1

OKAFOR, MICHAH CHUKWUEMEKA

REG NO. PG/Ph.D/04/38081

EFFECT OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE AND NATIONAL

INCOME ACCOUNTING ON MACROECONOMIC

PERFORMANCE IN NIGERIA,1980-2007

ACCOUNTANCY

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ACCOUNTANCY, FACULTY OF

BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA ENUGU CAMPUS

Webmaster

Digitally Signed by Webmaster’s Name

DN : CN = Webmaster’s name O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka

OU = Innovation Centre

JULY, 2010

2

EFFECT OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE AND NATIONAL

INCOME ACCOUNTING ON MACROECONOMIC

PERFORMANCE IN NIGERIA,1980-2007

By

OKAFOR, MICHAH CHUKWUEMEKA

REG NO. PG/Ph.D/04/38081

DEPARTMENT OF ACCOUNTANCY

FACULTY OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,

ENUGU CAMPUS

JULY, 2010

3

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Public expenditure happens to be the most visible and quantifiable measure of

government activity. This appears to be the case with many countries, especially

the developing ones. Nigeria has been adopting public expenditure as a practical

instrument of government policy towards achieving some macroeconomic

objectives. According to Adubi, et.al. (1999:184), public expenditure could

simply be seen as expenses which the public sector incurs for its maintenance,

for the benefit of the economy, external bodies and for other countries. Klein

(1976:4) states the view that public expenditure can comprehensively and

conventionally be defined to include all spending by central and local

government, as well as capital investments by public corporations. Adubi,

et.al.(1999:184) also express the view that public sector can be broadly defined

as that portion of national economy in which economic and non-economic

activities are under the control and general direction of government. The public

sector in Nigeria consists of the Federal Government, State Government, Local

governments and government enterprises.

4

The appeal of public expenditure as a subject of inquiry is that it sums up a

mass of varying decisions and developments- with varying implications for the

political and social order in a common unit of currency (Klein, 1976:6).

Classification of public expenditure can be done in several ways. It can be

classified into current and capital expenditures for government budgeting

purposes, ( World Bank, 1988:108 as cited in Adubi, et.al.,1999: 184).

There could also be further subdivision of each class according to “function” or

sector such as administration, economic services, social and community

Services and transfers. The classification under administration is made up of

general administration, defence and internal security. Economic services

normally comprise agriculture, construction, transport and communication

among other things. Social and community services include education, health,

housing and others. The items classified under transfers are public debt charges

(both internal and external), non-statutory appropriation, grants and

subventions.

There have been inconclusive results on the growth effects of the ratio of total

government expenditure to GDP, which is not surprising, since different

expenditure compositions for a given level of the total have many effects on

output growth.

5

In Nigeria, attempts to empirically verify the relationship between public

expenditure and macroeconomic variables have not been well documented in

literature. Most works on public expenditure in Nigeria centred on the factors

that are responsible for increase in government expenditure (Ezirim,2006:90;

and others). Other works along this line which investigate the disaggregated

components of public expenditure include, Fajingbesi,et.al. (1999), Ekpo

(1995), Ogiogio (1995) and Odusola (1996). Ekpo (1995) regresses the

disaggregated components of government capital expenditure on private

investment, using ordinary least square approach with annual data from 1960-

1990. Ogiogio (1995) investigates the growth impact of recurrent, capital and

sectoral expenditures over the period 1970-1993. Odusola (1996) adopts a

simultaneous equation model to capture the interrelationship between military

expenditure and economic growth in Nigeria.

Three studies which adopt a broader methodological framework to understand

the links between public expenditure and economic growth in Nigeria are

Fajingbesi, et. al. (1999), Ezirim (2006) and Tsauni (2007). It is a fact that both

public expenditure and economic growth are bicausually related. This makes

any deductions from a single equation model invalid. This is owing to the

possibility of simultaneity bias. The work of Fajingbesi,et.al.(1999) aim at

6

analysing the existing link between public expenditure and economic growth in

Nigeria. The ordering of the variables are inflation rate, output and total

expenditure.

The studies by Ezirim (2006: 87) investigates the factors that truly affect public

expenditure in less developed countries using data from Nigeria. The studies by

Tsauni (2007: 93) examines whether there is any causal relationship between

education expenditure and economic growth and whether education expenditure

is a good predictor of economic growth or vice-versa.

These studies are very comprehensive, illustrating a wide range of analytical

approach for assessing impacts of public expenditure on economic growth.

However, no one adopted an economic-wide approach which allows capturing

interaction of various factors through direct, indirect and multiple-round effects

over time. Furthermore, the existing studies do not contrast alternative

government spending strategies, discussing their advantages and drawbacks for

deeper evaluation. Most of these studies did not take into cognizance a wide

range of growth determinants like employment rate, investment, inflation rate,

capacity utilization among others.

This research is an attempt to fill this lacuna by adopting a holistic approach

which will incorporate the major determinants of growth on economic wide

7

basis. The study will adopt a wider variety of variables incorporating multiple

linear regression approach to examine the impact of public expenditure on

macroeconomic growth.

The way in which public expenditure are allocated has significant effect on

economic growth and poverty alleviation. “The link between public outlay and

economic growth in Nigeria calls for empirical investigation. The work of

Adubi and Obioma (1999: 182) examine public expenditure management in

Nigeria. They perceive that the role of the pubic sector in the growth and

development process led to tremendous growth in public expenditure and

consequently the public sector itself. Good economic policy is critical for

meaningful national development. According to Hiley (1999: 11), the four main

goals of macroeconomic policy are controlling inflation, maintaining a stable

and competitive real exchange rate, exercising fiscal prudence, and operating

efficient capital markets. In order to realise these obligations, government must

have some instruments for operating on the macroeconomic variables

(investment, employment, inflation, capital utilization, economic growth etc.).

Pubic expenditure happens to be one of these instruments; others may include

taxation, government subsidy, etc.

8

1.2 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

Fiscal crisis is mainly at the root of the economic distress confronting nearly all

the developing countries, including Nigeria (Komolafe, 1999:3). It appears that

the countries are facing serious difficulties in programming and management of

public expenditure. Timely adjustment in public expenditure levels to changes

in resource profiles of government is still posing serious problems to fiscal

planning and management in Nigeria (Adubi, et. al., 1999:189).

Public expenditure as one of the instruments of fiscal policy influences

economic activities in desired ways with the allocation of resources and their

use for the attainment of stability and growth (Anyafo, 1996: 244; Buhari, 1993:

149), Samuelson (1980: 144), Hilley (1999: 11), Premchand(1989) and Adubi,

et.al. (1999: 181).

Although the effects of fiscal policy are extensive, they are particularly

measurable in areas such as employment, price stability, savings and investment

and the balance of payments.

Resulting from dearth of empirical studies on the impact of public expenditure

on economic growth, Amin (1998) as cited by Fajingbesi and Odusola( 1999:

153)examines the effects of public investment expenditure on growth of

Cameroon’ economic activities.

9

Using an aggregate production function, he discovered a positive relationship

between the two, even though the relationship could not be statistically

established. In Nigeria, attempts to empirically verify the relationship between

government expenditure and growth have not been well documented in the

literature (Fajingbesi et al, 1999: 154). To the best of the researcher’s

knowledge there have not been extensive studies on the effects and relationship

of public expenditure on macroeconomic variables and economic growth in

Nigeria. This has necessitated the need to fill the research lacuna in Nigeria.

It is held that the persistent poor economic performance of the Nigerian

economy since the early 1980s has raised genuine concern about the efficacy

and timeliness and appropriateness of the macroeconomic framework forming

the background of the policy constituents (Ugwuh, 2002).The policies on

governance and anticorruption can be translated into practice only by significant

and sustained improvements in the efficiency, integrity, effectiveness of public-

sector management, and in the accountability and transparency of corporate and

financial governance in the public sector. The spending power of government is

enormous and requires deliberate prioritization to achieve the twin objectives of

efficiency and effectiveness in the use of Scarce public resources (Ugwuh,

2002: 42)

10

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

This study aims at examining the relationship between public expenditure and

macro-economic performance using Nigeria as a case study. On specific bases,

the study shall attempt to:

1. Establish the effect of public capital expenditure on the growth of the

Nigerian economy.

2. Establish the effect of recurrent expenditure on the growth of the

Nigerian economy.

3. Determine the effect of total (both capital and recurrent) public

expenditure on the growth of the Nigerian economy.

4. Establish the relationship between recurrent public expenditure and total

investment in Nigeria,

5. Establish the relationship between public capital expenditure and total

investment in Nigeria,

6. Determine the effect of public capital and recurrent expenditure on

inflation rate in Nigeria,

7. Determine the effect of public expenditure on industrial capacity

utilization in Nigeria, and

8. Determine the significance of national income accounting on

macroeconomic variables.

11

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS.

This study has been structured to answer the following questions:

1. What is the effect of public capital expenditure on the growth of the Nigerian

economy?

2. What is the effect of public recurrent expenditure on the growth of the Nigerian

economy?

3. What is the effect of total (both capital and recurrent) public expenditure on the

growth of the Nigerian economy?

4. What is the relationship between public recurrent expenditure and total

investment in Nigeria?

5. What is the relationship between public capital expenditure and total investment

in Nigeria?

6. What effect has both capital and recurrent public expenditure in Nigeria on the

country’s inflation rate?

7. To what extent does public expenditure impact on industrial output?

8. Of what significance is national income accounting to the economic health of

the nation?

12

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

In order to achieve the above stated objectives, the following hypotheses have

been formulated for the research study.

HYPOTHESIS 1

Public capital expenditure does not have positive and significant impact on the

growth of the Nigerian economy

HYPOTHESIS 2

Recurrent public expenditure does not have positive and significant impact on

the growth of the Nigerian economy

HYPOTHESIS 3

Public recurrent and capital expenditure do not have significant effect on the

growth of the Nigerian economy

HYPOTHESIS 4

There is no positive and significant relationship between recurrent public

expenditure and total investment in Nigeria.

HYPOTHESIS 5

There is no positive and significant relationship between public capital expenditure

and total investment in Nigeria.

13

HYPOTHESIS 6

Public capital expenditure and recurrent expenditure do not have a positive

and significant effect on inflation rate in Nigeria

HYPOTHESIS 7

Public expenditure does not have positive and significant impact on

industrial capacity utilization in the Nigeria economy

HYPOTHESIS 8

The nature and form of National Income Accounting does not significantly

affect the nation’s economic health.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Nigeria as a developing country is faced with the challenge of improving fiscal

discipline, bringing resource allocation in line with development priorities,

creating an enabling environment for public financial managers, and protecting

due process.

This study will be significant to the following:

I. GOVERNMENT: Policy makers in governments and their economic advisers

will benefit from this work as they will be well informed on necessity of

growth as well as the fundamentals of economic policy formulation.

II. ECONOMIC ANALYST / ACCOUNTANTS:

14

It will provide some insight into the macroeconomic variables and their

relationship with public expenditure. Thus, it will allow for performance

evaluation of fiscal policies of governments. The study will also bring to fore

the various expenditure reforms for proper evaluation.

III The Academia: It will add to the body of literature on public expenditure,

thus serving as reference material or research material for research on

macroeconomic policies and performance. The work will also throw more light on

the relationship between employment, investment, economic growth, inflation rate

and public expenditure.

IV The Regulatory Authorities and other governmental agencies will

find the research work very useful in their policy formulation.

1.7 SCOPE / LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The scope of the research is on the relationship between public expenditure and

economic growth. This study centred on Nigeria and made use of Federal

Government of Nigeria budgets as framework of determining public

expenditure profiles. The budget periods covered is 1980-2007. The public

expenditure data are reported and published by government agencies like

Central Bank of Nigeria, the Federal Ministry of Finance, Budget Office,

National Bureau of Statistics and National Planning Commission.

15

The data on macroeconomic variables like GDP, inflation rate, investment, and

capacity utilization were collected from CBN statistical bulletin and Annual

Reports and Statements of Accounts of National Bureau of statistics and

National Planning Commission were also used in this study.

The study is limited by the shortcomings in the published data, particularly data

from the yearly National Accounts, which have a way of introducing some

measure of variability and inaccuracies in the final results due to review of

procedure and harmonization of new compilations with the back series for

consistency.

The usual apathy in obtaining data by researchers was experienced in some of

the institutions visited .However, the problem was sufficiently addressed in the

fairly efficient strategies adopted in data collection and the reasonable time

evolved for the study.

16

REFERENCES

Adubi, A.A. and Obioma, E.C. (1999), “Public Expenditure Management in

Nigeria”, edited by Komolafe, O.S; Jalilian, H, and Hiley, M. in Fiscal

Policy Planning and Management in Nigeria, Ibadan: NCEMA.

Anyafo, A.M.O. (1996), Public Finance in a Developing Economy. The

NigeriaCase, Enugu: Banking and Finance, UNEC.

Buhari, A.L. (1993), ICAN/Polytechnic Public Finance, Ilorin: University

Press.

Diamond, J. (1989). “Government expenditure and economic growth: an

empirical investigation.” WP/89/45, International Monetary Fund.

Ekpo, A.H. (1995), “ Public Expenditure and Economic Growth in Nigeria, 1060-

1992”. Final Report, AERC, Nairobi, Kenya.

Ezirim, C.B. (2006), Explaining the Size of Public Expenditure in Less

Developed Countries: Theory and Empirical Evidence from Nigeria,

Nigerian Journal of Banking and Finance, UNEC, Vol. 6.

Fajingbesi, A.A. and Odusola, A.F. (1999), Public Expenditure and Growth,

NCEMA, Ibadan.

Hiley, M. (1999), “Fiscal Policy within a Simple Macroeconomic Model”.

NCEMA, National Seminar Report (1989).

Khan, M.S. and Villanueva, D. (1991), Macroeconomic Policies and Long-

Term Growth: a Conceptual and Empirical Review. AERC Special

Paper 13.

17

Klein, R. D. (1976), The Politics of Public Expenditure: American Theory and

British Practice. British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 6, No. 4, October, .

Komolafe, O.S. (1999), An Overview of Issues in Fiscal Policy Planning and

Management in Nigeria, edited by Komolafe, O.S; Jalilian, H, and Hiley, M. in

Fiscal Policy Planning and Management in Nigeria, Ibadan: NCEMA,

Martin, R. and Fardmanesh, M. (1990), “Fiscal Variables and Growth: a

cross sectional analysis”. Public Choice 64: 239-51; March.

Odusola, F. A. (1996), “ Military Expenditure and Economic Growth” The

Nigerian Journal of Economic and Social Studies 38 (1,2&3).

Ogiogio, G.O. (1995), “Government Expenditure and Economic Growth in

Nigeria”. Journal of Economic Management 2 (1), October.

Otani. I. and Villanueva, D. (1989). “Theoretical aspects of growth in

developing countries: external debt dynamics and the role of human capital.”

Staff Papers International Monetary Fund 36: 307-42: June.

Orsmond, D. (1990), “The Size of Government and Economic Growth: a

methodological review”. International Monetary Fund, August.

Premchand, A. (1989), Government Budgeting and Expenditure Controls:

Theory nd Practice, Washington DC, IMF

Samuelson, P.A. (1980), Economics, 11th

edition, Tokyo: McGraw-Hill

Kogakasha.

Tsauni, A.M.(2007), An Examination of Casual Relationship between

Education Expenditure and Economic Growth in Nigeria. Journal of Social

and Management Sciences,BUK, Vol.12.

Ugwuh, C.C. (2002), “Real Sector Policies in the 2002 Budget” The CBN

Bullion Vol.26.No.2.

18

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In the early days of the development of fiscal policy, during which it was still

used as a tool to prevent a depression, the belief then was that the same technique

could be used in both developed and developing countries. However, this

assumption proved to be wrong in view of the differences in the relative levels of

development. In developed countries, fiscal policy was first identified with

reducing unemployment by stimulating demand through deficit spending. During

periods of weak demand, developed countries have huge pool of unemployed

productive resources, which include underutilized capital equipment and

managerial skills; and fiscal policy can minimize the cyclical impact through the

maintenance of aggregate demand (Premchand, 1989: 8).

The experience is different in the developing countries where unemployment is

chronic and reflects structural bottlenecks of the economy rather than those that

are cyclical in nature. In developing countries, it has been held that injection of

increased purchasing power, as is the practice in developed countries, tends to

work itself out through increased imports and increases in prices rather than

leading to increased production.

19

According to Premchand (1989: 13), it is primarily for this reason that fiscal

policy is used in developing countries as an integral part of development plans,

with the aim of making appropriate structural adjustments in the economy Thus

achievement of growth is necessarily a long-term task, and there is more reliance

placed on fiscal policy in developing countries because of the features associated

with the workings of monetary policy, non-existence of relatively well developed

financial markets and the existence of large non-monetized sectors in the

economy which have tended to reduce the efficiency of monetary instruments,

shifting the major burden of adjustment to fiscal policy. “Also, the dominant role

assigned to public sector operations in the development process necessitates

greater reliance on fiscal policy.

Fiscal policy is also used in developing countries to counteract inflationary

pressure,”( Premchand (1989: 15). Thus, the role of fiscal policy in the long-run

in developing economies is more positive, as it seeks to reflect the aspirations of

all developing countries. There is emphasis on the expansion of productive

capacity, on large expenditure for development purposes, and on projects that are

more viable from the point of view of social return than financial return. The role

of expenditure in fiscal policy is partly dependent, as mentioned earlier, on their

overall ratio to GDP and partly on their function and economic characteristics.

20

Governments of many countries pursue a number of economic objectives. While

some of the objectives may be conflicting, however, there is general acceptance

as to the desirability of achieving specific targets for these macroeconomic

variables.

According to Buhari (1993: 153), typical macroeconomic objectives which

governments pursue include, price stability, full employment, economic growth

and equilibrium in the balance of payments.

Macroeconomic is basically the study of the structure and performance of

national economies and of the policies that government uses to try to affect

economic performance. Macroeconomic focuses on developments that involve

the economy as a whole; it attempts to explain changes in these aggregates and to

guide policy makers in their pursuit of economic objectives and efforts to

respond to unanticipated changes in the economic environment.

As stipulated in the work of Budget Process Support Project (2004), funded by

USAID (Nigeria),the issues that macroeconomists address include the following:

What determines a nation’s long-run economic growth? Why do some nations’

economies grow quickly, providing their citizens with rapidly improving living

standards, while other nations’ economies are relatively stagnant?

What causes a nation’s economic activity to fluctuate? Why do economies

sometimes experience sharp short-run fluctuations, lurching between periods of

21

prosperity and periods of hard times? For example, after nearly a decade of

prosperity, during the early 1970s, why did Nigeria economy began to falter in

the late 1970s?

Unemployment occurs when growth in the number of jobs a nation’s economy

creates falls below the growth rate of the population that enters the labour force.

Why does unemployment sometimes reach very high levels? Why, even during

times of relative prosperity, is a significant fraction of the workforce unemployed?

What causes prices to rise? What causes inflation and what can be done about

it?

How does being part of a global economic system affect a nation’s economy?

How do economic links among nations, such as international trade and

borrowing, affect the performance of individual economies and the world

economy as a whole?

Can government policies be used to improve a nation’s economic performance?

How should economic policy be conducted so as to make the economy as

prosperous and stable as possible?

Macroeconomics seeks to offer answers to such questions, which are of great

practical importance and are constantly debated by politicians, the press and the

public. From a macroeconomic perspective, the difference between rich nations

and developing nations may be summarized by saying that rich nations have at

22

some point in their history experienced extended periods of rapid economic

growth, while the poorer nations either have not experienced sustained growth or

have had periods of growth offset by period of economic decline. Why, for

example, did resource poor Japan and Korea experience growth rates that

transformed them in a generation or two from war-torn nations into industrial

power, whereas several resource rich nations of Latin America and Sub-Saharan

Africa such as Nigeria have had erratic or negative growth in recent years?

Today every major economy is an open economy, that is, one that has extensive

trading and financial relationships with other national economies. A closed

economy is one that restricts trade by imposing various imports restrictions such

as high tariffs or quotas and does not interact economically with the rest of the

world. An important goal in macroeconomics is to understand how international

trade and borrowing relationships transmit business cycles from country to

country.

Most empirical growth studies have evolved from the sources of growth

framework pioneered by Denison (1962, 1967 as cited by Khan and Villanueva,

1991: 23). The focus of most empirical studies to date has been on growth

effects of fiscal policies (government expenditure, taxation and deficits);

remarkable useful reviews of such studies have been undertaken by Orsmond

(1990). A summary of the studies considered in Orsmond’s survey is

23

reproduced in table 2.1 page 22 of this work, which is also supplemented by

other empirical studies that emphasize the growth effects of monetary interest

rate and external policies aimed at promoting macroeconomic stability (Khan

and Villanueva, 1991: 21).

To arrive at a discernible growth effect, many studies centred on the

components of government expenditure, some studies support a negative

relationship between the ratio of government consumption to GDP and the rate

of growth of output. It has also been held that the average ratio of infrastructure

expenditure to GDP has been found to exert a positive impact on long-run

growth in other studies.

24

Table 2.1 Empirical Studies of the effects of macroeconomic policies on long-term growth.

Authors TG CG INF EDH TR TAX DEF RINT RX CPI

Balassa (1978) +

Barro (1989) - + +

Castles and Dowrick (1988) - - +

Diamond (1989) - + + + +

Dornbusch and Reynoso (1989) -

Easterly (1990) - +

Khan and Reinhart (1990) +

Koester and Kormendi (1989) 0

Landau (1983, 1985, 1986) - - - +

Marlow (1986) - -

Marsden (1983) -

Martin and Fardmanesh (1990) - +

Michaely (1977) +

Michalapoulos and Jay (1973) +

Orsmond (1990) + + - +

Otani and Villanueva (1990) + +

Polak (1989) + +

Ram (1985, 1986) + +

Rubinson (1977) +

Saunders (1985) -

Skinner (1987) - -

Tyler (1981) +

Weede (1986) - -

Note: A positive effect is indicated by “+”,negative by “-”, and no effect by “0”. TG denotes total government expenditure;

CG current expenditure; INF infrastructure; EDH education and health; TR transfers; TAX tax receipts; DEF fiscal deficit;

RINT real deposit interest rate; RX rate of change in real exports; and CPI rate of inflation (consumer prices). All variables

are expressed as ratios to either GDP or GNP, except for RINT, RX, and INF, which are in percent. Estimates for Michaely

(1977) are based on equations using data contained in his paper.

Source: Khan and Villanueva (1991), Page 21

25

“The positive impact on growth of the average ratio of expenditures on education and

health has also been generally confirmed”, (Khan and Villanueva, 1991:22).

As we have the aggregate results on expenditure ratios, the empirical studies on

the growth effects of taxation are also inconclusive. The diverse impact of

different compositions of a given level of the overall Tax-to-GDP ratio gave rise

to this ambiguity. The study by Orsmond (1990) cited by Khan and Villanueva

(1991: 21) attempts to disaggregate tax effects, and concludes that the ratio of

import taxes to GDP is positively associated with the growth rate of output.

Furthermore, it was confirmed that there have been empirical studies by Martin

and Fardmanseh (1990), where expenditure ratios are found to have positive

growth effects, while tax and deficit ratios exert negative effects. This pattern is

reversed, however, when non-tax revenue replaces deficits, that is, the growth

effect of the expenditure ratio becomes negative and that of the tax ratio turns

positive. When the ratios of expenditure, tax, and deficit to GDP are jointly

utilized in a growth regression, only the deficit ratio is significant (with a

negative sign) as provided by the estimates of Orsmond (1990) in Khan and

Villanueva, (1991). The situation is different when the ratio of non-tax revenue

is

26

substituted for the deficit ratio, where the expenditure ratio now has a negative

effect on growth, whereas both the tax and non-tax revenue ratios have positive

effects.

The work of Khan and Villanueva (1991:22) raises the question; why is the

empirical evidence on the growth effects of fiscal policies by and large so

inconclusive? Apart from econometric reasons, measurement errors, problems

of simultaneity, and possible heteroskedasticity- two principal factors may

account for the different empirical results:

Ad hoc selection of explanatory variables; and

The length of time over which the sample observation are averaged.

