on the convergence of myth and reality_ examples from the pacific islands

8/2/2019 On the Convergence of Myth and Reality_ Examples From the Pacific Islands

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TheGeographicalJournal,ol. 167, No. 2, June 2001, pp. 125-138

The issue as to what extent certain myths,defined here as 'traditionaloral tales' (Kirk1973), recall realityis unclear yet even itspartialresolutionmight have implications or theunderstandingf environmental istoryn particularregionsof the world. Forexample,debates aboutthe significanceof infrequent atastrophic vents inlandscape evolution or, more widely, the role of(rapid)environmentalchange in cultural ransfor-mation might benefit from an enhanced under-standingof the correspondencebetween particularmyths and reality.This paper examines selected(groups of) myths concerned with environmentalchange in the PacificIslandswhich appear to befounded in reality, before commenting on thebroader mplicationsof this.Mythsand oral traditionin the PacificIslandsPacific Islandpeoples have strong oral traditions(Finnegan ndOrbell1995) although ince the timeof European nfluence on theirculturesalien ele-ments have been incorporated into certaintraditions(e.g. the diluvianaccount of HawaitianNutu [Noah]reportedby Spence 1933) and some

have been (re-) invented (e.g. the fictitious yetwidely-believedstory that Fijians riginated n EastAfricaexposed by Geraghty1977). Comparedto100 years ago, far fewer people in the PacificIslands today are aware of their oral traditionswhichhascompoundedthe loss of culturalntegrityand identity that underpins many contemporaryexpressionsof indigenous rustration. he rediscov-ery of authentic cultural traditions could helprestoreself-esteemto such peoples,manyof whomare marginalized eographically nd economically.Humans occupied most Pacific Islands onlywithinthe past 3000 years (Figure1); the earliestgroupsin the SouthPacificandwest of SamoaandTonga decorated their pottery in a distinctive(Lapita)tylewhichmakestheirpresencecompara-tivelyeasy to trace through hisregion.Most indig-enous peoples in the PacificIslandshave residedthere for several hundred years and, althoughcertainmythsmay have been passed down orallyfor generations, t is not generally houghtthatoraltraditions an survive oreven close to 1000 yearsin thisregion.This paper treats six groups of myths:diluvian(flood) myths, those in which islands subside

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Theconvergence f mythand reality 127et al. 1 999, 105), NewZealand Eley1861; White1889,9-13), Samoa Powell1887), TahitiHenry1928,445-8; Beckwith940,319), TongaGifford1924, 201) and the Tuamotus Montiton 874).Traditional istory on PukapukaAtoll in thenorthernCook Islands s divided into periodsbeforeandafter hugewavesweptover he island;the eventis referredo as te mate wolo (the greatdeath;Beaglehole ndBeaglehole938,378).There s no particularmystery n the environ-mentalnterpretationf these myths.All he islandgroups rom which theycome are vulnerableotsunami,particularlyhose traversinghe Pacificfrom the Peru-Chile renchor AleutianTrench.Some lood myths lsorefer o periods f torrentialrainand/orstormswhichaccompany ighwavessuggestingthat they recall storm rather thantsunamivents.Tsunamir storm urges ssociatedwith Pacific tropicalcyclones commonlyreachseveralmetres in heightand wash across lowislands;hey regularlyffectall the islandgroupsfrom which rapid flood myths are known(e.g.French olynesia Vitousek 963; HawaitianIslands Macdonald947).Considerably igherwaves sometimes affectsmaller reasof the Pacific.Locally-generatedsu-namiassociatedwithmega-landslidesavecausedwaves as high as 516 metres n confinedfiords(Pararas-Carayannis999)andare mplicatedn thedeposition f coralgravelsoundover300 metresabove sea level on Lanatind Molokatislands nHawaitiMooreand Moore 1984; Mooreet al.1994).Floodmythswhich ackmotifanalogues n thePacificslands egion realso known.Arapid loodmyth romVitilevuslandnFiji asbeeninterpretedas recalling he breachingof a landslidedam(Anonymous nd Rodda 1995). A myth fromNewGuinea ecollects ow an oldwoman,realiz-ing the worldwas in dangerof beingsubmerged,planted a line of 'twigs'along the beach andthusconfined he ocean(Myth 24 fromOceania,Savill 978): a recollectionf a traditional ethodof shoreline rotectionMimurand Nunn1998).Islandswhichsubsided apidlywithinhumanmemoryThe deathatan island andisappearn itsentiretywithin shortperiodof time s one whichhas, ormanyscientists, een consigned o the realmsoffantasy n accountof thestoryof Atlantis.here sawidespreaduspicionhatPlato's riginalccountof Atlantiswas allegorical r at least wrong inplacing he sunkenisland-continent est of theStraits f Gibraltar, view borne out in recentdecadesby the absenceof evidencewhichwould

