ON BERGGRÜN, SCHIEFERGRÜN AND STEINGRÜN. HISTORIC GREEN PIGMENTS FROM HUNGARY

Andreas Burmester and Laura Resenberg

In memory of Karin Junghans (1939–2002)

The following updated article is a translation by Gillian Scheibelein of the 2003 article by Andreas Burmester and Laura Resenberg: Von Berggrün, Schiefergrün und Steingrün aus Ungarn, in: Restauro 109 (2003), Vol. 3, p. 180–187.

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Pharmacy price lists (taxae), which have already been described by Christoph Krekel, Ursula Haller and Andreas Burmester elsewhe-re,1 are a mine of information for pigment historians. Without go-ing into more details of this newly discovered type of source, these pharmacy price lists also contain artists’ materials, including green pigments such as Berggrün, Schiefergrün and Steingrün. In this artic-le, these green pigments will be discussed under the collective term “mountain green”.

MOUNTAIN GREEN IN PHARMACY PRICE LISTS

In these price lists, we usually found entries for mountain green in chapters with titles such as Von Bergart (rock) mineralia (minerals) or terrae (earths). The ancient term Bergart refers to „...Gestein von Farben unterschiedlich / daß in Gängen und Pfletzen [eines Berg-werkes] gebrochen wird / und kein Metall bey sich führet...“ (...rocks of different colours / that are broken up in the veins and beds [of a mine] / and which do not contain metal...).2 Mountain green is thus coloured mineral rocks excavated out of mountains and not ores from which copper is extracted. It has a confusing variety of names, including Viride montis, viride montanum, Berck grün, Schiffergrien, Chrysocolla vera or metallica, also Chrysocolla nativa, Terra viridis, Steingrün, Auriglutinum, Gluten auri or Diphryges. The majority of these names probably originate from the important Frankfurt trade fair catalogue from 1582,3 which lists Chrysocolla metallica, Chry-socolla nativa, Auriglutinum, Terra viridis, Steingrün, Schiffergrün or Diphryges, Schiefergrün. Obviously, mountain greens of differing quality were available: for example, the Breslau price list of 1596 contains the following three grades in order of decreasing price - Schifer grün, berg grün and Asch grün. The Lewenberg price list from 1614 differentiates between Chrysocollae nativae / Schiefer-grün and Viridis montis / Berg grün. Later price lists contain only different sorts of mountain green.

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Pharmacy price lists that have a separate chapter headed colores or pigmenta are particularly informative. If the pharmacy stocked mountain green, this is the only place it was listed. Thus, moun-tain green did not have any pharmaceutical significance; it was only traded as a pigment. The Lignitz price list from 1584 offered not only Berckgrün but also the twice as expensive Schiffergrün by the pound, which is further evidence for its non-pharmaceutical use as a pigment.4 In the previously reported inventory list of a Kolberg pharmacy of 1589, we find 0.96 kg Viridi mont[anum].5

Of special interest to our contribution is the fact that some phar-macy price lists provide information on the origin of the mountain green. For example, the Augsburg price list from 1613 mentions for the very first time under Chalcanti ungar[ici] that the origin of the traded mountain green was Hungary. Similar information is given in many later price lists: the Görlitz price list from 1629 lists not only gemeine Berggrün (common mountain green) but also schön Unga-risch Berggrün (good Hungarian mountain green), and Quedlinburg 1665 even goes one better with the besten Ungerischen Berggrün (best Hungarian mountain green).

The pharmacy price lists thus indicate that a number of synonymous names were used for mountain green and we are increasingly sure that it was used exclusively as a pigment. The important pointer to Hun-gary also throws up questions: Hungarian mountain green is only found in price lists issued between 1613 and 1715, whereas other products, such as cinnabar or vitriol, continued to be delivered from Hungary. Where did this mountain green come from in Hungary, how was it obtained and why does it only appear in the price lists for only a century or so?

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MOUNTAIN GREEN IN ALCHEMY MANUSCRIPTS, MI-NING LITERATURE AND MATERIAL STORES

Coloured copper salts have an import status in mining literature of the 16th century and are even mentioned as being artists’ pigments.6 Agricola described the methods of extraction as well as the origin as early as 1556 - about the same time the first printed price lists ap-peared. In his 12th book,7 dealing with substances dissolved in water and solids obtained by evaporating the solutions, he writes: “Klu-ge Leute [...] erfanden Verfahren, um auch andere Salze und manche wertvolle Erden zu gewinnen. Sie fassen nämlich solches Wasser, das aus Quellen oder Stollen herausfließt, in hölzerne Wannen oder Be-hälter, die hintereinander angeordnet sind. Es bildet sich darin ein Niederschlag, der jedes Jahr abgeschabt und gesammelt wird, so z. B. Chrysokolla in den Karpathen [sic] und Ocker im Harz” (Clever peo-ple [...] invented ways to obtain other salts and many valuable earths. They collect water flowing out of springs or mines in wooden tubs or containers that are arranged in series. A precipitate forms in them which is scraped off every year and collected, e.g. chrysocolla in the Carpathian Mountains [sic] and ochre in the Harz region). (Fig. 1). Not only does Agricola menti-on the Carparthian Mountains in Northern Hungary, he even gives the location in another place in the book: “Bei Neusohl in den Karpathen fließt grünes Wasser aus einem alten Stollen, das Chrysokolla mit sich führt” (Near Neusohl in the Carpar-thian Mountains, green water containing chrysocolla flows out of an old mine shaft). The some-what ambiguous term “chryso-

Fig. 1 | Mountain green from the Collection of the Staatliche Akademie der Bildenden

Künste, Stuttgart (Photograph: E.-L. Richter, Stuttgart)

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colla”, already mentioned by Plinius, pops up in 16th and 17th century literature. Indeed, in Martin Ruland’s Lexicon Alchemiae from 1621 it is equated with terra viridis, which is known in German as Stein-grün / Schifergrün / Bergkgrün.8 In 1668, Bausch reported in his manuscript Schediasma posthumum de coeruleo & chrysocolla, that “Ad oppidum Bistriciam, Germani Neusolam vocant, ubi fodinae sunt ..., cuniculus quidam reddit aquam viridem, ex quâ ubi subsidet, chrysocolla colligitur.” (At the town of Bistrica, the Germans call it Neusohl, there are mines …, a type of green water is running out the mine shaft, and where it settles, chrysocolla is collected) and further “Nativa, fossilis vel metallica chrysocolla vocatur Viride terrae, Viride montanum. Germanis est, Berggrün / Steingrün; & quia etiam lapidi-bus, imprimis fissili adhaerens invenitur Schiefergrün” (Natural, fossil or metallic chrysocolla is called green earth, mountain green. In Ger-man, Berggrün / Steingrün; and adhering on stones, specially fissile, Schiefergrün is recovered).9 The fact that Hungarian mountain green found its way to Germany was confirmed by Marx in his Teutschen Material=Kammer in 1687: “Chrysocolla, Berggrün / das beste wird in Ungarn gemacht / das allhiesige will ihm nicht folgen / man fin-det dreyerley Sortimenten / und jedes derselben wird dem Gesicht und Werth nach verkaufft” (Chrysocolla, mountain green / the best is made in Hungary / the local material is not as good / there are three types / and each of these is sold according to appearance and value).10 Pomet, 1717, describes its use: “Das Berggrün wird allein zur Mahlerey gebraucht, absonderlich, wenn man Grasgrün mahlen will, wie denn fast alle grüne Gemählde in den Gärten von Berggrün gemachet werden” (Mountain green is only used for painting, espe-cially if one wants to paint green grass as in nearly all green paintings the gardens are painted with mountain green).11 The Universal-Lexi-con of Johann H. Zedler from 1732 gives the following entry under Berg-Grün: “Berg-Stein, Stein-Grün, Schieffer-Grün, lateinisch Ter-ra viridis, viride montanum, Chrysokolla. Französisch Terre verde“ (Berg-Stein, Stein-Grün, Schieffer-Grün, in Latin Terra viridis, viride montanum, Chrysokolla. In French Terre verde).