Most of the empirical studies include only government policy variables as

explanatory in the regression equation for the growth rate of output, but there

are many other variables that determine output growth.

The total government expenditure ratio includes both “productive” and

“unproductive” components. With the assumption that the “productive”

expenditure elements have direct positive effects on private productivity, their

positive impact on growth serves to partially offset any disturbing effects

arising from associated financing costs (taxes and deficits).

27

Similarly, “there is a limit to the inclusion of all expenditure and tax categories

owing to multi-collinearity, which will increase the estimated variances of the

regression coefficients” (Khan and Villanueva, 1991: 23).

Whenever empirical studies produce a result that is either negative or

insignificant, coefficient for educational and health expenditure ratio is usually

presumed that study employed observations averaging over a relatively short

time. Orsmond (1990) as cited in Khan and Villanueva (1991:23) rightly states

that the long gestation period for such expenditure biases downward both the

size and significance of their coefficients. Studies that utilize samples over a

longer time, such as those by Diamond (1989) and Otani and Villanueva (1989),

support a positive and significant relationship between these “productive”

expenditure and long-run economic growth. The ad hoc selection of explanatory

variables is another possible factor that accounts for the diverse results from

empirical studies; such empirical regression that appears to lack theoretical

foundations was even undertaken by Orsmond (1990).

It is only the empirical growth equation of Otani and Villanueva (1989) that was

derived from a particular structural model, wherein the growth-macroeconomic

policy relationship is estimated in reduced form. As

28

specified by Khan and Villanueva (1991:23); “A fully specified growth model

would not only take account of all variables relevant to the process of economic

growth, but also would separate the endogenous from the exogenous and policy

determined variables”. In this manner, the econometric problems of variable

exclusion, simultaneity, and multi-collinearity are avoided to a large extent.

Nevertheless, over a reduced –form estimation of a structural model, cannot

entirely escape the problem of simultaneous-equation bias, since some of the

policy variables may indeed be endogenously determined by government in

response to macro economic development, including changes in the rate of

economic growth.

2.2 MACROECONOMIC POLICY

A nation’s economic performance depends on many factors, including its natural

and human resources, its capital stock (building and machines), its technology

and the economic choice made by its citizens, both individually and collectively.

Macroeconomic policies affect the performance of the economy as a whole.

Fiscal policy, which is determined at the national, state and local levels, concerns

government spending and taxation. Monetary policy determines the rate of

growth of the nation’s money supply and is under the control of a government

institution known as the Central Bank.

29

Large Federal budget deficits emerged in the early 1980s, and have continued

since then. The possible link between the government’s budget deficit and the

trade imbalance illustrate an important aspect of macroeconomics.

Macroeconomic issues and problems are frequently interconnected. .

For instance in the work of Tsauni (2007:95), the causal relationship between

education expenditure and economic growth was examined by employing

Granger causality test.

This is replicated as:

EDEX1 = a + ∑ bi EDXt -1 + EgiEGt-j + Ui ------------- (1a)

EGt = Y + ∑ δEGt-1 + ∑λi EDEX Ej + νt --------------- (1b)

RDEXt = a + ∑ bi RDEXt-1 + ∑ giEGt-J + Ui------------ (2a)

EGt = Y + ∑EGt-1 + ∑liRDEXt-j + νt ---------------------- (2b)

CDEXt = a + ∑ bi CDEXt-1 + ∑giEGt-J + Ut-------------- (3a)

EGt = Y + ∑δiEGt-1 + ∑ λiCDEXt-j + vt------------------- (3b)

where EDEX, RDEX, CDEX, EG are total government education expenditure,

recurrent expenditure on education and economic growth (GDP at current

30

factor cost) respectively. It was also stated that, Ut and Vt are serially

uncorrelated random disturbance with zero mean.

The equation as stated above confirmed that Granger Causality tests are related to

the significance of the g’s and d’s conditional on the optimal lag lengths m, n, q

and r (Jackson, Fethi and Fethi, 1998 in Omotor 2006) as cited by Tsauni

(2007:95). This work confirmed that causality exists between economic growth

and education expenditure and went further to examine the nature and direction

of causality pair wise granger causality test was utilized which showed that the

hypothesis that economic growth (EG) does not granger cause recurrent

expenditure on education (RDEX) and that economic growth (EG) does not

granger cause capital expenditure on education (CDEX) in Nigeria cannot be

rejected, but the hypothesis that EDEX does not granger cause EG, that RDEX

does not granger cause EG and that CDEX does not granger cause EG were

rejected. Thus, it indicates that granger causality runs one-way from education

expenditure to economic growth and not the other way. As stated in Tsauni

(2007:97), “this finding is compatible with the Keynesian theory and the

empirical works of Kweka and Morissey, 2000 and Tsauni, 2004”.

31

Table 2.2a: Public Expenditure Objectives and Instruments

Objectives Determinant of Objectives Expenditure Instruments

Provision of social Sociopolitical approaches Consumption expenditures

wants. Incurred in the provision of

Public goods and services:

Investment outlays on the

production of goods: and

provision of general, social

and economic services.

Optimal growth Socioeconomic approaches Investment expenditures:

other outlays on the

provision of infrastructure

facilities: and loans to

private sector.

Employment Socioeconomic imperatives Investment in labour

intensive industries;

subsidies; and

related fiscal incentives.

Stabilization or Economic factors Reductions or increases in

demand expenditures; changes in the

management composition of expenditures

and methods of financing

budget surpluses and deficits.

Distribution of Socio-political approaches

Income

(i) Among people Transfer payments; direct and

indirect subsidies; provision

of goods and services free to

specified income groups of

community.

(ii) Among Regions Investment in less

developed regions; greater

subsidies and grants

NJote: In a way, all the objectives and instruments listed above are related to each other. But some

objectives are more closely related to some instruments and this aspect is illustrated above.

Source: Premchand (1989:15).

32

ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE

Considering the constitutional framework of Nigeria and its federal set-up,

responsibilities are functionally allocated to the three tiers of government, that is.

Federal, State and Local Government. We have the first list of social services that

are exclusively made for the Federal Government which includes National

Defence, Security, External Affairs, printing of money, among others. The

second list which is referred to as concurrent matters, such as health, education,

agriculture, among others, can be accommodated in the expenditure programme

of each Federal, State and Local Governments. Residual subjects are contained in

the third list which includes Social Services that are not specifically mentioned

under the exclusive or concurrent lists. The State and Local Governments are to

provide services under the third list. The list of services as assigned to the three

tier of governments are as stated in table 2.2b below:

33

Table 2.2b: Assignment of Responsibilities in the 1999 Constitution

Source: (1) 1999 Constitutions.

(2)Sanni, 2003:9)

Federal Government State Governments Local Governments

Defence and National Security

Police

Foreign Affairs

Inter-State Road

Mineral Exploration

International Road

Railways

Airport

Aviation Facilities

Power Supply

Communication

Management of

Territorial Waters

Higher Education

Secondary Education

Tertiary Health Services

Agriculture

Commerce and Tourism

Higher Education

Secondary Education

Primary Education

Maintenance of Standards

Urban and Rural Waters

Transportation

Housing

Health

Lighter Industries

Agriculture

Tourism and Town

Planning

Sewage Disposal

Environmental sanitation

Maintenance of

Federal Earth Roads

Primary Education

Payments of salaries

Market stalls

Craft and Small

Scale Industries

34

2.3 THEORIES OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE

Many theories have been propounded by scholars to explain the concept of

public expenditure and the association with economic growth. Most studies

have also tried to review these theories which include the work of Ezirim,

(2006: 85), Tsauni (2007: 92) and Buhari (1993: 153).

The more popular theories include the following:

2.3.1 WAGNER’S LAW OF EXPANDING STATE ACTIVITY.

Wagner’s Law states that as the per capita income in industrializing

countries rise, the relative share of the public sector in national output

would rise. Following this theory, there are possibilities that the activities

of different tiers of a government (as in the case with Nigeria, where we

have the Federal, State and Local government) to continually be on the

increase. Ezirim (2006: 87) therefore argues that these increase in State

activities necessitate increases in public expenditure.

Buhari (1993: 155 ) also accepts that Wagner’s argument has support from

sociology. Sociologists argue that population growth, increased

urbanization and division of labour that tend to characterize economic

development, tend to increase alienation. Thus, this will necessitate

increased government spending. In line with Wagner’s law and the

arguments, Aigbokham (1997), Bhatia (1982) and Isiaku(1987) as cited

35

by Ezirim (2006: 88) accept that reduction in public sector growth would

require a slowdown of economic growth and it is expected that a

continuous expansion of the government sector and its expenditure would

occur. Tsauni (2007: 92), expresses the view that public expenditure can be

treated as an outcome or an endogenous factor of the growth of economy

and also state the opposite view of Keynes which regards public

expenditure as an exogenous factor which can be utilized as a policy

instrument to stimulate economic growth. According to Tsauni (2006:93)

“the two completely opposite arguments reflect the view points over the

issue of what is the causal relation between economic growth and public

expenditure”.

Ezirim(2006: 87), states number of reasons which can be advanced as to

why all types of governments manifest the tendency for increasing public

expenditure. The list of these reasons which is being replicated here

includes:

i. The expanding nature of traditional functions of the state, with

various complexities of social and economic nature springing up

to make an effective and efficient running of the state to be rather

complex and expensive.

36

ii. State activities continue to grow in scope over time beyond the

confines of defense, justice, law and order and maintenance of state

increasing welfare activities.

iii. Increased recognition by government of the need to provide and

expand the spheres of public goods and those necessitating increase in

public investments and enterprises.

iv. The need to increase and harmonize the scale of various public

services with the growing population.

v. Rising drift of population from rural to urban areas with the resultant

urbanization demanding for a much larger per capita expenditure in

civic amenities.

vi. Cost-over-run with tendencies of inflationary trends over time and

with attendant increase in government expenditure on goods and

services increasing as well

vii. Increased tendency for public indebtedness, deficit budgeting, and

extra-budgetary activities that are very popular with modern day

governments; these bring about increase in public expenditure

through the vehicles of debt servicing repayments.

viii. The need to finance the dictates of economic plans and growth

targets usually precipitate increasing public expenditure.

37

Public expenditure reserves the tendency to increase overtime because of

these reasons among others.

2.3.2 PEACOCK AND WISEMAN HYPOTHESIS (OR DISPLACEMENT

HYPOTHESIS)

This second theory of public expenditure growth was offered by Allan Peacock

and Jack Wiseman. It is being regarded as the displacement hypothesis of

Peacock and Wiseman, which is concerned with providing an explanation for

the time pattern of change in the level of public expenditure. This happens to be

the result of study by Wiseman and Peacock (1961) on public expenditure in the

United Kingdom for the period, 1890-1955. They agree that public expenditure

grows in step-wise fashion.

They argue that at some times, some social or other disturbances take place

which at once shows the need for increase in public expenditure which the

existing public revenue cannot meet, Ezirim (2006: 85). According to Buhari

(1993: 156), Peacock and Wiseman are suggesting a displacement effect, a

shifting of government expenditure and revenue to new higher level.

38

2.3.3 THE CRITICAL –LIMIT HYPOTHESIS

Ezirim (2006:90), confirms as stated in Bhatta (1982) that the critical – limit

hypothesis is credit to Collin Clerk (1943), who argues that when the share of

the government sector activity (represented by its expenditure) exceeds 25 per

cent of the total economic activity of the country, inflation would be the natural

result; and this would be so even when the country is operating under a

balanced budget.

Therefore, at any time the share of the aggregate economic activity reaches the

critical limit of 25 per cent, the income earners would be affected by reduced

incentives (as a result of high tax incidence), and this would hamper their level

of productivity. The resultant effect being producing less than their capabilities

and potentials can support.

There will then be reduced supply. Consequently, the demand-effects to

government financing (i.e. expenditure) would be quite strong.

2.3.4 MUSGRAVE THEORY OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE GROWTH

This theory propounded by Musgrave discovered changes in the income

elasticity of demand for public services in three ranges of per capita income. In

a typical of pre-industrial society in developing countries when the levels of per

capita income are low, demand for public service tend to be generally low. The

reason being that at this stage, nearly all income is channeled to

39

satisfying primary needs. When per capita income begins to rise above these

low levels, a demand for services supplied by the public sector such as health,

education and transport, starts rising, pressurizing government to increase

expenditure on them. At the situation of high levels of per capita income,

typical of developed economies, the rate of public sector growth tends to fall as

the more basic wants are satisfied (Buhari, 1993:157).

2.3.5 THE LEVIATHAN HYPOTHESIS

Leviathan is a model explanation proposed by Brennan and Buchanan (1980),

as stated by Aigbokham(1997) in Ehirim (2006: 89), which considers

government as a revenue maximizing entity, whose ability and propensity to

maximize tax-pricing revenue is only constrained by constitutional limits placed

upon its activities. Good example of such constraints is the constitutional

provision for decentralization of spending and taxing powers among sub-

national governments. The basic hypothesis postulated by Brennan and

Buchanan (1980), is that the less the total government intrusion into the

economy, ceteris paribus, the greater the extent to which taxes and expenditure

are decentralized.

Aigbokham (1997), states the assumption that government expenditure is

financed mainly from taxes and other charges, spending will therefore be

limited by the ability of the government to raise taxes. Ezirim (2006:91),

40

expresses the view that it may be correct to say that the ability and willingness

of the tax-payer to pay will bear much on the expenditure behaviour of

government. He further states that “the more decentralized taxing and

expenditure (spending) responsibilities are, the smaller the size of government

would be”. Ezirim (2006:89), also argues that, “the Leviathan’s hypothesis

agrees with fiscal federalism theory that intergovernmental transfers, especially

from top to down, influence public expenditure”.

2.4 OTHER THEORIES

In furtherance of discussion on the Wagner’s law and the Leviathan hypothesis,

Ezirim (2006: 90), cites other studies that offer explanation on other theories of

public expenditure. Such works include Baumol (1967) who offers explanation

on the differential productivity hypothesis, relative price hypothesis of Richard

Bird (1980), development changes argument of Rastow (1971).

Baumol (1967), expresses the view that the rise in government expenditure in

terms of unbalanced growth between public and private sector. The economy is

divided into progressive private sector and non progressive public sector, he

states that productivity rises only in the private sector, whereas wage rate rises

in both, and as a result public expenditure would rise. It went ahead to argue

that public services are more labour intensive and

41

as employees in themselves have no motivation to improve productivity, the

increase in public expenditure becomes acceleratory.

Rastow (1971), offers explanation that the growth in public expenditure is better

seen in terms of changes in levels of development of the country’s economy. In

this circumstance, less developed countries at their cradle of development

required higher levels of investments in order to create necessary infrastructures

for gainful economic breakthrough. When such economies approach maturity of

economic development, much of the further public expenditure would basically

be promoted by repeated market failures (Ehirim, 2006:98).

More detail discussion on public expenditure theories can be found in Rosen

(1995), Agiobenebo (1998), and Onuchukwu (2001) in Ehirim (2006).

2.5 REMARKS ON THE REVIEWED THEORIES

The reviewed theories have raised some salient issues that are of much interest

to scholars in this field of study. To start with, it can be expressed that Wagner’s

theory accepts public expenditure as one that increases, at an arithmetic

progression, while Wiseman and Peacock’s hypothesis seems to agree to

government expenditure to be increasing at a geometric progression

42

(i.e. in Jerks and Step-like manner). However, both attempt to explain the

growth of public expenditure overtime.

Another issue is that, from Wagner’s opinion, a number of factors that affect

public expenditure would include: expansion in the nature and complexity of

traditional governmental functions; increase in the scope or coverage of state

activities; the need to provide and expand the sphere of public good; rising

population; high rate of migration of population to urban centres; problem of

cost-over-runs; rising cost of providing public services occasioned by increase

in size and nature of public services; increasing welfare and social security

costs; budget deficits and debt servicing requirements; target economic growth

rates or levels and development plans’ target. Ezirim (2006), agrees that the

major factor affecting public expenditure would include all major social and

other disturbances in the economy or catastrophic occurrences.

Inflation seems to be an effect on increasing public expenditure according to

Collins Clerk’s Critical-Limit hypothesis, which is contrary evaluation of

Wagner’s opinion. The critical evaluation of these theories have provided good

platform for empirical studies on the relationship of economic growth and

public expenditure.

43

In Nigeria, like the rest of the developing world, examining the productiveness

of the various components of public spending has always been given less

attention (Fajingbesi, et.al. 1999: 151).This implies that before any meaningful

public expenditure policy could be embarked upon, a thorough empirical

analysis of the link between economic growth and public expenditure is

imperative.

Fajingbesi, et.al.(1999:150) in their work confirm that public expenditure

contributes to growth and also emphasis that the distribution between capital

and current expenditure can be misleading, what is important is indeed the

composition rather than the level .

The focus should be to distinguish productive from unproductive expenditure.

Ogiogio (1999) in his work examines the growth impact of recurrent, capital

and sectoral expenditure over the period 1970-93. The study went further to

confirm the existence of long-run relationship between economic growth and

government expenditure. “Contemporaneous government recurrent expenditures

have more significant effect than the capital expenditure while five-year lags of

capital expenditure are more growth inclusive” (Hiley, 1999:154).

44

The study raises the argument that for effective assessment of the effect of

capital investment programmes on economic growth, one would require a five-

year planning horizon (Hiley, 1999). Thus, confirming that both government

expenditure can achieve economic growth and be causally related, thus making

any deduction from a single equation model invalid. This is as a result of the

possibility of simultaneity bias. In his own study, Odusola (1996) as cited by

Hiley (1996:12) adopts a simultaneous equation model to capture the

interrelationship between military expenditure and economic growth in Nigeria.

This study proved that aggregate military expenditure is negatively related to

growth at 10 per cent significant level. When it was composed into recurrent

and capital military expenditure, the former was more growth retarding than the

later. The work further recommend that reduction of resources concentration on

the military will have a positive impart on the economy.

Adubi and Obioma(1999:183) express the view that inefficiencies in the

management of public expenditure, which were ignored or camouflaged by

substantial government transfers in the form of subsidies or subventions,

became very glaring in the 1980s owing to severe resource constraints

confronting governments.

45

To address the deficiencies in public expenditure management in Nigeria,

government has introduced a wide range of policy and institutional reforms,

particularly since mid 1986 when the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP)

was adopted.

Adubi , et.al. (1999:181) define the public sector as that portion of the national

economy in which economic activities are under the control and general

direction of government. In Nigeria, the public sector consists of the federal

government, state government, local government and government enterprises.

Public expenditure management portrays the manner in which government and

its various organs manage public funds to meet national goals and objectives. It

involves the use of discretional policies involving changes in the level,

composition and timing of government outlays, for the sake of achieving set

objectives overtime, subject to a number of constraints, including budget or the

financial resources at the disposal of government. Adubi, et.al. (1999: 181)

express the view that the traditional role of public expenditure suggest that it

shapes the course and determines the state of economic development. The

World Development Report of 1988 confirm that through spending government

promote national identity, supplies infrastructure for developing the course of

economic growth and distribution

46

of its benefits and provide social services to meet the basic needs of the

population.

Nevertheless, while public expenditure determines economic success, economic

problems are often caused by imprudent public expenditure. Based on this fact,

the World Development Report of 1998 warns that careless public expenditure

can lead to prolonged recession and place a heavy burden on the poor,[Adubi,

etal, 1999:185]. In situations where public expenditure are not properly

managed, they usually create distortions which retard, rather than promote

economic growth and development. This is typically the case for Nigeria,

where, despite the huge resources that accrued to the nation during the boom era

and the tremendous increase in public expenditure during the period, there was

little to account for it. For quite a long period now, as generally observed, we

have witnessed a lot of wastage in public resources, with little or no

transparency and accountability in public expenditure. “This points to the

conclusion that the manner and style by which public expenditure is made and

managed determine, to a large extent, its success or otherwise in achieving the

desired growth and development objectives,” (Adubi and Obioma, 1999:186)

47

2.6 PUBLIC EXPENDITURE AND GROWTH

Three arguments have been advanced in the literature, (i) First, that capital

expenditure are very essential for growth. Three types of public expenditure are

often regarded as very productive; which include physical infrastructure

programmes, human capital programmes and government funded research and

development (Lancing, 1995) in Fajingbesi (1999:149). The proponents of this

view accept that there is some minimum amount of capital expenditure required

for growth (Diamond, 1990). However, Tanzi (1988) and Diamond (1990),

argue that some recurrent expenditure may well be equally beneficial to growth

(e.g. Education), while some capital expenditure are obviously wasteful.

The second argument usually put across to support capital outlay is that the

failure to differentiate between types of expenditure in fiscal adjustment has

been unduly detrimental to capital spending.

The third argument in support of capital spending is that it is less inflationary

than recurrent spending. Fajingbesi,et. al.(1999) argue that this may be true in

the short run, but later, it will put pressure on the aggregate demand, thus

leading to demand pull inflation.

Economic growth is associated with an increase in capital per head; however,

capital cannot be the only requirement for growth. Framework for its use is

48

also very useful, if not it will be wasted. Hemming (1991) observed that the

composition of capital influences growth.

Fajingbesi, et. al. (1999) conclude that public expenditure contributes to growth

and emphasized that it is the composition rather than the level which is

important and also moved ahead to say that the distinction between capital and

current expenditures can be misleading.

There is a lack of consensus on both the empirical impact of size of public

expenditure on growth. In addition, economic theory does not provide a well

developed methodology for the incorporation of government expenditure in

Standard growth models. Studies that have found a negative relationship

between the size of public expenditure and growth include Landau (1986),

Barro(1990), Grier and Tullock (1989). Others that have found a positive

relationship are those of Ram (1986), Aschauer (1989) while those of Kormendi

and Maguire have found no significant relationship. Most of the above studies

have utilized aggregate measures of government size in the form of either

growth in government consumption or government consumption as a ratio to

GDP.

Balassa (1978) used pooled data of 10 countries for 1960-1966 and 1966-1973.

The regressors include domestic and foreign capital flows, labour

49

growth, and export growth. The result showed that exchange rate is positive in

explaining domestic and capital flows.

Further more, Barro (1989) in examining the impact of current expenditure on

infrastructure, education and health development using a cross-section of 98

countries, including industrial and developing countries , for 1960-1985.

Regresses include the initial per capital GDP level, its squared value, the initial

level of human capital, proxied by primary and secondary enrolment rates, the

ratio of government consumption to GDP, and measures of political instability

and market distortions. To deal with potential heteroskedasticity, observations

are weighted by either the level of GDP or population. However, these standard

errors do not differ greatly from the OLS estimates. The result showed that the

negative co-efficient of current expenditure is positively and significantly linked

to infrastructure, education and health on economic wide basis.

Additionally, Castles and Dorwrick,( (1988) also used cross-section of 18

OECD for 1960- 1985 including initial per capita GDP, an institutional sclerosis

dummy, population growth and investment rate as regressors to investigate the

impact of current expenditure on macroeconomic variables. The result showed

that the negative co-efficient of current expenditure is

50

negatively correlated with education and health, but positively correlated with

transfer. This result contrasts sharply with the findings of Barro (1989).

Diamond (1989) used five-year averages of growth rates for 125 countries

during 1960-1980 to investigate the role of current expenditure on private

capital, growth of the labour force, export growth and external interest rate. The

result concludes that current expenditure is positive in explaining infrastructure,

education, health, and transfers.

Diamond (1989) finding is consistent with the result of Barro (1989) and also

consistent with the result of Castles and Dowrick (1988). Diamond (1989) also

introduced exchange rate in real export as one of the regressors. The result also

showed that exchange rate in real export has a positive co-efficient in relation to

current expenditure.

Dornbusch and Reynoso (1989) used a cross-section of 41 countries, using

averages for the period 1965-1985, with the level of per capital income in 1965,

change in the capital-labour ratio, and an inflation dummy that applies to

inflation rates in excess of 20 percent as regressors. The result shows that the

co-efficient of consumer price index is positive and significant in the regression

model.

