из принципов системы государственного и муниципального управления, относящихся к принципам, обеспечивающим развитие и совершенствование управляемой системы. За счет такой социальной технологии станет возможным переход к новому качественному уровню взаимоотношений в системе власть-общество, что будет способствовать многостороннему многоплановому и эффективному диалогу, направленному на максимально комфортные условия работы в данной сфере для всех субъектов управления. Однако важно подчеркнуть, что такой диалог будет требовать и максимально активного поведения со стороны групп общественности.

Существует несколько направлений взаимодействия граждан с органами государственной власти: запрос и получение информации, получение государственных услуг, участие в принятии решений, сотрудничество при разработке и реализации политических решений и услуг.

Некоторые правительства создали специальные учреждения, которым поручено налаживать отношения между государством и гражданами. В Испании, например, Конституцией, принятой после референдума 1978 года, был учрежден Офис омбудсмена. Омбудсмен избирается парламентом сроком на пять лет, защищает основные права и политические свободы граждан, а в сферу его полномочий входит подробное изучение деятельности министров, адморганов и госслужащих. Помощь в расширении контактов между властью и гражданами могут оказывать и общественные организации; в силах, например, способствовать повышению осведомленности людей о государственных инициативах или требовать от правительства выполнения обещаний.

Результатом любого общественного участия в процессе принятия решения является повышение качества управления. В международной практике существует ряд моделей, иллюстрирующих уровни общественного участия в принятии решений. В данном руководстве мы предлагаем ознакомиться с двумя широко признанными моделями разделения уровней общественного участия – Кодексом рекомендованной практики гражданского участия в процессе принятия решений Совета Европы и Международной Ассоциации Общественного Участия. Разделение видов общественного участия выявляет степень вовлеченности общественности в процесс принятия решений и содействует правильному выбору методов и инструментов вовлечения, в зависимости от уровня участия.

Для обеспечения эффективного участия общественности в процессе принятия решений Кодекс рекомендованной практики гражданского участия в процессе принятия решений Совета Европы предлагает различные уровни (информация, консультации, диалог и партнерство) привлечения граждан, которые должны использоваться как органами власти (в частности, местными), так и организациями гражданского общества.

Если правительства рассчитывают быстрого, результативного и взаимовыгодного сотрудничества с гражданами, они должны сделать более доступными интернет и мобильную связь. Южная Корея является хорошим примером, того как инвестиции в инфраструктуру информационно-коммуникационных технологий помогли улучшить взаимодействие с населением. Южная Корея возглавила рейтинг электронного участия ООН 2012 года, выстроенный на основе индекса, рассчитываемого с учетом уровня открытости, взаимодействия с властью и возможностей граждан непосредственно влиять на принятие решений. В докладе ООН говорится о роли мобильных приложений, обеспечивающих доступ к вышеуказанному.

Существуют определенные инструменты и механизмы в различных европейских странах, которые предоставляют комплексную поддержку гражданскому участию в течение всего процесса принятия решений. Это включает, например, электронное правительство,

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повышающее понимание должностных лиц и предоставляющее им инструменты для поддержки участия, усиленного мониторинга гражданского участия и т.д.

Некоторые правительства используют технологии «электронного участия» (или е-участие, согласно терминологии ООН), что позволяет гражданам взаимодействовать с органами власти и оказывать влияние на принятие решений. В то же время правительства поддерживают диалог с бизнесом о степени и формах регулирования, а также привлекают третий сектор (включая неправительственных организаций) к предоставлению услуг.

К примеру, в 2006 году в Сингапуре было создано государственное ведомство REACH задачей которого стало взаимодействие с населением. Руководит им наблюдательный совет, состоящий из семи членов парламента и восемнадцати частных лиц. REACH преследует три основные цели: анализ общественного мнения, позволяющий выяснить, что действительно важно для сингапурцев; сотрудничество с гражданами и вовлечение их в политические процессы; повышение активности граждан. Каждый год REACH публикует отчет, содержащий обзор эффективности, оценку уровня взаимодействия с населением за прошедший год и перечень вопросов, оказавшихся для общественности наиболее важным.

Тесное взаимодействие с гражданами позволяет органам власти повышать эффективность оказания услуг и добиться решения сложных задач, с которыми правительства и общество сталкивается в 21 веке. Однако не только граждане нуждаются в том, чтобы государственные органы знали об их проблемах и потребностях. Без зрелого общества невозможно построение правового демократического государства.

Как показывает опыт разных стран управленческие решения, сформированные без учета знаний о социальной структуре и основных закономерностях ее динамики, являются фактором, ведущим к возрастанию возможности появления социального напряжения, социальных кризисов и катаклизмов.

Социологические исследования являются одним из эффективных инструментов механизма обратной связи «общество-власть». Власть, исходя из своих функций, должна адекватно реагировать на социальные ожидания и настроения и выступать в качестве регулирующего органа, устанавливающего эффективные правила взаимодействия в обществе. В противном случае снижается степень доверия к государственным институтам, слабеют стимулы, побуждающие соблюдать общепринятые законы и правила, увеличиваются социальная дезорганизация.

Периодически напряжение, становящееся критическим, выливается во что-то, похожее на осмысленный протест. Ярким примером этого является ситуация в Кыргызстане в 2006 по 2011 годы. В этом контексте для Казахстана актуальным является развитие комплексного социального планирования, охватывающего все уровни детерминации общественных процессов – от социологии международных отношений в целом до изучения жизни регионов страны, городов, сел, отдельных предприятий, социальных групп и индивидов.

За последние двадцать семь лет произошли динамические изменение социальной структуры Казахстана, включающей в себя этнический, религиозный, образовательный, гендерный, возрастной и многие другие срезы. Тенденции данных трансформаций остаются неоднозначными и многовариантными. Соответственно, без знания и понимания их закономерностей и, как минимум, среднесрочных перспектив сформировать эффективную модель управления практически невозможно.

Концепция правовой политики на период с 2010 до 2020 года, утвержденная Указом Президента Республики Казахстан от 24 августа 2009 года № 858, определила правовые ориентиры общества на предстоящее десятилетие. В концепции особое внимание уделяется совершенствованию правового регулирования гражданского общества: «Последовательное и устойчивое развитие Казахстана как динамичного, современного государства с высокими стандартами качества жизни возможно только на основе активизации человеческого потенциала, роста предприимчивости граждан, укрупления институтов гражданского общества. В этой связи необходимы правовые инструменты, дающие дополнительный импульс развитию институтов гражданского общества и возможности реализации гражданских инициатив.». [6, 7 стр.]

В первое десятилетие «21 века казахстанское государство вступило в период устойчивого развития, одним из важных элементов которого является дальнейшая демократическая модернизация политической системы, которая невозможна без укрепления институтов демократии. В Стратегии-2050 поставлена стратегическая задача – придать устойчивость процессу демократизации. «Мы должны идти по цивилизованному пути, вместе со всем миров и взять курс на дальнейшую демократизацию общества». [7, 2 стр.]

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Достичь поставленной задачи можно последовательным продвижением по пути политической либерализации. Тем самым «шаг за шагом наше общество приближается к самым высоким стандартам в области демократизации и прав человека. Только так можно модернизировать страну и сделать ее конкурентоспособной».

ЛИТЕРАТУРА

1. Раби Абучакра, Мишель Хури. Эффективное правительство для нового века:

Реформирование государственного управления в современном мире/ москва, Издательство «Олимп-Бизнес», 2016, стр. 152

2. Общественное участие: теория и практика взаимодействия заинтересованных сторон в развитии местного сообщества/ Авт.-сост.: Е. В. Перфильева, Н. В. Мальцева, К. И. Степаненко, О. С. Чиликова, К. В. Шипилова. – Петропавловск-Камчатский, 2011. – С.6.

3. Конституция Республики Казахстан. – Астана: Елорда. – 2017. 4. Цит. по Хлопин А. Д. Гражданское общество в России: идеология, утопия,

реальность // Pro et Contra, 2002, No 1. – С. 145. 5. Закон Республики Казахстан от 23 ноября 2015 года № 416 «О государственной

службе Республики Казахстан» 6. Указ Президента Республики Казахстан от 24 августа 2009 года № 858 «О

Концепции правовой политики Республики Казахстан на период с 2010 до 2020 года» 7. Послание Президента Республики Казахстан. Стратегия «Казахстан-2050» Новый

политический курс состоявшегося государства. – Астана. 14 декабря 2012.

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EXPEDITING CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS - GUARANTEE OF THE REASONABLE TIME

PhD Mila Ivanova Republic of Bulgaria, Burgas, Bourgas Free University, Chief Assistant ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Received 05 April 2018 Accepted 23 April 2018 Published 12 May 2018 KEYWORDS

The article examines the differentiated procedure - expediting criminal proceedings. It is a guarantee of the penal procedure principle - "Hearing and deciding the cases within a reasonable time". The new legal framework has established the possibility of expediting criminal proceedings, both pre-trial and court proceedings. expediting criminal

proceedings, reasonable time, differentiated procedure © 2018 The Author.

"Hearing and deciding of cases within a reasonable time" – framework. With the

adoption of the Penal Procedure Code (PPC) in 2005, (1) for the first time the principle: "Hearing and deciding the cases within a reasonable time" has been established in Art. 22. The legislator used the expression “reasonable time" in the same way as this expression has been used in Article 6 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR) (3). The provision of Art. 6 (1) of the ECHR is governing the rule that in the determination of his civil rights and obligations or of any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial tribunal established by law. The "reasonable time" rule is so significant that it is regarded as one of the elements of a fair trial and is therefore specified as a requirement in paragraph 1 of Article 6 of the ECHR.

The term "reasonable time" is used in the PPC and it is not denoted by either relative or absolute figures. This is so because the question of whether the reasonable time requirement has been complied with is a matter that is specifically considered in each individual case. Therefore, the principle should be applied in accordance with the practice of the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg (European Court of Justice), which is binding to Bulgaria.