be expectedto havebeen found by now. Someeffectsof the 1500-BCeruptionwhichdestroyedmuchof TheraIsland n the Aegean may havebeen incorporatednto Plato'saccountbut otherelements onflictwith he location f Atlantis ere.Inthe Pacific hereare analogues f the storyofAtlantis hichhavenot, o theauthor's nowledge,yet been employed nthe interpretationf Plato'saccount.The best-documenteds of the island Burotu(Pulotu)which eatures n manymythsamong hepeoplesof Fiji, amoaandTonga nd s probablyhomeland f some nativeHawaitians,MaoriandotherPacific slandpeoples (once) locatedat orclose to Matuku sland n Fiji Geraghty 993).Manyaccountsof Burotumention tssubsidence.Forexample, he people of Kabarasland n thesouthernLaugroupsay 'that n the olden days itwas above the water but now is submerged'(Thompson1940, 116). Some accounts fromMatukualkof Burotuubsidingollowing n earth-quake Geraghty993). The authorhas recordedstoriesof other Fiji slandswhichreportedlyankabruptly;ne was locatedat Davetalevu etweenCaqalai ndLeleuviaslands,nother t DavetatabuonTotoya slandNunn2001).Mythsdescribingslandsor groups of islandswhich once existedbut are now submerged reknown from manyparts of the Pacific includ-ing Hawaiti Rice 1923, 31), Banaba n Kiribati(Grimble 972. 50-51; MaudeandMaude1994,14ff), he MarquesasHandy1930, 19-20 119),Solomon slandsSanga1989, 17), the Tuamotus(Stimson1937, 39-41), Yap (Ashby 1978, 10,18-20), and more generallywithinMicronesia(Grimble 972, 130) and PolynesiaSmith1910;Beckwith 940, 250).Other sland inkings n the Pacifichave beencorroboratedmore recentlyand might be con-sidered borderlinebetween myth and fact. Inthe southernCook Islands, he islandTuanahe(Tuanaki) as comparativelyellknown o indig-enous sailors, oreign whalers and governmentofficersuntil it disappearedometime after AD1842 (Crocombe 974).A similareport xists orthe volcanic slandVictoria n the Cooks whichdisappearedsometime after the early 1880s(Percival 964).Anoral raditionecounted o theauthor ecalls hesinking f an island, rovisionallynamedLingland,orth f Pentecost sland ndeastofAmbae slandnVanuatu,ifo bifo yet (very ongago). The sinkingwas survivedby people whosettledat Baitora n south MaewoIslandwhen ithadonlyone village n it;now t has20. The inkingof Lingland as alsonoted in the Remark ookofUSS Narragansett, kept by CommanderMeadebetween 1872 and 1873 (Stommel 1984). A


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Figure 2 The coastline of Hawai'i Island around Keauhou Bay showing the new shoreline formed following rapidsubsidence during an earthquake on 29 November 1975Source: Nunn 1994, after Henderson 1980