51

Easterly (1990) used a cross-sections of 22 developed and 70 developing

countries, using- 2 -averages for the period 1965-1987. Regressors include the

investment-GDP ratio, population growth, export-to-GDP ratio, government

consumption ratio, a subjective dummy variable measuring trade restriction, and

a dummy variable measuring financial repression (defined as an average real

interest rate less than minus 5 percent). His result show that co-efficient of

current expenditure is positive in explaining real deposit interest rates.

Khan and Reinhart (1990) examined the relationship between current

expenditure and rate of change in export. They used a cross section of 24

developing countries, using averages for the period 1970-1979. Regressors

include total investment, private investment, public investment, and growth of

labour, exports, and imports. The resulted documented extensive evidence to

support the view that current expenditure promotes export. This result is

consistent with the Keynesian model, which posits that increase in expenditure

stimulates economic activities, which directly promotes level of output and on

the long-run increases the rate of export.

Koester and Kormedi (1989) used vector-auto regression to estimate the impact

of recurrent expenditure on investment rate, labour force growth, and

52

initial GDP per capita for the period 1970-1979, with a cross section of 63

countries. The estimation result is very interesting. The estimation showed that

there is fixed effect on the co-efficient of the regresses.

Landau (1983 and 1986) studies use cross-sectional data for 104 countries over

1960- 1977, including education, energy consumption, initial GDP per capita

and climate dummies. The 1985 study utilizes 16 developed countries for

pooled cross-sections over the 1952-1976 period, with investment rate, per

capita initial GDP, changes in terms of trade, education, and various dummy

variables as regressors. Lags of some variables are employed. The co-efficient

for current expenditure, total government expenditure and infrastructure were

negative, while the co-efficient for transfers was positive. The results are not a

radical departure from previous studies along this line.

Marlow (1986) used the simple ordinary least square methodology to investigate the

relationship between the size of government sector and the level of growth for a cross-

section of 19 industrialized countries during 1960-1980. The result shows that the size

of government sector has a negative relationship with the level of infrastructural

development, educational development and health development. This result is one of

the pioneer works that advocated for the downsizing of the public sector through

53

the introduction of Structural Adjustment Programme in most developing countries of

the world.

Marsden (1983) is the first study along this line that compared countries with

difference in growth rate. He classified the countries into developed and

developing countries. The study made a comparison between 10 countries with

low growth and another 10 countries with high growth, using mixed data for

developed and developing countries with high growth, using mixed data for

developed and developing countries during 1970-1979. The result shows that

tax receipts has negative co-efficient.

Martin and Fardmanesh (1990) used a cross-section of 76 developing and

developed countries, with labour and capital as additional regressors over 1972-

1981. The result shows that total government expenditure is positively linked to

fiscal deficit.

Weede (1986) used pooled cross-section of industrial countries over a split

1960-1982 period with initial per capita GDP and an index of democracy as

additional to evaluate the role of government expenditure on economic growth

and political environment. The result shows that the high level expenditure on

the part of government has a negative impact on transfers, economic growth and

tax receipt. This result is consistent with literature. The

54

social theory argues that the public sector is not efficient in resources allocation.

This is even more worrisome when one considers the level of corruption and

fiscal indiscipline in the Nigerian public sector. Thus, the proponents of the

social theory posits that it only the private sector that can efficiently allocate

scarce resources effectively, which will on the long-run promote economic

growth and other macroeconomic variables.

Skinner (1987) also used pooled cross-section of 31 Sub-Saharan nations over

1965-1973 and 1974-1982 with the terms of trade, population, and investment

rates as other regressors. The emphasis is to investigate the fixed effects of total

government expenditure on balance of trade and level of investment. With a

negative co-efficient for tax receipts, the result documents evidence to support

the argument that increase in government expenditure stimulates consumption,

promotes importation and as such resulting in balance of payment deficit for an

import dependent countries like most West African countries.

Michaely (1977) in using averages of the ratio of exports to GNP and change in

this ratio for 41 developing countries over the period 1950—1973, coefficients

of the Spearman rank correlation are computed. The result ranked rate of

exchange in real export above the other regressor in the

55

equation. This result is consistent with the results of Khan and Reinhart (1990),

Diamond (1989), Balassa (1978), and others.

Michalapoulos and Jay (1973): A cross-section of 39 developing countries in

the period 1960-1966, with domestic and foreign investment, labour growth,

and export growth as regressors.

Orsmond (1990): A cross-section of 36 developing countries over the 1975-

1986 period. This study undertakes both linear and non-linear regressions,

including the components of expenditures and taxes alternately, non-tax

revenues, and the fiscal deficit. Other regressors include the initial per capita

GDP level, changes in exports, inflation investment rates, and population

growth.

Otani and Villanueva (1990): The growth equation, derived from a

structural macroeconomic model, includes the saving rate, export

performance, expenditures on education, population growth, the real

interest rate on external debt, and regional dummy variables. The sample

consists of 55 developing countries over the 1970-1985 periods.

Regression results are reported for the entire sample and for different

income groups.

Polak (1989): A cross-section of 40 developing countries over the period 1965-

1985. Regressors are the ratio of total investment to GDP, median interest rate

on 6-12 month deposits, corrected for the average annual rate of inflation

(consumer prices), and the growth rate of real exports.

56

Ram (1985, 1986): The 1985 study is a cross-section of 73 LDCs in the periods

1960-1970 and 1970-1977, using the ratio of total investment to GNP, growth

of labour force, growth of real exports, and a dummy variable that takes value

one if the country is low-income, zero otherwise. In the 1986 study, annual data

for 88 LDCs covering the period 1960-1982 are used. First, the growth

relationship is estimated for each country separately. Then, the relationship is

also estimated using a cross- sectional sample. The same explanatory variables

are used as in the 1985 study.

Rubinson (1977): A cross-section of 40 countries during 1955-1970 with initial

GDP, population growth and export ratio as additional regressors.

Saunders (1985): A cross-section of 20 OECD countries during 1961-1983

using various aggregate measures of government expenditures.

Tyler (1981): A cross-section of 55 middle-income LDCs for the period 1960-

1977, with the rate of total investment, labour force growth, growth of total real

exports, and growth of real manufactured exports as independent variables.

In Nigeria, empirical studies that relate to public expenditure include; Ekpo

(1995), Ogiogio (1995), Ezirim (2006), Fajingbesi et al (1999) and Tsauni

(2007). There are other empirical studies that focused on the growth effects of

fiscal policies (public expenditure, taxation and deficit), a useful review of

57

such studies has been undertaken by Orsmond (1990), in Khan and Villanueva

(1991).

2.7 STUDIES BASED ON FOREIGN EVIDENCE

The selection of an appropriate paradigm provides us with some hint as to the

likely impact of public expenditure on the economy; the issue is ultimately an

empirical one. Presently, there is a vast body of studies that examines the

relationship between public expenditure and macroeconomic variables.

Table 2.7 summaries the results from empirical studies on the relationship

between public expenditure and macroeconomic variable in both developed and

developing countries

58

Table 2.7:

Selected Empirical Studies of Public Expenditure and Macroeconomic Variables

Author Sample Explanatory Main results

Landu (1983) Panel (27 LDCs) Categories of g GC has negative impact.

Kormendi and

Meguire (1985)

Panel (N=47) GC GC insignificant.

Landu (1985) Cross-section 65

LDCs (1960-80)

G and various

functional types

GC and GI significantly

negative. Eduction is

insignificant.

Ram (1986) 115 countries

(1960) -80)

Private investment,

and labour force

growth rate

Externality effect of G is

positive, especial in lower

income countries. G has a

negative impact.

Grier and Tullock

(1989)

113 country panel

(1951-80)

GC GC significant negative,

but positive for Asian sub-

sample.

Romer (1990) Cross-section of 112

counties (1960-85)

G, GC, GI and human

capital

G significant and negative

but GI has a positive

coefficient.

Alexander (1990) Panel 13 OECD

countries (1959-84)

GC, GI and deficits

(growth rate of shares)

GC and inflation have

negative impact on growth.

Barro (1970-90) 98 countries (1960-

85)

GC GC has a negative impact.

Chan and Gustafson

(1993)

Time series on Uk

(1955-86)

G less transfer (levels),

private consumption

and relative price of

public goods

G a positive impact on

private consumption.

Devarajan, et al

(1993)

Panel 14 OECD

(1970-90)

Functional types of G

(health, education,

transport, etc)

Health and infrastructure

spending have positive

impact; education and

defence have negative

impact.

Easterly and Rebllo

(1994)

Cross-section of 100

ADCs and LDCs

(1970)

Government surplus,

GI, GC and other types

of expenditure and

taxes, and human

capital

GI has a negative impact

on growth, GC a negative

impact, but positive impact

on private investment.

Spending on infrastructure

has positive impact on

private investment.

Lin (1994) 62 country panel

(1960-85)

I and G (growth rates),

growth rate of labour

force

Mixed result. GI insig. In

ADCs, but significantly

positive in LDCs.

Source: Kweka, J.P and Morrisey O. (2000: 4)

59

Table 2.7 (cont.)

Selected Empirical Studies of Public Expenditure and Macroeconomic Variables

Author Sample Explanatory Main results

Hsieh and lai (1994) Time series G7

(1885-1987)

G and private

investment

No uniform causality

Hansson and

Henrskson (1994)

Cross-section of 14

industries for OECD

country (1970-87)

G, GC, GI, education,

transfers, social

security

Transfers and G have

negative effect. Education

spending positive, GI

insignificant.

Devarajan et al

(1996)

Cross-section 43

LDCs (1970-90)

GC, GI and functional

categories

GC positive, GI negative in

LDCs, reverse for ADCs.

Ghali (1998) Time series, 10

OECD countries

(1970: 1-1994: 3)

G, I, exports and

imports

G Granger-causes growth,

directly for most countries.

Kneller et al (1998) Panel of 22 OECD

countries (1970-95)

GI, GC other types of

expenditure; I, types of

taxes

GI enhances growth, GC

does not.

Dunne and

Nikolaidou (1999)

Time series on

Greece (1960-96)

Military expenditure,

defence, GC

Military/defence

expenditure have a

negative effect; GC does

not affect growth.

Batchelor et al

(1999)

Time series on S.

Africa (1964-95)

Military and non-

military expenditure

Military spending has

positive externality,

negative size effect.

Tanninen (1999) 52 country panel

(1970-92)

I, categories of G,

income inequality

GC has negative impact.

Spending on public goods

growth retarding for large

G but not for small G;

social security spending is

positive .

Folster and

henrekson (1999)

23 OECD (1970-95)

countries

G and taxes G a significant negative

impact.

Source: Kweka, J.P and Morrisey O. (2000: 4)

60

2.8 PURSUING ECONOMIC GROWTH IN NIGERIA

Nigeria is seen as a land of great potential. There are abundant natural and

human resources, before now, the economy should have been transformed into

major growth in the world and subsequently joined the league of newly

industrialising, medium-income countries in the world. However, over the

years, the condition of things has been on the contrary, as macroeconomics

performance has continued to be disappointing due to many factors including

policy errors (Oluyemi,2004).

According to Maku (2009: 1);

The size and structure of public expenditure will determine the pattern and

form of growth in output of the economy. The structure of Nigerian public

expenditure can broadly be categorized into capital and recurrent

expenditure. The recurrent expenditure are government expenses on

administration such as wages, salaries, interest on loans, maintenance

etc., whereas expenses on capital projects like roads, airports, education,

telecommunication, electricity generation etc., are referred to as capital

expenditure. On of the main purpose of government spending is to provide

infrastructural facilities and the maintenance of these facilities requires a

substantial amount of spending. The relationship between government

spending on public infrastructure and economic growth is especially

important analysis in developing countries, most of which have

experienced increasing levels of public expenditure overtime (World

Development Report, 1994).

61

There is need to manage the economy in a manner that will ensure full

employment, price stability, external balance of payment equilibrium, growth

and development. According to Oluyemi (2004: 51). “One major process of

achieving this is through the annual budget and, where necessary through

supplementary budgeting”. Thus it could be said that budgeting is an important

instrument of macroeconomic management in the economy.

A budget’s performance can be viewed in terms of its relevance, effectiveness,

efficiency as well as overall impact on the economy. Also very significant is the

budget implementation. “Budgeting can be conceived as a process of taking

deliberate measures aimed at moving the relevant economic system from its

current state towards a specified desired state”.(Oluyemi, 2004:52).

Budget indicates government’s intention during a specified period, usually a

year. The most important fiscal tool which government uses is the National

budget as a yardstick to raise and allocate funds and measure its performance in

a fiscal year.

Akinkugbe (2004) argues that the government is the vehicle through which

planning, budgeting, implementation and control are carried out worldwide. It is

the focal point of reference irrespective of the type of political set up being

operated. In other part of the world, the government is the catalyst

62

through which progress and development are planned and achieved, and this is

what has made the difference between Europe, America, Asia and the laggard

Africa in the last half century. “In Nigeria, the government has implemented

budgets for forty-eight (48) years since independence in 1960. Today, we are

still showing development parameters of an “Underdeveloped” Country.

“Whereas Malaysia in 1960 was poorer than Nigeria, today, their economic and

development parameters qualify them to be described as “Developed Nation”

like any member of OECD”. ( Akinkugbe, 2004:59).

The difference between Nigeria and Malaysia in those 48 years is that Malaysia

budgeted and implemented them and achieved development. In Nigeria, we

budgeted and implemented them and achieved under development.

Nigeria witnessed many years of military rule, the emergence of democratic

government in May, 1999 was a good omen to tackle the inherited structural

problems, and to inspire confidence in the Nation’s ability to overcome its

economic and social-political problems.

To ensure a solid foundation for effective reforms and sustainable long term

growth of the nation’s economy, budgets were usually adopted yearly as a fiscal

tool in the hand of the government. It focuses at redressing perceived distortions

in the economy and for the realisation of selected policy goals during a given

period.

63

According to Oluyemi ( 2004:53), “The economy has recorded mixed

performance with some persisted basic structural imbalance such as the

lingering problems of import dependence, reliance on single economic sector-

oil, weak industrial base, low level of agricultural base, low level of agricultural

production, a weak private sector, high external debt overhang, rising

unemployment, poverty, etc. in the system”. From monetary and economic

point of view, capital expenditure is positively related to economic growth.

However, from the look of things in the last few years, there are indications that

capital expenditure has not been having the necessary impact on growth in the

system. The apparent failure of that expenditure to uplift the nation’s economy

to any significant extent provides prima facie evidence of lapses in the

implementation of the budget.

Ezekwesili (2002) argues that it is the widely lampooned abuse of the public

treasury that has led the country down the path of lean resources and brought

along the continuous budgetary constraints that we must get a handle on, or

continue our regressive developmental trend.

The best measure for enlarging the envelope of resources in countries with

budgetary challenges like Nigeria is to plug the holes in the public treasury.

64

The good governance that citizens of any nation demand starts with the good

governance of the public treasury. Nigerians have not had the good fortune of

such good governance of public wealth. Nzenwa (2000) also expresses the view

that the bulk of developmental resources are held by the government and her

choices and decisions affect almost every other thing, even the options available

for the organised private sector (OPS).

Schiavo-Campo and Tommasi (1999) argue that lack of predictability of

financial resources undermines strategic prioritization, makes it hard for public

officials to plan for the provision of services, and is an excellent alibi for non-

performance to continue. Predictability of government expenditures in the

aggregate and in the various sectors is also needed as a signpost to guide the

private sector in making its own production, marketing and investment

decisions.

Budgets have come to be linked with management of the economy, in turn

bringing a greater consideration of the effects of expenditures on the economy.

The days are gone when expenditure were considered merely in terms of type

and the authorities responsible for incurring them. Currently, what is envisaged

is in terms of the multiplier effects of expenditure on incomes, consumption,

savings and investment.

65

“As most expenditures had come to be financed by borrowing from the public,

it also became necessary to consider the productive capacity of the programmes

being financed in order to ensure future financial viability”, ( Premchand,

1983:42). The budgetary process in due course, became more important,

because here the administrative, accounting, economic and financial objectives

interfaced and collectively produced a coherent fiscal policy. Budgeting is at the

crossroad of economics, political science, public administration and a host of

other social disciplines.

Premchand (1983:42) identifies three concepts of budgeting and evident in the

economic and organisational approaches, which include; (1) Budgeting as an

optimizing process that deals essentially with normative theories of resource

allocation, which in turn deal with the maximization of individual and social

welfare; (2) Budgeting view as an internal bureaucratic process and comprising

theories that compare the approaches of governments toward resource allocation

to firms in the commercial world; and (3) Empirical or descriptive approaches

that link budget as being finally decided in the bureaucratic process with

reference to endogenous variables ( Cost of Services) and exogenous factors (

Availability of Revenue).

Effective fiscal policy requires an effective budgetary process that integrates the

economic, financial and programme analysis as a feature economic analysis

66

involves the inclusion of long-range fiscal plans, establishment of resource

needs, formulation of alternative fiscal strategies, assessment of the proposed

budgets impact and planning of tax and expenditures adjustments. Likewise

financial analysis should consist of the evaluation of competing demands within

each function and their contribution to the allocation and stabilization purposes.

In the same direction, programme analysis entails the analysis of programmes

needs, incidence of expenditures and benefits, analysis of service standards,

estimates of the volume of activities, phasing of outlays and the guarantee of an

adequate allocation of resources.

The major task in budgetary policy is to promote growth; which can be

accelerated through additional expenditures in desired sectors either through

direct outlays or through an appropriate strategy of development of

infrastructure that, in turn, will induce further investment. The implementation

of a strategy of economic growth is reflected in the allocation of budgetary

resources to those sectors whose projects and programmes have been reviewed

and are considered to have an impact on growth.

There was greater recognition, over the years of the impact of the budget on the

economy and the economy’s impact on the budget. Indicators of employment,

prices, economic growth and balance of payments have become important in

67

determining appropriate annual expenditures, but they have not been given the

emphasis due in the traditional literature on government budgeting.

2.9 NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTING

National income accounting refers to the measurement of aggregate economic

activity, particularly national income and its components.

The United Nations (UN), since its creation, has been leading the initiatives to

promote accurate compilation of national income.

The first document on measurement of National Income and the construction

of social accounts was published in 1947. There was a revision later in 1968

with a change in title to “A System of National Accounts (SNA). “Later in

1993, there was a comprehensive revision in the system of National Accounts”

(Adamu, 1996: 27). The main motivation for the individual scholar to produce

national income is the desire to compare the economic performance of nations.

As stated in CBN (2008), statistical bulletin “The System of National accounts

(SNA) is a consistent, coherent and integrated set of macroeconomic accounts;

balance sheets and tables based on a set of internationally agreed concepts,

definitions, conventions, classifications and accounting rules”. It provides a

comprehensive accounting framework within which economic data can be

compiled and presented in a format that is designed for purposes of economic

analysis, decision taking and policy making.

68

Adamu (1996: 25) states that “There are two basic forms in which information

about the economy can be recorded in System of National Accounts (SNA):

flows, which refer to actions and effects that take place within a period of

time, and stocks, which refer to a position at a point of time. For example, in

the case of a company’s audited accounts, stocks appear in the balance sheet

and related tables, while flows appear in all the other accounts and tables.

Economic flows reflect in the creation, transformation, exchange, transfer or

extinction of economic value. They involve change in the volume,

composition or value of an institutional unit’s assets and liabilities”. Economic

flow have specific natures such as wages, taxes, interest, capital flows etc.

Thus, these record the ways in which a a unit’s assets and liabilities are

changed.

Categorization of transactions in the economy are done on the basis of

physical characteristics of the goods exchange or services provided as stated

by Adamu (1996: 26) on the basis of the status of the transactions and,

possibly on the purposes they hope to achieve, as follows:

a.) Transaction in goods and services: output of goods and services

intermediate consumption, final consumption by government and

households, gross capital formation (increase in stocks and gross fixed

69

capital formation), exports of goods and services, imports of goods and

services and net purchases of land and tangible assets.

b) Distributive transaction linked to the process of production:

Compensation of employees, indirect taxes and subsidies.

c) Transactions involving distribution of income: property and

entrepreneurial income, accident insurance transaction, and unrequited

current transfers?

d) Transactions involving distribution of capital: capital transfer.

e) Financial transactions: all financial services and transactions.

Transactions are classified in one or two ways. There is the process of

production and balance between the supply and users of goods and

services. This is regarded a kind of activity. Grouping of such activity is

usually done according to International Standard Industrial Classification

(ISIC). Kinds of activities are grouped broadly into major divisions. Each

major division is broken down into units of homogenous production

establishment or establishment-type unit. Furthermore, for the purposes

analysing the economic situation, the units could be classified into those

producing goods and services (Industries), those producing non-marketed.

2.10 DECADES OF NIGERIAN NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTING

70

Earlier attempt at estimating the national income of Nigeria was the one embodied in

the pre-second World War work of John Mars, Margery Perham and A.J. Brown.

Isaac Dina made a frail attempt to establish another estimate immediately after the

war. However, it was not successful nor was any final result published. (National

Planning Lagos, 1975). Before the appointment of A.R. Press and I.G. Stewart by the

Colonial Office to undertake a systematic estimate of Nigeria’s national income

nothing actually significant happened. They were to undertake a systematic estimate

of Nigeria’s national income and what came out of this pioneering work was

published in 1953, and they did not only contain the first systematic set of data but

also much basic of conceptual and methodological issues. Henceforth from that

moment, the report was to form the basis of any further national income estimation in

Nigeria, nevertheless the actual data were only for one financial year, 1950-1951. it is

on record that the first set of time series data for Nigerians gross domestic product, for

the period 1950- 51 to 1957-59 was made available by the more comprehensive

exercise carried out in the later year of 50’s and early 60’s by the team led by E.F.

Jackson and P.N.C. Okigbo. Once more, like its pioneer predecessor “the resulting

report was to establish the benchmark for economic policy and economic statistics for

the first decade following the achievement of political independence” (Federal

Ministry of National Planning, 1975).

71

As the results of Prest and Stewart were marginally extended in 1954 by the

visit of World Bank mission, the Jackson and Okigbo’s estimates were

modified slightly by the Federal Office of Statistics in 1963. It is a fact that

each succeeding exercise represented an improvement over its predecessor, in

conceptual coverage and methodology.

72

NATIONAL INCOME AND OUTPUT ACCOUNT FORMAT

Income Output

(1) income from:

a) personal sector

Xx

(i) personal sector

Xx

(b) Business sector Xx (ii) business sector Xx

C) government Xx (iii) government Xx

(d) foreign sector Xx (iv) foreign sector Xx

(A) total national income Xx (v) Depreciation

Gross National Product Xx

(2) Business Transfer Payments Xx

(3) Indirect Business Taxes Xx

(B) Net National Product Xx

(4) Depreciation Xx

Gross National Product ____ ____

(Income) Xx

===

Output Xx

===

Understanding this macroeconomic framework is very vital for meaningful

operation within a national economy in which national budgets is a critical

instrument Current income and output were classified as flows. Wealth was

73

counted as stock. It is possible to account for wealth too in order to produce

balance sheet of national assets and liability, which also affect national welfare.

The knowledge of the economic framework of a nation enables stakeholders in

an economy to measure and compare economic performance from year to year

and from country to country.

Through national income accounting we are equipped to:

Understand the behaviour of the economy

Understand the relationships among economic variables

Understand the effects of economic policy

Understand how much firms in the economy produce

Understand what a nation’s total income is

Understand who gets the income from production among workers,

businesses, and government

Understand who buys the output of the economy among household, for

consumption; households and business, for investment; and government

for public goods.

Understand how the economy remains in equilibrium.

74

2.11 REFORMING THE BUDGETING PROCESS IN NIGERIA

The tasks of budgeting have become more complex and seemingly intractable.

Formulation of economic policies without the recognition of the institutional

constraints is an open invitation to failure; emphasis on administrative aspects

without recognition of economic basis and purposes of policy is counter

productive.

Budgetary policy and budgetary management of both the industrial and

developing countries relate to utilization of budgets as instruments of national

economic management, communicating the resources constraints to spending

departments, reducing gaps between planned and actual expenditures.