First, this is the practice of the European Court on the question of when the reasonable time begins to run. The start of the period is assumed to be the date on which the accused person was notified of the charges against him/her (4). According to the PPC, a charge is initiated when a person is involved as defendant by drawing up the relevant decree when the charge was raised under the rules of Art. 219, para. 1 and para. 4 of the PPC; or together with the execution of the protocol of the first action of investigation against him/her under the rules of Art. 219, para. 2 of the PPC, and in case of fast procedures, according to Art. 356, para. 4 of the PPC. These are the moments of the PPC in which the accused person actually learns about the charge brought against him.

Second is the case law of the European Court on the issue of when the reasonable time expires. It is assumed that this is the moment when the uncertainty of the legal status of the accused is brought to an end. Where the case is closed by pronouncing a verdict, it is the moment when it enters into force (5). The end of criminal proceedings or the refusal to initiate criminal proceedings can also be taken as a final moment.

Thirdly, it is the case law of the European Court of Justice, setting out the criteria to be followed in deciding whether the proceedings had exceeded a reasonable period of time. These criteria are:

a) The complexity of the case. Complexity can be both factual and legal. In dealing with this issue the European Court takes into account: the nature of facts to be proved, the number of witnesses, the number of accused persons, etc. (6).

b) The conduct of the parties. When making a decision on this issue, the European Court takes into account: whether the delay is due to the conduct of any the parties, in this case the delay is not included within the time limit (7).

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c) The conduct of state authorities. Under this criterion, the European Court is guided by: whether the relevant authorities have ensured the necessary conditions to expedite proceedings or not, whereas the total caseload of the courts cannot in itself be used as an excuse for breach of the requirement for reasonable time. The state authorities are not to be held responsible only for a temporary accumulation of cases, and only in certain exceptional circumstances, provided they have taken the necessary measures.

"Special Rules" - guarantees under the Bulgarian PPC to ensure the requirement for a reasonable time. In order to ensure that the requirement for a reasonable time is complied with, our legislator has introduced during the years a number of mechanisms to speed up the criminal process. One of these mechanisms is the several types of differentiated procedures. They are regulated in Part Five of the PPC - Special Rules. The concepts of "special rules" and "differentiated procedures" are synonymous, in contrast to the "special procedures" provided for in Part VII of the PPC. Special procedures are completely autonomous proceedings, other than the general criminal process. Their objective is different from the one facing the general criminal process and depends on the particular proceedings. Moreover, the principles that apply to their implementation are different from those of the criminal process. While "special rules" are in their essence the general criminal process with established specific, differentiated forms, procedural institutes and powers of hearing and deciding a certain category of criminal cases. These procedures are subordinate to the immediate task of the process formulated in Art. 1, para 1 of the Penal Procedure Code, and are the manifestation of the basic principles of the criminal process. They are divided into two groups, one aims at guaranteeing the right to protection and the detection of objective truth, these are: special rules for trying cases of crimes perpetrated by minor age persons; special rules for dealing with criminal offenses committed by persons who do not speak Bulgarian language; special rules for dealing with cases under the jurisdiction of military courts; specific rules for dealing with cases under the jurisdiction of specialized criminal courts. The second group consists of those, whose objective is to ensure the fast and timely completion of criminal proceedings, such as: fast procedure; immediate procedure and expedited criminal proceedings; brief Court investigation into the proceedings at first instance; discharge from criminal liability by imposing an administrative penalty; approval of an agreement on deciding the case. In some, there is a reduction in forms and institutes in the judicial phase only, and in others there are shortened forms and institutes in both phases of the process. However, both groups aim at effective and fast administration of justice, thus speeding up the criminal process and respectively complying with the requirement for a reasonable time. Over the years, improvements have been made to existing procedures and regulating new, differentiated ones. Nevertheless, there is certainly still room for improvement for the legislator. Effective and well-known in European countries differentiated procedures, such as transaction, criminal order, mediation, etc. have not yet been introduced. Yet a proof of the legislator's consistency in its efforts to improve and variegate differentiated procedures is Chapter 26 of the Penal Code, entitled "Expediting Criminal Proceedings".

Expediting Criminal Proceedings. With AJSACPC SG, num. 63 of 04.08. 2017, in force from 05.11.2017, a number of provisions of the PPC have been amended and supplemented. The main objective pursued by the legislature is to speed up both phases of the criminal process. The amendments aim also at meeting the expectations of the public for a reform in the Bulgarian criminal process. They are the result of a number of rulings against the state in the European Court of Justice for slow justice (9). In them, the applicant alleges that Article 6, para. 1 and Art. 13 in relation to Art. 6, para.1 of the ECHR and, in particular, the reasonable time requirement, have been infringed. The applicants are both accused persons and victims of crime. In its judgments the European Court of Justice is clear that there has been a violation of these provisions. In announcing its decision on Dimitrov versus Bulgaria and Hamanov versus Bulgaria cases, the court declared that there are "about 700" cases against Bulgaria waiting to be dealt with in Strasbourg, stemming from the common problem of excessive length of the court proceedings. According to the ECHR, "these statistics indicate that there is a systemic problem with regard to court proceedings in criminal and civil cases in Bulgaria." (10).

This also led to an amendment to Chapter 26 of the Penal Procedure Code - "Expediting Criminal Proceedings". Amending the title "Trial of the case in court upon request of the defendant" (SG, No. 32/2010, in force from 28.05.2010, new SG, No. 71 of 2013 PPC) (11) with "Expediting criminal proceedings", the legislator aims at emphasizing that the changes are fundamental and thorough, as it is indeed true of all the provisions in it.

1. The new provisions of Art. 368 and Art. 368a PPC regulate an opportunity for expediting criminal proceedings, both pre-trial and court proceedings. A remedy to be exercised in the two phases of the criminal proceedings is laid down. While in the revoked Article 368 of the PPC only the

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defendant was able to request a hearing of the case in court, provided that more than two years since he/she was involved as defendant had elapsed in the pre-trial proceedings for a serious criminal offense, and more than one year for other cases. The objective is to expedite the criminal proceedings in both phases, eliminating the shortcomings in the procedure under Art. 368 and Art. 369 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (revoked).

2. The range of persons who have the opportunity to request expediting of criminal proceedings is expanded. In the revoked art.368 PPC, such an opportunity was granted to the defendant only. These rights have now been granted not only to the defendant and to his/her defence, but also to the injured party and the injured legal person in the pre-trial proceedings, and in the court proceedings- to each of the parties. The change is due to the fact that the listed persons did not have such an opportunity until the adoption of the LSIPAA SG no. 63 of 04.08. 2017, in force since 05.11.2017 and this was an infringement of the provisions of the ECHR. There is no explicit provision for such a possibility for the heirs of the victim, unlike in other provisions of the PPC, but nevertheless I consider that the heirs of the victim have also the right to request expediting, inasmuch as they acquire the appropriate procedural capacity to do so with the death of the victim. There is no provision for an expediting request on behalf of the trustee, either. I believe that the trustee is not only a procedural representative, he/she is also an independent entity in the proceedings. It is true that in Art. 253 of the PPC, the trustee has not been identified as a party to the process. However, he/she was granted a number of procedural rights, in particular in his capacity as a trustee. In pre-trial proceedings he/she has autonomous rights: to be present in the carrying out of the respective interrogation proceedings (Article 224 of the PPC); to participate in presenting the investigation to court (Article 227 of the PPC); to make requests, notes and objections after examining the investigation materials (Article 229 of the PPC); to appeal the decrees of the investigative body and the prosecutor, which violate his/her procedural rights (Article 200 of the PPC). He/she exercises this amount of procedural rights independently, without respect of the victim. By excluding him/her from the circle of parties in the criminal proceedings, the legislator seeks to limit the procedural status of the trustee only to that of a procedural representative of the victim by analogy with the civil-law representation. However, this has not been not achieved, provided that PPC has granted a number of independent procedural rights to the trustee, irrespective and along with, the procedural rights of the victim. For this reason, I believe that in future amendments to the PPC, the legislator should provide for the right of the trustee to request expediting criminal proceedings, similar to the defence counsel.

3. The conditions for the different parties to make a request for expediting are the same. In the pre-trial proceedings, the defendant, the defender, the victim and the damaged legal person may request to speed up the investigation if more than two years since a person has been involved as defendant for a serious criminal offense have elapsed, and more than six months in other cases (Article 368 (1) of the CCP). These time limits exclude the time during which the case had been in court, or had been suspended on the grounds of Art. 25 PPC. In the court proceedings, the parties may request expediting if more than two years since instituting the proceedings at first instance have elapsed, or more than one year since appeal proceedings. Here, the time-limits that must have expired as a prerequisite for filing the request, exclude the time during which the case was suspended on the grounds of Art. 25 PPC. The exceptions mentioned are the result of the fact that no fault for a delay may be attributed to the authorities, provided that they are not able to take procedural steps, investigative actions or other procedural acts that would move the proceedings forward. It is noticeable that the time of the pre-trial phase begins to run as from the day a defendant has been indicted. The fact that the beginning of the reasonable time is related to the time the accused person has been informed of the charges against him/her, as discussed above, is a justification for this, but there is not maximum protection of the interests of the victim and the injured legal person, so it is not justified with regard to them, in the hypothesis when there is no decree to involve a person as accused.

4. The request to expedite the pre-trial proceedings is made through the prosecutor (Article 268, paragraph 2 of the CCP). The law does not state to which prosecutor the request should be made, but following the rules of the general criminal procedure, this should be the monitoring prosecutor. I do not think there is any hindrance that this could be any other prosecutor in the same prosecution, as far as prosecutors are interchangeable in their activities. The mandatory requirements for an expediting request are missing in the PPC, so it should be in free text. A motivation requirement should not be introduced as it is unlikely that the applicant is aware of the reasons for delay in the criminal proceedings. Once the prosecutor receives the expediting request, he is obliged to forward the case to the court immediately. This is the court having jurisdiction to the case. It must give its ruling within 15 days. The court rules in closed sittings only.