128 Theconvergence f mythand reality

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comparable myth, partlycorroboratedby geologi-cal investigations, oncerns Yomba Island n PapuaNew Guinea (Mennis 1981 ). The disappearanceofthe volcanic slandKuwae n southernVanuatuas aresultof its AD-1452 eruptionwas documented byMonzieret al. (1994).Althoughsand cays may be either washed awayor form on islandreefs during torms,all the storiesmentioned above involve larger, higher islandsand it is probable that the islands themselves didactually sink abruptly either wholly or in part.Well-documentedanalogues come from the islandHawaitiwhere, for example, duringan earthquakeon 29 November 1975 parts of the south coast

sank as much as 4.5 metres (Figure ). Similar apidsubsidence occurred along the Alaskancoast dur-ing the 1964 Prince William Sound earthquake(Plafker nd Rubin19 78).Not all such subsidence is coseismic (coincidentwith earthquakes).Some appears to be aseismic,resulting rom mass movement down the flanksofoceanic islands. Prodigious submarine landslidesalong the HawaitianRidge are believed to havecome largely romsubaerial olcanoes (Mooreet al.1989); the giant cliffs (pali) on many Hawaitianislandsare likely o be landslide cars.A largeflanklandslide affected Niue Island causing material opile up on the ocean floor off the south-westof the

19 16'N-


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Theconvergence f mythandreality 129each stampmayrecall n earthquakeuringwhichthe island ose1-2 metres.Manyother PacificIslandgroupsexperiencerecurringcoseismic-upliftvents (Nunn 19941998). These include the limestoneislandsofTonga,wherethe messenger f the ancestral odTagaloaone day observeda new island.On asecondViSitfeobservedt hadrisenhigher,ndona thirdeven higher, nd this is the originof theconspicuously-terracedigh coral-reefimestoneisland Eua Reiter 907, 443-8; Reed1974, 11).Anotherexamplecomes from the high lime-stone islandOuveain the Loyaltyslands f NewCaledonia.t concernsa youthwho fled intotheisland'snteriorndrested n a rock.Wishingogeta betterview than herockafforded,

he commandedhe rockon whichhe was sitting,o raiseitselfa littlehigher,which t did.The youth,enjoyinghesensation, aid'Go higher, ock,higher',when the rockobeyed him as before.The peopleof a villageclose byrobserving he ascent of the boy, hurried ff in a bodyto try and rescue him from his dangerously levatedposition.Theyouth, seeingthe people comingtowardshim, and realisinghis wonderfulpower, called outexcitedly,Higher,ockthigher, igher', ndawayhe shotup far beyondhuman each. Hadfield 920r225

Otherexamples f mythswhichmay recallrecur-rentcoseismic-upliftventscomefromFiji Barker1926), Papua New Guinea (Myth 115 fromOceania,Savill 978),elsewheren Tonga Gifford1924, 15) andare possibly orroboratedy mythsinvolvinghe 'fishingup' of (limestone)slandsasrecordedn the HawaitianslandsBeckwith940,308-9 372-3), MicronesiaAshby1978, 22-23),SolomonslandsSanga 989,17),andmanyotherPacific sland roups.

Islandsimultaneouslyubsided nd upliftedrapidlyManyarge arthquakest convergent latebound-aries in the Pacific nvolvesimultaneousbruptuplift ndsubsidence ndthereare examplesromsuch locationsof mythsinvolvingslandsbeingturnedupsidedown,aninterpretationhichcouldhavebeen placedupon he uplift f one partof anisland imultaneouslyith subsidenceof anotherpart.Examplesome fromKiribatiGrimble972,51), the Marquesas(Tahiaoteaa1921, 496),Rotuman theFiji slandsChurchward938, 362),the TuamotusBeckwith940r3 18), andVan atu(Codrington891, 168). On Rennelln SolomonIslands,he god Mautikitikiriedraisinghe island