The persistence of growth in expenditures, increasing deficits, and difficulties in

raising resources have given rise to serious questions on the direction of fiscal

policy and on the institutional adequacy of the budget machinery for controlling

expenditures (Premchand 1983: 35). The mismatch between theoretical

expenditures and practical performance in fiscal management is usually a

derivative of lack of comprehension of fiscal relationships and related issues (

Komolafe, et. al. 1999:3). The transactional link between the objectives and the

performance targets comprises a network of activities or programme of actions

which have resource implications – the most constraining of which is apparently

financial. Thus, Adeyemo (1989: 20), emphasises that “There have to be

75

systematic methods for programming those activities to minimize commitment of

resources and maximize achievement of the development objectives for the

shortest planning horizon, the budget has become the most versatile tool

worldwide.

Thus, there is the need to evaluate the impact of the budgetary operations on the

economy and of the economy on the budget and the relationship of these

operations to the overall objectives of economic growth. Second, the objectives

of the fiscal policy can be attained through the instruments of taxes, expenditures

and to an extent the provision of credit. The effects of these instruments are not

identical and one task of budgeting is to ascertain the effects of each and to

arrange the three instruments so that they collectively serve the purpose. Third,

the objectives are served by direct government operations, through activities of

levels of government, notably the state and local governments and through the

public enterprise at each level. Fiscal policy at a macroeconomic level requires

close coordination among all three levels in all phases of the budgetary process.

Fiscal policy is used to achieve the desired objectives of allocation of resources

and to influence the economic activities of the community in desired ways and is

concerned with the allocation of resources between the public and private sectors

and their use for the attainment of stability and growth.

76

The effects of fiscal policy are usually extensive, however they are particularly

measurable in areas such as employment, price stability, savings and investment

and the balance of payments.

Formulation of fiscal policy presumes the identification and clear recognition of

institutional aspects of government finance, such as tax systems, their incidence

and shifty, budget formulation and execution, and financial management. The

focus of budgeting is on the attainment of efficiency in the allocation of resources

within the public sector and is influenced at each stage by the goals of fiscal

policy. Although there is less convincing evidence that fiscal policy alone would

be able to reduce the inequalities steaming from the existing operations of

government, however, in conjunction with other social reforms, it has

considerable potential for this purpose.

Fiscal policy is so wide-ranging that selection of a combination of differing

objectives is both complex and controversial. The impact of these objectives on

budgeting is threefold. First, budgeting involves the identification and

management of, redistribution, stabilization and economic growth ( Komolafe,

1999: 7).

The growth consideration often seems to be the overriding objective in

developing countries where per capita incomes are generally very low. In

77

consideration of this fact, the tools of taxation and public expenditures should be

used to achieve an accelerated rate of growth.

Public spending in social services like education, water and health care, etc is

generally considered as the main redistribution or antipoverty policy instrument

in developing countries. The redistribution process of public expenditures affects

the population in a number of ways. First, fiscal policy influences the

macroeconomic balances, particularly the fiscal and trade deficits and the rate of

inflation. These changes in turn, affect living standards-directly through

influencing real incomes and indirectly, through changing the rate of economic

growth (HURILAWS, 2007).

These are the macroeconomic effects of public spending. Secondly, public

spending creates incomes directly, some of which might benefit poor households.

These incomes in turn create other incomes through the income expenditure

multiplier process. These are the primary income effects (or the “expenditure

incidence”) of public spending.

Finally, public expenditure generates transfers to the population. These may be

either in the form of cash or monetary transfers, such as social assistance or

social insurance payments, or in kind. Social insurance payments include

subsidized government services such as health, education, and infrastructure

services. The well-being of the beneficiaries are usually improved by these in-

78

kind transfers and also enhance their longer-run income-earning potentials. They

involve both current and capital transfers to the recipients and can be called the

transfer effects (or the “benefit incidence”) of spending. Government spending

needs to follow sound priorities which is best achieved through a coordinated

process of medium term fiscal planning, annual budgeting and regular monitoring

of revenue and expenditure (Anyafo, 1996:421).

The understanding of the budgetary process is very essential because of its role as

a tool for economic management and also the awareness of the implications of

public sector reforms for budget preparation, implementation and control,

particularly how to direct public expenditure and investment to the vulnerable

groups in the country.

Expenditure targeting is very much a policy issue and an area of growing concern

in contemporary budgeting practice, particularly in countries implementing

adjustment programmes.

The budget is a comprehensive description of government fiscal polices and their

corresponding annual financial plans. Since budgeting is a formal process of

mobilizing, allocating and managing resources for the execution of public sector

programmes and projects, the budget is an important instrument for plan

implementation. Usually, budgets should derive from medium-term plans, which

79

themselves are derivative of underlying perspective plans. Thus, planning and

budgeting are essentially complementary and related processes for the realization

of national goals.

“They represent a continuous and recurring process in the implementation of a

development strategy. In Nigeria, despite these close links between planning and

budgeting, the degree of harmonization between them has remained weak in

practice”. (NCEMA National Seminar Report 1989).

Public expenditure is realized through the budgeting process which is

indisputably a key government tool for the implementation of social, political and

economic policies and priorities. The issue of sectoral vulnerability in public

expenditure adjustment is also important. There are proves indicating that social

sectors, which offer opportunities for protection of the poor, are often considered

as more vulnerable than others to reduction in expenditure, whereas sectors like

defence have grown to be less susceptible.

A major issue in budgeting is how to effectively trade-off between consumption

and investment expenditure or between sectors and categories of expenditures in a

situation of economic adjustment. The importance of this issue lies in the fact that

the revenue base of a state depends on the level of its economic activities. Thus, the

nature of the trade-off in the adjustment of expenditures has significant

implications for economic growth and welfare.

80

2.12 THE ROLE OF ACCOUNTING IN PUBLIC EXPENDITURE

MANAGEMENT

Accounting has a great role in the fiscal management of nations. The

fundamental premise is that accounting has a crucial role in the formulation and

implementation of fiscal policies and, indeed, lies at the head of modern

governments.

Budgets have acquired new and deserving policy. It is the main tools for

distribution of economic resources and stabilisation. For budget to be successful

as instruments of policy and economic management, they had to be ably served

by accounting.

Despite the long pedigree, government accounting has suffered a long neglect at

the hands of accounting profession and the government. Development over the

years have had a major impact on the course and tenor of financial management

and therefore, on accounting in government. It should be noted that the changing

tasks of macroeconomic management have imposed new demands in addition to

the traditional management needs on the accounting system (Nwankwo, 2004:

37).

The accounting system in government should now reflect changing patterns in

public expenditure management.

81

Government at all levels are expected to be more responsive, accountable, and

cost effective. Presently there is much dissatisfaction with the existing systems,

particularly with its inability to make payments or furnish reports on time.

82

TABLE 2.12 DIMENSION OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE MANAGEMENT

Categories of

objectives

Broad content Techniques utilized

for achieving

objective

Comments

Economic and

financial

Macroeconomic

stability

Determination of

aggregate spending

size of deficit

surplus and its

financing or

utilization.

Specification of

overall

macroeconomic

policies and design

of fiscal policy;

involves the

application of

macroeconomic

financial planning;

techniques of

medium-term

planning are also

extensively utilized.

This provides the annual

policy framework and a

link with monetary

policy. The

determination of

aggregate spending

could involve a two-tier

approach – one for

program appropriation,

which may be on an

obligation or accrual

basis, and a cash-based

approach to total

spending.

Effective budgeting Matching outlays

with resources,

determining

intensity of

allocation of

resources among

functions, and

within functions,

among programs

and activities.

Rolling expenditure

planning;

prioritization;

planning-

programming-

budgeting;

fundamental

expenditure

reviews; zero-base

budgeting; target-

based budgeting

below-base

budgeting; line-item

review;

development plans;

output budgeting

system; accrual-

based budgeting

system.

Techniques shown in the

previous column are

generally applied

independently of each

other. In any event,

several feature are

common to these

techniques. The actual

techniques used in a year

depend very much on the

economic setting and the

goals of fiscal policy. In

most developing

countries, a combination

of line-item reviews and

development plans, and

ad hoc budget-cutting

measures are in

operation.

Source: A. premchand (1998).

83

TABLE 2.12 (CONT.): DIMENSION OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE MANAGEMENT

Categories of

objectives

Broad content Techniques utilized

for achieving

objective

Comments

Management aspects

Financial discipline Budget outcome to be

congruent with

estimate

System of time-lice-

based release of

budget authority; cash

management;

techniques; intrayear

reporting and

monitoring;

development of online

systems to track day-

to-day development;

provision of year-end

flexibility.

The management aspects

specified here work within

the overall policy

framework indicate above.

Efficiency gains Achieving economy

and efficiency with

estimate.

Specification of cost

standards;

specification of fiscal

dividend; performance

budget system;

activity-based costing

system; improved

competitive tendering

procedures.

The intent is to secure

efficient implementation of

programs and projects, and

delivery of services

Program and project

management

Managers to have

operational flexibility

to fulfil objectives

within specified

budgetary resource.

Performance

budgeting;

management

contracts; creation of

task-oriented

agencies; utilization

of new management

philosophy; value-for-

money audit;

evaluation.

These techniques may be

applied in various ways.

Financial disclosure Provision of accurate

information on the

status of government

finances to

policymakers,

managers, and the

public.

Accurate-based

accounting decision-

related information;

specification of

accounting standard.

Government have a

responsibility to provide

unbiased information at

regular intervals.

Source: A. premchand (1998).

84

TABLE 2.12 (CONT.): DIMENSION OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE MANAGEMENT

Categories of

objectives

Broad content Techniques utilized

for achieving

objective

Comments

Public interest

requirements

Transparency Clear decision-making

procedures.

Improved budget

documentation that

shown the objectives

and features of

programs and

projects; preparation

of annual reports of

agencies;

dissemination of key

financial information;

complete annual

accounts.

In general, transparency

has often been viewed as

limited to the requirements

of the legislature; it has

however, broader

requirement vis-à-vis the

public. The emphasis on

transparency and

accountability could

contribute to the pursuit of

defence mechanisms in the

executive wing. This could

be overcome in the long-

run through the rigorous

implementation of

standards for transparency

and accountability.

Accountability Provision of goods

and services within

specified quality, cost,

and time schedules.

Performance

budgeting system;

accountability and

performance-oriented

service contracts;

annual review or

evaluation; value-for-

money audit.

Accountability is not

merely for the money

spent, but for results; the

emphasis is not merely to

be critical of the existing

systems and procedures but

to facilitate the evolution

of alternative systems of

delivery of goods and

services.

Client orientation Government systems

and procedure should

be designed to serve

the needs of the client

groups.

Internal evaluation;

group surveys of

client views.

The public is the final

judge of the quality and

quantity of services

provided by the

government, either directly

or indirectly. The

operational processes of

each agency should be so

designed as to facilitate

interaction with the public.

Source: A. premchand (1998).

85

TABLE 2.12 (CONT): DIMENSION OF PUBLIC EXPENDITURE MANAGEMENT

Categories of

objectives

Broad content Techniques utilized

for achieving

objective

Comments

Political aspects

Political

acceptability

Community

approval of all the

above facets is vital

for the

implementation of

policies.

Legislative

approval; market

approval; donor

approval (where

foreign aid is an

important part of the

budget); broad

support from other

layers of

government.

Government

financial

management has a

significant impact

on the community.

It comes in a variety

of forms and should

not be viewed as

being limited to the

legislature only.

Citizen participation To provide

opportunities to the

community to

participate in certain

spheres of economic

management.

Serving on the

tender or contract

committee; serving

in the evaluation

machinery; ands

serving in the

advisory and related

policy councils.

In several ways, this

is an area that

remains to be

developed fully.

Association of

citizens to look at

issues that transcend

with the financial

aspects. And those

associated with the

street-level

bureaucracy, has

distinct advantages

in paving the way

for social control of

public finances.

Source: A. premchand (1998).

86

REFERENCES

Adeyemo, O.A. (1989), Oyo State Senior Policy Seminar on Budgeting,

Ibadan: NCEMA National Seminar Report.

Adubi, A.A. and Obioma, E.C. (1999), “Public Expenditure Management in

Nigeria”, edited by Komolafe, O.S; Jalilian, H, and Hiley, M. in Fiscal

Policy Planning and Management in Nigeria, Ibadan: NCEMA, .

Agiobenebo, T.T. (1998), Public Sector Economics: Theories, Issues, and

Applications, 2nd

edition, Port Harcuort: Lima Computers.

Aigbokam, B.E. (1997), “Fiscal Decentralization, Wagner’s Law and

Government Size: The Nigeria Experience”. Journal of Economic

Management, 4 (2) June:

Akinkugbe, A. (2004), “Budget Implementation and National Development:

The Way Forward”, The Nigerian Accountant, ICAN Journal, Vol.37, No.2,

April/June,

Anyafo, A.M.O. (1996), Public Finance in a Developing Economy. The

Nigeria Case, Enugu: Banking and Finance, UNEC.

Bahtia, H.L. (1982), Public Finance, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing.

Balassa, B. (1978). “Exports and economic growth: further evidence,”

Journal of Development Economics:

Barro, R. (1989). “Economic growth in a cross section of countries.” NBER

Working Paper 3120 Cambridge, Mass: National Bureau of Economic

Research.

Buhari, A.L. (1993), ICAN/Polytechnic Public Finance, Ilorin: University

Press.

Castles, F. and Dowrick, S. (1988). “The Impact of Government Spending

Levels on Medium-Term Economic Growth in the OECD, 1960-85.”

Discussion Paper 199 Australian National University.

87

Diamond, J. (1989). “Government expenditure and economic growth: an

empirical investigation.” WP/89/45, International Monetary Fund.

Dornbusch, Rudiger and Reynoso, Alejandro. (1989). “Financial factors in

economic development.” American Economic Review

Easterly, W. (1990). “Endogenous growth in developing countries with

government- induced distortions.” Unpublished, World Bank;

August.

Ezekwesili, O. (2004), Due Process: History, Functions, Organisation and

Features, The Journal of Certified National Accountant ANAN, July-

December2004.

Ezirim, C.B. (2006), Explaining the Size of Public Expenditure in Less

Developed Countries: Theory and Empirical Evidence from Nigeria,

Journal of Bank and Finance, UNEC, vol. 6

Fajingbesi, A.A. and Odusola, A.F. (1999), Public Expenditure and Growth.

NCEMA, Ibadan.

Hiley, M. (1999), “Fiscal Policy within a Simple Macroeconomic Model”.

NCEMA, National Seminar Report (1989).

Hurilaws, (2007), Budget Analysis II (1999-2007): Test for Progressive

Realisation of the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) in Nigeria, Lagos:

Hurilaws Publications.

Khan and Reinhart, C. (1990), “ Private Investment and Economic Growth

In Developing Countries”. World Development 18: 19-27; January.

Koester, R.B. and Kormendi, R. (1989). “Taxation, Aggregate Activity,

and economic growth: Gross country evidence on some supply-side

hypotheses.” Economic Inquiry

Komolafe, O.S., Julilian, H. and Hiley, M. (1999), Fiscal Policy Planning and

Management in Nigeria, NCEMA, Ibadan, Nigeria.

88

Kweka J.P and Morrissey, O. (2000), “Government spending and Economic

Growth” Tanzania, 1965-1996, Credit Research Paper Central for Research in

Economic Development and International Trade, University of Northingham

Lancing, K.J. (1995), “Is Public Capital Productive? A Review of the

Evidence”. Economic Commentary, Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland,

March.

Landau, Daniel. (1983). “Government expenditure and economic

growth: a cross section study.” Southern Economic Journal 49: 783-92;

January.

1985. “Government expenditure and economic growth in the

developed countries: 1952-76.” Public Choice

Marlow, M. (1988). “Private sector shrinkage and the growth of

Industrialized economies.” Public Choice.

Marsden, K. (1983). “Links between taxes and economic growth: some

Empirical evidence.” The World Bank Working Paper 605

Washington: The World Bank.

Martin, R. and Fardmanesh, M. (1990). “Fiscal variables and growth: a

cross sectional analysis.” Public Choice 64: 239-51; March.

Michaely, M. (1977). “Exports and growth: an empirical investigation.”

Journal of Development Economics 4: 49-53: March.

Michalopoulos, C. and Jay, K. (1973). “Growth of Exports and Income in the

developing World: A Neoclassical View”. Agency for International

Development Discussion Paper 28 Washington; November.

Nwankwo, I. (2004). Due process in Public Sector Accounting, The Nigerian

Accountant, ICAN Journal, Vol. 37, No. 2

Nzenwa, S.O.E. (2000), Micro-Credit and Development: Poverty Alleviation

In Nigeria, Lagos: Centre for the Development and Civic Education

89

Oluyemi, S.A. (2004), “Supplementary Budgeting in Nigeria: Impact and

Problems”, The Journal of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Nigeria,

Vol.37, No.2, April/June,

Onuchukwu, 0. (2001), “An Econometric Analysis of Government

Expenditure Behaviour in Nigeria”. Journal of Industrial Business & Economic

Research, 5 (2) : 956-972.

Orsmond, D. (1990). “The size of government and economic growth: a

methodological review.” International Monetary Fund; August.

Otani. I. and Villanueva, D. (1989). “Theoretical aspects of growth in

developing countries: external debt dynamics and the role of human capital.”

Staff Papers International Monetary Fund 36: 307-42: June.

Peacock, A, T. and Wiseman, J. (1961), The Growth of Public Expenditure

in the United Kingdom, Princeton: National Bureau of Economic

Research.

Polak, J. (1989). Financial Policies and Development, Paris: OECD Press.

Premchand, A. (1989), Government Budgeting and Expenditure Controls:

Theory and Practice, Washington DC, IMF

Ram, R. (1985) “Exports and economic growth: some additional

evidence.”Economic Development and Cultural Change. Vol: 415-

25.

Rastow, W.W. (1971), Politics and the Stages of Growth. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Robinson, S. (1971). “Sources of growth in less developed countries.”

Quarterly Journal of Economics 85 (3): 391 408.

Saunders, P. (1985). “Public expenditure and economic performance in

OECD countries.” Journal of Public Policy 5:1-21; February.

Schiavo- Campo,S. and Tommasi, D. (1999), Managing Government

Expenditure, Asian Development Bank.

90

Skinner, J. (1987). “Taxation and output growth: evidence from African

countries.” NBER Working Paper 2335 Cambridge. Mass: National

Bureau of Economic Research.

Tsauni, A.M.(2007), An Examination of Casual Relationship between

Education Expenditure and Economic Growth in Nigeria. Journal of

Social and Management Sciences, Vol.12

Tyler, W. (1981). “Growth and export expansion in developing countries:

some empirical evidence.” Journal of Development Economics 9:

121-30; August.

Weede, E. (1986). “Sectoral reallocations, distributional conditions, and the

welfare state as determinants of economic growth in industrialized

democracies.” European Journal of Political Research 14:501-19.

91

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design involves the structuring of investigation with the purpose of

identifying variables and their relationships which will enable the obtaining of

data by the researcher to be able to test hypothesis or answer research questions

(Asika, 2004 and Onwumere, 2005,2009).

This study adopted the ex- post- facto research design as well as the analytical

typology.

An ex-post- facto research measures or establishes the relationship

between one variable and another or the impact of one variable on

another (Onwumere, 2009)

Also as an analytical research, econometric and statistical tools were

employed in the evaluation of data with the purpose of establishing

relationship of variables.

The data used were mainly data collated from Central Bank of Nigeria Annual

Report and Accounts, CBN Statistical bulletin, National Bureau of Statistics,

Budget office of the Federation, Office of the Accountant General of the

Federation and Federal Government Ministries.

92

3.2 NATURE AND SOURCES OF DATA

This work adopted the approach by Fajingbesi and Odusola (1999:137) and

Adubi and Obioma (1999:181) in their studies. The research therefore made use

of secondary data. Such data were sourced from National Publications, Budget

Office of the Federation, Federal Ministry of Finance and National Planning

Commission.

The data were of the following forms; Total Public Expenditure on annual basis

from 1980-2007. Total recurrent expenditure from 1980-2007, Total capital

expenditure from 1980-2007. gross domestic product on annual basis as

published in the Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical bulletin from 1980-2007.

Also the publications of National Bureau of Statistics provided data for

investment, capacity utilization and inflation rate for the period 1980-2007.

3.3 POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE

The population for this study confined to Fiscal policy variables and

Macroeconomic indicators for the period, 1980-200, While this is technically

possible, selection were made of those macroeconomic indicators that impacts

strongly on the sample variables of this study which include ,GDP ,Public

93

Expenditure ,Inflation Rate, Gross Capital Formation and Industrial Capacity

Utilization.

The respective data were collated from Central Bank of Nigeria Publications,

Budget Office, Ministry of Finance, National Bureau of Statistics and National

Planning Commission. The sample size of the study is the period 1980-2007.

3.4 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH VARIABLES

This study employed both dependent and independent variables.

3.4.1 DEPENDENT VARIABLES

The public expenditures were used as the dependent variable. They have

accordingly been used in studies by Fajingbesi and Odusola (1999: 137) and

Ezirim(2006: 85).

3.4.2 INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

The independent variables are as follows:

Investment: The gross capital formation was used as proxy for investment.

Inflation: The inflation rate will be used as a proxy for inflation.

Capacity Utilization: Industrial capacity utilization was used as proxy for

capacity utilization,

94

Economic Growth: The GDP was used as proxy for economic growth and sizes

of the economy.

OTHER RESEARCH VARIABLES

Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)

Exchange Rate (EXR)

Employment rate (EMR)

3.5 REGRESSION MODELS

The models take the simple and multiple least square forms.

For the simple ones, we have

Y = B0 + B1X + U - - -- - - - - - (3.1)

Where Y= Dependent Variable.

X= Explanatory Variable.

B0= Intercept of Y.

B1= Slope Coefficients

U= Stochastic Variables (Gujarati, 1995).

For multiple ones, the general multiple regression model is applicable as follows:

Y = bo + b1X1 + b2X2 +…..+ bnXn + μ ……………………… (3.2)

where

Y is the regress and; the Xs are the regression and the bs the parameters.

The random error term, u, is added to make the model probabilistic rather

95

than deterministic. It is also known as stochastic variable. It is assumed that

for any given set of values of X1, X2, ……, Xn, the random error u has a

normal probability distribution with mean equal to zero and variance equal

to δ2. The random errors are independent (in a probabilistic sense).

The value of the coefficients, b1 determines the contribution of the independent

variable X given that the other X variables are held constant, and b0 is the Y –

intercept. The coefficients b0, b1…., bn are usually unknown because they

represent population parameters (Ozurumba, 2008).

The following steps are taken in developing the model.

i. Hypothesize the form of the model including choice of the independent

variables to be included there in;

ii Estimate the unknown parameters, bo, b1, …., bn,

iii Specify the probability distribution of the random error component, u and

estimate its variance,

iv Check the utility of the model and

v. Use the fitted model of Y or to predict a particular value of Y for given

values of the independent variables, where applicable (Ozurumba, 2008).

96

3.6 MODEL SPECIFICATION

In specifying the models being used in this study, the following alphabets were

applied to denote the respective variables.

Y =GDP PER CAPITA

GE= SIZE OF THE ECONOMY

EXR = EXCHANGE RATE

EMR = EMPLOYMENT RATE

ICU=INDUSTRIAL CAPACITY UTILIZATION

RPE= RECURRENT PUBLIC EXPENDITURE

PCE= PUBLIC CAPITAL EXPENDITURE

INF= INFLATION

INV= INVESTMENT

HYPOTHESIS 1

Public capital expenditure does not have a positive and significance relationship

with size of the economy.

To test this, the model is -

GE = B0 + B1 (PCE) + U1---------- (1)

HYPOTHESIS 11

Recurrent Public expenditure does not have positive and significant impact on

the size of the economy.

97

The applicable model for testing the above hypothesis is -

GE= B0 + B1 (RPE) + U2---------- (2)

HYPOTHESIS 111

Recurrent and public capital expenditure do not have significant impact on

economic growth.