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5. The request for expediting court proceedings should be made through the court hearing the case (Article 268 (2) of the CCP). Here, the legislator has introduced a requirement for indicating the uncompleted actions that have delayed the court proceedings. This is justified by the fact that the court proceedings are public and the parties have the right to participate in all the legal actions, connected to the proceedings. As a result, the parties are aware of all the actions that have, or have not taken place, at this stage of the proceedings. This additional request requirement has been introduced in regard to the opportunity provided for the court hearing the case, to take the necessary actions within one month. The period begins to run from the date of receipt of the request to the court. In this case, the request is considered to have been withdrawn (Article 368a (3) of the CCP). After the expiry of the one-month period, and in the case where the court has not taken any actions, the reporting judge has to forward the request to the competent court. The provision of Art. Article 368a of the PPC states that the District Court is the competent court to deal with the request and to exercise control in cases of the Regional Court, and the cases, decided by the district Court acting as a first instance – by the appeal Court acting as instance of appeal. The penal cases are to be heard under cassation order by the Supreme Cassation Court. The monitoring of the request is carried out in a chamber of three judges at a closed sitting. The court has to pronounce within 7 days from the receipt of the request with the case. The act of the court is a determination that is final and not subject to appeal and protest.

6. The judgment of the court and the measures for expediting criminal proceedings under Chapter 26 of the PPC are regulated in Art. 369 of the PPC. Before judging, the court must assess the factual and legal complexity of the case, any delays in carrying out the activity of collecting, verifying and evaluating the evidence and the evidence means, as well as the reasons for it. I consider that the scope of assessment also includes the reasons for delay in preparation of the considerations for the relevant judicial act, pronounced in the criminal proceedings. The check made by the court in these proceedings is not substantive, but is only a check of the reasons for the delay in carrying out one or another action in the process of proving, so checking should exclude the review of completeness or, respectively, incompleteness of evidence. In the course of the inspection, the court must first decide whether or not there is a delay, and only then, if it comes to the conclusion that there is a delay, to check the reasons for it, i.e. whether it is justified or not.

When the court detects an unjustified delay, it should determine an appropriate time limit for carrying out the actions (Article 369, paragraph 2 of the PPC). How long an appropriate term should be, the court has to decide after inspecting the nature of the delayed action. The judicial act pronounced by the court is a final determination that can not be appealed. With the entry into force of this determination, the case is forwarded to the managing and resolution authority, before which it is pending for the purpose of its enforcement. New expediting requests are possible, but only following the expiry of the time limit set for carrying out the actions, regarding which the respective delay was detected (Article 369 (3) of the CCP). The new request is not limited by the fact of who has filed the first expediting request before the court, and this could therefore be done by the same, or another entity of the proceedings.

Conclusions. With the amendments to the title of Chapter 26 of the PPC, as well as with the new provisions therein, the legislator strives to balance the rights of the entities of the criminal proceedings and comply with the European standards, regarding the guarantee of a reasonable time limit, to a maximum degree. This will undoubtedly thwart possible rulings against our country by the European Court. Nevertheless, the differentiated procedure in question is not completely and fully regulated. There are a number of issues that Chapter 26 of the PPC does not answer. In case of future amendments to the PPC, the legislator should regulate the consequences of non-compliance with the specified actions, compensation for the individuals and the responsibility of the magistrates.

REFERENCES

1. SG, num. 86 of 28.10. 2005, in force since 29.04.2006. 2. See Chinova M., Pre-trial Procedure under PPC, Theory and Practice, Sofia, 2013. 34-59;

Chinova M., Review of the case law on the right of the accused to deal with his case within a reasonable time, Legal magazine "Norma", No. 6, 2012.

3. SG, num. 66 of 14.08.1992, prom. 80 from 02.10.1992, in force since 07.09.1992. 4. Judgment of 27.06.1968, Neumeister, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des

l home, Serie A 8, p. 41; Judgment of 27.02.1980, Deweer, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie, Serie A 35, p. 22; Judgment of 10.12.1982, Foti and Others, Publication de la

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Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie, Series A 56, p. 18; Judgment of 15.07.1982, Eckle, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie, Series A 51, p. 25.

5. Judgment of 23 April 1987, Poiss, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie, Series A 117-C, p. 103; Judgment of 21.11.1995, Aquaviva, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie, Series A 333-A, p. 15;

6. Decision of 19.02.1991, Ttiggiani Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home,, Series A 197-B, p. 24; Judgment of 30.10.1991, WiesingerPublication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 213-A, p. 21; Judgment of 27.02.1992, Vorassi, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 230-E, p. 52; Judgment of 25.02.1993, Dobbertin, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 256-D, p. 117; Judgment of 19.02.1991, Angelucci, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 196-C, p. 76; Judgment of 27.02.1992, Angelucci, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 228-G, p. 76; Judgment of 19.02.1991, ManzoniPublication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 195-B, p. 29; Judgment of 27.02.1992, Diana, Publication of the European Court of Justice of the European Communities, Serie A 229-A, p. 10; Judgment of 27.02.1992, ManieriPublication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 229-D, p. 42;

7. Judgment of 19.02.1991, Girolami, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 196-E, p.55; Judgment of 12.10.1995, Boddaert, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 235-D, p. 81; Judgment of 26.05.1993, Bunkate, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 248-B, p. 30;

8. Judgment of 27.02.1992, Tumminelli, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 231-H, p.84-85; Judgment of 27.02.1992, G v. Italian, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 228-F, p. 67; Judgment of 25.06.1987, Baggetta, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 119, p. 33; Judgment of 26.10.1988, Martins, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 143, p. 20; Judgment of 25.06.1987, Milassi, Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 119, p. 47; Judgment of 26.05.1993Publication de la Cour europeenne des drois des l home, Serie A 248-B, p. 30-31;

9. http://humanrights.bg/Contents/Item/Display/10671;http://humanrights.bg/Contents/Item/Display/10732; http://humanrights.bg/Contents/Item/Display/12634;http://humanrights.bg/Contents/Item/ Display/1049; http://humanrights.bg/Contents/Item/Display/102580;

10. See Motifs to the Draft Law on Amendment and Supplement to the Penal Procedure Code. 11. See in more detail Stoyanova N., Expediting criminal proceedings

www.lpajournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/N-Stoianova-full-text.pdf.

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RECOGNITION, EXECUTION AND TRANSMITTING OF CONFISCATION OR SEIZURE DECISIONS AND DECISIONS IMPOSING FINANCIAL PENALTIES Chief Assistant, PhD Mila Ivanova Republic of Bulgaria, Burgas, Bourgas Free University ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Received 07 April 2018 Accepted 23 April 2018 Published 12 May 2018 KEYWORDS

The article examines the European standards on the application of the principle of mutual recognition to financial sanctions and confiscation orders between EU Member States. The rules and conditions for the recognition, execution and transmitting of confiscation or seizure decisions and decisions on the imposition of financial sanctions between EU Member States in Bulgarian legislation are analyzed. Financial penalties,

confiscation, Seizure © 2018 The Author.

European standards. In 2005, the Council Framework Decision 2005/214 / JHA of

24 February 2005 on the application of the principle of mutual recognition to financial penalties was adopted, the principle of mutual recognition should apply to financial penalties imposed by judicial or administrative authorities for the purpose of facilitating the enforcement of such penalties in another Member State of the European Union (EU). For the purposes of the Framework Decision, a "decision requiring a financial penalty" means a final decision of a judicial or administrative body imposing an obligation to pay a sum of money or the obligation imposed in the same decision to pay: compensation for the benefit of victims of criminal offences, a sum of money in respect of the costs of court or administrative proceedings leading to the decision, or a sum of money to a public fund or a victim support organization, (Article 1 Framework Decision 2005/214 / JHA). The Framework Decision applies to all offenses for which financial penalties may be imposed under national law and also covers financial penalties imposed in respect of road traffic offences. The Framework Decision does without verification of the double criminality of the act, give rise to recognition and enforcement of decisions for 39 offenses listed therein (Article 5 Framework Decision 2005/214 / JHA).

One year later, Council Framework Decision 2006/783 / JHA of 6 October 2006 on the application of the principle of mutual recognition to confiscation orders was adopted. It establishes rules on the mutual recognition and execution of confiscation orders between EU Member States. A confiscation order means a legally enforceable penalty or measure imposed by a court following proceedings in relation to a criminal offence or offences, resulting in the definitive seizure of property. The rules introduced support the efforts of the Member States to fight crime by laying down provisions on seizing and confiscation of instrumentalities and the proceeds from crime and property acquired or served to carry out criminal activity. The Framework Decision applies to all offenses for which confiscation under national law may be imposed. The Framework Decision removes the verification of the double criminality for the 32 offenses listed in Art. 6 if they are punishable in the issuing State by a custodial sentence of a maximum of at least three years. The purpose of the Framework Decisions is to facilitate cooperation between Member States as regards the mutual recognition and execution of orders to confiscate property or custodial decisions and decisions imposing financial penalties. It also obliges EU Member States to recognize and execute in their territory confiscation orders, seizure of property or imposition of financial sanctions issued by a court with jurisdiction in criminal matters of another Member State. The Framework Decisions has also the purpose to ensure that all EU Member States have effective rules governing the confiscation and seizure of criminal proceeds and the enforcement of financial sanctions.

Pursuant to Art. 20 of Council Framework Decision 2005/214 / JHA of 24.02.2005 and Art. 22 Council Framework Decision 2006/783 / JHA of 6.10.2006, the National Assembly introduced them into the national legislation of the Republic of Bulgaria with the Act on the Recognition, Execution and Transmitting of Decisions on Confiscation or Seizure and Decisions on the Imposition of Financial Sanctions (ARETDCDDIFS, SG No. 15 of 23.02.2010). These Framework Decisions have been amended by Council Framework Decision 2009/299 / JHA of 26 February 2009, which strengthens the procedural rights of individuals and promotes the application of the principle of mutual recognition to decisions rendered in absentia of the person concerned. In Council Framework Decision

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2009/299 / JHA of 26 February 2009, by supplementing and amending existing rules, the procedural rights of citizens are protected by ensuring a clear and consistent approach as regards the criteria for the application of the grounds for non-recognition to judgments rendered in absentia in the various EU Member States. The optional grounds for non-recognition or non-execution of confiscation orders or seizure decisions and decisions imposing financial sanctions rendered in proceedings in absentia are extended and refined, in these cases the competent authority of the executing State is obliged to consult the competent authority of the Issuing State. Amendments to the formulas annexed to the relevant Framework Decisions are also foreseen. In connection with this, the amendment of ARETDCDDIFS (Amended and supplemented, SG No. 55 of 19.07.2011) followed. It clarified the provisions on the recognition, execution and transmitting of confiscation orders or seizure decisions and decisions imposing financial sanctions in order to avoid practical difficulties in their application.