island(Hill1996). Massive andslide ollapseofReunionslandIndianOcean)was documented yGillot t al. (1994).A portion f JohnstonAtoSlnthe centralPacificwas removedby a landslidealong ts southernlank Keating987)andtherehave been calls to recognize he recurrence fsucheventsas an importantpplied esearchssue(Keating998;Nunn1999).The better-authenticatedf these accountsallinvolvepartof the flanksof a still-existingslandsinking bruptly.his s explicable y deep-seatedlandslides. et it is also possible, lthoughuchaneventhasnot been recordedormally,hatdeep-seated andslidesouldremovehe top of anislandedificeratherhanjust partof its flanks herebyexplaining he abruptdisappearance f entireislands s recallednmyths.

The only mythknownto the author romthePacific slandswhichspecificallyinksearthquakeswithabrupt ubsidencecomes fromthe LoyaltyIslands f New Caledoniawhere earthquakesrelinkedto both upliftand subsidence, he latterbeing explainedas attemptsby demonsto pullyamsdownto their ubterraneanomainHadfield1920, 113).Islandsuplifted apidlywithinhumanmemoryThere re ar ewermyths ecallingow slandsoserapidlyn the Pacific,but theydo exist and theirlocations reinstructiveOne concerns he initialettlement f the high(


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Figure 3 Cliffsections at Alofi Wharf and Opaahi, Niue Island, central Pacific, showing emerged notches interpreted ashaving possibly been elevated during coseismic-uplift events

130 Theconvergence f mythand reality

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Theconvergence f mythand reality 131with hisfishhookbut itslipped so that onlypartwasraisedwhile part was submerged to formthe lakewhich still exists (Text 39 in Elbertand Monberg1965). On Efate Island in Vanuatu,oral traditionsstate that,after he demigod Mauiand hisgrandsonfished up the island, it rocked and tippedcrazily nthe ocean' (Luomala1949,122); Efate s an islandprone to regularcoseismic uplift and subsidence(Howorth1985).Simultaneousabruptupliftand subsidence havebeen recorded morerecently romseveralplaces inthe Pacific. For example, during the 1964 PrinceWilliamSound earthquake,maximumupliftof 11.3metres on Montague Island occurred simul-taneouslywith maximum ubsidence of 2.3 metreson Kodiak sland,300 kilometresaway(Plafker ndRubin1978). During he ChristmasEve1853 earth-quake on Tongatapu sland n Tonga, he north-eastpart of the island

was tilted down to an inclination sufficient to produce anencroachment of the sea for nearly two miles inland,graduallydiminishingto the south-eastern shore as far asNuku'alofa,where it now washes the roots of a tree thatgrew within a garden adjoining a house that has beenentirely destroyed. The western coast has visibly risensome feet and a spring of water has sunk below thesurfaceSawkins 1856, 383

Such instances strengthen he interpretation f thevariousmyths cited as recalling imultaneousupliftand subsidence.The specific tectonic process involving(rapid)uplift, low subsidence andthen (rapid)uplift, har-acteristicof areas in the Pacific prone to recurrentcoseismic uplift (e.g. Ota 1991; Nunn 1998), isrecalledby a myth fromthe high limestone islandRennell in Solomon Islands(Text 31 in ElbertandMonberg 1965).Specificmyths validatedTwo myths which appearunique withinthe PacificIslandshave recentlybeen validatedby the author,much against expectations, and are recountedbriefly here to further illustrate he potential ofmyths ordecipheringandscapeandhumanhistoryin this region.A mythrecallingpost-settlementvolcanism:Kadavu,outhernFijiThe islandKadavuand its outliers in the south ofthe Fijigroup (Figure4) formed from the coalesc-ence of a series of late Cenozoicvolcanoes, one ofthe youngest and most conspicuous of whichoccurs at its westernmost extremity(Nunn 1998;