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RISE AND FALL: THE HISTORY OF MOUNTAIN GREEN IN THE CARPARTHIAN MOUNTAINS

The history of Hungarian mountain green is closely linked to the history of copper mining in the region. The chief mining areas in the former Kingdom of Hungary lay in the region known today as the Slovak Ore Mountains in the Western Carparthians. The most fre-quently used place names in historical sources are Herrengrund (now Špania Dolina), Neusohl (Banská Bystrica), Kremnitz (Kremnica) and Schemnitz (Banská Štiavnica) (Fig. 2). Now almost forgotten, these regions, along with the Mansfeld and Tyrol mining areas, were once the largest copper ore regions in 14th century Europe. Even then much Hungarian copper was exported southwards, particularly to Venice.

The importance of Upper Hun-garian mines is closely associated with the names of a number of German merchants and trading companies, such as Jakob Fugger in Augsburg and Johann Thur-zo in Cracow. From 1491, the Fugger-Thurzo trading compa-ny in Upper Hungary operated mines, some leased and some owned, and they also built a lar-ge hammer mill in Neusohl. This trading company established the first European copper cartel in 1515, and the Fuggers domi-nated the world copper market. The Fuggers made immense fi-nancial investments in new tech-nology and organisation in the

Fig. 2 | The illustration from Agricola 1556 also shows the production of mountain green:

„Clever people ... collect the water that … flows out of mines in wooden tubs or contai-ners ... A precipitate forms inside them which

is scraped off and collected every year, e.g. chrysocolla in the Carpathians … „ (Photo-graph H. Koyupinar, Bayerische Staatsgemäl-

desammlungen Munich).

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mines and particularly in the development of a wide-reaching long-distance trading system that exported Hungarian copper into many European cities.12

However, the company’s assets were endangered by a miners’ revolt in 1525/26,13 the loss of autonomy in Hungary in 1526, competition from the Fugger mines in Mansfeld and the invasion of the Turks. Many factors were responsible for this, including dropping yields and greatly increased mining costs. The latter was due to the fact that the ever increasing depth of the shafts required expensive equipment to remove groundwater. Moreover, the transportation costs increased owing to incessant military threats from the local Hungarian ruler. The persistent threat from the Turks, civil disputes between the town of Neusohl and the company and the workforce as well as extremely large stock reserves14 prompted the Fuggers to completely withdraw from the Hungarian mining areas in 1545. The importance of cop-per ore mining in Upper Hungary began to wane after the Fuggers had departed. Their successors, the merchants Matthäus Manlich, Philip Welser, Wolfgang Paller and Leonhart Weiß, were unable to awake the Upper Hungarian mines to their former glory. Turkish sieges (1555/6) hampered supplies to the mining regions. Damaged production facilities, high unemployment and an international finan-cial crisis led to a depression in the middle of the 50s. Changes in the trading routes,15 a sales crisis at the end of the 60s and beginning of the 70s resulting from the increasing market share of imported copper from American mines, unpaid wages and strikes around 1573 meant that the miners were faced with a hopeless situation. The ge-neral inflation in the last decades of the 16th century and a simul-taneous drop in the price of the Neusohl copper and – last but not least – the plague in 1601, to which many of the miners fell victim, brought the successful history of the Upper Hungarian copper to an end. The 16th April 1605 was a fateful day in Neusohl: “Anno 1605 ist Neusohl von den Botschkaischen / auch Türken / und Tartarn / angegrieffen / aber denselben aus der Stadt wieder tapffer

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begegnet worden / biß die Türken sie an 6 unterschiedlichen Orten angestecket haben / daß darüber sie / sampt den Schmelzhütten / Kupfferhämmern / & biß auf etliche Häuser / Gewölber und Kir-chen / (so mit einer Maur umbfangen) / in drey Stunden in Rauch auffgangen ist” (In 1605, Neusohl was attacked by the Botkays / also Turks / and Tartars, but the people of the town fought bravely / until the Turks set fires in 6 different places / so that it went up in flames in three hours, including the smelting sheds, copper hammer mills but leaving quite a few houses / vaults and churches / (those surrounded by a wall).16

Later attempts to reinstate the Neusohl copper trade were only short-lived. The turmoil of the Thirty Years’ War, copper from Gustav Adolf ’s Sweden, Japanese copper imports to Amsterdam, but parti-cularly the neglected mines, lack of funds for expensive equipment to pump out the water and, once again, the invading Turks and the plague aggravated the situation even further.17 Neusohl was conque-red by the rebel Francis II Rákóczi in 1703 and remained occupied until 1708. From 1710, and particularly under the rule of Empress Maria Theresia, the Upper Hungarian mining regions of Neusohl, Kremnitz and Schemnitz experienced a modest economic upturn that continued until the industrial revolution in the 19th century.18

HUNGARIAN MOUNTAIN GREEN IN TRAVEL LITERATURE

Necessity is the mother of invention. Although the mine shafts and galleries were either destroyed or filled with water by 1605, the wa-ters escaping from the tunnels and from the piles of spoils promised a new source of income. In Herrengrund, close to Neusohl, copper was obtained from copper-containing water using the so-called ce-mentation process. Thanks to Mathias Bel,19 a Protestant pastor and well-known geographer, we even know when the copper-containing

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water, cementation water, was discovered: “Man saget wie Botskay 1605 gewüthet habe, sey von ungefähr und durch die Anleitung der Furcht, die Entdeckung unseres Kupferwassers geschehen. Denn da die Bosheit der Feinde nach Eroberung du [lese: die] Verbrennung Neusohls, auch der Bergwerke nicht verschonte, haben die Bergleu-te auch ihre Sachen, und unter diesen auch Eisenwerk, als Schlägel, Eisen u. dergl. vor den Feinden in die Gruben, als wohin niemand kommen würde, verborgen. Da dieses Gezähe hier über einen in sumpfichten Oertern gelegen hatte und nach Abzug der Botskay-er wieder hervorgezogen ward, so haben sie befunden, daß es vom Kupfer angefressen sey, und zwar desto stärker, je feuchter es gele-gen“ (They say that when Botskay was sacking in 1605, our copper water was discovered accidentally due to the emergency situation. Because the enemies maliciously fired Neusohl after conquering and did not spare the mines, the miners also hid their things, including iron tools, such as miner’s hammers, chisels etc. from the enemy in the mines where no-one would reach them. These miner’s tools lay in a swampy area and were recovered after the Botskays had withdrawn. The miners found that they had been corroded by copper, indeed all the more strongly the wetter they lay).20 In this process, the copper-containing waters seeping from the collapsed rubble21 were fed over pieces of iron. A thin film of copper collected on the surface, which was then skimmed off.