General provisions. 1. In order to ensure the uniform interpretation and application of execution procedures

surveyed in this report, ARETDCDDIFS explicitly defines key concepts and terms. Art. 2, para. 1 of ARETDCDDIFS stipulates that a confiscation order or seizure decision

means a legislative act of a court having jurisdiction in particular in criminal matters, which has entered into force, issued in an EU Member State resulting in the definitive seizure of property. A property liable to confiscation or seizure is property for which the court in the issuing State has accepted that: it constitutes the proceeds of crime or is equivalent to the full value or part of the value of the benefit; constitutes a means of crime; is subject to confiscation or seizure resulting from the application of extended confiscation powers under Council Framework Decision 2005/212 / JHA of the Council of the European Union on Terrorism or participation in a criminal organization, defined as counterfeiting currency, laundering of the proceeds of crime, trafficking in human beings, facilitation of unauthorized entry, transit and residence, sexual exploitation of children and child pornography and trafficking in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances; the offense can lead to a financial or other gain and a custodial sentences or measures involving deprivation of liberty with a maximum of 5 years are provided for it, and for money laundering - a maximum 4 years, or is liable to confiscation or seizure under any other provisions relating to extended powers of confiscation under the law.

According to Art. 3, para. 1, p. 1 of ARETDCDDIFS, a decision to impose financial penalties is a legislative act, which has entered into force, issued by a court having jurisdiction in criminal matters or by an administrative body in an EU Member State, to impose an obligation to pay: a fine, property sanction or any other type of financial penalty imposed by an act of a judicial or non-judicial authority in respect of a criminal or administrative offence, including the financial penalties imposed in respect of road traffic offences; compensation for the benefit of victims; costs of court or administrative proceedings leading to the decision in favor of a public fund or a victim support organization.

Paragraph 1 of the Additional Provisions of ARETDCDDIFS defines the terms "issuing State" - this is the EU Member State in which a confiscation or seizure decision or a decision to impose financial sanctions on a natural or legal person has been issued; "Executing State" means the EU Member State to which a confiscation order or a seizure decision or a decision imposing financial sanctions has been transmitted for the purpose of execution; "Affected person" means a natural or legal person who has been the subject of a confiscation or seizure decision or a decision to impose financial penalties, and "Benefit" means any economic gain obtained as a result of a criminal offense. The benefit may result out in property of any kind.

2. The competent Bulgarian authorities responsible for the Recognition, Execution and Transmitting of confiscation orders or seizure decisions as well as decisions imposing financial sanctions are: District courts which deliver a judgment for enforcement issued in another EU Member State; The National Revenue Agency, for the purpose of execution of the acts of art. 2 and 3 ARETDCDDIFS; The competent authority for the transmitting of decisions given by our court is the regional or district court that has delivered the decision as first instance and the National Revenue Agency to send ordinances issued by an administrative body in the Republic of Bulgaria. Where the authority which has received the confiscation or seizure decision or the decision to impose financial penalties is not competent to recognize it, it shall transmit it to the relevant competent court of its own motion and notify the authority in the issuing State (Article 6 (3) ARETDCDDIFS). In cases the direct contact between the competent authorities of the issuing State and the executing State is not possible, the Ministry of Justice is empowered for the administrative transmitting and receipt of confiscation or seizure decisions and decisions to impose financial penalties. All official communications are made directly between the said competent authorities. If the authority competent to execute the confiscation order is not known to the competent authority of the issuing State, the latter has to make all necessary enquiries, including via the contact points of the European judicial network, in order to obtain information from the executing State. Correspondence can be made by post, e-mail, fax or by any means which leaves a written record under conditions allowing the executing State to establish its

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authenticity. The original of the decision, or a certified copy of it, and the original of the certificate, have to be sent to the executing State if it so requires.

3. The applicable law, governing the execution of confiscation or seizure decisions and decisions imposing financial sanctions, is the law of the Republic of Bulgaria, decisions made with regard to legal persons are also subject to recognition and execution. According to Art. 12 ARETDCDDIFS where it is not possible to enforce a confiscation, seizure or financial sanction decision, either totally or in part, alternative sanctions, including custodial sanctions or a measure involving deprivation of liberty, may be applied by the executing State if its laws so provide in such cases. This is only possible if the issuing State has allowed for the application of such alternative sanctions in the certificate accompanying the decisions, referred to in Art. 2 and 3 ARETDCDDIFS and the law of the executing State allows for the imposition of alternative sanctions. The severity of the alternative sanction has to be determined in accordance with the law of the executing State, but must not exceed any maximum level stated in the certificate transmitted by the issuing State.

Recognition, execution and transmitting of decisions for confiscation or seizure. 1. The conditions for the recognition and execution of confiscation or seizure orders issued in

another EU Member State are regulated in Art. 14 ARETDCDDIFS. First is the condition of "double criminality", that is, to refer to offences that constitute crimes under the Bulgarian legislation, for which confiscation is prescribed, regardless of the constituent elements thereof under the law of the issuing state. A verification of the double criminality of the act is not required for the exhaustively listed in Art. 14, para. (2) criminal offences if they are punishable in the issuing State by a custodial sentence or a measure involving deprivation of liberty for a maximum period of at least three years. Second is the condition that the property - subject of the decision - be located in the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria or the person against whom a decision has been passed has income or is domiciled or habitually resident in Bulgaria, or, in the case of a legal person, has its registered seat, management or postal address within our territory. Thirdly, besides the two mandatory conditions, the provision of Art. 19, para. 1 ARETDCDDIFS regulates the grounds on which the competent court may refuse recognition and execution. The reasons are: the certificate under Art. 4 ARETDCDDIFS is not submitted, is incomplete or manifestly does not correspond to the decision; a confiscation or seizure decision against the sentenced person in respect of the same acts has been delivered in the Republic of Bulgaria or in any State other than the issuing or the executing State, and, in the latter case, that decision has been executed; the execution of the decision has been time-barred under Bulgarian law and the decision relates to acts which fall within the jurisdiction of Bulgarian law; there is immunity or privilege under Bulgarian law, which makes it impossible to execute the decision; the decision relates to acts which are regarded by Bulgarian law as having been committed in whole or in part in the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria or in a place treated as such, or have been committed outside the territory of the issuing State and Bulgarian law does not allow prosecution for the same offences when committed outside its territory; according to the certificate provided for in Art. 4 ARETDCDDIFS the person concerned did not appear in person and was not represented by a legal counselor in the proceedings resulting in the confiscation order, unless the certificate contains explicit information in compliance with one of the following conditions under the law of the issuing State: a) the person was summoned personally or informed in due time of the scheduled of the time and place of the proceedings, or has been formally informed otherwise, undoubtedly proving the notification of the scheduled proceedings, as well as the possibility of rendering a judgment; b) after having been informed of the scheduled proceedings in due time, the person has authorized a defense counsel or such has been appointed by the court and defense has actually been given; c) after the decision was served in person and the person had been expressly informed about the right to a retrial or to an appeal in which he or she would have the right to participate, at which the merits of the case, including fresh evidence, would be (re)examined and which could lead to the original decision being quashed, expressly stated that he or she did not contest the decision or the person did not request a retrial or appeal within the applicable timeframe; the rights of any interested party, including bona fide third parties, under Bulgarian law make it impossible to execute the confiscation order, including where this is a consequence of the application of legal remedies in accordance with Art. 20 ARETDCDDIFS; under the conditions referred to in Art. 14, para. 1 ARETDCDDIFS, the confiscation order relates to acts which do not constitute an offence permitting confiscation or seizure under Bulgarian law; he confiscation or seizure order, in the view of that authority, was issued in circumstances where confiscation or seizure of the property was ordered under the extended powers of confiscation under the law of the issuing State. The grounds for refusal listed are not imperative, which leads to the conclusion that the court, when establishing some of them, has the option to decide whether to refuse recognition or to recognize and allow the execution of the decision.