Nunnand Omura1999). Thisvolcano is known asNabukelevu Plate 1 and its current tate of activityhas long been of concern to the people livingaround it and farming its fertile slopes. Surveysbetween 1988 and 1998 by the authorand otherssuggested that the last eruption had probablyoccurred around 50 000 years ago and that thedanger of Nabukelevu erupting in the future wasremote.While in the Kadavu sland group, the authorvisited the islandOno off the eastern end of themain island (Figure4) and was told a myth, twoversionsof which also appeared n print n the earlytwentieth century(Beauclerc 1909; Deane 1909).Thesalient partof thismyth states that, a long timeago, the chief of Ono (Tanovo)was accustomed towalk down to the beach in the late afternoon toview the setting sun. One day he walked to thebeach but found that his view of the sun hadbecome obscured by a mountain (Nabukelevu)which had risen at the western end of the mainisland.Enraged t this,Tanovowove giant coconut-fibrebaskets and went during he night to removeearthfrom the mountain.The chief of Nabukelevu(Tautaumolau)caught Tanovo one night andchased him away, in the course of which hedropped earth at the islands Dravuni (ash) andGaloa (Figure4).This myth could be interpretedas recallinganeruption of Nabukelevu(and possiblyGaloa) withassociated ash falls within the period of humanoccupation of Kadavu


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132 The convergence of myth and reality

Plate 1 The volcano Nabukelevu which dominates the western extremity of Kadavu Island in southern Fiji

2900-2700 yearsago, makingt one of the earli-est sites in Fiji Anderson nd Clark1999). Theonly other Lapita ite discovered n centralFiji,following extensive surveys on Naigani andMoturikislands, s at Saulevu n Moturikisland(Nunn1999b).Anoral raditionromNaiganisland, ellknownamong tspeopleand hoseof neighbouringslandsand first told to the authora decade ago (EciKikau, ersonalcommunication 990), concernsits early ettlement Ramoli nd Nunn2001). Thiswas a time when resourceswere scarceand thecoconutwas valuedso highly hat two cousins-Laginiwasand Rakavono were banished romNaigani or uprooting oungcoconutsand eatingtheir tender flesh at the place called Niucavu.Laginiwasa,he Chief'sson, sailed for MoturikiIsland,anding t Saulevu,ust northof Nasesaravillage. Rakavonowas compelled to swim toOvalauwherehe landedat Rukurukund thencetravelled nland o Lovoni Plate 2). Today thepeopleof Naigani sland ecognize heir raditionalrelationship ith those of Nasesaraand Lovoni(Figure ).

The coincidence between the only Lapita ettle-ment sites on Naiganiand Moturikiwith the exactplaces mentioned in the oral traditionas havingbeen those between which Laginiwasaravelled sremarkable nd may recalla migration f Lapita gebetween these islands. If this is the case, then itwould demonstrate he potentialof mythsto illumi-nate ancient migrationhistory n this context (com-parable situations were described by TerrellandIrwin [1972] and Shutler and Evrard 1991]). Iftraces of Lapita ettlement were also to be uncov-ered at Rukurukur Lovoni, t would lend credenceto the idea that this particularmyth has a factualbasis which is of extraordinary ntiquity.DiscussionThe four generic groups of myths discussed abovedemonstrate that to varyingdegrees the types ofinfrequent arge-magnitude nvironmental hangeswhich have been recorded as having affectedPacific Islands during the period of their writtenhistoryalso affected them in the times before this,after humans had settled the various islands and


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Figure 4 Southern Fiji howing Kadavuand Ono islands and other places mentioned in the text