We employ model 3 below to test hypothesis III

G E= B0 + B1 (PCE) + B2 (RPE) + U3----------- (3)

HYPOTHESIS 1V

There is no positive and significant relationship between recurrent public

expenditure and investment in Nigeria.

For hypothesis IV, the model is -

RPE (JNV) = 0 ………………….(4)

HYPOTHESIS V

There is no positive and significant relationship between public capital

expenditure and total; investment I Nigeria.

Model 5 is for testing hypothesis V

PCE (JNV) = 0 ……………….(5)

98

HYPOTHESIS VI

Public capital and recurrent expenditure does not have positive and significant

impact on inflation rate in Nigeria

INF = Bo + B1 (PCE) + B2 (RPE) + U …………………..(6)

HYPOTHESIS vii

Public expenditure does not have positive and significant impact on

industrial capacity utilization in the Nigeria economy.

ICU = Bo + B1 PE + U ………………….(7)

HYPOTHESIS viii

The nature and form of national income accounting does not significantly affect

the nation’s economic health

Y = b0 + b1EXR + b2EMR + b3ICU + b4INF + U……….(8)

This is with the pattern of Demirguc-Kunt and Levine (1996), Levine and

Maksimovic (1996) on the structure of the regression equation

99

3.7 TECHNIQUES FOR ANALYSIS AND FURTHER PARAMETER

TESTS

Simple and multiple techniques are use for testing the models. The regression

parameters are computed using the following formulae:

b1 = ∑X1Y1 - (∑ X1) (∑Y1)

N ∑X12

- (∑X1)2

and

bo = ∑Yi - bi ∑Xi

N

The correlation coefficient (R) will be determined using

R = ∑X1Y1 – (∑X1) (∑Y1)

√ {N∑X12 – (∑X1)

2} (N∑Y

2 – (∑Y)

2}

The coefficient of determination (R2) will be calculated using the formula

R2

= SSR = b1∑XY –N ∑X∑Y

SST ∑Y2 –N (∑Y)

2

The testing of the significance of the multi-variate regression model for this study

was undertaken with the help of the Analysis of Variance table as shown below.

100

TABLE 3.1: ANOVA TABLE

Source of ariable Sum of Squares Degrees of

Freedom

Mean of Square F-ratio

Regression SSR = Y2R2 K MSR = SSR

k

F* = MSR

MSE

Error SSE = Y2- Y2R2 n-k-1 MSE = SSE

n- k-1

Total

SST = Y2- (Y)2

n

n-1

SOURCE: Nworuh, (2001) in Ozurumba, (2008)

101

Where:

SSR = Sum of Squares of Regression

SSE = Sum of Squares of error

SST = Sum of Squares of total variance

K = number of explanatory variable (5)

n = number of observations (31)

In the multiple regressions, the correlation coefficient (R), the coefficient of

determination (R2), the t-ratio and F- ratio were obtained using the electronic

computer.

3.7.1 THE COEFFICIENT OF DETERMINATION (R2)

The multiple coefficient of determination (R2) measures the proportion of

the total variation in the dependent variable (Y) that is the Gross Domestic

Product (GDP), that is explained by the variations in the selected aggregates

of macroeconomic performance (the independent variable) put together.

102

This is computed using the formula:

SSR Explained Variation

R2 = =

SST Total Variation o R2 1

Where:

SST = Total sum of squares

SSR = Regression sum of squares

3.7.2 THE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT(R)

The multiple correlation coefficients (R) measure the strength of association

existing between gross domestic product (GDP) and the selected indicators

of macroeconomic performance.

This is calculated using the following formula:

R = ± R2

Where

–1 R 1

103

3.7.3 THE SIGNIFICANCE TEST

The significance of our multi-variety estimates is tested using a combination

of F-ratio test and the t-test statistics.

3.7.4 THE F-RATIO TEST

The F-test is a test of significance of R2. In other words, it shows whether there is

a significant relationship between the dependent variable Y and the independent

variables X1, X2,….X7. If R2 is found statistically not significant, this implies that

there is no linear relationship between Y and X, that is, the true b’s are zero

(Ozurumba, 2008). While the F-statistic in relation to the F- significant tells us

whether the variable in the model bring significant information. In other words, it

is a test of the models reliability in predicting and explaining the dependent

variable by the independent variables. This is computed using the formula as

indicated on the ANOVA Table.

MSR

F* =

MSE

104

DECISION RULE:

F- RATIO

Having computed the F-value, the null hypothesis (H0) is accepted at = 0.05

significant level if:

F* F1- k, n-k-1 degree of freedom,

Otherwise, Ho is rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis (HA), for a one-

tail test. Here, F1- k, n-k-1 degree of freedom is the critical value obtained from

the F- distribution table.

3.7.5 THE STUDENT T-TEST

If the F-ratio rejects the null hypothesis, that is accepting that there is a

significant linear relationship existing between the dependent variable and

the set of independent variables, then the student t-test is carried out to find

out which of the independent variables contribute(s) to the significance of

the linear relationship established by the F-ratio. The t-test value is

calculated using the formula:

n – 2

t = R

1 – R2 for n-2 degrees of freedom

105

DECISION RULE:

The null hypothesis (H0), that is, = 0 is accepted at significant level and n-k-

1 degrees of freedom if:

t- calculated t1-/2, n-k-1

Where:

t1-/2, n-k-1 is the critical value obtained from the t-distribution table.

Otherwise, the alternative hypothesis (HA), that is 0 is accepted if:

t-calculated t1-/2, n-k-1.

3.7.6 AUTOCORRELATION TEST USING DURBIN –WATSON

When the error term in one time period is positively correlated with the error

term in the previous time period, we face the problem of autocorrelation. This is

common in time series analysis and leads to downward-biased standard errors

(and, thus, to incorrect statistical tests and confidence intervals).

The presence of autocorrelation can be tested by calculating the Durbin –

Watson Statistic, d, given by equation or SPSS. The calculated value of d ranges

106

between 0 and 4, with no autocorrelation when d is in the neighbourhood of 2

(Koutsoyiannis, 1993).

The analysis of data will be done with a personal computer (PC), which is a

powerful tool that reduces the burden of voluminous calculations. The software

selected for the study is the Software Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

107

REFERENCES

Adubi, A.A. and Obioma, E.C. (1999), “Public Expenditure Management in

Nigeria”, in Fiscal Policy Planning and Management in Nigeria,

Ibadan: NCEMA,

Asika, N. (2001), Research Methodology in Behavioural Science, Lagos:

Longman, Nigeria Plc.

Barro, R.J. (1991), “Economic Growth in A Gross Section of Countries”, The

Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol.52, No.2,

Demirguc-Kunt, A and Levine, R (1996), Stock Market Development and

Financial Intermediaries. Stylized Facts, The World Bank Economic

Review, Vol.10. No.2,

Fajingbesi, A.A. and Odusola, A.F. (1999), Public Expenditure and growth.

NCEMA, Ibadan.

Fortune, P. (1998), “Mutual Funds Part 11: Fund Flows and Security

Returns”, NewEngland Economic Review,.

Gallagher, M. (1994), “Government Spending in Africa: A Retrospective of

the 1980’s” Journal of American Economies 3 (1) April.

Granger, C.W. (1969),“Investigating Casual Relations by Econometric

Models and Cross-Special Methods”, Econometrics, Vol.37.

Gujarati, D.N. (1995), Basic Econometrics, Singapore: Mcgrew-Hill Book Co.

Hemming, R. (1991), “Public Expenditure, Stabilization and Structural

Adjustment”, Public Expenditure Handbook: A Guide to Public Policy in

DevelopingCountries, Washington, D.C. IMF.

Levine, R. and Zervos, S. (1996), “Stock Market Development and Long-Run

Economic Growth”, The World Bank Policy Research Paper 15 & 2,

Ogiogio, G.O. (1995), “Government Expenditure and Economic Growth in

Nigeria”. Journal of Economic Management 2 (1), October.

108

Onwumere, J.U.J. (2005), Business and Economic Research Methods,

Lagos: Don- Vinton Limited.

Ozurumba, B.A. (2008), Impact of Public Sector Deficits on Economic

Development of Nigeria, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, FUTO, Owerri

Rajan, R.G. and Zingales, L. (1998), “Financial Dependence and Growth”,

American Economic Review, Vol. 88.

Tsauni, A.M.(2007), An Examination of Casual Relationship between

Education Expenditure and Economic Growth in Nigeria. Journal of Social

and Management Sciences,BUK, Vol.12.

109

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents available data on public expenditure trend and those of

some selected aggregates of macroeconomic performance within the study

period. Having specified the models the researcher proceeds with the estimation,

and obtained numerical estimates of the coefficients of the models. These

important statistical aspects are hereby presented and interpreted.

4.2 DATA PRESENTATION

4.2.1GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP)

The GDP as an index of growth and size of an economy has been employed in

many studies such as Ezirim(2006:92),Fajingbesi and Odusola(1999:150). Nominal

GDP is the GDP measured in terms of the price level at the time of measurement

(unadjusted for inflation). Real GDP is the nominal gross domestic product that has

been deflated or inflated to reflect changes in the price level. One way to calculate real

GDP is to create a price index based on data on the price changes that occurred over

various years.

As shown in table 4.2.1a below, the gross domestic product in 1981

110

TABLE: 4.2.1a GDP GROWTH RATES

YEAR GDP %GROWTH

NGN'M

1980 49,632.3 ---

1981 47,619.7 -4.23

1982 49,069.3 2.95

1983 53,107.4 7.60

1984 59,622.5 10.93

1985 67,908.6 12.20

1986 69,147.0 1.79

1987 105,222.8 34.29

1988 139,085.3 24.35

1989 216,797.5 35.85

1990 267,550.0 18.97

1991 312,139.7 14.29

1992 532,613.8 41.39

1993 683,869.8 22.12

1994 899,863.2 24.00

1995 1,933,211.6 53.45

1996 2,702,719.1 28.47

1997 2,801,972.6 3.54

1998 2,708,430.9 -3.45

1999 3,194,015.0 15.20

2000 4,582,127.3 30.29

2001 4,725,086.0 3.03

2002 6,912,381.3 31.64

2003 8,487,031.6 18.55

2004 11,411,066.9 25.62

2005 14,572,239.1 21.69

2006 18,564,594.7 21.51

2007 20,657,317.7 10.13

SOURCE: (1) National Bureau of Statistics-National Accounts Survey (2007)

(2) Central Bank of Nigeria, Annual Report and Accounts(various years)

111

and 1990 at current basic prices stood at N47,619.67million and N267,549.98

respectively. It eventually rose to N11,411,066.90 million, N14,572,239.11

million and N18,564,594.73 million in 2004, 2005 and 2006 respectively. Also

as reflected in table 4.2.1b, the gross domestic product at 1990 constant basic

prices stood at N205, 222.05 million and N267, 549.98 million in 1981 and

1990 respectively. It rose to N527, 576.03 million, N561,931.40 million and

N595,821.61 million in 2004, 2005 and 2006 respectively.

The economy recorded a sluggish growth averaging about 2.62% for the two

decades 1981-2000. However since 2003, the economy has been experiencing

appreciable growth. For instance, in 2003, 2004, 2005 and 2006, it grew

appreciably by 10.23%, 10.48%, 6.51% and 6.03% respectively, in real

terms,(National Bureau of Statistics,2007)

The Implicit price deflator of the gross domestic product at basic prices stood

at 23.20 and 100.00 in 1981 and 1990 respectively. It however moved to

2,162.92, 2,593.24 and 3,115.80 in 2004, 2005 and 2006 respectively.

Economic growth is the expansion of the output of the economy or the

expansion of the National Income (NI), Anya (2002).

112

We can then use the index in each year to adjust nominal GDP to real GDP for

that year. The implicit price index, or GDP deflator can then be found by

dividing nominal GDP by real GDP, and then multiplying by 100.

113

TABLE.4.2.1b: GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT AT 1990 CONSTANT BASIC PRICES

Activity Sector 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

1. Agriculture

1.1 Crop production 162,147.52 168,884.33 180,706.23 192,452.16 206,178.40

1.2 Livestock 11,793.41 12,360.56 12,879.00 13,716.14 14,643.86

1.3 forestry 2,606.58 2,624.85 2,664.25 2,837.43 3,005.35

1.4 fishing 6,112.50 6,499.36 6,763.13 7,202.74 7,636.00

2. Mining And

Quarrying

1,124.85 1,173.70 1,238.09 1,372.41 1,503.16

2.1 Crude Petroleum and

Natural Gas 112,417.40 106,002.10 131,336.60 135,670.71 136,345.54

2.2 Coal Mining 0.16 0.1 0.1 0.11 0.12

2.3 Metal Ores 6.36 6.39 6.15 6.82 7.56

2.4 Oil Refining 562.71 518.37 567.58 624.34 686.77

2.5 Cement 309.83 313.15 325.63 358.19 397.83

3. Manufacturing 14,318.76 15,892.19 16,776.59 18,454.25 20,220.45

4. Public Utility

4.1 Electricity 12,383.46 15,921.43 16,466.09 18,252.54 19,439.86

4.2 Water 488.07 524.67 567.75 629.35 695.43

5 Building &

Construction

6,106.72 6,371.97 6,929.52 7,622.47 8,544.48

6. Transportation

6.1 Road Transport 9,896.74 11,741.10 11,879.74 12,580.64 13,385.91

6.2 Rail & Pipelines 1.36 1.41 1.48 1.57 1.67

6.3 Water 488.07 524.67 567.75 629.35 695.43

6.4 Air 222.19 264.46 283.97 300.72 318.17

7 Telecommunication 2,207.36 3,236.10 4,627.60 6,015.91 7,851.66

7.1 Post 175.82 286.71 263.32 291.89 323.56

7.2 Broadcasting 311.32 331.5 346.08 383.63 415.08

8. Wholesale And Retail

Trade

55,110.13 58,682.62 62,062.74 68,082.83 77,283.06

9. Hotel And estaurants 1,574.74 1,682.50 1,760.49 1,951.49 2,155.35

10. Finance and Insurance

10.1 Financial nstitutions 17,348.83 22,452.84 20,377.30 20,886.73 21,430.31

10.2 Insurance 556.38 720.07 581.25 644.31 714.21

11. Real Estate and Business

Services

11.1 Real Estate 6,020.68 6,201.30 6,387.34 7,080.32 7,865.61

11.2 Business Services

(Not Health or Education) 507.69 540.6 564.37 625.6 658.75

1.3 Public Administration) 3,015.44 3,561.30 3,561.30 3,947.67 4,105.58

12. Community Social and

Personal Services

12.1 Private Non Profit

Organizations 12.63 14.92 14.92 16.54 18.33

12.2 Other Services 2616.06 3009.45 3048.87 3379.65 3734.51

13. Producers of Government

Services

13.1 Education 681.73 735.36 787.09 872.48 964.53

13.2 Health 178.59 180.02 183.7 203.63 223.99

GDP Constant Basic

Price

431,783.18 451,785.67 495,007.17 527,576.03 561,931.40

Source: National Bureau of Statistics

114

4.3 ANALYSIS OF RECURRENT AND CAPITAL EXPENDITURE

a) Recurrent Expenditure:- In 1980, the recurrent expenditure of the Federal

Government was N4805.2 million or 32.1% total expenditure and accounted for

9.7 percent of the GDP. It increased to N4846.7 million and N5506 million in

1981 and 1982 respectively, while the percentages share of GDP moved to 10.7

percent in 1982. Between 1984 and 2007, recurrent expenditure continued to

grow up in nominal terms from N5827.5 million to N1,589,270 million at the

end of 2007. While the recurrent expenditure /GDP ratios continued to drop

from 9.2% in 1984 to 7.7% in 2007. (see table 4.3a and 4.3b respectively)

115

TABLE 4.3a: RATE OF GROWTH OF RECURRENT, CAPITAL AND TOTAL

EXPENDITURES ON GDP

(N million)

Year GDP Total TE as% Recurrent RE as% RE as% Capital CE as% CE as%

N’m Expend. GDP Expend. TE GDP Expen. Of TE GDP

(TE) N’m (RE) (CE)

1980 49630 14968.6 30.2 4805.2 32.1 9.7 10163.4 67.9 20.5

1981 50460 11413.7 22.6 4846.7 42.5 9.6 6567 57.5 13.0

1982 51570 11923.2 23.1 5506 46.2 10.7 6417.2 53.8 12.4

1983 56710 9636.5 17.0 4750.8 49.3 8.4 4885.7 50.7 8.6

1984 63010 9927.6 15.8 5827.5 58.7 9.2 4100.1 41.3 6.5

1985 71370 13041.1 18.3 7576.4 58.1 10.6 5464.7 41.9 7.7

1986 72130 16203.7 22.5 7676.9 47.4 10.6 8526.8 52.6 11.8

1987 106890 22018.7 20.6 15646.2 71.1 14.6 6372.5 28.9 6.0

1988 142660 27749.5 19.5 19409.4 69.9 13.6 8340.1 30.1 5.8

1989 222460 41028.3 18.4 25994.2 63.4 11.7 15034.1 36.6 6.8

1990 267060 60268.2 22.6 36219.6 60.1 13.6 24048.6 39.9 9.0

1991 285630 66584.4 23.3 38243.5 57.4 13.4 28340.9 42.6 9.9

1992 549800 92797.4 16.9 53034.1 57.2 9.6 39763.3 42.8 7.2

1993 697100 191228.9 27.4 136727.1 71.5 19.6 54501.8 28.5 7.8

1994 911400 160893.2 17.7 89974.9 55.9 9.9 70918.3 44.1 7.8

1995 197770 248768.1 125.8 127629.8 51.3 64.5 121138.3 48.7 61.3

1996 2833200 337417.6 11.9 124491.3 36.9 4.4 212926.3 63.1 7.5

1997 2801972.6 428215.2 15.3 158563.5 37.0 5.7 269651.7 63.0 9.6

1998 2708430.9 487113.4 18.0 178097.8 36.6 6.6 309015.6 63.4 11.4

1999 3194015 947690 29.7 449662.4 47.4 14.1 498027.6 52.6 15.6

2000 4582127.3 701050.9 15.3 461600 65.8 10.1 239450.9 34.2 5.2

2001 4725086 1017996.5 21.5 579300 56.9 12.3 438696.5 43.1 9.3

2002 6912381.3 1018178.1 14.7 696800 68.4 10.1 321378.1 31.6 4.6

2003 8487031.6 1225988.3 14.4 984300 80.3 11.6 241688.3 19.7 2.8

2004 11411067 1384000 12.1 1032700 74.6 9.0 351300 25.4 3.1

2005 14572239 1743200 12.0 1223700 70.2 8.4 519500 29.8 3.6

2006 18564595 1842587.7 9.9, 1290201.9 70.0 6.9 552385.8 30.0 3.0

2007 20657318 2348593 11.4 1589270 67.7 7.7 759323 32.3 3.7

SOURCE: (1) National Bureau of Statistics – National Accounts Survey (2007)

(2) Central Bank of Nigeria, Statistical Bulletin(2008)

116

Table 4.3b NIGERIA FEDERAL GOVERNMENT CAPITAL, RECURRENT AND TOTAL EXPENDITURE: 1980- 2007

(N MILLION)

YEAR CAPITAL EXPEN. % GROWTH IN RECURRENT EXP. %GROWTH IN TOTAL EXPEND. %GROWTH IN

CAPITAL EXP. RECURRENT EXP TOTAL EXPEN.

1980 10163.4 4805.2 14968.6

1981 6567.0 -54.8 4846.7 0.9 11358.9 -31.8

1982 6417.2 -2.3 5506.0 12.0 11920.9 4.7

1983 4885.7 -31.3 4750.8 15.9 9605.2 -24.1

1984 4100.1 -19.2 5827.5 18.5 9908.4 3.1

1985 5464.7 25.0 7576.4 23.1 13066.1 24.2

1986 8526.8 35.9 7676.9 1.3 16239.6 19.5

1987 6372.5 -33.8 15646.2 50.9 21984.9 26.1

1988 8340.1 23.6 19409.4 19.4 27773.1 20.8

1989 15034.1 44.5 25994.2 25.3 41072.8 32.4

1990 24048.6 37.5 36219.6 28.2 60305.7 31.9

1991 28340.9 15.1 38243.5 5.3 66599.5 9.5

1992 39763.3 28.7 53034.1 27.9 92826.1 28.3

1993 54501.8 27.0 136727.1 61.2 191255.9 51.5

1994 70918.3 23.1 89974.9 52.0 160916.3 -18.9

1995 121138.3 41.5 127629.8 29.5 248809.6 35.3

1996 212926.3 43.1 124491.3 2.5 337460.7 26.3

1997 269651.7 21.0 158563.5 21.5 428236.2 21.2

1998 309015.6 12.7 178097.8 11.0 487126.1 12.1

1999 498027.6 38.0 449662.4 60.4 947728.0 48.6

2000 239450.9 -108.0 461600.0 2.6 700942.9 -35.2

2001 438696.5 45.4 579300.0 20.3 1018041.9 31.1

2002 321378.1 -36.5 696800.0 16.9 1018141.6 0.0

2003 241688.3 -33.0 984300.0 1.8 925955.3 -10.0

2004 351300.0 31.2 1032700.0 33.7 1384031.2 33.1

2005 519500.0 32.4 1223700.0 15.6 1743232.4 20.6

2006 552385.8 6.0 1290201.9 5.2 1842593.7 5.4

2007 759323.0 27.3 1589270.0 18.8 2348620.3 21.5

SOURCE: (1) National Bureau of Statistics – National Accounts of Nigeria (2007)

(2) Central Bank of Nigeria, Statistical Bulletin(2008)

117

b). Capital Expenditure:- The capital expenditure of the federal government, as

indicated in table 4.3a and 4.3b, stood at N10163.4 million or 67.9 percent of total

expenditure, while the capital expenditure/GDP ratio was 20.5 percent. The capital

expenditure continued to fall up to N4100.1 million in 1984, also capital expenditure

to GDP ratio fell to 6.4 percent in 1984. Capital expenditure fell persistently from

1980 up to 1985 until the beginning of the structural adjustment programme (SAP) in

Nigeria. A clear indication of the foreign exchange impact on the capital budget and

particularly external debt services, capital expenditure increased continually between

1986 and 2007. It rose from N8,526.8 million in 1986, representing 52.6 percent of

total expenditure, to N7,59,323.0 million in 2007 and representing 32.3 percent of

total expenditure. The capital expenditure to GDP ratio dropped greatly from 11.8

percent in 1986 to 3.7 percent in 2007 ( table 4.3a and 4.3b).

As shown in table 4.3a and 4.3b, 1980 and 1983 witnessed fall in both capital and

recurrent expenditures.

Starting from 1986 which happens to be the SAP period there were considerable in

crease in both capital and recurrent expenditure the sum of N7,696.9 million was spent

as recurrent expenditure in 1986 representing 47.4% of Federal Government Total

expenditure. By the

118

end of 1993, recurrent expenditure rose to N136,727.10 million representing 71.5% of

total Federal Government expenditures as against 58.1% of total expenditures in 1985

before the commencement of the SAP. Capital expenditure accounted for N54501.8

million in 1986 or 52.6% of total expenditures before coming down to N8,526.8

million or 28.5% of total expenditures in 1993.

There was continual increase in public expenditures between 1980 and

1993 Total public expenditures rose considerably from N14,968.6 in

1980 to N2348620.3 million in 2007, greater percentage of growth in

total expenditures has been attributed to increase in transfer payments,

especially debt services payments and pensions. (see table 4.4a)

Despite the oil windfalls, extra-budgetary expenditures have raised fast

and thus creating budget deficit.

Many factors have been attributed to be responsible for the increase in

public expenditures. In addition to debt service obligations, other

expenditure heads include the transition programme, sundry project and

other extra budgetary expenditures for the execution of projects, which

include financing of ECOMOG in Liberia, donation, among others.

Throughout the period 1980-2007 recurrent expenditure forms larger

proportion of the total government expenditure compared to capital

expenditure as indicated in table 4.3a and 4.3b. It is necessary to

emphasis here that the scope for limiting or reducing recurrent

119

expenditure is limited by the fact that a large proportion of the recurrent

expenditure is caused by increase in expenses on emoluments, pension

and gratuities and debt service obligations.