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2. The proceedings for recognition and execution of confiscation or seizure orders issued in another EU Member State must be at two-instances. The competent authority to recognize the confiscation or seizure decisions is the District Court of the person's domicile or habitual residence, and for a legal person – of its registered seat, management or postal address. Where the decision is for confiscation or seizure of a specific property or sum of money - the district court of the place where the property is located or the place of the source of the income (Article 15 AREFTCDDIFS). Immediately upon receipt of the confiscation or seizure decision and of the certificate, the court must institute proceedings and schedule the case within 7 days of their receipt. The case is heard before a public sitting with three judges with the participation of a prosecutor and by summoning the sentenced person. Participation of the sentenced person is not mandatory. This follows from from the provision of Art. 16, para. 2 ARETDCDDIFS, which stipulates that the person's absence when summoned on a regular basis is not an obstacle to the hearing of the case. Nevertheless, for the purpose of guaranteeing his or her right of defense, the legislature has established that when a person cannot be found to be summoned on a regular basis, a counsel is being appointed. The participation of a counsel in this case is obligatory, if one is not appointed, respectively, a substantial procedural infringement will be committed, which I believe would be grounds to annul the proceedings judgment. At the public sitting hearing, the court is required to acquaint the sentenced person or his counsel with the judgment, after which he or she is afforded the opportunity to give an opinion. Where applicable, the court may also require additional information from the issuing State and specify time limit for its receipt. If the requested information is not supplied within the time limit set by the court, it should decide on the basis of the initial information at its disposal. During the initiated proceedings, Art. 18 AREFTCDDIFS, the court has the power to rule on: two or more confiscation or seizure decisions relating to a sum of money which have been issued against the same natural or legal person where the person concerned does not have sufficient resources in our territory to enable the execution of all decisions; two or more confiscation or seizure decisions relating to the same property. Prior to ruling, the court should hear the parties involved in the proceedings. The act terminating the court proceedings is a decision. By the decision, the court can recognize the act by transmitting it immediately to the respective executive body; may refuse recognition or execution of the act and to cease proceedings; may recognize the act and postpone its execution. In accordance with Art. 21 AREFTCDDIFS the court may postpone the execution of the decision: at the request of the National Revenue Agency, in the case of a confiscation order concerning an amount of money, if it has considered that there is a risk that the total value derived from its execution may exceed the amount specified in the confiscation order because of simultaneous execution of the confiscation order in more than one EU Member State; for a reasonable time determined by the court, when the execution of the confiscation order might be prejudicial to ongoing criminal investigation or proceedings, until such time as it deems reasonable; where it is considered necessary to have the confiscation order or parts thereof translated, for the time necessary to obtain its translation; where the property is already the subject of confiscation proceedings in the Republic of Bulgaria - at the request of the National Revenue Agency. In case of postponement the court must, for the duration of postponement, take all the measures to prevent the property from no longer being available for the purpose of execution of the confiscation order. As soon as the grounds for postponement have ceased to exist, the court must forthwith take the necessary measures for the execution of the confiscation or seizure decision.

The act of the district court for the recognition to the confiscation or seizure decision may be appealed before the respective court of appeal within 7 days of its being announced. The circle of individuals entitled to appeal is not limited to the participants in these proceedings. This follows from Art. 20 AREFTCDDIFS, the provision allows the rights to appeal against the act, first to any interested party and second to any bona fide third parties. The appellate court must hear the case at a public sitting. The decision of the appellate court is final. The decision on confiscation or seizure and the grounds for it may be subject to revocation only by a court of the issuing State in accordance with its national law (Article 20 AREFTCDDIFS). The recognized decision is to be transmitted to the National Revenue Agency for execution under the National Revenue Agency Act and the Tax-Insurance Procedure Code. The National Revenue Agency must immediately notify the relevant court of the action taken for executing the decision (Article 22 AREFTCDDIFS).

3. The conditions for transmitting decisions on confiscation or seizure issued in the Republic of Bulgaria for recognition and executing in another EU Member State are regulated in Art. 25 AREFTCDDIFS. The Bulgarian court transmits its decision to the competent authorities in another EU Member State when: a) it finds that the location of the property subject to the decision is in the other EU Member State; b) the person against whom the decision has been passed, owns property, has income, domicile or habitual residence in the other EU member country, and for a legal person - registered, managing office or postal address in that country. It must also provide the certificate under Art. 4. AREFTCDDIFS. When there are reasonable grounds to believe that different

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items of property covered by the confiscation order are located in different executing States; the confiscation of a specific item of property covered by the confiscation order involves action in more than one executing State, or that a specific item of property, covered by the confiscation order, is located in one of two or more specified executing States, the court has the possibility to transmit a confiscation order concerning specific items of property to more than one executing State at the same time. A confiscation order concerning an amount of money may be transmitted to more than one executing State at the same time, where the court deems there is a specific need to do so, for example where: a) the property concerned has not been frozen for the purposes of confiscation or seizure and b) the value of the property which may be confiscated in Bulgaria and in any executing State is not likely to be sufficient for the execution of the full amount covered by the confiscation order. (Article 26 AREFTCDDIFS). Transmitting the confiscation or seizure decision to one or more executing States does not limit the right of the Republic of Bulgaria to execute it alone (Article 27 AREFTCDDIFS).

4. Art. 28 AREFTCDDIFS contains rules related to the disposing with the subject of the decision in cases when the Republic of Bulgaria is an executing State by distinguishing whether the subject of the decision is an amount of money or property other than money. The rules referred to it are the following: if the amount obtained from the execution of the confiscation order is below EUR 10 000, or the equivalent to that amount, the amount is to accrue to the Republic of Bulgaria, in all other cases, 50 % of the amount is to be transferred to the issuing State. Property other than money, obtained from the execution of the confiscation order, must be disposed of in one of the following ways, which is to be decided by the competent Bulgarian authority: a) the property may be sold. In that case, the proceeds of the sale shall be disposed of in the same way as when disposing of cash; b) the property may be transferred to the issuing State; if the confiscation or seizure decision relates to a sum of money, the property may only be transferred to the issuing State if that State has given its consent; c) in another way, in accordance with Bulgarian law. In cases where Bulgaria is an issuing State, the manner of disposing of the object of the confiscation or seizure decision must be agreed with the executing State.

Recognition, execution and transmitting of decisions to impose financial sanctions. 1. The conditions for recognition and execution of financial sanctions decisions which have

been imposed in criminal or administrative criminal proceedings in an EU Member State are regulated in Art. 30 ARETDCDDIFS. First is the condition of double criminality, i.e. to refer to offences that constitute crimes or administrative violations under Bulgarian legislation, regardless of the constituent elements thereof under the law of the issuing state. A verification of the double criminality of the act is not required for the exhaustively listed in Art. 30, para. 2 AREFTCDDIFS. These are referred to in Art. 14, para. 2 t. 1-32 AREFTCDDIFS, as well as offences constituting one or more of the following crimes or administrative violations under the law of the issuing State: conduct which infringes road traffic regulations, including breaches of regulations pertaining to driving hours and rest periods and regulations on hazardous goods; smuggling of goods; infringement of intellectual property rights; threats and acts of violence against persons, including violence during sport events; criminal damage; theft; offences established by the issuing State and serving the purpose of implementing obligations arising from instruments adopted under the EC Treaty or under Title VI of the EU Treaty. (OJ C 115/47 of 9 May 2008). Secondly, the person against whom the decision has been passed must possess property, receive income or be domiciled or have his habitual residence in the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria, or, in the case of a legal person, has its registered seat, management or postal address in our territory. Thirdly, besides the two mandatory conditions, the provision of Art. 35 AREFTCDDIFS regulates the grounds on which the competent court may refuse recognition and execution. The reasons are: the certificate under Art. 4 ARETDCDDIFS is not submitted, is incomplete or manifestly does not correspond to the decision; a confiscation or seizure decision against the sentenced person in respect of the same acts has been delivered in the Republic of Bulgaria or in any State other than the issuing or the executing State, and, in the latter case, that decision has been executed; the execution of the decision has been time-barred under Bulgarian law and the decision relates to acts which fall within the jurisdiction of Bulgarian law; there is immunity or privilege under Bulgarian law, which makes it impossible to execute the decision; the decision relates to acts which: a) are regarded by Bulgarian law as having been committed as a whole or in part in the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria or in a place treated as such; b) have been committed outside the territory of the issuing State and Bulgarian law does not allow criminal proceedings against such offenses; the financial penalty imposed is less than EUR 70 or the BGN equivalent of that amount; in some cases referred to in Art. 30, para. 1 AREFTCDDIFS the decision relates to acts which do not constitute a criminal offence or an administrative violation under Bulgarian law; the decision has been passed against a natural person who cannot, owing to his or her age, be held criminally liable for the acts in respect of the decision; according to the certificate, in the case of written proceedings and in accordance with the law of the

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issuing State, the person concerned has not been expressly informed personally, or through an authorized representative, about the right to a retrial or to an appeal and its applicable timeframe; according to the certificate referred to in Article 4 AREFTCDDIFS, the person concerned did not appear in person in the proceedings resulting in the decision, unless the certificate contains explicit information in compliance with one of the following conditions under the law of the issuing State: a) the person was summoned personally and thus was informed in due time of the scheduled time and place of the proceedings, or has been formally informed otherwise, undoubtedly proving the notification of the scheduled proceedings, as well as the possibility of rendering a judgment in his or her absence b) after having been informed of the scheduled proceedings in due time, the person has authorized a defense counsel or such has been appointed by the court and defense has actually been given; c) after the decision was served in person and the person was expressly informed about the right to a retrial or to an appeal in which he or she would have the right to participate, at which the merits of the case, including fresh evidence, would be (re)examined and which could lead to the original decision being quashed, the person expressly stated that he or she did not contest the decision or did not request a retrial or appeal within the applicable timeframe; according to the certificate referred to in Art. 4 AREFTCDDIFS the person concerned did not appear in person unless it has been stated that he or she has expressly renounced his or her right to be heard and has explicitly stated that he or she will not contest the decision after being duly informed of the proceedings and the possibility of appearing there personally. Here too, as stated above, the grounds for refusal listed are not imperative, and this leads again to the conclusion that the court, when establishing some of them, has the opportunity to decide whether to refuse to recognition or to recognize and execute the relevant decision.

2. The proceedings for recognition to decisions imposing financial sanctions delivered in another EU Member State have to be at two instances. The competent court to consider the decisions to impose financial penalties is the District Court of the person's domicile or habitual residence, and for a legal person - of its registered seat, management or postal address in the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria. In case they are not specified in the certificate under Art. 4 AREFTCDDIFS, the decision to impose financial penalties is to be recognized by the district court where the property is located, or the place of the source of income of the person concerned in the certificate (Article 31 AREFTCDDIFS). The proceedings for recognition to decisions imposing financial sanctions are to be carried out in the same manner as the proceedings for the recognition and enforcement of confiscation or seizure orders issued in another EU Member State. Where it is established that the decision relates to acts which were not committed within the territory of the issuing State, thus falling under the criminal jurisdiction of the Bulgarian courts, the district court may reduce the amount of the financial sanction enforced to the maximum amount provided for acts of the same kind under the Bulgarian law (Article 32 AREFDCDDIFS). The act of the district court for recognition to the financial sanctions decision is subject to appeal before the respective court of appeal. The provision of Art. 34 AREFDCDDIFS limits the circle of individuals that have the right to appeal, stating that this can only be the person concerned. The decision of the appellate court is final. The decision to impose financial penalties and the grounds for it are subject to revocation only by a court of the issuing State in accordance with its national law (Article 34 AREFDCDDIFS). The recognized decision must be executed by the National Revenue Agency, after it has been forwarded to it, as defined by the National Revenue Agency Act and the Tax-Insurance Procedure Code (Article 36 AREFDCDDIFS).