The convergence of myth and reality 133

17800'E 17830'EN o. Dravunizq0 10I , 0Km ta

Ono,Galoa;117800'E 17830'E

from the account of Huanakiand Fao stampingrepeatedlyon the surfaceof Niue for, if this myth sinterpreted correctly, it means that at least twocoseismic-uplift events occurred on this islandbetween 1900 years ago (when the island wascolonized) and around200 years ago when writtenrecords began to be kept.In terms of evaluatingthe role of catastrophicevents in landscape change, the utilityof myths ismanifest although the potential is less because ofthe tendency of humans o amplify xtreme eventsrelative to more usual changes. Nevertheless thepotentialof largefloods to cause majorchanges isclear,and perhapsadditional etailsof the natureofsuch changes could be gleaned by the collection ofmore focused details from that dwindlingnumberwho stillknow their people's oral traditions.Mega-landslides, oseismic upliftand subsidence are pro-cesses which have played a majorrole in terms ofisland sculpture but the magnitude of this has

island groups cited. Although this conclusion isunsurprising,he author is not aware of it havingbeen stated explicitlybefore with reference to thePacific Islandsregion.Perhaps ts most important mplication s that itshould encourage a more complete surveyof theseenvironmental hanges in both space and time. Forexample, knowledge of the conditions necessaryfor mega-landslideso occur on the flanksof PacificIslands s based on a few well-studied ituationsandwould benefit from examination of sites wheremyths (but no studies) exist. Datingmega-landslideevents would help predict their future recurrence.Thisalso appliesto coseismic-uplift vents, manyofwhich affect islands n the Vanuatu-Fiji-Tongareawith recurrencetimes of 400-1000 years. Mythswhich involve stories of repeated coseismic-upliftevents, constrained in time by the human occu-pation of the particularsland(s),have the potentialto inform geophysical models. This point is clear


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134 The convergence of myth and reality

The potential for myths to corroborate uchchanges should not be underestimated or,althoughhatcorroboration aybe tenuous, t is ofgreat value particularlyhen no other data areavailable.A finalpointconcerns he antiquity f informa-tion interpretedrommyths.Superficiallyt seemsunlikelyhat such informationould survive n aformwhich an be correctlynterpretedfternearly3000 years but this may be possible n insularsocietieswhere oral traditionsie at the heartofculturalntegrity. estsof this deacouldbe carriedout for those specific myths which have beenvalidated ecently see above).Dating f the mostrecent ruption f Nabukelevu olcanowouldgivean ideaof the antiquityf the mythof Tanovo. hediscoveryof Lapitapotteryat Rukurukund/orLovoniwould strengthenhe case for an age ofmorethan2000 years or the myth nvolvinghebanishment f Laginiwasa nd Rakavono romNaigani sland.

perhaps gone unrecognized because of the lowfrequency of these events (Keatingand McGuire2000).Understanding he role which extreme eventshave played in cultural ransformationn the PacificIslands s an issue which is gatheringmomentumand which could be informedby myth.Most floodmythsdwell on the disruption o humancommuni-ties; it is no surprise that most also talk aboutsurvivors, and one wonders how many floodsoccurredwhich had none. Long-term hronologiesof the frequency of naturalphenomena, such astsunami or storm recurrence, and coseismicchanges, are increasingly eing recognized as pro-viding nvaluable nsightsnot only to the past at oneplace but also to teleconnections which helpexplain change elsewhere. A good example is therecord of El Nino events since AD 622 (Anderson1992) which has been employed in the understand-ing of the AD-1300 climate deterioration nd sea-level fall in the Pacific(Nunn 1999, 2000, 2000a).

_E=$Plate 2 The view from the beach at Niucavu on Naigani Island across to Ovalau and MoturikiIslands


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Theconvergence f mythandreality 135

17850'E

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1740'S- Lovoni

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KmFigure Part f centralFiji howingmigrationoutesbetween Naigani,Ovalauand Moturikislands nd otherplacesmentioned n the text