However, of greater interest to us is the fact that these escaping wa-ters were also used to make mountain green. For example, the English traveller Edward Brown reported an excursion in 1673 into the mine in Herrengrund where at the mine Dachstoln, different types of vi-triol are found, namely white, green, blue and a red, clear and trans-parent).22 Vitriols are sulphates of copper, iron, zinc, and manganese, and have been used for many things in the past.23 Ungarischer Vitriol (Hungarian vitriol) is also found in the pharmacy price lists where it was available at the same time as Ungarisch Kupferwasser (Hungari-an copper water). Although it is not proven to originate from Her-

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rengrund, its colour in the Passau price list from 1586 and in that of Görlitz from 1629 is described as blue, which indicates high copper and low iron contents. Correspondingly variable contents of copper, iron, zinc and manganese can also lead to the colours described by Brown. Dissolved vitriols seeped from steep slopes in the form of mountain green water along with sand and other rock particles from the spoils. Mountain green was deposited from this, as described by Brown: “Es gibt auch daselbst eine grüne Erde / oder vielmehr ein Bodensatz von grünem Wasser / Berg grün genannt / welches die Mahler gebrauchen” (There is also a green earth / or rather a sedi-ment from the green water / called mountain green / which artists use). Bruckmann, 1727, gives a much more detailed description: „Am Tage / ausser der Grube / trifft man das grün Farben=Wesen an / es läufft nemlich aus einem Stollen ein klares Wasser durch verschie-dene Rennen und höltzerne Kasten / welches eine grüne Erde darein fallen läßt / so man Berg=Stein= oder Schiefer=Grün / chrysocol-lam nativam und viride montanum nennet / und sonst nirgens als in Ung. in sehr reichen Kupffer=Gängen angetroffen wird / die Mahler bedienen sich dessen zum mahlen. Wenn sich eine quantität davon abgesetzet hat / schläget man solches von den Rennen ab / räumet die Kasten aus / trocknet es / und macht 3 sorten daraus. Die erste ist die gemeine / findet sich in den Kasten / in welche das Wasser zuerst fällt / ist grob und offters noch mit Sand vermischt; die Mit-tel sorte ist etwas feiner und leget sich in den folgenden Kasten an; die 3te ist die allerreineste / findet sich in denjenigen Kasten / in welche das Wasser zuletzt fällt“ (Above ground / outside the mine / they make green pigment / clear water runs out of a mine shaft through various gutters and wooden boxes / in which a green earth deposits / known as Berg=Stein= or Schiefer=Grün / chrysocollam nativam and viride montanum / and is found nowhere other than Hungary in very rich copper veins / artists use it for painting. When a quantity has deposited / it is knocked out of the gutter / the boxes are emptied / it is dried / and 3 grades are made. The first is a low grade / it is found in the boxes / in which the water enters first / it

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is coarse and often mixed with sand; the medium grade is somewhat finer and deposits in subsequent boxes; the third is the purest / it is found in those boxes / in which the water enters last).24 The unusu-ally detailed description given here of the production of mountain green is thus closely linked to the cementation process. Because this process was only discovered in 1605, it is logical that mountain green from Hungary only appears in the price lists from 1613 and was sold to mahler (painters) in Germany.

The production of high-purity copper using the cementation process lost its importance in the 18th century because the waters no longer contained sufficient copper. In contrast, the production of mountain green continued, as we know from similar descriptions from the 19th century such as “Die grüne Erdfarbe, oder das sogenannte Berggrün” (The green earth pigment, or so-called mountain green) written by Christian Andreas Zipser. “... die verdickte Farbe [wird] in Kübeln auf das daneben stehende Farbhaus in die Höhe gewunden, allda zur Ausstrocknung sorgfältig ausgebreitet, und endlich in Fässer gepackt, an die k. k. Verschleiss-Direktion nach Wien versendet” (... the thi-ckened pigment is winched in buckets into the adjacent pigment shed where it was carefully spread out to dry. Finally it was packed into drums and sent to the k. k. Verschleiss-Direktion [the distributor] in Vienna).25 A later travel report by Schmidl provides information on the amount of mountain green, which appears to be about 120 hun-dredweight per year.26 Protected by the Habsburg monarchy, most of the mountain green from Herrengrund was probably traded via Vi-enna from 1710, which might explain why the pharmacy price lists from 1715 onwards no longer included Hungarian mountain green but different grades of an unspecified mountain green instead. And: the advent of Berlin blue, which found widespread use in classical blue-yellow mixtures during the second quarter of the 18th century, sealed the fate of mountain green.

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MODERN CONFUSION OF TERMS

But where are the huge amounts – 120 hundredweight per year, based on the above numbers – of mountain green? Although re-commendations for the use of mountain green or Schifergrün are frequently found in technical manuscripts on painting, such as those by Valentin Boltz von Ruffach,27 there is very little evidence of them actually being used in paintings. One of the rare examples are the accounts books of the pilgrimage church of The Holy Trinity in Gößweinstein, which have an entry in 1766 for “21 fl. 28Kr. Für 1 Centner berggrün” (21 florins 28 kreuzer for 1 hundredweight of mountain green).28 Moreover, we know about intensive trade with “Berggrün” (mountain green) and “grüne Erde” (green earth) by the shop of the mer-chant Carl Venino in Würzburg. Venino, a so-called “Materia-list”, traded with all raw pro-ducts, including products arti-ficially manufactured and those made by chemistry.29 In historic pigment collections, containers of mountain green are rare and their contents are surprising: for example, the only sample of blue-green mountain green, da-ted around 1800, in the Vogel Collection (Doerner Institut) contains atacamite and parataca-mite (CuCl x Cu(OH)2), mala-chite (CuCO3 x Cu(OH)2) and posnjakite (CuSO4 x 3Cu(OH)2

Fig. 3 | A section from the „Neuen Land Tafel von Hungarn” (Nuremberg 1664,

Bayer Staatsbibliothek Munich Mapp. IX. 244 x) shows the mining towns of Neusohl, Cremnitz and Schemnitz on the River Gran. Herrengrund, in the vicinity of Neusohl, is

not drawn. (Photograph: Bayerische Staatsbib-liothek Munich)

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x H2O)30 (Fig. 3), and a sam-ple in the Stuttgart collection contains brochantite (CuSO4 x 3Cu(OH)2), a little ataca-mite and paratacamite and some quartz (Fig. 4). Thus, in the eyes of a modern analyst, mountain green is an undefined mixture of various green copper salts and may of course contain impurities such as sand (quartz) and other earthy components.

The discussion of mountain green must be extended to inclu-de two other pigments that are

usually named malachite and green earth. Surprisingly, malachite does not appear in any of the pharmacy price lists in the chapter contai-ning pigments or even those headed with pictorem or mahler. There are also no links to mountain green at all, instead malachite is listed under the stones as Lapis malachitis. This is a direct reference to ma-lachite stone that Valentini describes in 1704 as being used for healing purposes: “Er wird gegen den Donnerschlag / Magen=Geschwär / schwere Geburt / Krampff und schwere Noth gerühmet / und kommt am Preiß dem Achat gleich” (It is said to be effective against thunderclap headache / stomach ulcers / difficult childbirth / cramps and serious emergencies / and has a price similar to that of agate).31 Valentini would certainly have mentioned its use by painters if that had been the case. In contrast, the use of malachite stone in jewellery is substantiated,32 and it is possible that any jeweller’s waste could have been processed into a pigment. The price lists prove that malachite stone was always several times more expensive than all other green pigments, making its use as a pigment questionable. Neverthel-ess, there is a link to mountain green: malachite is used synonymously

Fig. 4 | Mountain green from the Vogel Coll-ection, around 1800 (?) with the designation „30 / Berggrün / In der weis porzellainenen Reibschaale klar gerieben“ (30 / mountain green / ground in a white porcellain mortar until clear). (Photograph: H. Koyupinar, Baye-rische Staatsgemäldesammlungen Munich)

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with mountain green in early mineralogical literature.33 The origin of equating mountain green with malachite, a copper carbonate, thus certainly lies in the early days of mineralogy. The term “malachite” gradually supplanted “mountain green”. The disappearance of the term mountain green can be dated to around the 1930s, namely at the time when analysis was being increasingly applied to historic painting materials.34 It was based on mineralogical terms.