3. The conditions for transmitting decisions, imposing financial sanctions, pronounced in the Republic of Bulgaria for recognition and execution in another EU Member State are regulated in Art. 39 AREFDCDDIFS. The Bulgarian court transmits a confiscation order to the competent authority of a another EU Member State in which it has reasonable grounds to believe that the natural or legal person against whom the confiscation order has been issued has property or income, domicile or habitual residence, or, in the case of a legal person, has its registered seat, office, or postal address. The National Revenue Agency transmits ordinances to be recognized and executed by the competent authority of another EU Member State under the same conditions. This applies also to the case where the financial penalties decision has been imposed as compensation for the benefit of a victim of a crime. However, in this case a formal application should be lodged by the injured party with the court which issued the decision, on the basis of the application the court has to transmit the decision for recognition and execution to a competent authority in another EU Member State.

Unlike the possibility a confiscation or seizure order to be transmitted to more than one executing State at the same time, in case of a decision imposing financial sanctions, the court imposing the sanctions may transmit it to one executing State only.

4. The consequences of the recognition, executing and transmitting decisions, imposing financial sanctions are manifested in two ways. Firstly, the transmitting of the decision to impose financial sanctions to another country limits the Bulgarian authority, which can not start executing the

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transmitted decision. This can only be done when transmitting a confiscation or seizure decision to one or more executing States. This limitation is not absolute. The competent Bulgarian authority may take the necessary measures to execute a decision to impose financial penalties only if: (a) the competent authority in the executing State has notified it of an amnesty or pardon granted, or has refused to recognize and execute the confiscation order totally or partially if it is established that execution of the confiscation order would be contrary to the principle of ne bis in idem or (b) has informed the competent authority in the executing State that it withdraws the financial penalty decision or if there is any other reason as a result of which the decision ceases to be enforceable, according to the Bulgarian legislation is (Article 41 AREFDCDDIFS). Secondly, there is the question of who the proceeds, obtained from the execution of the confiscation order, go to. The principle is that they remain in the executing state, but that is not unconditional. Where the Republic of Bulgaria is an executing State, the revenue obtained from the execution of the confiscation order accrue to it. The disposing of the proceeds has to be in accordance with Bulgarian law, unless otherwise agreed, especially in the case of compensation to a victim of a crime. In the cases where the Republic of Bulgaria is an issuing State, the disposition of the proceeds obtained from the execution of the decision to impose financial penalties are to be agreed with the executing State.

Conclusions. With the adoption of AREFDCDDIFS (promulgated SG No. 15 of 23.02.2010, amended and supplemented, SG No. 55 of 19.07.2011) the principle of mutual recognition between EU Member States to decisions of crime-related proceeds, imposing confiscation, seizure and financial sanctions was established. It has extended the existing instrument of mutual legal assistance. However, we should all be aware that the effectiveness of the recognition and executing of decisions depends to a large extent on how and to what extent the other EU Member States have transposed the Framework Decisions as a result of which the AREFDCDDIFS was adopted by the National Assembly. The existence of a uniform mechanism for mutual recognition is necessary to make it possible for a Member State to recognize and execute decisions issued by another Member State without intermediate formalities. Such a mechanism would cover the mutual recognition to all types of decisions delivered in criminal proceedings. This can be achieved through the adoption of a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council by which legal instruments can be directly implemented, the scope of existing ones extended, clear end-dates introduced, thus ensuring that decisions are recognized and executed within the Union without delay; guarantee standard certificate and standard form; communication between the competent authorities.

REFERENCES

1. The Act on the Recognition, Execution and Transmitting of Decisions on Confiscation or

Seizure and Decisions on the Imposition of Financial Sanctions (promulgated SG No. 15 of 23.02.2010, amended and supplemented, SG 55 from 19.07.2011 y);

2. Reasons on the draft Act on the Recognition, Enforcement and Delivery of Decisions on Confiscation or Seizure and Decisions on the Imposition of Financial Sanctions (No 902-01-54 of 7.12.2009, 41st National Assembly);

3. Report of the Committee on Legal Affairs on the Draft Act on Amendment and Supplement to the Act on the Recognition, Enforcement and Delivery of Decisions on Confiscation or Seizure and Decisions on the Imposition of Financial Sanctions (No. 102-01-28 of 10 May 2011, 41st National Assembly);

4. Opinion of the Commission for European Affairs and Oversight of the European Funds on the Draft Act on the Recognition, Enforcement and Delivery of Decisions on Confiscation or Seizure and Decisions on the Imposition of Financial Sanctions (No 902-01-54 of 7.12.2009, 41 the NA);

5. Council Framework Decision 2005/214 / JHA of 24 February 2005 on the application of the principle of mutual recognition to financial penalties;

6. Framework Decision 2006/783 / JHA of 6 October 2006 implementing the principle of mutual recognition to confiscation orders;

7. Council Framework Decision 2009/299 / JHA of 26 February 2009 amending Framework Decisions 2002/584 / JHA, 2005/214 / JHA, 2006/783 / JHA, 2008/909 / JHA and 2008/947 / JHA, which strengthens the procedural rights of persons and encourages the application of the principle of mutual recognition to decisions rendered in the absence of the person concerned during the proceedings;

8. Proposal for a Regulation Of The European Parliament And Of The Council on the mutual recognition to decisions on freezing and confiscation {SWD (2016) 468 final} {SWD (2016) 469 final}

9. Interpretation Decision № 3 Sofia, 12.11.2013. HCV, OSHA.

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RECOGNITION, ENFORCEMENT AND FORWARDING OF JUDGMENTS AND PROBATION DECISIONS WITH A VIEW TO THE SUPERVISION OF PROBATION MEASURES AND ALTERNATIVE SANCTIONS

PhD Mila Ivanova Republic of Bulgaria, Burgas, Bourgas Free University, Chief Assistant ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Received 08 April 2018 Accepted 24 April 2018 Published 12 May 2018 KEYWORDS

This article discusses the European standards on the application of mutual recognition of judgments and probation decisions with a view to the supervision of probation measures and alternative sanctions. It aims at analyzing the rules and conditions for recognition, enforcement and forwarding of judgments and probation decisions with a view to the supervision of probation measures and alternative sanctions in Bulgarian legislation. probation measures,

alternative sanctions, probation decisions © 2018 The Author.

European standards. The accession of the Republic of Bulgaria to the European Union (EU)

on 1 January 2007 is related to the adoption of the acquis communautaire, including the primacy of EU law (primary and secondary) over the rules of national law of the EU Member States. The development of the area of freedom, security and justice in the area of judicial cooperation in criminal matters in the Union is based on the principle of mutual recognition of judgments and judicial decisions introduced by the Treaty on European Union of 7 February 1992 (Maastricht Treaty) also found in Title V of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (Treaty of Lisbon), Title V, Area of Freedom, Security and Justice, Chapter 4 "Judicial Cooperation in Criminal Matters". Under secondary EU law, legislative instruments in the field of judicial cooperation in criminal matters are decisions and framework decisions replaced by directives with the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon. The application of these acts is linked to the obligation of the EU Member State concerned to transpose them into national law.

On 27 November 2008, the Council of the European Union adopted Framework Decision 2008/947/ on the application of the principle of mutual recognition to judgments and probation decisions with a view to the supervision of probation measures and alternative sanctions. It is the result of the taken into account by the Council fact that the Council Framework Decision 2008/909/JHA of 27 November 2008 on the application of the principle of mutual recognition to judgments in criminal matters imposing custodial sentences or measures involving deprivation of liberty for the purpose of their enforcement in the European Union concerns only the mutual recognition and enforcement of custodial sentences or measures involving deprivation of liberty and the need for further common rules, in particular where a non-custodial sentence involving the supervision of probation measures or alternative sanctions has been imposed in respect of a person who does not have his lawful and ordinary residence in the State of conviction (1). The Framework Decision 2008/947 / JHA aims at facilitating the social rehabilitation of sentenced persons, improving the protection of victims and of the general public, and facilitating the application of suitable probation measures and alternative sanctions, in case of offenders who do not live in the State of conviction. With a view to achieving these objectives, the Framework Decision lays down rules according to which a Member State, other than the Member State in which the person concerned has been sentenced, recognizes judgments and, where applicable, probation decisions and supervises probation measures imposed on the basis of a judgment, or alternative sanctions contained in such a judgment, and takes all other decisions relating to that judgment, unless otherwise provided for in this Framework Decision. (Article 1 of the Framework Decision 2008/947 / JHA).

Pursuant to Art. 25 of the Framework Decision 2008/947 / JHA, the National Assembly adopted the Act on the Recognition, Enforcement and Forwarding of Judgments and Probation Decisions with a view to the Supervision of Probation Measures and Alternative Sanctions (shortly referred to as "AREFJ”, prom. SG No. 25 of 27.03.2012) (2). The AREFJ governs the conditions and procedure for the recognition of judgments and probation decisions pronounced in another EU Member State, the supervision of probation measures and the alternative sanctions provided for in

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such a decision, the adoption of any subsequent decisions in this regard, as well as for the forwarding of judgments rendered in the Republic of Bulgaria for recognition and enforcement in other EU Member States. The reasoning behind the bill is that Bulgaria, respecting the commitments resulting from membership of the European Union, with the adoption of the act will contribute to reducing formalism and simplifying the procedures for the mutual recognition and enforcement of judgments and probation decisions between EU Member States. In this way, a greater level of protection of the rights and interests of citizens will be achieved and it will be guaranteed that the rule of law in the state will be respected (3). Another form of international collaboration is regulated by the AREFJ, and it is a tool for international law collaboration in countering crime (4). This form of international collaboration is referred to in the legal literature as "the transfer of probation measures" (5).