Naigani

Ovalau


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136 Theconvergence f mythandrealityConclusionsThispaperhasshown hatbothgeneric nduniquemythswithinhe Pacific slands avethe potentialto illuminatessues of landscapehistoryandenvironmentalhange.Itis hopedthatthisrealiz-ationmightee theincreasedmploymentfmythsin reconstructingcenarios f changeand in theunderstandingf the spatial istributionf variousphenomena n this region.More examplesareneeded to test and developmanyof the ideasraisedabove.Inparticular,ompilationsf mythsfrom he Pacific slands ndother nsular egionshavethe potential o illuminatehronologies fextremeevents (suchas abrupt ectonicmove-ments,mega-landslidesnd phenomenalwaves)which reknown nly ncompletelyromgeologicaldata.Andat a broadercale,it is hopedthatthisstudy ncourageshe use of informationuchasthose lements f mythsdescribednthispaperbyscientistsnterestednthedistant astofareas,ikethe ropical acific,where heformal ollection fdata eganonlycomparativelyecently.AcknowledgementsThisaper s dedicated o the memoryof MaryNunn RGS.amgratefulo DrPaulGeraghtyorhisriticaleading f an earlier raft,o ProfessorJohnLynchfor discussionsabout 'Lingland',and o my researchassistantsFrancisAreki,Roselyn umar,TamaraOsborneand WainikitiWaqa-Bogidrau.ReferencesAndersen C 1928 Myths and legends of the PolynesiansFarrar nd Rinehart,New YorkAnderson and ClarkG 1999 The age of Lapita ettlementin FijiArchaeologyOceania 34 31-39AndersonY 1992 Long-termchanges in the frequency ofoccurrence of ElNino events in Diaz H F and MarkgrafVeds El Nino: historical and paleoclimate aspects of theSouthern Oscillation Cambridge University Press, NewYork193-200Anonymousnd Rodda P 1995 A legend fromFiji: he floodFijiMineralResources Department Note BP1/112Ashby ed 1978 Never and always:Micronesianstories ofthe origins of islands, landmarksand customs Rainy DayPress,Eugene,OregonBarker T 1926 How a coral reef became an islandTransactionsf the FijiSociety 1926 29-34Beagleholeand Beaglehole P 1938 Ethnologyof PukapukaBulletin 50 Honolulu:B P Bishop MuseumBeauclercA FW 1909 Legend of the elevation of MountWashington,KadavuTransactionsof the FijiSociety 190922-4 reprintedin Domodomo 12 26-9

Beckwith M 1940 HawaiianmythologyYale UniversityPress,New HavenBest S 1981 Excavationsat site VL 21/5, Naigani Island,Fiji unpublished report Department of Anthropology,Universityof Auckland,New ZealandChurchwardC M 1938 Rotuman egends Oceania 8 104-16247-60 351-68 482-97ChurchwardJ 1934 Cosmic forces of Mu Neville Spearman,LondonCodrington R H 189 1 The Melanesians Clarendon Press,OxfordCrocombe M T 1974 Maretu's narrativeof Cook Islandshistory Universityof Papua New Guinea, Department ofHistory,Port MoresbyDeaneW 1909 Tanovu- the God of Ono Transactions f theFiji Society 1909: 39-42. repriritedin Domodomo 12:30-35ElbertS H and Monberg T 1965 Fromthe two canoes: oraltraditions of Rennell and Bellona islands University ofHawaii Press, HonoluluEleyH 1861 Traditionsof the deluge among the MaorisRecreativeScience 2 195FinneganR and Orbell M eds 1995 South Pacific oraltraditionsIndianaUniversityPress, BloomingtonFloodB, Strong, B Eand FloodW 1999 Pacific slandlegendsBess Press, HonoluluGeraghtyP 1977 How a myth is born-the story of theKaunitonistory Mana2 25-291993 Pulotu, Polynesian homeland. Journal of thePolynesianSociety 102 343-84Gifford W 1924 Tongan myths and tales Bulletin 8 B PBishop Museum, HonoluluGillot Y, Lefevre J C and Natival P 1994 Model for thestructuralevolution of the volcanoes of Reunion IslandEarthPlanet.Science Letters122 (3 4 ) 2 91 3 02Grimble 1972 Migrations,mythand magic fromthe GilbertIslandsRoutledge and Kegan Paul,LondonHadfield 1920 Among the natives of the LoyaltygroupMacmillan,LondonHandyS C 1930 Marquesan egends Bulletin69 B P BishopMuseum, HonoluluHenderson S 1980 Observations on colonization of sub-sided shorelines at Halape and Keauhou,Hawaiti n SmithC W ed Proceedings of the third Conference in NaturalSciences, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park University ofHawaiiPress, Honolulu 155-63Henry1928 Ancient Tahiti,based on materialrecorded byJM Orsmond Bulletin48 B P Bishop Museum, HonoluluHillJ 1996 Niue and adjacent seamounts in Meylan M AandGlasby G P eds ManihikiPlateau,Machiasand Capri-cornSeamounts, Niue, and Tonga Trough:results of TuicruisesTechnical Bulletin10 SOPAC,Suva 31-44HocartM 1929 TheLauIslands,FijiBulletin62 B P BishopMuseum,.HonoluluHoworth1985 Baselinecoastal studies, Port Vila,Vanuatu:Holoceneupliftrecord and evidence forrecurrenceof largeearthquakesechnical Report 51 SOPAC,Suva