As a result, “malachite” was frequently identified in paintings or po-lychrome sculptures, but never mountain green, and rarely atamite, paratacamite, brochantite or other green copper salts. But whether this “malachite” was always the basic copper carbonate mineral is rather questionable because microchemical analyses were generally carried out: the commonly used spot test involves adding acid to the green particles that then decompose to produce small gas bubbles. This, in combination with the detection of copper, led the analyst to conclude the presence of “malachite”. Diffractometry, the only unambiguous method of proof as CuCO3 x Cu(OH)2, was rarely carried out. Copper was detected in cross-sections and very small samples of powder: the colour and morphological appearance un-der the microscope were frequently sufficient; microchemical tests and diffraction spectra were not carried out. Our more detailed knowledge of the historical situation and increasing doubts concer-ning the detection of “malachite” has led to us intentionally using the term “Kupfergrünpigment” (copper green pigment) in recent years, but which has then often been interpreted as malachite by outsiders.

In the case of green earth, once again it appears that the historical facts do not agree with our current understanding! The pharmacy price lists and the material stores provide insights: the very rare entries for Terra viridis are equated in the price lists with Schiffergrün (Arn-stadt 1583), grüner Erde (Weimar 1673), viride montanum (Stutt-gart 1755) and grüner Farb (Minden 1691). Valentini’s comment

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that mountain green is a “natürliche und steinichte Erd [sei] dahero es auch von anderen TERRA VIRIDIS [...] auch Viride Montanum, Chrysocolla, Berg=grün / Stein=grün und Schiffer=grün genennet wird” (a natural and stoney earth and is thus called by others TER-RA VIRIDIS [...], also Viride Montanum, Chrysocolla, Berg=grün / Stein=grün and Schiffer=grün) forges a link between mountain green and Terra viridis. His comment that “die beste [Terra viridis] auß Ungarn” (the best [Terra viridis] comes from Hungary), leads us to suspect that terra viridis, Schiffergrün or even green earth have something to do with our mountain green from Hungary.35 Zedler‘s Universal Encyclopaedia supports this: „Die meisten Materialisten halten es [die grüne Erde] vor eine natürliche und steinigte Erde: andere glauben, daß es von dem Kupffer gemacht werde. Es ist aber ein grünlichtes und aus kleinen, dem Sand ähnlichen Körnern be-stehendes Pulver, so gemeiniglich in denen Bergwercken, wo Kupf-fer [sic], Silber- und Goldertz gegraben wird, zu finden ist. Es ist eine kostbare Waare, und findet man unterschiedene Sorten, fein, mittel und gemein, die beste soll aus denen Ungarischen Gebürgen [sic] kommen, so von Pressburg bis in Polen reichen, … Aus dem Kupffer verfertiget man auch ein Berg-Grün...” (Most materialists consider it [green earth] to be a natural and stoney earth: others be-lieve it is made from copper. However, it is a greenish powder made of small sand-like grains and usually found in mines where copper [sic], silver and gold ores are dug out. It is a valuable commodity and there are different grades, fine, medium and coarse, the best is said to come from the Hungarian Mountains [sic] that extend from Pressburg (Bratislava) to Poland, … A mountain green is also made from the copper...).36 Thus all strands of information on moun-tain green point to Hungary! Even though it is rarely mentioned in the price lists, the analyses made by the Doerner Institut show a conspicuous incidence of green earth from the second half of the 17th century (Fig. 5). In these cases, green earth is always found together with azurite. But here too, there is some doubt: none of these samples of green earth were shown to contain the tell-tale

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minerals glauconite or seladonite.37 Both minerals contain iron and silicon, but no copper. If copper was also present and the particles were blue, the aforementioned azurite was concluded, otherwise the copper remained unexplained. Thus in all these cases, was the granu-lar sand-like structure under the microscope along with the colour and the iron content sufficient evidence to be able to identify green earth? But why should the painter have mixed cheap green earth with very expensive azurite?

“Classical” methods of detecting alleged “malachite” or “green earth” are thus not straightforward. A check of 159 analyses of sam-ples taken from green areas of artworks painted in Germany, Switzer-land or Austria during all periods showed that nearly all the samples contained copper and (!) iron. A statistical evaluation carried out for this article suggests that the green particles were always attributed to “malachite” if the copper content was higher than that of iron. On the other hand, high iron and low copper contents were classified as “green earth”. However, in the latter case, the silicon content is also high. This can be explained not only by the presence of glauconite or seladonite, but also by the presence of quartz (sand). Is this not intriguing? Could it be that the pigment termed “malachite” by modern analysts is simply good quality mountain green in many cases? Is it not feasible that lower quality mountain green has often been equated with the modern term “green earth”? Perhaps this “green earth” is sometimes just sandy mountain green or Schie-fergrün or Steingrün, that is, a copper-containing green that so-metimes contains natural admix-tures of azurite?

Fig. 5 | Mountain green as Figure 1 with the designation „Berggrün / Viride montanum / Erdiger Kupferkalk, / das gereinigt als Farbe dient! / 5“ (mountain green / Viride monta-num / earthy copper chalk, / that is used as a pigment when purified! / 5) (Photograph:

E.-L. Richter, Stuttgart)

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The frequency distribution of “malachite and green copper pig-ment” in green areas shows a conspicuous gap in the 17th century: in this period, or more accurately between 1613 and 1715, the price lists contain mountain green from Hungary (Fig. 6). This is indeed the period in which the frequency distribution of “green earth” re-flects the popularity of another green, which we now associate with low-quality mountain green, perhaps Steingrün – the Steingrün that was still known as “green earth” in 19th century literature.38 If this is indeed correct, should we not return to the historical term “moun-tain green”, avoid the misleading term “malachite” and also use the term “green earth” more sparingly? And should not the criteria pre-viously valid for a positive identification of green earth39 and of malachite40 be revised?

Fig. 6 | Frequency distribution for the use of malachite and copper green pigments as well as green earth in green areas on German, Swiss and Austrian art objects (source: Doerner Institut).

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Regardless of all modern analytical uncertainties, artists have always bought the green that matched their ideas as well as their financial means: a green that was probably rarely pure malachite for cost re-asons alone, but simply a mixture of different green copper salts. However, it cannot be excluded that genuine green earth was used in some cases. But what that green contained exactly was irrelevant to both the artist and the pharmacist because a material that looked green, could be processed to a green paint and could be sold as such and was cheap on top of that, conquered the market.