General provisions. 1. In order to ensure a uniform interpretation and application AREFJ defines key concepts and terms. In Art. (3) of the AREFJ, it is established that a ‘judgment’ means a final decision or order of

a court of the issuing State, establishing that a natural person has committed a criminal offence and imposing: a) a custodial sentence involving deprivation of liberty or any measure, requiring detention, if a conditional release has been granted on the basis of that judgment or by a subsequent probation decision where it is accompanied by one or more probation measures; b) custodial sentence, the execution of which is conditionally suspended when the sentence is passed by imposing one or more probation measures; c) conditionally deferred sentence when it is passed by imposing one or more probation measures; d) an alternative sanction; the following part of the provision defines the concepts and terms used in the different types of penalties. ‘Suspended sentence’ is a custodial sentence involving deprivation of liberty, or any measure requiring detention, the execution of which is conditionally suspended, wholly or in part, when the sentence is passed by imposing one or more probation measures.; “Conditional suspended sentence" means a judgment in which the imposition of a sentence has been conditionally deferred by imposing one or more probation measures or in which one or more probation measures are imposed instead of a custodial sentence or measure involving deprivation of liberty. "Conditional release" means a final decision of a competent authority on the early release of a sentenced person after part of the custodial sentence or measure involving deprivation of liberty has been served by imposing one or more probation measures. An "alternative sanction" is a sanction, imposing an obligation or instruction, which is other than a measure involving deprivation of liberty, a measure requiring detention, or a financial penalty. "Probation measures" are obligations and instructions imposed by a competent authority on a natural person, in accordance with the national law of the issuing State, in connection with a conditionally deferred, conditionally suspended sentence, or a conditional release. The types of probation measures and alternative sanctions are exhaustively specified in Art. (4) of the Act (6). The definition of "probation decision" is also regulated as a judgment or a final decision of a competent authority of the issuing State taken on the basis of a judgment which is: (a) granting a conditional release; (b) imposing probation measures.

It is noteworthy that there is no definition of the concepts of "issuing State" and "executing State" in AREFJ, in contrast to the Act on the Recognition, Enforcement and Forwarding of Confiscation or Withdrawal Decisions and Decisions on the Imposition of Financial Sanctions (AREFCWDDIFS, SG (Amended, SG No. 15 of 23.02.2010, amended and supplemented SG 55 from 19.07.2011). In § 1 of the Supplementary Provisions of AREFCWDDIFS, the following terms are defined: "Issuing State" is a Member State of the European Union in which a decision for confiscating or deprivation was pronounced or a decision to impose financial penalty on a natural or legal person and "Executing State" means the Member State of the European Union to which a decision to confiscate or deprive or a decision to impose financial penalty for the purpose of enforcement has been transmitted. In respect to the needs of the AREFJ, the provision of Art. 2 of Framework Decision 2008/947 / JHA has to be complied with. In it, the Council has stipulated that "issuing State" means the Member State where the judgment was delivered, and "executing State" means the the Member State in which the probation measures and alternative sanctions are supervised following a decision in accordance with Article 8 of Framework Decision 2008/947 / JHA. The need to clarify the different concepts and terms comes from the fact that in international forms of cooperation we have different legal systems, each with specific forms and institutes, hence different content in the handling of the corresponding terms. For each form of cooperation, one of the countries is always the one whose act is to be enforced by the other state which is the executing.

2. The competent Bulgarian authorities, which have the powers to recognize judgments in criminal and probation decisions delivered in another EU Member State, are District Courts. The provision of Art. 8 of AREFJ regulates local jurisdiction, the criterion being the domicile of the convicted person. The District Court of the place of residence of the sentenced person is therefore the competent authority. In case the sentenced person's domicile in the Republic of Bulgaria is unknown or if the sentenced person does not live in the country, the Sofia City Court is competent to recognize

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the decision. If the court of the place of the decision does not have jurisdiction to recognize it, it should forward it to the relevant competent court of its own motion and immediately inform about this the authority in the issuing State. This obligation shall not relieve the competent court which has received the decision of the former from notifying the authority in the issuing State of receipt.

The Bulgarian court which has ruled at first instance is the competent authority for forwarding for recognition and enforcement in other EU Member States of decisions, taken in the Republic of Bulgaria in criminal matters, which impose probation sentences or determine probation measures in cases of conditional conviction or conditional early release (Article 9 of AREFJ). The correspondence and the exchange of information between the authorities of the issuing State and the executing State is direct. In cases, when a direct contact between the competent authorities of two countries is not possible because the Bulgarian authority does not have information about the competent authority in the executing State, it is empowered to make any inquiries on this issue, including through the contact points of the European Judicial Network. Correspondence is done by mail, e-mail, fax or any other duly protected means allowing for written record and authentication, where necessary the executing State may request the originals of the documents received or certified true copies thereof. The Bulgarian authorities have jurisdiction to deliver and take all subsequent decisions relating to a custodial sentence, the execution of which is suspended, conditional release, conditional / postponed conviction and alternative sanction, in particular in case of non-compliance with a probation measure or alternative sanction or if the sentenced person commits a new criminal offence, this is explicit in the provision of Art. 14 of Framework Decision 2008/947 / JHA. The provision regulates that such subsequent decisions include: a) the modification of obligations or instructions contained in the probation measure or alternative sanction, or the modification of the duration of the probation period; b) the revocation of the suspension of the execution of the judgment or the revocation of the decision on conditional release; and c) the imposition of a custodial sentence or measure involving deprivation of liberty in case of an alternative sanction or conditional / deferred sentence.

3. The applicable law, governing the enforcement of the judicial judgments in criminal matters and probation decisions pronounced in another EU Member State, recognized in the Republic of Bulgaria, is the law of the Republic of Bulgaria (Article 11 of the AREFJ). Bulgarian legislation lays down the procedures for recognition of probation decisions pronounced in another state - member of the EU, the procedures for their enforcement, the procedures for supervising the enforcement of probation measures and alternative sanctions imposed by the issuing country as well as the making of any subsequent decisions in this respect (7).

The provision of Art. 5 of AREFJ stipulates in regard to this that if the probation measure or alternative sanction, or the duration of the probation period, imposed by another UE member state are incompatible with the law of the Republic of Bulgaria, the so-called "adaptation" takes effect. The adaptation procedure is an alignment with the nature and duration of the sentences provided for in Bulgarian legislation for similar offences. The adapted probation measure, alternative sanction or duration of the probation period should correspond as far as possible to that imposed in the issuing State. The adapted penalties should not be more severe or longer than the originally imposed.

Recognition and enforcement of judgments given in another Member State of the European Union.

1. The conditions for the recognition and enforcement of judgments in criminal matters and probation decisions given in another EU Member State are regulated in Art. 14 of AREFJ. First is the condition of "double criminality", that is, to refer to offences that constitute crimes under the Bulgarian legislation, regardless of the constituent elements thereof under the law of the issuing state. A verification of the double criminality of the act is not required for the exhaustively listed in Art. 14, para. (2) criminal offences if they are punishable in the issuing State by a custodial sentence or a measure involving deprivation of liberty for a maximum period of at least three years, or a detention order of no more than three years is passed.

Second is the condition that there should be no grounds for refusing recognition and supervising probation measures or alternative sanctions, which are exhaustively regulated by the law. The provision of Art. 15, para. 1 of the AREFJ regulates the following grounds: the certificate referred to in Article 6(1) is incomplete or manifestly does not correspond to the judgment and has not been completed or corrected within a reasonable period set by the Bulgarian court; the convicted person is not domiciled on the territory of the country and does not wish to return to it; there are no exceptional circumstances under Art. 14, para. (4) AREFJ, even if the reasons formally provided for in this hypothesis are present; the decision addressed concerns measures or sanctions on which the Republic of Bulgaria has not declared willingness to assume responsibility for supervising; recognition of the judgment and assumption of responsibility for supervising probation measures or alternative sanctions would be contrary to the principle of ne bis in idem; the judgment relates to acts which would not constitute an offence under Bulgarian law, except those referred to in Art. 14, para. 2 AREFJ; the enforcement of the sentence is

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statute-barred according to the Bulgarian law and relates to an act which falls within its competence according to that law; there is immunity conferred under the Bulgarian law on the sentenced person which makes it impossible to supervise probation measures or alternative sanctions; under Bulgarian law, the sentenced person cannot, owing to his or her age, be held criminally liable for the acts in respect of which the judgment was issued; according to the certificate referred to in Art. (6) AREFJ the sentenced person has not appeared in person at the proceedings which resulted in the judgment being rendered unless the certificate states information on compliance with one of the following conditions according to the law of the issuing State: a) the person was summoned personally or informed in due time of the scheduled of the time and place of the proceedings, or has been formally informed otherwise, undoubtedly proving the notification of the scheduled proceedings, as well as the possibility of rendering a judgment b) after having been informed of the scheduled proceedings in due time, the person has authorized a defense counsel or such has been appointed by the court and defense has actually been given; and (c) after the decision was served in person and the person has been expressly informed about the right to a retrial or to an appeal in which he or she would have the right to participate, at which the merits of the case, including fresh evidence, would be (re)examined and which could lead to the original decision being quashed, expressly stated that he or she did not contest the decision or the person did not request a retrial or appeal within the applicable timeframe; the decision provides for medical or therapeutic treatment, which the Republic of Bulgaria is unable to supervise in view of its legal or health-care system; the probation measure or the alternative sanction is of less than 6 months’ duration; he judgment relates to criminal offences which under the law of Bulgaria are regarded as having been committed wholly or for a major or essential part within the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria, or in a place equivalent to its territory.

The grounds for refusal listed are not imperative, which leads to the conclusion that the court, when detecting some of them, has the opportunity to assess whether to refuse to recognize and to allow to enforce the relevant judgment.