An analysis of the capital versus recurrent expenditure profiles for the

period 1980 - 2007 reveals that the Federal Government favoured

increase in recurrent expenditure over these years. The period 1980-1983

happens to be the only time the capital expenditure exceeded recurrent

expenditures .For the rest of the period covered in this study i.e.1984-

2007,recurrent expenditure have been showing higher percentage

increases on total expenditure with the exception of 1996 ,1997,1998 and

1999 when capital expenditures exceeded recurrent expenditures .The

years of 2002,2003,2004,2005,2006 and 2007 reveals the doubling of

recurrent expenditures over capital expenditures.

120

4.4 FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS OF TOTAL PUBLIC EXPENDITURE

As shown in table 4.4a below, total public expenditure is disaggregated into

some functional categories, such as administration, economic services, social

and community services and transfer payments.

This is necessary to highlight the relative shares of transfer payments and

productive activities. In general terms, transfer payment are not considered to be

directly productive as they represent payment either for work done in the past or

for debt service which represent outlay for credit received in the past (Ojo and

Okunroumu, 1992: 229). In 1980, the total expenditure on administration,

comprising general administration, defence and internal security, stood at

N3418.5 million, which represents 22.8 percent of the total expenditure of the

federal Government expenditure, while transfer payments accounted for 12.3

percent.

Economic services, which represent outlays on agriculture, construction,

transportation and communication took 43.1 percent, while expenditure on

social and community services, such as expenses incurred on education, housing

and other services, accounted for 21.8 percent share of Total Federal

Government expenditure as shown in table 4.4a below, while transfer payment

were still minimal at 12.3 percent share of total expenditures in 1980. This

pattern of favouring productive expenditures by Government

121

changed when government revenue started to decline, consequently there were

increase in public sector borrowing which helped to maintain the high level of

outlay on administration, economic services, social and community services.

Starting from 1984, there were high increases on transfer payments indicating

50.4 percent, 49.5 percent and 62.6 percent in 1984, 1985 and 1986 respectively

(see table 4.4a). This pattern of increases in transfer payments as percentage of

total expenditure rose up 71.6% and 75.5 in 1991 and 1992 respectively. As a

result, transfer payments generally and debt services in particular, have become

a major segment of government expenditure in Nigeria. Thus, up to 2007,

transfer payments maintain a high level of 33.4 percent of total public

expenditure.

122

Table: 4.4a Functional Classification of Total Federal Government Expenditure: 1980-2007

N million YEAR TOTAL

EXPENDITURE

ADMINIS-

TRATION

%

SHARE

ECONOMIC

SERVICES

% SOCIAL &

COMMUNITY SERVICES

% TRANSFERS %

1980 14968.5 3418.5 22.8 6449.7 43.1 3264.4 21.8 1836 12.3

1981 11413.7 2895.2 25.4 4128.8 36.2 2155 18.9 2234.7 19.6

1982 11302.9 2467.5 21.8 2887.5 25.5 1692.2 15.0 4255.7 37.7

1983 10164.5 3666.1 36.1 2670.7 26.3 1930.9 19.0 1896.8 18.7

1984 9927.6 2940 29.6 983.2 9.9 1005.6 10.1 4998.8 50.4

1985 13040.9 3097.8 23.8 1208.1 9.3 2286.2 17.5 6448.8 49.5

1986 16223.7 2940.5 18.1 1613.6 9.9 1517.4 9.4 10152.2 62.6

1987 22018.7 7862.5 35.7 3252.6 14.8 1088.1 4.9 9815.5 44.6

1988 27749.5 7676.4 27.7 3349.9 12.1 3840.2 13.8 12883 46.4

1989 41028.3 8888 21.7 5345.3 13.0 6074.9 14.8 20720.1 50.5

1990 60268.2 9460.1 15.7 5099.4 8.5 5492 9.1 40216.7 66.7

1991 66584.4 10298.8 15.5 4448.4 6.7 4168.6 6.3 47668.6 71.6

1992 93835.5 13973 14.9 5477.1 5.8 3494.9 3.7 70890.5 75.5

1993 136645.4 26447.8 19.4 23000.7 16.8 12382.7 9.1 74814.2 54.8

1994 156837.2 29319.9 18.7 31012.7 19.8 15079.9 9.6 81424.7 51.9

1995 254038 42095.7 16.6 49067.1 19.3 23036.4 9.1 139838.8 55.0

1996 282969.6 61986.4 21.9 69422.2 24.5 26343.4 9.3 125217.6 44.3

1997 428215.2 110882.1 25.9 177407.1 41.4 28232.6 6.6 111693.4 26.1

1998 487113.4 89943.9 18.5 212724 43.7 46143.2 9.5 138302.3 28.4

1999 947690 139961.3 14.8 344032 36.3 55001.8 5.8 408694.9 43.1

2000 701,059 174578.6 24.9 141324.9 20.2 86767.6 12.4 298388.3 42.6

2001 1018026 230064.9 22.6 312768.9 30.7 132970.4 13.1 342221.4 33.6

2002 1188715 405313.4 34.1 281244.3 23.7 221898.9 18.7 280258 23.6

2003 1225957 395807.4 32.3 194013.9 15.8 158302.2 12.9 477833.2 39.0

2004 1384001 444618.6 32.1 226503.5 16.4 164423.2 11.9 548455.9 39.6

2005 1743240 606285.9 34.8 329343.2 18.9 223007.8 12.8 584603.1 33.5

2006 1942588 707422.5 36.4 341894.5 17.6 272850.4 14.0 620420.4 31.9

2007 2348620.3 785412.4 33.4 451418.19 19.2 328044.89 14.0 783717.48 33.4

Source: (1) Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bullent(2008)

123

4.5 Analysis of the Fiscal Operations of Federal Government of

Nigeria

As indicated in table 4.5a below, the fiscal operations of the Federal

Government between 1980 and 2007 resulted in overall surplus in only two

years (that is 1995 and 196), while there were fiscal deficits in the remaining

years “The growth and persistence of fiscal deficit in Nigeria in recent times has

been attributed to lack of fiscal discipline on the part of the Government

(Ozurumba, 2008: 12). Most of the time, if not all, the realized revenue were

often above budgetary estimates, still extra-budgetary expenditures were rising

so high and resulting in ever bigger deficits. Financing the fiscal deficit mainly

through the banking system, most especially the Central Bank’s Ways and

Means Facility, has resulted in rapid growth of domestic liquidity, with its

consequence of exerting pressure on prices, interest rate, and exchange rate of

the Naira (see table 4.5a on financing of fiscal deficit). Also the after-mount of

this scenario is the bursting of prescribed target of monetary and credit

aggregates above the average annual target. As shown in table 4.6a, the federal

Government achieved a surplus of N1000 million and N32049.4 million in 1995

and 1996 respectively. The fiscal deficit rose from N1,975.2 million in 1980 to

N101397.5 million in 2006 ( Table 4.5a).

124

The growing imbalance between the revenue and expenditure of the Federal

Government and the resulting deficit is a reflection of fiscal indiscipline on the

part of Government.

125

Table: 4.5a:

Fiscal Operations of the Federal Government of Nigeria: 1980-2007

(N million)

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

total federally collected

revenue 15233.5 13290.5 11433.7 10508.7 11253 15050.4 12595.8

oil revenue 12353.3 8564.4 7814.9 7253 8269.2 10923.7 8107.3

non-oil revenue 2880.2 4726.1 3618.8 3255.7 2984.1 4126.7 4488.5

Federation account 14746.5 10182.8 9884.9 9798.5 10672 13750.2 11868.3

Federal government

retained revenue 12993.3 7511.6 5819.1 6272 7267.2 10001.4 7969.4

total expenditure 14968.5 11413.7 11923.2 9636.5 9927.6 13041.1 16223.7

recurrent expenditure 4805.2 4846.7 5506 4750.8 5827.5 7576.4 7969.9

capital expenditure 10163.3 6567 6417.2 4885.7 4100.1 5464.7 8526.8

Current surplus(+)/deficit(-) 8188.1 2664.9 313.1 1521.2 1439.7 2425 272.5

% of GDP 16.1 2.6 0.3 1.3 1.2 1.7 0.2

Overall surplus(+)/deficit(-) -1975.2 -3902.1 -6104.1 -3364.5 -2660.4 -3039.7 -8254.3

% of GDP -3.9 -3.8 -5.5 -2.8 -1.2 -2.1 -5.7

Financing: 1975.2 3902.1 6104.1 3364.5 2660.4 3039.7 8354.3

Foreign (net) 255.3 464.4 263.5 1106.9 1184.5 1045.9 708.1

Domestic (net) 387.1 4200.8 3402 7057 2928.2 571.2 475.5

banking system (net) 150.7 3018 3989.2 5296.3 2370 785.6 475.2

of which

CBN -122.9 3624.1 2989.2 3271.2 1418.9 -567.6 6042.7

Deposit money banks

non Bank Public 236.4 1182.8 412.8 1760.7 558.2 -214.4 0.3

other funds 1332.8 -763.1 2438.6 -4799.4 -1452.1 1422.6 7070.7

source: Central Bank of Nigeria, Statistical Bullent(2008)

126

Table: 4.5a (cont.)

Fiscal Operations of the Federal Government of Nigeria: 1980-2007

N million

sources 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

total federally collected

revenue 25380.6 27596.7 53870.4 98102.4 100992 190453.2 192769

oil revenue 19027 19831.7 39130.5 71887.1 82666 164078.1 162102

non-oil revenue 6553.6 7765 14739.9 26215.3 18325 26375.1 30667

Federation account 24692.2 26770.3 46860.3 68064.2 54000 77800 106799

Federal government

retained revenue 16129 15588.6 25893.6 38152.1 30829 53264.9 126071

total expenditure 22018.7 27749.5 41028.3 60268.2 66584 92797.4 191229

Recurrent expenditure 15646.2 19409.4 25994.2 36219.6 38244 53034.1 136727

capital expenditure 6372.5 8340.1 15034.1 24048.6 28341 39763.3 54501.8

Current surplus(+)/deficit(-) 482.8 3820.8 -10326 1932.5 -7414.3 238.8 -53234

% of GDP 0.2 -1.4 -2.6 0.4 -1.3 0 -4.7

Overall surplus(+)/deficit(-) -5889.7 -12160.9 -15134.7 -22116.1 -35755 -39532.5 -101735

% of GDP -2.9 -4.4 -3.7 -4.4 -6.2 -4.3 -9.5

Financing: 5889.7 12160.9 15134.7 22116.1 35755 39532.5 107735

Foreign (net) 832.7 1918.7 5719 980.6 2972.6 -11859.6 16963.5

Domestic (net) 6465.6 8361.8 -5797.8 6092.6 32112 46716.7 91136

banking system (net) 2809.7 6102.4 -9236.4 2727.7 31107 33598.9 89402

of which

CBN 590.9 7473.7 -6477.4 -1498 18431 46433.4 62383.6

Deposit money banks

non Bank Public 3655.9 2259.4 3438.6 3364.9 1005.3 13117.8 1734

other funds -1408.6 1880.4 15213.5 15042.9 670.2 4675.4 -364.2

source: Central Bank of Nigeria, Statistical Bullent(2008)

127

Table: 4.5a (cont.)

Fiscal Operations of the Federal Government of Nigeria: 1980-2007

N million

Sources 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000

total federally collected

revenue 201910.8 459987.3 523597 582811.1 463609 949187.7 1906.2

oil revenue 160192.4 324547.6 408783 416811.1 324311 72422.2 1591.7

non-oil revenue 41718.4 135439.7 114814 166000 139298 224765.4 314.5

Federation account 110461 161998.9 179000 208000 257331 576801.4 1262.5

Federal government

retained revenue 90622.6 249768.1 325144 351262.3 353724 662585.3 597.3

total expenditure 160893.2 248768.1 337217.6 428215.2 487113 947690 701.1

Recurrent expenditure 89974.9 127629.8 124491.3 158563.5 178098 449662.4 461.6

capital expenditure 70918.3 121138.3 212926.3 269651.7 309016 498027.6 239.5

Current surplus(+)/deficit(-) 647.7 122138.3 244075.7 264651.7 175626 212922.9 135.7

% of GDP 0 4.1 5.9 6.2 4.3 4.4 0

Overall surplus (+)/deficit(-) -70270.6 1000 32049.4 -5000 133389

-

285104.7 -103778

% of GDP -4.8 0 0.8 -0.1 -3.3 -5.9 -1.5

financing: 70270.6 -1000 -37049.4 5000 133389 285104.7 103777

Foreign (net) 8390.8 22455.4 13382.6 16605.6 16606 21040.8 0

domestic (net) 60247.6 7102.2 -32049.4 -8382.6 116784 264065.9 103447

banking system (net) 40900.1 17819.6

-

153143.2 -62880.5 108991 172638.1 73137

of which

CBN 41253 7312.6 -52288.4 12795 17485 - -16210

Deposit money banks 89346.9

non Bank Public 19347.5 -10717.4 9953.7 2243.4 -51049 -18560.7 30310.3

other funds 1632.2 -30557.6 103314.7 52254.5 12898 109986.5 330

Source: Central Bank of Nigeria, Statistical Bullent(2008)

128

Table: 4.5a (cont.)

Fiscal Operations of the Federal Government of Nigeria: 1980-2007

N million

Sources 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

total federally collected

revenue 2231.6 1731.8 2575.1 3920.5 5547.5 5965.1 5715.6

oil revenue 1707.6 1230.9 2074.3 3354.8 4762.4 5287.6 4462.9

non-oil revenue 903.5 501 500.8 565.7 785.1 677.5 1200.8

Federation account 1427.4 1606.1 2011.6 2657.2 3033.9 3219.1 3878.5

Federal government

retained revenue 797 716.6 1023.2 1253.6 1660.7 1836.6 2333.7

total expenditure 1018 1018.2 1226 1426.2 1822.1 1938 2450.9

recurrent expenditure 579.3 696.8 984.3 1032.7 1223.7 1290.2 1589.3

capital expenditure 438.7 321.4 241.7 351.3 519.5 552.4 759.3

Current surplus(+)/deficit(-) 217.6 20 39 220.8 437 546.4 744.4

% of GDP 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

overalls plus(+)/deficit(-)

-

221048.9

-

301401.6

-

202724.7 172601.3 -161406

-

101397.5 -117.2

% of GDP -3.1 -3.8 -2 -1.5 -1.1 -0.5 0

financing: 221048.9 301401.6 202746.4 172620 161400 101251.4 117.2

Foreign (net) 0 0 0 0 0 0 -

domestic (net) 118720 149026.7 163746.4 46500 143500 45000 212.3

banking system (net) 136734.1 60794.5 134246.4 0 0 0 159.8

of which

CBN 225685.5

-

200173.5 94046.4 0 0 0 0

Deposit money banks -88951.4 260968 40200 0 0 0 159.8

non Bank Public -18014.1 88232.2 29500 46500 143500 45000 40.2

other funds 102328.9 152374.9 39000 126120 17900 56251.4 95.1

source: Central Bank of Nigeria, Statistical Bullent(2008)

129

4.6 FINANCING FISCAL DEFICITS IN NIGERIA

In Nigeria, deficits are financed through foreign loans, domestic loans and other

funds (drawing down of cash balances). The domestic loans are further divided

into loans from non-banking system, (Ozurumba, 2008: 120). The sum of

N255.3 million and N464.4 million represent foreign financing of deficit in

1980 and 1981 respectively. This amount jumped to N1106.9 and N1184.5

million in 1983 and 1984 respectively (see table 4.6a). It was only in year 2000

when there was no evidence of foreign loan in financing the entire deficit of

N103777.3 million from the figures indicated in table 4.6a domestic financial

markets had been the main source of financing the deficit in Nigeria, with the

Central Bank accounting for the major part of credit to the Federal Government.

The impact of financing fiscal deficits through reliance on internal sources,

especially through the Central Bank could be noticeable. “The financing of the

fiscal deficit by borrowing from the Central Bank is highly inflationary and

tends to induce macroeconomic instability. In addition, it affects private sector

activities and the level of public debt which must be repaid in the future,” (Ojo

and Okunrounmu, 1992: 236).

The major impact of fiscal deficit, financed by internal source, mainly by

borrowing from the Central Bank, is an increase in credit expansion and money

supply in the economy. The expenditure of such deficit finance will

130

create increase in aggregate demand, which will likely be in excess of

supply of goods and services. The result will invariably accelerate inflationary

pressures in the economy. Ojo and Okunrounmu (1992: 236) argue that “the

Nigerian experience is that for most of the years when the Federal Government

borrowed heavily from domestic source to finance its fiscal deficit, credit

expansion exceeded the targets stipulated in the monetary and credit guidelines

issued as part of the budgetary process”.

NOTE: (-) Indicates “deficit”, (+) indicates “surplus”

131

Table 4.6a: Financing of Nigeria’s Overall Fiscal Deficits, 1980 – 2006

(N Million). Year Overall

Budget

Surplus /

Deficit

Foreign

loan

Domestic Banking

Systems

Non-

Banking

Public

Other

Funds

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1980 -1975.2 255. 367.1 150.7 236.4 +1332.8

1981 -3902.1 464.4 4200.8 3018.0 1182.8 -763/1

1982 -6104.1 263.5 3402.0 3989.2 412.8 +2438.6

1983 -3364.5 1106.9 7057.0 5296.2 17607 -4799.4

1984 -2660.4 1184.5 2928.2 2370.0 558.2 -1452.3

1985 -3039.9 1045.9 5712 785.6 -2144.4 +1422.6

1986 -8254.3 708.1 475.5 275.2 0.3 +7070.7

1987 -5889.7 832.7 6465.6 2809.7 365.9 -1408.6

1988 -12160.9 1918.u7 8361.8 6102.4 2259.4 +1880.4

1989 -14134.7 5719.0 -5797.5 -9236.4 3438.6 +15213.5

1990 -22116.1 980.6 6092.6 2727.7 3364.9 +15042.9

1991 -35755.2 2972.2 32112.4 31107.1 1005.3 +670.2

1992 -39532.5 -11859.6 46716.7 35598.9 13117.8 +4675.4

1993 -107735.3 16963.5 91136.7 89402.0 1734.0 -364.2

1994 -70270.6 8390.8 60247.6 40900.1 19347.5 +1632.2

1995 +1000.0 22455.4 7102.2 17819.6- 10717.4 -30557.6

1996 +37049.4 7825.4 -143189.5 -153143.2 9953.7 +98314.7

1997 +5000.00 13382.6 -60637.1 -62880.5 2243.4 +52254.5

1998 -133389.3 16605.6 103885.7 108990.5 -5104.8 +12898.0

1999 -285104.7 21040.8 264063.9 172638.1 -18560.7 +109986.5

2000 -103777.3 3130250.9 103777.3 78688.9 24758.4 +330.0

2001 -221,048.9 3176291.0 118,720.0 919205.8 97768.2 +199261.5

2002 -301,4016 3932884.8 1166000.0 980000.3 186000.4 +460229.5

2003 -202724.7 4478329.3 1329600.0 1114220.0 215460.0 +500430.0

2004 -1420000 4890269.6 1370325.1 1072531.9 297793.2 +669070.2

2005 -1614000 2695072.2 1525906.6 1134647.6 391259.0 +726226.6

2006 -101398.0 - 45000 0 45000 56251.4

Source: (1) Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin, and Annual Reports

and Accounts, (various years).

(2) Ozurumba (2008)

NOTE: (-) Indicates “deficit”, (+) indicates “surplus”

132

TABLE:4.7(a) SELECTED MACROECONOMIC INDICATORS

YEAR GDP GDP % GROWTH GROSS FIXED INV/GDP %

AV.CAPACITY UTILIZATION

% GROWTH INFLATION

NGN'M CAPITAL FORMATION RATE

1980 49,632.30 10,841.23 21.84 70.1 9.9

1981 47,619.70 -4.2 18,220.59 38.26 73.3 4.37 20.9

1982 49,069.30 3 17,145.82 34.94 63.6 -15.25 7.7

1983 53,107.40 7.6 13,335.33 25.11 49.7 -27.97 23.2

1984 59,622.50 10.9 9,149.76 15.35 43 -15.58 39.6

1985 67,908.60 12.2 8,799.48 12.96 37.1 -15.9 5.5

1986 69,147.00 1.8 11,351.46 16.42 38.8 4.38 5.4

1987 105,222.80 34.3 15,228.58 14.47 40.4 3.96 10.2

1988 139,085.30 24.3 17,562.21 12.63 42.4 4.72 38.3

1989 216,797.50 35.8 26,825.51 12.37 43.8 3.2 40.9

1990 267,550.00 19 40,121.31 15 40.3 -8.68 7.5

1991 312,139.70 14.3 45,190.23 14.48 42 4.05 13

1992 532,613.80 41.4 70,809.16 13.29 38.1 -10.24 44.5

1993 683,869.80 22.1 96,915.51 14.17 37.2 -2.42 57.2

1994 899,863.20 24 105,575.49 11.73 30.4 -22.37 57

1995 1933211.6 53.5 141,920.24 7.34 29.3 -3.79 72.8

1996 2702719.1 28.5 204,047.61 7.55 32.5 9.77 29.3

1997 2801972.6 3.5 242,899.79 8.67 30.4 -6.78 8.5

1998 2708430.9 -3.5 242,256.20 8.94 32.4 6.17 10

1999 3194015 15.2 231,661.69 7.25 34.6 6.36 6.6

2000 4582127.3 30.3 331,056.73 7.22 36.1 4.16 6.9

2001 4725086 3 372,135.65 7.88 42.7 15.46 18.9

2002 6912381.3 31.6 499,681.53 7.23 54.9 22.22 12.9

2003 8487031.6 18.6 865,876.46 10.2 56.5 2.83 14

2004 11411067 25.6 863,072.62 7.56 55.7 -1.44 15

2005 14572239 21.7 804,400.82 5.52 54.8 -1.64 17.9

2006 18564595 21.5 1546525.7 8.33 53.3 -2.81 8.2

2007 20657318 10.1 1915346.8 9.27 54.8 2.74 5.4

Source: (1) National Bureau of Statistics – National Accounts Survey (2007)

133

Table 4.7(b) SELECTED BASIC NATIONAL INCOME ACCOUNTS DATA

Year GDP PER

CAPITA (N)

EXCHANGE

RATE (N/ $)

EMPLOYMENT

RATE

AV. CAPACITY

UTILISATION (R)

INFLATION

RATE

1980 600.1 0.54 3.6 70.1 9.9

1981 581.3 0.64 4.5 73.3 20.9

1982 618.4 0.67 4.1 62.6 7.7

1983 662.2 0.75 6.6 49.7 23.2

1984 681.5 0.81 5.1 43.0 39.6

1985 756.1 1.00 3.9 37.1 5.5

1986 744.2 3.12 4.7 38.8 5.4

1987 1073.7 4.41 3.8 40.4 10.2

1988 1383.8 5.35 4.7 42.4 38.3

1989 2408.4 7.65 6.0 43.8 40.9

1990 1,042 9.00 6.5 40.3 7.5

1991 1069 9.87 6.9 42.0 13.0

1992 1066 9.9 6.6 38.1 44.5

1993 1069 17.29 6.3 37.2 57.2

1994 1060 22.06 8.0 30.4 57.0

1995 1041.5 21.99 8.2 29.3 72.8

1996 1051.8 81.02 6.6 32.46 29.3

1997 1056.1 82.00 6.8 30.4 8.5

1998 1051.0 84.4 6.8 32.4 10.0

1999 1075.9 91.8 6.9 34.6 6.6

2000 1046.8 101.7 5.3 36.1 6.9

2001 59,388.0 111.9 6.8 42.7 18.9

2002 65,232.0 121.0 7.0 54.9 12.9

2003 80,320.1 129.3 7.1 56.5 14.0

2004 89,866.1 133.5 7.2 55.7 15.0

2005 111,569.3 132.1 6.7 54.8 17.9

2006 132,017.0 128.7 6.5 53.30 8.2

2007 158,123.0 125.83 6.5 54.60 5.4

SOURCE: 1. Central Bank of Nigeria Annual Report and Statement of Accounts

(various years)

2. National Bureau of Statistics –National Accounts Survey(2007)

134

4.8 TEST OF HYPOTHESES

In this section, our earlier stated hypotheses for the study are tested.