ADDITIONAL SUPPORTING DOCUMENTARY SOURCES ON MOUNTAIN GREEN AND GREEN EARTH

Ercker 1573, p. 95„Die Kupferertzt seint für andern Metallischen ertzten allen wol zu erkennen / als die die schönsten Ertztfarben an sich haben / also das viel mehr Maler farben darauf gemacht werden / als auß den andern Metallischen Ertzten“ (Copper ores are distinguishable from all other metal ores / because they have the prettiest colours / thus many more painters make paints from them / than from the other metal ores).

Ruland 1612, p. 146 f.„rein Bergkgrün aus den Karpathen, Bergkgrün in einem Kupffer Ertz aus Schneeberg in Misnia [Meißen], Ein Schwartzisch Bergk-grün / mit einem Malachit schichtweise vermenget aus den rhaeti-schen Aplpen, Ein Bergkgrün in Eißlebischen Schifer, ein Krautarti-ges, genannt Schifergrün, und gemacht Bergkgrün“ (pure mountain green from the Carpathians, mountain green in a copper ore from Schneeberg in Misnia [Meissen], a blackish mountain green / mixed in layers with a malachite from the Rhaetian Alps, a mountain green in copper slate from Eisleben, herb-like, known as Schifergrün (slate green), and artificial mountain green).

20

J.M.L. 1684, p. 92 f.The unknown author J.M.L. reports that „Türken, Tartarn und Re-bellen“ (Turks, Tartars and rebels) invaded Neusohl in 1605 and started fires at six different sites so that the smelting sheds and ham-mer works „innerhalb drey Stunden in die Aschen gelegt wurden / daß allein der Schaden auf ders. Maj. Seiten über 100 000 fl. betroffen war” (lay in ashes within three hours / the damage to His Majesty’s goods alone was more than 100 000 florins).

Valentini 1704, p. 77„Ob das VIRIDE MONTANUM Berggrün / Steingrün / Schiffer-grün (welches sonsten CHRYSOCOLLA genennet wird) auch hierher gehöre / und (wie einige meinen) von dem Kupfer gemacht werde? ist noch ungewiß. Die meiste Materialisten halten es vor eine natürliche und steinichte Erde / dahero es auch von anderen TERRA VIRIDIS genennet wird: Ist ein grünlichtes und auß kleinen / dem Sand ähn-lichen / Körnern bestehendes Pulver / welches in den Ungarischen Gebürgen gefunden wird / so von Preßburg biß in Pohlen reichen. Es ist eine kostbare Waare / und findet man unterschiedene Sorten / fein / mittel und gemein. Das beste muß trucken / schön grün und kör-nericht seyn / woran man das natürliche von dem auß Grünspahn und Bleyweiß nachgekünstlete unterscheiden kan: wird zur Mahlerey und zur graß=grünen Farb gebraucht” (Whether the VIRIDE MONTA-NUM mountain green / Steingrün / Schiffergrün (otherwise known as CHRYSOCOLLA) also belongs here / and (as some think) is made from the copper? is still uncertain. Most materialists believe it to be a natural and stoney earth / which is why others also call it TERRA VI-RIDIS: It is a greenish powder consisting of small grains / similar to sand / which is found in the Hungarian Mountains / that extend from Preßburg (Bratislava) into Poland. It is a valuable commodity / and one finds different grades / fine / medium and coarse. The best must be dry / a pretty colour and granular / by which one can differentiate between the natural material and that prepared from verdigris and lead white: it is used for painting and for a grey-green paint).

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Valentini 1704, p. 7„Ferner muß die TERRA VIRIDIS, welche sonsten auch Viride Mon-tanum, Chrysocolla, Berg=grün / Stein=grün und Schiffer=grün genennet wird / allhier besehen werden / so gemeiniglich in de-nen Berg=Wercken / wo Kupffer / Silber und Gold=Ertz gegraben wird / zu finden ist. Dieser hat man öffters 3. Sorten bey denen Materialisten / und soll die beste auß Ungarn kommen / deren Farb / wie Marxius meynet / andere bey weitem nicht gleichen sollen...“ (Furthermore, TERRA VIRIDIS, which is also known as Viride Montanum, chrysocolla, mountain green / Steingrün and Schiffer-grün / all seen here / are usually found in mines / where copper / silver and gold ore is dug out. It is often found in a third grade at the materialists / and the best is said to come from Hungary / whose colour / as Marxius believes / is nowhere near as good as the others ...;). Valentini’s confusion between the terms chrysocolla or mountain green with Terra Viridis goes back to Pomet in 1694, who stated that the terra viridis from Italy was the best and “Sie muß steinicht seyn und nicht viel Erd=Adern in sich haben. Je grüner / je besser: wird nur zu den Farben gebraucht” (it must be stoney and not have many earth veins in it. The greener / the better: it is only used in paints).

Pomet 1717, col. 691„Das fünff und fuffzigste Capitel vom Berg- oder Meergrün. Das als Berggrün oder hungarische Grün ist als ein grünlichtes Pulver, wie kleine Sandkörner, und findet sich in dem Gebirge bey Kernhausen in Hungarn, welches sich von Preßburg bis Polen erstreckt. Es wird auch in den Mährischen Gebirgen gefunden“ (The fifty-fifth chapter on Berggrün or Meergrün. Mountain green or Hungarian green is a greenish powder, like small grains of sand, and is found in the moun-tains near Kernhausen in Hungary that extend from Preßburg [Bra-tislava] to Poland. It is also found in the Moravian Mountains [...]).

22

Delius 1773, p. 425„Im Herrengrunde wird auch aus einem solchen unterirdischen Was-ser die grüne Farbe erhalten, die unter dem Namen des Berggrüns verkaufet wird. Dieses Wasser, welches ebenfalls [wie das Zement-wasser] aus dem alten Verhaue hin und wieder herauströpfelt, und mit großem Fleiße zusammengefangen wird, ist dem Ansehen nach so helle und klar, wie das reineste Brunnenwasser, hat aber wie das Cementwasser einigen zusammenziehenden Geschmack. Es wird durch Rinnen in große Kästen geleitet, worinnen sich bloß von sich selbst die grüne Farbe in den allerzärtesten Theilen niederschlägt: die sodann zu gewissen Zeiten ausgeleeret und getrücknet wird. Es scheint, das dieses Wasser, welches eigentlich ebenfalls nichts anders, als eine Vitriolsolution ist, während der Zeit, als solches durch den alten Mann durchsintert, sich vielleicht mit Theilen eines flüchtigen Alcali aus dem alten verfaulten Grubenholze anschwängert, welches sodann diese Niederschlagung in eine grüne Farbe verursachet. Man findet daher öfters bey Verraumung der uralten versetzten Zechen, wo in dem alten Manne viel gefaultes Grubenholz ist, große Stücke von dieser grünen Farbe, die sich daselbst nach und nach zusammen-gehäufet haben“ (In Herrengrund (Špania Dolina), a green pigment is obtained from such underground water and is sold under the name of mountain green. This water, which [like cementation water] trick-les out of the old mine from time to time and is diligently collected, has a pale and clear appearance like the purest well water, but has a sour taste like cementation water. It is fed through gutters into large boxes in which the green pigment deposits as a very fine precipitate all by itself: it is emptied out from time to time and dried. It appears that this water, which is actually nothing other than a vitriol solution, may take up some volatile alkali out of the old rotting mine wood during its passage through the collapsed part of the old mine which then causes this green pigment to precipitate. Thus, during clearing out ancient backfilled mines containing a lot of rotten wood, one often finds large pieces of this green pigment that have gradually deposited).