2. The proceedings for the recognition of judgments in criminal matters and probation decisions given in another EU Member State has to be two-instance. The competent court institutes proceedings and schedules the case immediately after receiving the decision and the certificate under Art. 6 AREFJ within 7 days of their receipt. The case is heard before a public sitting, the jury consisting of three judges with the participation of a prosecutor and by summoning the sentenced person. Participation of the sentenced person is not mandatory. This follows from from the provision of Art. 16, para. 2 AREFJ, which stipulates that the person's absence when summoned on a regular basis is not an obstacle to the hearing of the case. Nevertheless, for the purpose of guaranteeing his or her right of defense, the legislature has established that when a person cannot be found to be summoned on a regular basis, a counsel is being appointed. The participation of a counsel in this case is obligatory, if one is not appointed, respectively, a substantial procedural infringement will be committed, which I believe would be grounds to annul the proceedings judgment. At the public sitting hearing, the court is required to acquaint the sentenced person or his counsel with the judgment. Where applicable, the court may also require additional information from the issuing State and a time limit for its receipt must be specified. If the requested information is not supplied within the time limit set by the court, it should decide on the basis of the initial information at its disposal. Before rendering a judgment, the Bulgarian court should hear the prosecutor, the sentenced person and his or her defense counsel and adjourn for a meeting. The act terminating the court proceedings is a judgment.

The district court may in its judgment: - recognize a decision and order the enforcement of the probation measure or sanction, refuse recognition and enforcement, or refuse to recognize the decision, but assume responsibility for supervising the probation measure or alternative sanction, but only when there is reason for refusal under Art. 15, para. 1, item 6 or 13 of AREFJ, without assuming the responsibility for making subsequent decisions under Art. 21, para. 1 of AREFJ.

For the recognition of judgments in criminal matters and probation decisions given in another EU Member State by the Bulgarian court, the sentenced person must have his or her domicile on the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria and wish to return to the country or have already returned. In exceptional circumstances, the court may also recognize the judgment if the sentenced person is domiciled (8) or habitually resident in the territory of an EU Member State other than the Republic of Bulgaria; if he or she is or will be moving to Bulgarian territory in order to work, is studying or is a member of a family legally residing in Bulgaria (Art. 14, para 4 AREFJ). The provision of Article 14 (5) of the AREFJ expressly provides that in relation to taxes or duties, customs and exchange, execution of the judgment or, where applicable, the probation decision may not be refused on the grounds that Bulgarian law does not impose the same kind of tax or duty or does not contain the same type of rules as regards taxes or duties, customs and exchange regulations as the law of the issuing State.

The judgment of the district court shall be subject to appeal or protest before the respective court of appeal within 5 days of its being announced. The circle of individuals entitled to appeal is the

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sentenced person or his or her counsel, the prosecutor has the right to protest. The appeal and the protest are dealt with within 5 days of their entry into a public sitting with the participation of the parties. The appellate instance has three powers: to amend the decision of the first instance court, to confirm the decision of the first instance court or to cancel the decision of the first instance court if it finds an obstacle to the recognition of its decision. The decision of the appellate court is final. After the entry into force of the judgment, the court of first instance should immediately notify the competent authority of the issuing State and the Minister of Justice (Article 16 (8) of the AREFJ).

Judicial proceedings must be completed within 60 days of receipt of the judgment to be recognized. In exceptional circumstances it is allowed not to comply with this time limit. In that case, the court shall immediately notify the competent authority of the issuing State, giving the reasons for the non-compliance and the estimated time required for the final decision to be taken.

3. Following the recognition of the decision, the supervision of probation measures and alternative sanctions shall be carried out by the competent Bulgarian authorities. If the sentenced person absconds or is no longer domiciled in the Republic of Bulgaria, the court shall immediately inform the issuing State and transfer the jurisdiction in respect of the supervision. The Bulgarian court may also transfer jurisdiction if new criminal proceedings have been initiated against the sentenced person in the issuing State. If the sentenced person fails to comply with the probation measure or alternative sanction imposed without reasonable excuse, as well as when committing a new offense, the Bulgarian court shall apply the Bulgarian legislation and shall decide on: a) a change in the obligations or prescriptions included in the probation measure or the alternative sanction; b) enforcing the suspended custodial sentence involving deprivation of liberty or serving separately the part of the sentence which has not been served because of an early release of the sentenced person; c) substituting of an alternative sanction with deprivation of liberty.

Forwarding judgments pronounced in a Bulgarian court. 1. Forwarding a judgments referred to in Art. 2 of AREFJ, pronounced in a Bulgarian court

to another EU Member State, is allowed under the conditions laid down in Art. 23 AREFJ, namely: where a sentenced person is domiciled or habitually resident in an EU Member State to which he or she has returned or wishes to return, the judgment pronounced in Bulgaria shall be forwarded to the competent authority of that Member State. If the sentenced person so requests, the judgment imposing a probation sentence or probation measures in the case of conditional or conditional early release may also be forwarded to a different Member State than the one in which he or she has his domicile or habitual residence, but it is imperative that the Bulgarian court consults the competent authority of that state and requires its consent to such a forwarding. The decision imposing probation penalty or probation measures in cases of conditional or conditional early release, to be recognized and enforced in other EU Member State, together with the certificate referred to in Art. 6 of the AREFJ is to be forwarded by the competent authority of the issuing State directly to the competent authority of the executing State by any means which leaves a written record under conditions allowing the executing State to establish their authenticity and the Ministry of Justice has to also be informed of that. It should be noted that the decision can be forwarded for recognition and enforcement only to one executing State at any one time.

2. The Bulgarian court continues to have jurisdiction also after the judgment has been forwarded in the event that the executing State has no competence to take subsequent decisions and the sentenced person fails to comply with the probation measure or alternative sanction imposed without reasonable excuse as well as when committing a new offense. The jurisdiction of the Bulgarian court shall consist of the following: a) the modification of obligations or instructions contained in the probation measure or alternative sanction; b) enforcing the suspended custodial sentence involving deprivation of liberty or separate serving of the part of the sentence which has not been served, because of an early release; c) substituting of an alternative sanction with deprivation of liberty. The Bulgarian court has to immediately notify the executing State of a modification of the decision it has forwarded, according to its competence after the initial dispatch, and when the probation measure or an alternative sanction expires. Before pronouncing a decision to modify the instructions in the previous one forwarded to the executing State, the Bulgarian court may interrogate the sentenced person by delegation or by videoconference. If the Bulgarian court pronounces a subsequent decision, the Bulgarian legislation will apply as well as the consequences of it.

Except for the case of subsequent judgments of the jurisdiction of the Bulgarian court, it may request information from the executing State on the maximum duration of the custodial sentence provided for in its national law for an act analogous to the offense for which the person has been sentenced and the decision for imposing probation penalty or probation measures in cases of conditional conviction or conditional early release has been taken. This very penalty may be imposed on the sentenced person in case of breach of the probation measures or alternative sanctions. After receiving this information, the Bulgarian court has the opportunity to withdraw the certificate referred

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to in Article 6 AREFJ, provided that supervision in the executing State has not yet started. With this opportunity, after receiving it from the executing State, the Bulgarian court shall have at its disposal the decision for adapting the probation measures or the alternative sanctions, together with the reasons therefore, unless the executing State has started the supervision. The decision to withdraw has to be taken and the executing State notified about it within 10 days of receipt of the relevant information.

3. The Bulgarian court shall cease to be a competent authority and to take subsequent decisions after being notified by the competent authority of the executing State for the recognition of the judgment. However, the Bulgarian court is obliged to notify the competent authority of the executing State of any circumstances or findings that could lead to one or more subsequent decisions in the executing State. The provision of Art. 28, para. 2 AREFJ regulates the possibility of resuming the jurisdiction of the Bulgarian court in the following cases: a) with withdrawal of the certificate referred to in Art. 6 AREFJ; b) a refusal of the executing State, by a declaration to the General Secretariat of the Council of the European Union, to take subsequent decisions in certain cases in the event of failure to comply with a probation measure or an alternative sanction; c) if the convicted person absconds or d) if new criminal proceedings have been initiated against the convicted person in the Republic of Bulgaria.

Conclusions. The possibility of transferring probation measures under Framework Decision 2008/947 / JHA helps to establish a common European area of justice based on mutual trust. Bulgaria is one of the countries that helps the European Union to strengthen the principle of mutual recognition of judgments in criminal matters between EU Member States through the timely adoption of laws in line with the framework decisions adopted in the field. It is clear from the analysis of the Act on the Recognition, Enforcement and Forwarding of Judgments and Probation Decisions with a view to the supervision of probation measures and alternative sanctions that it fully meets the requirements of the Council in this field. Proceedings are concise, deadlines - short and balanced with respect to the rights of the sentenced person.

REFERENCES

1. Framework Decision 2008/947 / JHA on the application of the principle of mutual

recognition to judgments and probation decisions with a view to the supervision of probation measures and alternative sanctions OB, L 337/102 of 16.12.2008;

2. The Act on the Recognition, Enforcement and Delivery of Judgments and Probation Decisions with a view to Supervision of Probation Measures and Alternative Sanctions (promulgated in SG 25 from 27.03.2012, in force as of 28.04.2012). ;

3. Motives for the draft Act on the Recognition, Enforcement and Delivery of Judgments and Probation Decisions with a view to the Supervision of Probation Measures and Alternative Sanctions No. 102-01-89, submitted by the Council of Ministers on 28.12.2011;

4. Girginov, A., International Legal Assistance in Criminal Matters, C.: Sofi- R, 2012.; 5. Kostadinova, R., Proceedings of Transfer of Probation Measures in the European Union,

Blagoevgrad, NBU; 6. See more on the issue of probation measures Dimitrova, S., Issues related to the imposition

of probation measures in conditional sentencing and conditional early release. Legal Collection of the University of Sofia, 2009; Dimitrova, S., On some issues related to the application of Art. 66, para. 3 of the Penal Code, Sbnik Conference "Challenges to Education and Science in the Context of Globalization", Bourgas, 2004;

7. See more on the issue of execution of the penalties Traikov, H., Penal and Enforcement Law. C: Albatros, 2007;

8. See Law on Bulgarian Identity Documents, Prom., SG, no. 93 of 11.8.1998 on the legal terms: "permanent address" and "current address".

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