4.8.1 HYPOTHESIS ONE

To test the hypothesis, we restate it in null and alternative forms as follows:

Ho: Public Capital expenditure does not have a positive significant

impact on size of the Nigerian economy

Hi: Public Capital expenditure has a positive significant impact on size of

the Nigerian economy.

The relevant model for testing this hypothesis as stated in chapter three

is

Ge = bo+biPCE+U…………….. (1a)

where;

Ge= Gross Domestic Product

PCE= Public Capital expenditure

U= Stochastic

135

A summary of the Non-Log linear computer results is indicated in equation 1b

below:

Ge = -565232.353+23.915PCE… ……………(1b)

(t = 9.548)

R2 = 0.778

_

R2 = 0.770

F = 91.159

DW = 0.775

The above equation 1b indicates that 77.8% of variations in GDP (size of the

economy) as show by R2 value, are caused by public capital expenditure. The

coefficient of Public Capital Expenditure is positively signed. Again its t –

value is greater than 2 (i.e. 9.548 > 2) showing that the impact of Public Capital

Expenditure on GDP is significant.

Also the F – value is significant since the calculated value of 91.159 is greater

than the critical value of 4.44 (i.e. at Fo . 05).

On the basis of the above, since the Public Capital Expenditure coefficient is

positively signed in the equation and t-value is also significant, the null

hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted.

136

Thus, public capital expenditure has a significant positive impact on Gross

Domestic product (Size of the economy).

4.8.2 HYPOTHESIS TWO

To test the hypothesis, we restate it in null and alternative forms as follows:

Ho: Recurrent public expenditure does not have positive and significant

impact on the size of the Nigerian economy.

Hi: Recurrent public expenditure has a positive and significant impact on

the size of the Nigeria economy.

From the analysis of our earlier stated model in chapter three and

application of relevant data for this hypothesis, that is;

Ge = bo + bi RPE + U……………………(2a),

Where:

Ge = Growth in size of the economy (GDP)

RPE = Recurrent public expenditure

U = Stochastic error term

137

The following summarised computer results were obtained ( i.e

Non-log linear results).

Ge = - 217805.030 + 12.475 RPE………………..2b

(t = 28.427)

R2 = 0.969

_

R2 = 0.968

F = 808.075

DW = 1.172

The above equation as shown by R2 value indicates that 96.9% of variations in

the GDP (Size of the economy) are caused by recurrent public expenditure. The

RPE is positively signed, which means it has a positive impact on GDP and its t

– value of 28.42 is greater than 2 (28.42>2) showing that the impact is

significant. The calculated F – value of 808.075 is greater than the critical F –

value of 4.44

Accordingly, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis

accepted. We conclude by these results that recurrent public expenditure has a

significant positive impact on size of the economy.

4.8.3 HYPOTHESIS THREE

To test the hypothesis, we restate it in null and alternative forms as follows:

Ho: Recurrent and public capital expenditure do not have significant

impact on size of the Nigerian economy.

138

Hi: Recurrent and public capital expenditure have significant impact

on size of the Nigerian economy.

The analysis here is based on our earlier stated model in chapter three for this

hypothesis, that is,

Ge = bo + bi RPE + b2 PCE + U……………………(3a)

The following summarised n on-log linear computer results were obtained: GDP

= - 144179.162 + 13.149 RPE – 1.596 PCE

(t = 12.513) (t=-0.710)

R2 = 0.969

_

R2 = 0.967

F = 396.585

DW= 1.111

The above equation indicates that 96.9% of variations in GDP (Size of the

Nigerian economy) as shown by the R2 value, are caused by both recurrent and

public capital expenditure. The RPE is positively signed, while the PCE is

negatively signed, showing that both variables produce different results when

combined together in the linear equation and when stated separately. It has also

proved that huge recurrent expenditure do suppress the impact of capital

expenditure in the economy. The t – value of the recurrent expenditure is

greater than 2 (i.e. 12.513>2) showing that its impact is

139

significant. The t-value of the coefficient of public capital expenditure is

significant and even negatively signed. The implication of the above is that

neither the null nor the alternative hypothesis can be fully accepted or rejected.

While on the basis of the recurrent expenditure variable, the alternative

hypothesis is accepted; on the basis of capital expenditure the alternative

hypothesis is rejected. The one to accept is rather the null hypothesis. In this

way, when the two independent variables are used in same model, their results

are different. In addition, the F – value is significant since the calculated

value of 396.585 is greater than the critical value of 3.39 (i.e. at Fo.05).

On the basis of the basis of the above, the null hypothesis is rejected and the

alternative hypothesis accepted. Thus, recurrent and public capital expenditure

do have significant impact on the size of the Nigerian economy.

4.8.4 HYPOTHESIS FOUR

To test the hypothesis, we restate it in null and alternative forms as follows:

Ho: There is no positive relationship between recurrent public expenditure

and investment (Proxied by gross fixed capital formation) in Nigeria.

140

Hi: There is positive relationship between recurrent public expenditure an

investment (proxy by gross fixed capital formation) in Nigeria.

From the analysis of our earlier stated model in chapter three for this

hypothesis i.e.

RPE (INV) = 0 …… (4)

The computer results obtained indicates that there is positive correlation

coefficient of .953 which is very close to 1 proving the existence of strong

positive relationship between recurrent expenditure and investment in

Nigeria.

Based on this fact, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative

hypothesis accepted. Thus, recurrent public expenditure has positive

relation with investment in Nigeria.

4.8.5 HYPOTHESIS FIVE

To test the hypothesis, we restate it in null and alternative forms as follows:

Ho: There is no positive relationship between public capital expenditure

and investment in Nigeria

Hi: There is positive relationship between public capital expenditure and

investment in Nigeria.

141

The equation for this hypothesis and model as stated in chapter three ere

as follows;

PCE (INV) = 0 ….. (5)

The computer results obtained indicates that there is a positive correlation

coefficient of .856 which is very close to one. This also means that there is

strong positive relationship between public capital expenditure and

investment in Nigeria.

4.8.6 HYPOTHESIS SIX

To test the hypothesis we restate it in null and alternative forms as follows:

Ho: Public capital and recurrent expenditure do not have positive and

significant impact on inflation rate in Nigeria.

Hi: Public capital and recurrent expenditure do have positive and

significant impact on inflation rate in Nigeria.

From the analysis of our earlier stated model

(INF = bo + bi PCE + b2 RPE + U….6)

INF = 26.973-2.87E -005PCE – 1.14E – 007 RPE ….6

(t = -.737) (t=-.006)

142

In chapter three for this hypothesis. The following summarised computer

results were obtained, i.e. non-log linear results:

R2 = .110

_

R2 = .039

F = 1.550

DW= 0.970

The above equation indicates that 11% of variations in inflation rate as shown

by R2

value are caused by public capital and recurrent expenditure. Both PCE

and RPE are negatively sighed showing that they have negative impact on

inflation rate and their t – values are less than 2 proving that the impact is not

significant.

4.8.7 HYPOTHESIS SEVEN

To test the hypothesis, we restate it in null and alternative forms as follows:

Ho: Public expenditure does not have positive and significant impact on

industrial capacity utilization in the Nigerian economy.

Hi: Public expenditure does have positive and significant impact on

industrial capacity utilization in the Nigerian economy.

143

From the analysis of our earlier stated model (ICU = bo + bi PE + U) in

Chapter three for this hypothesis, the following summarised computer

results were obtained, i.e. non-log linear results.

ICU = 42.379 + 7.33E – 006 PE….(7)

(t = 1.929)

R2 = 0.125

_

R2 = 0.092

F = 3.721

DW= 0.198

The above equation indicates that 12.5% of variations in industrial capacity

utilizations as shown by R2 value are caused by public expenditure. The PE is

positively sighed showing it has a positive impact on ICU and its t – value is

less than 2 (i.e. 1.929<2) showing that the impact is not significant.

At the same time, the equation is significant since the calculated f-value of

3.721 is more than the critical F – value of 3.39.

144

4.8.8 HYPOTHESIS EIGHT

To test the hypothesis we restate it in null and alternative forms as follows:

Ho: The nature and form of national income accounting does not

significantly affect the nation’s economic health

Hi: The nature and form of national income accounting do significantly

affect the nation’s economic health.

As shown in table 4.7(b), page 131, National Income accounting in its

form and nature measures the aggregate economic activity. It

comprises, among others, such macroeconomic variables as exchange

rate, employment rate, average capacity utilization and inflation rate as

its indices.

GDP per capita is the summary index of the relative economic well-being

of the people in different nations and also as one of the goals of Human

Development Index (HDI) which measures standard of living.

This hypothesis tests the extent to which the nations economic health is

ascertained by these indices.

The model to test this hypothesis is as stated in chapter three, which is:

Y = bo + b1EXR + b2EMR + b3ICU + b4INF + U

Where: Y = GDP per Capita

EXR = Exchange Rate

145

EMR = Employment Rate

ICU = Industrial Capacity Utilization

INF = Inflation Rate

U = Error Term

Y = -92288.8 + 639.88EXR + 1857.66EMR + 1539.0811CU

+218.57INF+U

(t = 4.356) (t = 0.292) (t = 3.077) (t = 0.581)

From the analysis of our earlier stated model in chapter three and the

data in table 4.7b, the following summarised computer results were

obtained.

R2 = 0.719

R2 = 0.670

F = 14.725

DW = 0.376

The above equation is significant since the calculated F-value of

14.725 is more than the critical F- value of 2.80

Based on this fact, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative

hypothesis accepted.

Thus, the nature and form of national income accounting do

significantly affect the nation’s economic health.

146

References

Ojo, M.O and Okunrounmu, T.O. (1992), “Why fiscal policies Matter in

African” Countries Economic and Financial Review, CBN

vol. 30 No 4.

Ozurumba, B.A. (2008), Impact of Public Sector Deficits on Economic

Development of Nigeria, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, FUTO, Owerri

National Bureau of Statistics –National Accounts survey (2007).

The National Accounts of Nigeria, 1973-1975, Federal Ministry of National

Planning, Lagos, Nigeria

Anyanwu, J.C., Oyefusi, A. and Oaikhenan, H. (1997), The structure

of the Nigeria Economy (1960-1997)

Central Bank of Nigeria, Annual Report and Statement of Accounts (2006-2008].

147

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS.

5.1. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS.

1. This study aims to shed some further empirical light on the issue of

public expenditure ability to promote economic growth by focusing on an

open economy. The findings are particularly interesting. Nigeria

experienced major increases in public expenditure during the Period

1980—2007

The additional spending undertaken by Nigerian authorities was partly

financed through increased government borrowing, which resulted into

budget deficit and public debt. The data in table 4.5a reveals the nature of

the extra government spending. Its biggest part was devoted to higher

recurrent spending and transfers.

The study has given insights regarding the output effects of these fiscal

developments by means of examining the existence and nature of

relationship between Nigerian economic growth and the categories of

public expenditure.

2. The observation over the period 1980-2007 covered in this study is that

the Federal Government expenditure inclined very strongly in

148

favour of recurrent expenditure in 19 out of the 28 years covered. This

unhealthy scenario is attributed largely to the huge debt service obligation

and expenditure in respect of the transition programmes (Anyanwu,et

al,1997:257).

The economy cannot be expected to be better-off development-wise

with higher levels of recurrent expenditure distributed largely to

payment of salaries and overhead costs(Anyafo,1996:250). Between

1970 and 1995, the ratio of potentially productive public expenditure (i.e.

capital spending) averaged 9.7 per cent .This is far below the average of

21 and 16-17 per cent for Africa countries and other developing regions

as espoused by Collier and Gunning(1996). “This might have contributed

to the disappointing growth performance in the country”(Fajingbesi and

Odusola,1999:140).

In Nigeria, while recurrent expenditure increased slightly in 1981, capital

expenditure fell by a reasonable margin of 35% .Both recurrent and

capital expenditure declined in 1983 but the rate of reduction was higher

in capital expenditure than in the recurrent spending.

Econometric regression was carried out to estimate elasticity of GDP

with respect to different types of public expenditure.

149

Data from the table 3 shows that the composition of public expenditure

changes through out the period 1980 – 2007.

There was reduction in total public expenditure in 1981, 1982 and 1983,

thus indicating -10.37, -27.64 and -25.0 respective over these years.

There were more cut in capital expenditure than recurrent expenditure.

Recurrent expenditure of N7,096.0 representing 45.9% was incurred in

1986, during the SAP period. By 1993 recurrent expenditure had risen to

N136, 177.08 million or 76.80% of total federal expenditure.

3. There is a high concentration on recurrent expenditure at the expense of

capital programmes that would naturally enhance economic growth and

development. Ever in the provision of recurrent social services there are

obvious cases of neglect leading to poor delivery of services and delay in

the payment of salaries and meeting of contractual obligations.

The study observes the existence of relationship between economic

growth and government expenditure. Thus Public expenditure contributes

to growth.

150

The data used in this model are inflation rate, GDP, total expenditures.

They all derived from the Statistical Bulletin and the Annual Report and

Statement of Accounts of the Central Bank of Nigeria.

As shown in table 4.3a, both recurrent and capital expenditure generate

positive impact on real output (GDP).

Expectedly, the impact of capital expenditure is more predominant.

5.2 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

1. The results obtained in testing hypothesis one confirms that 77.8% of

variation in GDP (size of the economy) as shown by R2 value are caused

by public capital expenditure. The coefficient of public capital

expenditure is positively signed.

Again its t-value is greater than 2 (i.e., 9.548 > 2) showing that the impact

of public capital expenditure on GDP is significant. The results from the

model

Ge = bo + bi PCE + u ----(1a)

Support the opinion of scholars (i.e. mainly those who subscribe to

Keynesia Tradition), who look upon the state as instrumental factor in

conditioning economic activity. “According to this tradition other social

expenditure such as health, housing and transfers contribute towards

productivity as well as play an important role in stabilizing

151

aggregate demand which is one of the key variables in promoting

economic growth”; (Alexion, 2009:11).

5. Macroeconomic performance has a significant impact on the expenditure

side of the budget via spending on transfers, sect-oral investments, like-

wise; fiscal policies and performance have a significant effect on

macroeconomic conditions.

6. Solid and stable macroeconomic performance contributes greatly to the

government’s ability to formulate and implement sound fiscal policy and

achieve a healthy sustainable fiscal performance.

7. Imprudent and poorly designed fiscal policies generates significant

aggregate inbalance (annual deficits and accumulation of debt) and/or

unbalanced allocation of public sector resource across sectors will

ultimately undermine macroeconomic performance, just as a weak or

highly unstable macroeconomic will lead to fiscal difficulties.

8. This modelling framework affords us the opportunity of getting the

feedback effects of other variable on government expenditure.

Evidence from the results showed that inflation produce some dampening

effects on real output and capital expenditure.

152

Another interesting result from the work is the effect of government

expenditure on output. The findings show that real capital expenditure

positively and significantly affected real output while the effect of real

recurrent expenditure was relatively marginal.

9. In situations where public expenditures are not properly managed, they

usually create distortions which retard, rather than promote economic

growth. This is typically the case for Nigeria, where, despite the huge

resources that accrue to the nation during the boom era and the tremendous

increase in public expenditure during the period, there was little to account

for it.

We have witnessed a lot of wastage in public resources, with little or no

transparency and accountability in public expenditure.

“This points to the conclusion that the manner and style by which public

expenditure is managed determine, to a large extent, its success or otherwise

in achieving the desired growth and development objectives”. (Adubi and

Obioma, 1999:186).

153

5.3 CONCLUSION

The findings show that both recurrent and capital expenditure have significant

positive impact on gross domestic product (size of the economy). This means that

decreasing or reducing capital expenditure will have negative implication on

growth of the economy. The findings also proved that huge recurrent

expenditures do suppress the impact of capital expenditure in the economy. This

is an issue which cannot be neglected by policy makers in the economy. This in

line with the findings of Maku (2009: 10) that public expenditure activities-like

electricity; telecommunication, health, education, transport, water, sanitation and

irrigation are expected to contribute to economic growth; whereas government

consumption spending is anticipated to be growth retarding. Thus, public

expenditure on social and economic infrastructure is expected to have positive

impact on economic growth. This study has also proved that both recurrent and

capital expenditure do not have significant impact on inflation rate in Nigeria,

indicating that there are many other exogenous variables that impact positively

on inflation rate in Nigeria. National income accounting has significantly served

to provide the necessary macroeconomic variables. The study though confirming

such theories as Wagner’s law of increasing state activities and Keynesian

approach according to which government spending is an important policy tool to

be used to ensure

154

a reasonable level of economic activity, it equally exposes the potentials of these

variables for economic growth in our setting if appropriately utilised.

National Income Accounting refers to the measurement of aggregate economic

activity, particularly national income and its components, such as gross

domestic product (GDP) which is the total naira value of final output.

GDP per capita calculations attempt to give additional information about how

we are doing as an economy. It is a better measure of the standard of living for

citizens living in the same countries over time or for comparing standard of

living between citizens of different countries.

However, international comparisons for GDP per capita are some what suspect

because of varying national income accounting system as well as fluctuations of

foreign exchange rates. Also international comparisons of GDP are difficult

because data from other countries may be unreliable.

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

1. A sustained growth depends on the quality of infrastructures put in place.

Thus, government should avoid unwarranted cuts of capital expenditure,

the quality of recurrent expenditure is equally important for the

management of development projects hence government expenditure on

capital building and utilization should be enhanced.

155

2. Ensuring that due process is followed before awarding any form of

contracts for which public funds are to be channelled to. This is necessary

to minimize the leakages in government finances.

3. Various tiers of government – need to demonstrate a strong commitment

to fiscal discipline if it is to be taken seriously.

5.5 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE

With special respect to this work’s contribution to knowledge, we recall that Wagner’s

law states that as per income rises in industrialised countries, the relative share of the

public sector in national output will also rise. An important thing to note is that this

law finds applicability in developed countries, our work has shown that this law also

applies to Nigeria which is a developing country and one in which industrialization is

yet to have pride of place. Thus, this law finds applicability irrespective of whether a

country is industrialised, industrialising or not, so far, as evident from our study.

Reasonable measures of economic development (national income) and state activity

(public expenditure) can through the employment of econometric estimation, isolate

the effects of a few variables on public spending.

There are in general six different formulations of Wagner’s hypothesis. These

are:

1 Peacock-Wiseman “traditional” version G = f (GDP)

2 Pryor version C = f (GDP)

156

3 Goffman version G = f (GDP/N)

4 Musgrave version G/GDP = f (GDPR/N)

5 Gupta/Michas version G/N = f (GDP/N)

6 Peacock-Wiseman “share” version G/GDP = f (GDP)

where G is nominal total government expenditure, GDP is nominal Gross

Domestic Product,

GDPR is real Gross Domestic Product, N is the total population size, and C is

government consumption expenditure.

The first formulation was employed by Peacock and Wiseman (1961),

Musgrave (1969), and Goffman and Mahar (1971). The second functional form

was formulated and tested by Pryor (1968). The third formulation was

suggested and formulated by Goffman (1968) and Mann(1980). The fourth

was utilized by Musgrave (1969), Murthy (1993), and Ram (1987).

Gupta (1967) and Michas (1975) considered the fifth formulation and the sixth

formulation was suggested and tested by Mann (1980).

All of the above functional forms have been employed to test Wagner’s

hypothesis.

This study has modified these models and developed new models called “Expanding

Activity” models which can be used for the prediction of the impact of categories of

157

public expenditure on gross domestic product (GDP).They also predict an increasing

relative share for the public sector in the total economy as per capita income grows.

These models are:

1. GE = f (PCE)……………… (i)

2. GE = f (RPE)……………….(ii)

3. GE = f (PCE +RPE +U)…….(iii)

where;

GE = Gross Domestic Product

PCE = Public Capital Expenditure

RPE = Recurrent Public Expenditure

U = Stochastic error term.

The models capture the distinguishing features of the two categories of public

expenditure in Nigeria.

158

APPENDIX I – REGRESSION RESULTS ON GDP AND CAPITAL

EXPENDITURE MODEL 1

Regression

Descriptive Statistics

Mean Std. Deviation N

GDP 3814480.0964 5798844.68210 28

Capital Expenditure 183140.2357 213890.59476 28

Correlations

GDP Capital Expenditure

Pearson Correlation GDP 1.000 .882

Capital Expenditure .882 1.000

Sig. (1-tailed) GDP . .000

Capital Expenditure .000 .

N GDP 28 28

Capital Expenditure 28 28

Model Summary(b)

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson

1 .882(a) .778 .770 2783781.90088 .775

a Predictors: (Constant), Capital Expenditure

b Dependent Variable: GDP

ANOVA(b)

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 706432707009029.000 1 706432707009029.000 91.159 .000(a)

Residual 201485483463936.400 26 7749441671689.860

Total 907918190472965.000 27

a Predictors: (Constant), Capital Expenditure

b Dependent Variable: GDP

Coefficients(a)

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) -565232.353 697988.261 -.810 .425

Capital Expenditure 23.915 2.505 .882 9.548 .000

a Dependent Variable: GDP

R2 = 0.778

Ř2

= 0.770

F = 91.159

DW = 0.775

GDP = -565232.353 + 23.915PCE

(t = 9.548)

From the above tables, there is a positive correlation between GDP and Capital Expenditure (with Pearson

Correlation coefficient of 0.882).

159

77.8% of the predicator (i.e. Capital Expenditure) fits into the model and considering a regression coefficient

(R) of 0.882, the variables fit into the model. Since the calculated F-value (91.159) is greater than the critical

F-value (df = 1, 26) (9.41), the null hypothesis should be rejected and the alternate accepted.

This is further validated with the t-value (9.548) which is greater than 2.0.

160

APPENDIX II – REGRESSION RESULTS ON GDP AND RECURRENT

EXPENDITURE

MODEL 2

Regression

Descriptive Statistics

Mean Std. Deviation N

GDP 3814480.0964 5798844.68210 28

Recurrent Expenditure 323305.5429 457642.84589 28

Correlations

GDP Recurrent Expenditure

Pearson Correlation GDP 1.000 .984

Recurrent Expenditure .984 1.000

Sig. (1-tailed) GDP . .000

Recurrent Expenditure .000 .

N GDP 28 28

Recurrent Expenditure 28 28

Model Summary(b)

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson

1 .984(a) .969 .968 1043327.77839 1.172

a Predictors: (Constant), Recurrent Expenditure

b Dependent Variable: GDP

ANOVA(b)

Model Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 879616336290965.000 1 879616336290965.000 808.075 .000(a)

Residual 28301854182000.730 26 1088532853153.875

Total 907918190472965.000 27

a Predictors: (Constant), Recurrent Expenditure

b Dependent Variable: GDP

Coefficients(a)

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients T Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) -217805.030 242893.448 -.897 .378

Recurrent Expenditure 12.472 .439 .984 28.427 .000

a Dependent Variable: GDP

R2 = 0.969

Ř2

= 0.968

F = 808.075

DW = 1.172

GDP = -217805.030 + 12.475RPE

(t = 28.427)

From the above tables, there is a positive correlation between GDP and Capital Expenditure (with Pearson

Correlation coefficient of 0.984).

161

96.9% of the predicator (i.e. Capital Expenditure) fits into the model and considering a regression coefficient

(R) of 0.984, the variables fit into the model. Since the calculated F-value (808.075) is greater than the

critical F-value (df = 1, 26) (9.41), the null hypothesis should be rejected and the alternate accepted.

This is further validated with the t-value (28.427) which is greater than 2.0.