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Theconvergence f mythand reality 137Huggett R 1989 Cataclysms and Earth history ClarendonPress,OxfordKay R M A 1984 Analysis f archaeologicalmaterial romNaiganiunpublishedMAthesis, University f Auckland,New ZealandKeating B H 1987 Structural ailure and drowning ofJohnstonAtoll,CentralPacificBasin n Keating B H, FryerP, Batiza R and Boehlert G W eds Seamounts, islandsand atolls Monograph 5 AmericanGeophysicalUnion,Washington C 49-591998 Nuclear testing in the Pacific from a geologicperspective n Terry J ed Climate and environmentalchange in the Pacific SSED,The University f the SouthPacific,Suva113-44Keating B H and McGuire W J 2000 Island difice failuresandassociated sunamihazardsPure Applied Geophysics1 57 899-955Kirch P V 1997 The Lapitapeoples Blackwell, xfordKirk G S 1973 On definingmythsPhronesisSupplement 161-69Luomala K 1949 Maui-of-a-thousand ricks:his Oceanic andEuropean biographers Bulletin 98 B P BishopMuseumHonoluluMacdonald G A 1947 The tsunamiof April1 1946 in theHawaiian slandsSmithsonian Institution Annual Report1947 257-59Maude H C and Maude H E eds 1994 An anthology ofGilbertese oral tradition Institute f PacificStudies,TheUniversity f the SouthPacific, uvaMennis M R 1981 Yomba sland: realor mythical olcanoinJohnson R W ed Cooke-Ravianvolume of volcanologicalpapers Memoir 10 Geological Survey of Papua NewGuinea,PortMoresby 5-99Mimura N and Nunn P D 1998 Trends f beacherosionandshoreline rotectionn rural ijiournalof CoastalResearch14 37-46Moerenhout J A 1837 Voyages aux lles du Grand OceanAdrienMaisonneuve, arisMontiton A 1874 Les Paumotous Bulletin Les MissionCatholiques, yonMonzier M, Robin C and EissenJ-P 1994 Kuwae1452 AD):the forgotten aldera ournalof Volcanological and Geo-

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Press, Vancouver Polynesia Bulletin of the Seismological Sociey of AmericaTahiaoteaa 1921 Legende Marquisienne BulletinSociete des 52 1229-36Etudes Oceaniennes 5 490-98 White J 1889 The ancient history of the Maori:his mythologyTerrell J E and Irwin G 1 1972 History and tradition in the and traditionsSampson Low, Londonnorthern Solomons: an analyticalstudy of the Torau migra-tion to southern Bougainville n the late 1860s Journalofthe Polynesian Society 81 31 7-49

on the convergence of myth and reality_ examples from the pacific islands

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