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Zipser 1817, p. 98 ff „Herrengrund, (slaw. Spana dolina) ist eine beynahe 800 Jahre in Betrieb stehende Kupferhandlung, 2 Stunden von Neusohl im Sohler Komitat, mit einer Cementwasser- und Berggrünvorrichtung. ... Das Cementwasser in Herrengrund entsteht durch die Auslaugung des Kupfervitriols, welcher durch die Verwitterung der Erze in der Gru-be zum alten Mann, oder an Erzabstämmen, die der Luft ausgesetzt sind, sich gebildet hat. Die durch solche Gegenden durchsinternden Gruben – selten Tagwässer – werden, sobald sie genug herbe befun-den worden, in Rinnen auf die Stollensohle und über Schute geleite, ... Im Jahre 1752 wurde ein eigenes Gebäude mit grossen Kosten auf-geführt, um in selben, aus dem, mittelst Pilgen gehobenem Cement-wasser, durch einen künstlichen Niederschlag Berggrün zu erzeugen. Der von einem Holländer (de Witt) vorgenommene Versuch, gerieth aber ins Stocken, weil das, auf diese Art gewonnene Berggrün un-standhaft war und ins Schwarze überging. / Die grüne Erdfarbe, oder das sogenannte Berggrün scheint seine Entstehung den Fahlerzen und Kupferkiesen, die sich in den Halden vorfinden, zu verdanken, und eine blosse Kupferauflösung zu seyn. Dieses Wasser wird bey seinem Ursprung in Rinnen aufgefangen, und mittelst dieser in eine verhält-nissmässige Zahl von neben einanderstehenden Kästen geleitet, in de-nen dann beym Ruhestand des Wassers, die freywillige Präzipitation erfolget, indem die Kupfertheilchen in Gestalt eines feinen Schlam-mes, an den Boden oder an die Seitenwände der Kästen sich ansetzen. Die vorzüglichste Vorrichtung zur Erzeugung des Berggrüns befindet sich über Tag, wo in 29 vorgerichtete Kästen das Wasser so geleitet wird, dass es sich aus einem in den andern, oder in mehrere zugleich fliessen kann. / Das Ausstechen der Farbe aus diesen Kästen, ge-schieht jährlich zweymahl auf folgende Art. Das zufliessende Wasser wird von einigen Kästen abgeschlagen, und in andere mittelst vor-gelegter Rinnen geleitet, dann das in Ruhe gestandene Wasser nach und nach abgezapft, und jedesmahl die Seitenflächen sorgfältig abge-kehrt, bis die gefällte Farbe, in der wenigen noch übrigen Flüssigkeit konzentriert ist, worauf sie ausgeschöpft in Rinnen gegossen und

24

mittelst dieser in die zwey letztern und grössten Kästen geleitet wird. Hierauf wird das Wasser wieder in die, auf solche Art abgezapfte Kästen angeschlagen, und die folgenden auf gleiche Weise ausgesto-chen. Die, in die 2 grossen Kästen geleitete Farbe, wird in Ruhe gelas-sen, das klare Wasser abgezapft.“ (Copper has been traded for almost 800 years at Herrengrund, (Slovak: Špania Dolina), 2 hours from Neusohl in the Sohl Komitat (Zólyom county); it has equipment for cementation water and mountain green. ... The cementation water at Herrengrund arises from leaching of copper vitriol, which forms as a result of weathering of the ores in the collapsed part of the mine or in ore spoils that are exposed to air. The waters percolating through such mining areas – rarely overground water – are fed into gutters on the floor of the galleries and over chutes as soon as they judged to be bitter enough ... In 1752, a special building was constructed at great cost in which the cementation water, lifted by pilgers, was used to produce an artificial precipitate of mountain green. However, an attempt carried out by a Dutchman (de Witt) to produce mountain green in this way was unsuccessful because it was unstable and turned black. / The green earth pigment or so-called mountain green seems to originate from the fahlerzes and chalcopyrite that are found in mine spoils and appears to be due to simple dissolution of copper. This water is collected in gutters close to its source that feed it into a number of boxes, arranged next to each other, into which the materi-al spontaneously precipitates from the standing water as a fine slurry of copper particles that are deposited on the floor and side walls of the boxes. The best equipment to produce mountain green is located above ground where the water is fed into 29 specially prepared bo-xes so that it flows from one into the next or into several at once. / The pigment is cut out of these boxes twice a year in the following manner: the incoming flow of water to a few boxes is stopped and fed into other boxes through prearranged gutters. The standing water is then slowly scooped out and each time the side walls are carefully brushed down until the precipitated pigment is concentrated in only a little remaining liquid. It is then scooped out into gutters that feed

25

it into the two last and biggest boxes. The water is then fed again into the thus emptied boxes and the others are emptied in the same way. The pigment fed into the two large boxes is left to stand and the clear water is scooped out).

Zipser 1842, p. 54„Nun bringt man die verdickte Farbe auf den Boden des Farbhauses, wo sie zur Austrocknung ausgebreitet, endlich zum Verkaufe verpackt wird. Merkwürdig ist bei den einzelnen Farbklumpen, die als wei-cher, grüner Teig auf Bodenbrettern herumliegen, die spiralförmi-ge Absonderung, welche keinem, selbst dem kleinsten Stücke nicht fehlt“ (Next, the thickened pigment is dried by spreading it over the floor of the pigment shed before it is finally packed for selling. It is strange that the individual lumps of pigment lying on the floor-boards as a soft green paste has a spiral shaped exudation, which is present on all lumps, even the smallest).

Schmidl 1835, p. 192“Die Berggrünerzeugung, jährlich bei 120 Zentner, geht am Sand-berge vor sich” (The production of mountain green, 120 hundred-weight per year, is carried out in Sandberg [Slovak: Piesky]).

Hein 1920, p.123“das Berggrün (Malachit, ein basisches Salz des Kupfers mit Koh-lensäure)” (Mountain green (malachite, a basic salt of copper with carbonic acid).

Zerr / Rübenkamp 1930, p. 188„Zu den natürlichen grünen Mineralfarben wäre noch das Berggrün, das in der Mineralogie den Namen Malachit führt und basisch koh-lensaures Kupfer ist, zu rechnen. [...] Berggrün oder gemahlener er-diger Malachit findet sich auf Lagern und Gängen vorzugsweise in Rheinpreußen, Nassau, am Oberharz, in Thüringen, Schlesien, Tirol, Ungarn ... und werden Zwecks Aufbereitung entweder wiederholt

26

auf Naßmühlen, oder, wenn es ihre Beschaffenheit zuläßt, im trocke-nen Zustande auf Mahlgängen zu einem feinen, mehr oder weniger lebhaft blaugrün gefärbten Pulver vermahlen, das aber nur geringe Deckfähigkeit besitzt und sehr bald im Anstriche den atmosphäri-schen Einflüssen erliegt“ (Another natural green mineral pigment is mountain green, which mineralogists call malachite and which is basic copper carbonate. [...] Mountain green or ground malachite earth is found in deposits and veins particulary in Rhenish Prussia, Nassau, the Upper Harz, in Thuringia, Silesia, Tyrol, Hungary...and is processed by grinding it several times in wet mills or, if its con-dition permits, in the dry state on millstones to a fine, more or less bright blue-green powder, but which has only a very low covering power and is quickly attacked in coatings by atmospheric influences).

Wagner 1939, p. 206„Malachit, das Berggrün des Malers hat die Formel CuCO3 x Cu(OH)2. Er wird im Schwarzwald, in Sibirien, in Thüringen, in Tirol und Ungarn, in Frankreich, in Afrika und auf Kuba gefun-den. Von einer künstlichen Darstellung zu Malzwecken ist nichts bekannt. Während wie Raehlmann nachweist, Kupferlasur in antiker Wandmalerei nicht gefunden wird, ist Berggrün nicht nur in Rom, sondern schon in Ägypten in Wand- und Tafelmalerei ausgiebig ge-braucht worden. Der Name ist bei Theophrast und Plinius Chryso-kolla. Vielfach findet sich die Farbe mit einem Pflanzlichen Farbstoff überfärbt. Wir haben hier wohl einen der ersten sicheren Nachweise einer künstlich hergestellten Adsorptionsfarbe. Die kolloide Öllös-lichkeit des Berggrüns scheint damals bekannt gewesen zu sein und zur Gewinnung einer besonderen Sorte, der flüssigen Chrysokolla, Anlaß gegeben zu haben“ (Malachite, known to painters as moun-tain green, has the formula CuCO3 x Cu(OH)2. It is found in the Black Forest, Siberia, Thuringia, Tyrol, Hungary, France, Africa and Cuba. Nothing is known about the preparation of artificial moun-tain green for painting purposes. Whereas Raehlmann has shown that copper stains have not been found in ancient wall paintings,

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mountain green was not only used in Rome but also frequently found in wall and panel paintings in Egypt. Theophrast and Plinius called it chrysocolla. In many cases, the pigment has been overpainted with a plant dye. This is probably one of the first clear pieces of evidence of an artificially produced adsorption paint. The colloidal oil solubility of mountain green appears to have been known at that time and led to the production of a special type of paint, liquid chrysocolla).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe authors thank Ms A. Obermeier and Ms G. Bültemeier (Do-erner Institut), PD Dr. A. Hauptmann, Mining Museum Bochum, Dr. H. Mertens (Schloß Seehof) as well as Prof. Dr. E.-L. Richter (Stuttgart).

NOTES1 Burmester / Krekel 1998a, p. 54 – 101; Burmester / Krekel 1998b, p. 101–105; Krekel /

Burmester 2001.2 Berward 1673, p. 6.3 Catalogus 1582.4 Burmester / Haller / Krekel 20105 Burmester / Haller / Krekel 20056 Ercker 1573, p. 95.7 Agricola 1556, 12th Book, p. 480 and 499, see also Georg Agricola, De Natura Fossilium,

Liber III.8 Ruland 1612, p. 146 -148.9 Bausch 1668, p. 136. 10 Marx 1687, p. 79.11 Pomet 1717, col. 691 f.12 Vachlovic 1977, p. 154.13 Probszt 1958, p. 8.14 Kellenbenz 1977, p. 197.15 Kalus 1999, p. 277.16 Zeiller 1660, p. 155/6.17 Slotta 1997, p. 39. 18 Slotta 1997, p. 42. 19 Bel 1749, p. 334-335, see also Bel 1785.20 Ipolyi 1875, p. 129.21 „Alter Mann in den Gruben. Ist / der von den alten hingestürtzete / oder von eingangenem

Gezimmer vermülmete oder verfaulete Berg“ (Rubble in mines. Is the pile of rocks where the old part of the mine or a timbered shaft has collapsed; Berward 1673, p. 8)

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22 Brown 1673, p. 188. 23 Krekel / Burmester / Haller 200524 Bruckmann 1727, p. 252.25 Zipser 1817, p. 98-103.26 Schmidl 1835, p. 192.27 Boltz 1549, p. 75.28 Kettner 1991, p. 284. 29 Correll 2012, p. 164 ff., 253 and 25430 Frutos Höner 2000, p. 394 f.31 Valentini 1704, p. 56. 32 Sperges 1765, p. 185.33 Estner 1799, p. 604.34 Hein 1920, p.123; Zerr / Rübenkamp 1930, p. 188 or Wagner 1939, p. 206.35 Zu Berggrün, Valentini 1704, p. 77 and zur Terra Viridis, ditto, p. 7.36 Zedler 1732, column 1264.37 Both minerals contain Fe, Si, K, Al, Mg, but no Cu.38 Winkler 1860, p. 1860, cited by Brachert 2001, p. 28539 Grissom 1986, p. 161.40 Gettens / West FitzHugh 1993, p. 187.

LITERATURE Agricola 1556Georg Agricola: De Re Metallica … , Basle 1556, translated and edited by Carl Schiffner et al., Zwölf Bücher vom Berg- und Hüttenwesen, facsimile after the 3rd edition, Düsseldorf 19785

Bausch 1668D. Joh. Laurentius Bausch: Schediasma posthumum de coeruleo & chrysocolla, Jena 1668

Bel 1749Mathias Bel: Historischphysikalische Anmerkung von dem neusolischen Kup-ferwasser, das insgemein Cementwasser heißt, und Eisen mit Kupfer verwechselt, (dated 1728) in: Hamburgisches Magazin, oder gesammelte Schriften zum Unter-richt und Vergnügen, aus der Naturforschung und den angenehmen Wissenschaf-ten überhaupt. Hamburg and Leipzig, 1747-1758, 20 volumes, here 4th volume, chapter 3 (Des vierten Bandes drittes Stück), 1753

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Bel 1785Mathias Bel: Historisch=physische Beschreibung der Kupfer- oder Cementwasser zu Neusohl, die das Eisen in Kupfer verwandeln. In: Lorenz Crells, Neues Chemi-sches Archiv, Vol. III, Leipzig 1785

Beward 1673Christian Beward: Interpres Phraseologiae Metallurgicae Oder Erklärung der für-nembsten Terminorum und Redearten / welche bey den Bergleuten / Puchern / Schmeltzern ..., Frankfurt 1673, bound with the third edition of Lazarus Ercker‘s Probirbuch, Frankfurt 1673

Boltz von Ruffach 1549Valentin Boltz von Ruffach: Jlluminierbuch, Basle 1549, Reprint after the first edi-tion by C. J. Benziger, Callwey München 1913, reprinted again by Sändig Reprint Verlag Vaduz 1993

Brachert 2001Thomas Brachert: Lexikon historischerMaltechniken, München 2001

Brown 1673Edward Brown: A Brief Account of Some Travels in Hungaria, Servia, ..., London 1673, as a reprint published by Karl Nehring, Munich 1975 as Series C Volume 2 of the Publications of the Finno-Ugrian Seminar at the University of Munich, here p. 108 f., cited from the German translation from Edward Brown, Durch Niederland / Teutschland / Hungarn / Serbien / Bulgarien / Macedonien / Thessalien / Oesterreich / Steirmarck / Kärnthen / Carniolen / Friaul / etc. gethane gantz sonderbare Reisen …, Nürnberg 1686

Bruckmann 1727Franz Ernst Bruckmann: Magnalia Die in Locis Subterraneis Oder Unterirdische Schatz=Kammer Aller Königreiche und Länder ..., Braunschweig 1727

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Burmester / Krekel 1998aAndreas Burmester and Christoph Krekel: Von Dürers Farben, p. 55 – 101, in: G. Goldberg, B. Heimberg and M. Schawe (Eds.): Albrecht Dürer, Die Gemälde der Alten Pinakothek, Munich 1998

Burmester / Krekel 1998bAndreas Burmester and Christoph Krekel: The Relationship between Albrecht Dürer’s Palette and Fifteenth/Sixteenth-Century Pharmacy Price Lists: The Use of Azurite and Ultramarine, p. 101 – 105, in: Ashok Roy and Perry Smith (Eds.), Painting Techniques: History, Materials and Studio Practice, IIC London 1998

Burmester / Haller / Krekel 2010Andreas Burmester, Ursula Haller und Christoph Krekel: The Munich Taxae Pro-ject: The Kolberg Inventory List of 1589, in: Mark Clarke, Joyce H. Townsend und Ad Stijnman (Hrsg.), Art of the Past, Sources and Reconstructions, London 2005, S. 44 - 48.

Burmester / Haller / Krekel 2010Andreas Burmester, Ursula Haller and Christoph Krekel: Pigmenta et Colores: The Artist’s Palette in Pharmacy Price Lists from Liegnitz (Silesia), p. 314 – 324 in: Jo Kirby, Susan Nash and Joanna Cannon, Trade in Artists’ Materials: Markets and Commerce in Europe to 1700, Archetype London 2010

Catalogus 1582Catalogus Oder Register/ aller Apoteckischen Simplicien vnd Compositen/ so in den beyden Messen zu Franckfurt am Mayn/ durch die Materialisten/ Kauffleut/ Würtzelträger vnd Kräutler/ auch durch die Apotecker daselbst verkaufft werden, Frankfurt 1582

Correll 2012Stefanie Correll: Farbwarenhandel um 1800 – die Würzburger Kaufleute Venino, ed. by E. Emmerling and A. Burmester, Munich 2012

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Delius 1773Christoph Traugott Delius: Anleitung zu der Bergbaukunst … für die Kaiserl. Kö-nigl. Schemnitzer Bergakademie entworfen, Wien 1773Ercker 1573Lazarus Ercker: Beschreibung Allerfürnemsten Mineralischen Ertzt / und Berckwercksarten, Prague 1573

Estner 1799Abbé Estner: Versuch einer Mineralogie für Anfänger und Liebhaber, Vienna 1799

Frutos Höner 2000Annabelle P. Frutos Höner: … Analytical Studies of the Vogel Collection, Disser-tation, University of California, San Diego 2000

Gettens / West FitzHugh 1993Rutherford J. Gettens and Elisabeth West FitzHugh: Malachite and Green Verdi-ter, in: Ashok Roy (Ed.), Artists’ Pigments, A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 2., p. 183 – 202, Washington 1993.

Grissom 1993Carol A. Grissom: Green Earth, in: Robert L. Feller (Ed.): Artists’ Pigments, A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 1., p. 141 – 167, Washing-ton 1993.

Hein 1920Alois Raimund Hein: Farbenlehre, Vienna and Leipzig 1920

Ipolyi 1875Arnold Ipolyi: Geschichte der Stadt Neusohl, Vienna 1875

Kalus 1999Peter Kalus: Die Fugger in der Slowakei, Augsburg 1999

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Kellenbenz 1977Hermann Kellenbenz (Ed.): Schwerpunkte der Kupferproduktion und des Kupfer-handels in Europa 1500- 1650, Cologne 1977

Kettner 1991Johann Kettner: Die Wallfahrtskirche zur Heiligen Dreifaltigkeit zu Gößweinstein, Dissertation 1991

Krekel / Burmester 2001Christoph Krekel and Andreas Burmester: Apothekentaxen als neuer Quellentyp für die Erforschung historischer Malmaterialien – Das Münchner Taxenprojekt, in: Restauro 107, 6 (2001), p. 450 - 455.

Krekel / Burmester / Haller 2005Christoph Krekel, Andreas Burmester and Ursula Haller: Kurzmitteilungen aus dem Münchner Taxenprojekt: Vitriol, in: Restauro 111, 8 (2005), p. 562-565.

J. M. L. 1684J. M. L.: Ungarisches Stadt-Büchlein / des Königreichs Ungarn, Nürnberg 1684

Marx 1687Johann Jacob Marx: Materialist und Specerey=Händler in Nürnberg zum gülde-nen Horn, Teutsche Material=Kammer, Nürnberg 1687

Pomet 1717Peter Pomet: Der aufrichtige Materialist und Specerey-Händler …, Leipzig 1717, Reprint Edition Leipzig 1986

Probszt 1958Günther von Probszt: Das deutsche Element im Personal der niederungarischen Bergstädte, Munich 1958 (Buchreihe der südostdeutschen historischen Kommis-sion, Vol. 1)

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Ruland 1612Martin Ruland: Lexicon Alchemiae, Frankfurt 1612 (Reprint Hildesheim 1987)

Schmidl 1835Adolf Schmidl (Editor): Handbuch durch das Königreich Ungarn, zweiter Band des Handbuches für Reisende in dem österreichischen Kaiserstaate, von Rudolph von Jenny, Vienna 1835

Slotta 1997Rainer Slotta (Ed.): Bei diesem Schein kehrt Segen ein, Bochum 1997

von Sperges 1765Joseph von Sperges: Tyrolische Bergwerksgeschichte ... worin das Bergwerk zu Schwatz beschrieben wird, Vienna 1765

Wagner 1939Hans Wagner: Die Körperfarben, Stuttgart 1939

Winkler 1860E. Winkler: Die Lack- und Firniß-Fabrikation in ihrem ganzen Umfange Nebst einer Anleitung zur Lackirkunst 1860², citation from Brachert 2001, p. 285

Valentini 1704Michael Bernhard Valentini: Museum Museorum Oder Vollständige Schau=Bühne Aller Materialien und Specereyen Nebst deren Natürlichen Beschreibung / Elec-tion, Nutzen und Gebrauch / Aus andern Material-Kunst= und Naturalien-Kam-mern / Oost= und West=Indischen Reiß=Beschreibungen / Curiosen Zeit= und Tag=Registern / Natur= und Artzney=Kündigern / wie auch selbst=eigenen Erfahrung / Zum Vorschub Der Studirenden Jugend / Materialisten / Apothe-cker und deren Visitatoren / Wie auch anderer Künstler / als Jubilirer / Mahler / Färber / u. s. w. ..., Frankfurt 1704

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Zedler 1732Johann H. Zedler: Großes vollständiges Universal-Lexicon aller Wissenschaften und Künste, Halle 1732 - 1754

Zeiller 1660Martin Zeiller: Newe Beschreibung deß Königreichs Ungarn und darzu gehöriger Landen, Stätten und Vornembster Örther, Ulm 1660

Zerr 1930Georg Zerr and R. Rübenkamp: Handbuch der Farbenfabrikation, Sulzbach / Dresden 1930

Zipser 1817Christian Andreas Zipser: Versuch eines topographisch-mineralogischen Handbu-ches von Ungern, Oedenburg 1817

Zipser 1842Christian Andreas Zipser: Neusohl und dessen Umgebungen, Ofen 1842

AUTHORS

Andreas Burmester, Doerner Institut, Barer Str. 29, D-80799 Mu-nich, Email: burmester@doernerinstitut.de

Laura Resenberg, Fürstliche Sammlungen Art Service GmbH & Co OG, Fürstengasse 1, A-1090 Wien, Email: l.resenberg@liechten-steincollections.at