162

APPENDIX III – REGRESSION RESULTS ON GDP, CAPITAL AND

RECURRENT EXPENDITURE

MODEL 3

Regression

Descriptive Statistics

Mean Std. Deviation N

GDP 3814480.0964 5798844.68210 28

Capital Expenditure 183140.2357 213890.59476 28

Recurrent Expenditure 323305.5429 457642.84589 28

Correlations

GDP Capital Expenditure Recurrent Expenditure

Pearson Correlation GDP 1.000 .882 .984

Capital Expenditure .882 1.000 .907

Recurrent Expenditure .984 .907 1.000

Sig. (1-tailed) GDP . .000 .000

Capital Expenditure .000 . .000

Recurrent Expenditure .000 .000 .

N GDP 28 28 28

Capital Expenditure 28 28 28

Recurrent Expenditure 28 28 28

Model Summary(b)

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson

1 .985(a) .969 .967 1053420.65606 1.111

a Predictors: (Constant), Recurrent Expenditure, Capital Expenditure b Dependent Variable: GDP

ANOVA(b)

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 880175813507473.000 2 440087906753736.600 396.585 .000(a)

Residual 27742376965492.650 25 1109695078619.706

Total 907918190472965.000 27

a Predictors: (Constant), Recurrent Expenditure, Capital Expenditure b Dependent Variable: GDP

Coefficients(a)

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) -144179.162 266263.063 -.541 .593

Capital Expenditure -1.596 2.248 -.059 -.710 .484

Recurrent Expenditure 13.149 1.051 1.038 12.513 .000

a Dependent Variable: GDP

R2 = 0.969

Ř2

= 0.967

F = 396.585

DW = 1.111

GDP = -144179.162 -1.596PCE + 13.149RPE

(t = 12.513)

163

From the above tables, there is a positive correlation between GDP and Capital Expenditure as well as GDP and

Recurrent Expenditure (with Pearson Correlation coefficients of 0.882 and 0.984 respectively).

96.9% of the predicators (i.e. Recurrent and Capital Expenditures) fits into the model and considering a regression

coefficient (R) of 0.984, the variables fit into the model. Since the calculated F-value (808.075) is greater than the

critical F-value (df = 1, 26) (9.41), the null hypothesis should be rejected and the alternate accepted.

This is further validated with the t-value (12.513) which is greater than 2.0.

164

APPENDIX IV – REGRESSION RESULTS ON RECURRENT EXPENDITURE

AND GROSS FIXED CAPITAL FORMATION

MODEL 4

Pearson Correlation

Recurrent Expenditure Gross Fixed Capital Formation

Recurrent Expenditure Pearson Correlation 1 .953(**)

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 28 28

Gross Fixed Capital Formation Pearson Correlation .953(**) 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 28 28

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Spearman’s rho Correlations

Recurrent Expenditure Gross Fixed Capital Formation

Recurrent Expenditure Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .960(**)

Sig. (2-tailed) . .000

N 28 28

Gross Fixed Capital Formation Correlation Coefficient .960(**) 1.000

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .

N 28 28

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

From the above tables, there is a strong positive correlation between Recurrent Expenditure and Gross Fixed

Capital Formation (with a Pearson’s correlation of 0.953 and a Spearman’s Correlation of 0.960).

Thus, for every positive change in one of the variables, there is a corresponding positive change in the other

variable.

165

APPENDIX V – REGRESSION RESULTS ON GROSS FIXED CAPITAL

FORMATION AND CAPITAL EXPENDITURES

MODEL 5

Pearson Correlations

Gross Fixed Capital

Formation Capital Expenditure

Gross Fixed Capital Formation Pearson Correlation 1 .856(**)

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 28 28

Capital Expenditure Pearson Correlation .856(**) 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 28 28

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Spearman’s rho Correlations

Gross Fixed Capital Formation Capital Expenditure

Gross Fixed Capital Formation Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .943(**)

Sig. (2-tailed) . .000

N 28 28

Capital Expenditure Correlation Coefficient .943(**) 1.000

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .

N 28 28

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

From the above tables, there is a strong positive correlation between Gross Fixed Capital Formation and

Capital Expenditure (with a Pearson Correlation of 0.856 and a Spearman’s Correlation of 0.943).

Thus, for every positive change in one of the variables, there is a corresponding positive change in the other

variable.

166

APPENDIX VI – REGRESSION RESULTS ON INFLATION RATE, CAPITAL

AND RECURRENT EXPENDITURES

Model 6

Regression Descriptive Statistics

Mean Std. Deviation N

Inflation Rate 21.6857 18.60467 28

Capital Expenditure 183140.2357 213890.59476 28

Recurrent Expenditure 323305.5429 457642.84589 28

Correlations

Inflation Rate Capital Expenditure Recurrent Expenditure

Pearson Correlation Inflation Rate 1.000 -.332 -.302

Capital Expenditure -.332 1.000 .907

Recurrent Expenditure -.302 .907 1.000

Sig. (1-tailed) Inflation Rate . .042 .059

Capital Expenditure .042 . .000

Recurrent Expenditure .059 .000 .

N Inflation Rate 28 28 28

Capital Expenditure 28 28 28

Recurrent Expenditure 28 28 28

Model Summary(b)

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson

1 .332(a) .110 .039 18.23679 .970

a Predictors: (Constant), Recurrent Expenditure, Capital Expenditure b Dependent Variable: Inflation Rate ANOVA(b)

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 1031.105 2 515.552 1.550 .232(a)

Residual 8314.510 25 332.580

Total 9345.614 27

a Predictors: (Constant), Recurrent Expenditure, Capital Expenditure b Dependent Variable: Inflation Rate Coefficients(a)

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) 26.973 4.610 5.852 .000

Capital Expenditure -2.87E-005 .000 -.330 -.737 .468

Recurrent Expenditure -1.14E-007 .000 -.003 -.006 .995

a Dependent Variable: Inflation Rate

167

R2 = 0.110

Ř2

= 0.039

F = 1.550

DW = 0.970

GDP = 26.973 – 2.87E-005PCE – 1.14E-007RPE

(t = 5.852)

Regression Descriptive Statistics

Mean Std. Deviation N

Inflation Rate 21.6857 18.60467 28

Capital Expenditure 183140.2357

213890.59476 28

Correlations

Inflation Rate Capital Expenditure

Pearson Correlation Inflation Rate 1.000 -.332

Capital Expenditure -.332 1.000

Sig. (1-tailed) Inflation Rate . .042

Capital Expenditure .042 .

N Inflation Rate 28 28

Capital Expenditure 28 28

Model Summary(b)

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson

1 .332(a) .110 .076 17.88265 .970

a Predictors: (Constant), Capital Expenditure b Dependent Variable: Inflation Rate ANOVA(b)

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 1031.091 1 1031.091 3.224 .084(a)

Residual 8314.523 26 319.789

Total 9345.614 27

a Predictors: (Constant), Capital Expenditure b Dependent Variable: Inflation Rate Coefficients(a)

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) 26.977 4.484 6.017 .000

Capital Expenditure -2.89E-005 .000 -.332 -1.796 .084

a Dependent Variable: Inflation Rate

R2 = 0.110

Ř2

= 0.076

F = 3.224

DW = 0.970

GDP = 26.977 – 2.89E-005PCE

(t = 6.017)

168

Regression Descriptive Statistics

Mean Std. Deviation N

Inflation Rate 21.6857 18.60467 28

Recurrent Expenditure 323305.5429

457642.84589 28

Correlations

Inflation Rate Recurrent Expenditure

Pearson Correlation Inflation Rate 1.000 -.302

Recurrent Expenditure -.302 1.000

Sig. (1-tailed) Inflation Rate . .059

Recurrent Expenditure .059 .

N Inflation Rate 28 28

Recurrent Expenditure 28 28

Model Summary(b)

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson

1 .302(a) .091 .056 18.07564 .946

a Predictors: (Constant), Recurrent Expenditure b Dependent Variable: Inflation Rate ANOVA(b)

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 850.666 1 850.666 2.604 .119(a)

Residual 8494.948 26 326.729

Total 9345.614 27

a Predictors: (Constant), Recurrent Expenditure b Dependent Variable: Inflation Rate Coefficients(a)

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) 25.651 4.208 6.096 .000

Recurrent Expenditure -1.23E-005 .000 -.302 -1.614 .119

a Dependent Variable: Inflation Rate

R2 = 0.091

Ř2

= 0.056

F = 2.604

DW = 0.946

GDP = 25.651 – 1.23E-005RPE

(t = 6.096)

169

APPENDIX VII – REGRESSION RESULTS ON AVERAGE INDUSTRIAL

CAPACITY UTILIZATION AND PUBLIC EXPENDITURE

MODEL 7

Regression

Descriptive Statistics

Mean Std. Deviation N

Average Industrial Capacity Utilization 44.9357 11.95483 28

Public Expenditure 348729.9857 577016.42227 28

Correlations

Average Industrial Capacity Utilisation Public Expenditure

Pearson Correlation Average Industrial

Capacity Utilisation 1.000 .354

Public Expenditure .354 1.000

Sig. (1-tailed) Average Industrial

Capacity Utilisation . .032

Public Expenditure .032 .

N Average Industrial

Capacity Utilisation 28 28

Public Expenditure 28 28

Model Summary(b)

Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Durbin-Watson

1 .354(a) .125 .092 11.39442 .198

a Predictors: (Constant), Public Expenditure

b Dependent Variable: Average Industrial Capacity Utilisation

ANOVA(b)

Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 483.132 1 483.132 3.721 .065(a)

Residual 3375.652 26 129.833

Total 3858.784 27

a Predictors: (Constant), Public Expenditure

b Dependent Variable: Average Industrial Capacity Utilisation

Coefficients(a)

Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) 42.379 2.528 16.761 .000

Public Expenditure 7.33E-006 .000 .354 1.929 .065

a Dependent Variable: Average Industrial Capacity Utilisation

R2 = 0.125

Ř2

= 0.092

F = 3.721

DW = 0.198

AICU = 42.379 + 7.33E-006PE

(t = 1.929)

170

From the above tables, there is a weak correlation between PE and Inflation Rate (with Pearson Correlation

coefficient of 0.354).

12.5% of the predicator (i.e. Public Expenditures) fits into the model and considering a regression coefficient

(R) of 0.354, the variables do not fit into the model. Since the calculated F-value (3.721) is lesser than the

critical F-value (df = 1, 26) (9.41), the null hypothesis should be accepted.

This is further validated with the t-value (1.929) which is lesser than 2.0.

171

APPENDIX VIII- REGRESSION RESULTS ON GDP PER CAPITA , EXCHANGE RATE, EMPLOYMENT RATE, INDUSTRIAL CAPACITY UTILIZATION AND INFLATION RATE

MODEL 8

Regression

Regression

Descriptive Statistics

25630.51 46674.16180 28

51.3679 53.92562 28

6.0393 1.29796 28

44.8914 11.89381 28

21.6857 18.60467 28

GDP Per Capita

Exchange Rate

Employment Rate

Industrial Capacity

Utilization

Inf lat ion Rate

Mean Std. Dev iation N

Correlations

1.000 .769 .307 .406 -.283

.769 1.000 .508 .085 -.341

.307 .508 1.000 -.378 .329

.406 .085 -.378 1.000 -.343

-.283 -.341 .329 -.343 1.000

. .000 .056 .016 .073

.000 . .003 .333 .038

.056 .003 . .024 .044

.016 .333 .024 . .037

.073 .038 .044 .037 .

28 28 28 28 28

28 28 28 28 28

28 28 28 28 28

28 28 28 28 28

28 28 28 28 28

GDP Per Capita

Exchange Rate

Employment Rate

Industrial Capacity

Utilization

Inf lat ion Rate

GDP Per Capita

Exchange Rate

Employment Rate

Industrial Capacity

Utilization

Inf lat ion Rate

GDP Per Capita

Exchange Rate

Employment Rate

Industrial Capacity

Utilization

Inf lat ion Rate

Pearson Correlation

Sig. (1-tailed)

N

GDP Per

Capita

Exchange

Rate

Employment

Rate

Industrial

Capacity

Utilization Inf lat ion Rate

172

Model Summaryb

.848a .719 .670 26798.88621 .376

Model

1

R R Square

Adjusted

R Square

Std. Error of

the Estimate

Durbin-

Watson

Predictors: (Constant), Inf lation Rate, Employ ment Rate, Industrial

Capacity Utilization, Exchange Rate

a.

Dependent Variable: GDP Per Capitab.

ANOVAb

4E+010 4 1.058E+010 14.725 .000a

2E+010 23 718180302.1

6E+010 27

Regression

Residual

Total

Model

1

Sum of

Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Predictors: (Constant), Inf lation Rate, Employment Rate, Industrial Capacity

Utilization, Exchange Rate

a.

Dependent Variable: GDP Per Capitab.

Coefficientsa

-92288.8 45042.111 -2.049 .052

639.880 146.887 .739 4.356 .000

1857.661 6362.303 .052 .292 .773

1539.075 500.141 .392 3.077 .005

218.569 376.149 .087 .581 .567

(Constant)

Exchange Rate

Employment Rate

Industrial Capacity

Utilization

Inf lat ion Rate

Model

1

B Std. Error

Unstandardized

Coeff icients

Beta

Standardized

Coeff icients

t Sig.

Dependent Variable: GDP Per Capitaa.

R

2 = 0.719

^

R2 = 0.670

F = 14.725

DW = 0.376

173

GDP Per Capita = -92288.8 + 639.88EXR + 1857.66EMR + 1539.08ICU + 218.57INF

(t=4.356) (t=0.292) (t=3.077) (t=0.581)

From the tables above, there is a strong positive relationship between GDP Per Capita and Exchange

Rate; while there is a weak positive relationship between GDP Per Capita and Industrial Capacity

Utilization and Employment Rate. There is also a weak negative relationship between GDP Per

Capita and Inflation Rate.

The coefficient determination R2 shows that 71.9% of fluctuations in GDP Per Capita are accounted

for by the model, while 28.1% of variations is accounted for by factors outside the model. Exchange

Rate is the most significant of the variables, followed by Industrial Capacity Utilization. The F value

of 14.725 is significant at 5% level of significance, thus we reject H0 and conclude that the nature of

national income accounting does have a significant impact on the nation’s economic health.

174

APPENDIX IX

FISCAL

RESPONSIBILITY

ACT,

2007

175

FISCAL RESPONSIBILITY ACT 2007

ARRANGEMENT OF SECTIONS

Sections:

PART I ESTABUSHMENT, FUNCTIONS, POWER OF THE FISCAL

RESPONSIBILITY COMMISSION.

1. Establishment of the Fiscal Responsibility Commission

2. Responsibility, powers and functions of the commission

3. Unction’s of the Commission

4. Establishment, fund for the Commission

5. Composition of the Commission

6. Tenure of office

7. Power of the Commission

8. Cessation of membership

9. Emoluments etc. of members

10. Submission of annual report of the Commission.

PART II - THE MEDIUM-TERM EXPENDITURE FRM4E WORK

11 Medium-term Expenditure

12. Aggregate expenditure ceiling

13. Reparation of Medium Expenditure Framework

14. Time limit for presentation of medium-term Expenditure Framework to Federal

executive Council

15. Publication of medium-Term expenditure Framework work in the Gazette

16. Adjustment to the medium-Term expenditure Framework

17. Assistance to state and Local Government

PART III-The ANNUALBUDGET

18. Annual budget. to be derived ‘from medium-term expenditure Framework

19. Annual budget to be accompanied by certain documents

20. Application of part III to- state and Local Governments.

PART IV - BUDGET PLANNING OF CORPOPATIONS AND

OTHER RELATED AGENCIES

21. Preparation of estimate of revenue and expenditure by corporation etc.

22. Operation surplus and general reserved fund

23. Classification of corporation operating surplus

24. Cessation of application of Party 1V

176

PART V - BUDGETARY EXECUTION AND ACHIEVEMENT OF TARGETS

25. Annual cash plan

26. Disbursement Schedule.

27. Power of minister to approve virement.

28. Power to rebuilt further commitments

29. Restriction on the grant of tax relief.

30. Responsibility of the budget office to monitor and report on implementation.

31. Application of part v to state and Local Government.

PART VI - PUBLIC REVENUES

32. Forecast and collection of public revenues

33. Revenue forecast

34. Executive to breakdown estimated revenue.

PART VII - SAVINGS AND ASSET MANAGEMENT

35. Penalty for non-compliance with Part VI

PART VIII - PUBLIC EXPENDITURE

36. Conditions for increasing government expenditure.

37. Conditions for increasing personal expenditure.

38. All contracts to Comply with rules and guidelines:

39. Effect of violation of public expenditure rules

40. Application of Part VIII to State and Local Governments

PART IX - DEBT AND INDEBTEDNESS

41. Framework for debt management.

42. Limit consolidated debt of Federal, State and Local, governments.

43. Servicing of external debt. V

V PART X BORROWING

44. Conditions of borrowing and verification of compliance with limit

45. Leniency financial institutions

46. Prohibition against C8N In Its relation with Government agencies and Parastatls.

47. Power of the minister to grant guarantees.

177

- AR1 XI - TRANSPARENCY AND ACCOUNTABILITY

48. Fiscal transparency of audited accounts by all arms of Government.

49. Publication of audited accounts by all arms of Government.

50. Publication of summarized report on budget execution.

PART XII - ENFORCEMENT

51. Enforcement

PART XIII - MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS

52. Government securities as collateral to guarantee loans.

53. Restriction on utilization of proceeds Of sale of public assets etc.

54. Technical and financial assistance to States and Local Governments.

55. Power of president to make regulations.

PART XIV - INTERPRETATION

56. Interpretation.

57. Operation

FISCAL RESPONSIBILITY ACT, 2007

2007 ACT NO. 31

An Act to provide for prudent management of the Nation Resources, ensure Long-Tern,

Macro-Economic stability of the National Economy secure greater accountability arid

transparency n Fiscal operations within a Medium Term Fiscal Policy Framework, and the

establishment of the Fiscal Responsibility Commission to ensure the promotion and

enforcement of the Nations Economic objectives; and for related matters

[30th Day of Jul 2007]

ENACTED by the National Assembly of the Federal Republic of

Nigeria:

Commencement

178

PART I - ESTABUSHMEN] FUNCTIONS AND POWERS OF THE FISCAL

RESPONSIBILI1Y COMMISSZON

1. (1) There shall be established, a body to be known as the Fiscal Responsibility

Commission (in this Act referred to as ‘the Commission’).

(2) The Commission shall be a body corporate with perpetual succession and a

common seal and may sue and be. sued In its corporate name.

2. (1) For the purpose of performing its functions under this Act, the Commission shall

have power to:

(a) compel any person. or government Institution to disclose information

relating to public revenues and expenditure; and

(b) cause an investigation into whether any person n has violated any provisions

of this Acts

(2) If the Commission is satisfied that such a person has committed any punishable

offence under this Act violated any provisions of this Act, the Commission shall

forward a report or the investigation to the Attorney-General of the Federation for

possible Prosecution.

3. (1) The commission shall:

(a) Monitor and enforce the provisions of this Act and by so doing, promote the

economic objectives contained In section 16 of the Constitution

(b) Disseminate such standard practices including international good practice that

will result in greater efficiency if the allocation arid management of public

expenditure, revenue collection, debt control and transparency in fiscal

matters:

(c) Undertake fiscal and financial studies, analyze and diagnosis and disseminate the

result to the general public:

(d) make rules for carrying out Its functions under this Act; and

(e) perform any other function consistent with the promotion of the objectives of this Act.

(2) The commission shall be Independent in the performance of its functions.

(3) The provisions of Public Protection. Act shall apply to the members of the

Commission in discharge of their functions under this Act.

4. (1) The Commission shall establish and maintain a Fund from which shall be defrayed

all expenditure incurred by the Commission.

Establishment of fiscal responsibility Commission.

Responsibility powers and functions of the Commission.

Functions of the Commission.

Establishment of Funds for the Commission.

179

(2) There shall be credited to the Fund established pursuant to - subsection (1) of

this section, the budgetary allocation from the Federal Government and

grants from any other source.

5. (1) The Commission shall consist-of:

(a) a chairman, who shall be the Chief executive and accounting officer of the

commission;

(b) one member representing:

(I) the organized private sector

(ii) Civil Society engaged In causes relating to probity, transparency and

good government:

(iii) organized labour,

(c) a representative of the. Federal Ministry of Finance of a level not below the

rank it Director; and

(d) one member to present each of the following six geopolitical zones of the

country, that is: North Central, North-East North-West, South-East,

South West, and South-South.

(2) All members of the Commission shall be persons of proven integrity and must

possess appropriate qualifications with not less than 10 years cognate post

qualification experience.

(3) The Chairman and other members of the Commission other than ex-office

members shall be appointed by the President subject. to confirmation by the

Senate.

(4) The Chairman arid members representing the six geo-political zones shall full

time members.

6. The Chairman and members of the Commission shall hold office for a single term of

5 years.

Composition of the Commission.

Tenure of office

180

7. The Commission shall have power to:.

(a) formulate and provide general policy guidelines for the discharge of the functions of

the Commission;

(b) superintend the implementation of the policies of the Commission;

(c) appoint for the Commission, such numbers of employees as may in the opinion of the

Commission be expedient and necessary for the proper and efficient performance of

the. functions of the

Commission;

(d) determine the terms arid conditions of service In the Commission, including

disciplinary measures for the employees of the commission;

(e) fix the remuneration, allowances and benefits of the employees of the Commission as

approved by the Salaries and Wages Commission;

(f) do other things, which in its opinion are necessary to ensure the efficient performance

of the functions of

the Commission; and

(g) regulate its proceedings and make standing orders with respect to the holding of its

meetings, notices to be given, the keeping of minutes of its proceedings and such

other matters as the Commission may, from time to time, determine. V

8. (1) Notwithstanding the provisions of section 5 (2) of this Act, a member of the

Commission shall cease to hold officer if

(a) he becomes bankrupt or makes a compromise

With his creditors;

(b) he is convicted of a felony or any offence involving dishonesty, corruption or fraud;.

(c) he become incapable of carrying out the functions of Pis office either by reason of an

infirmity of mind or body;

(d) the President is satisfied that It is not in the interest of the Council or the interest of

the public that the member should continue in office and the President removes him

from office;

(e) he has been found guilty of violation of the code of conduct or serious misconduct in

relation to his duties;

(f) he resigns his appointment by a notice under his hand, addressed to the President: or

(g) In the case of a person becomes a member by virtue of the office he occupies, he

ceases to hold such office for whatever reason.

(2) Where a vacancy occurs In the membership of the etc of 15 commission, It shall be

filled by the appointment of a Successor member to hold office for the remainder of

the term of office of his predecessor, provided that the successor shall represent the

same interest as his predecessor.

Power of the commission

Cessation of membership

Emoluments etc of membership

181

9. (1) There shall be paid to the Chairman of the Cornish such salaries allowances and

benefits as the Revenue Mobilization Allocation and Fiscal Commission may from

time to time, approve.

(2) There shall be paid to other members of the Commission such sitting allowances and

benefits as may be determined by the Revenue Mobilization Allocation and Fiscal

commission may, from time to time, approve.

10. The Commission shall prepare and submit to the National Assembly not later than

30th-June in each financial year; a report of its activities including all cases of

contravention Investigated the during the preceding financial year, and shall include

in the report a copy of its audited accounts for the preceding financial year.

PART II - THE MEDIUM-TERM EXPENDURE FRAMEWORK

11. (1) The Federal Government after consultation with the States shall

(a) not later than six months from the commencement of this Act, cause to be prepared

and laid before the National Assembly, for their’‘ consideration a Medium Term.

Expenditure, Framework for the next three financial. years; and

(b) thereafter, not later than four months before the Commencement of the next financial

year, cause te be prepared a medium-Term Expenditure Framework for the next three

financial years.

(2) The frame-work so laid shall be considered for approval with such modifications If

any, as the National Assembly finds appropriate by a resolution of each House of the

National Assembly.

The Medium-Term Expenditure Framework shall contain:

(a) a Macro-economic Framework setting out the macro economic projections, the n”

three financial years, the underlying assumptions for those projections and an

evaluation and analysis of the macroeconomic projections for the preceding three

financial years;

(b) a Fiscal Strategy Paper setting out:

(i) The Federal Government’s medium-term financial objectives,

(Ii) the polices of the Federal Government for the medium-term relating to taxation,

recurrent (non-debt) expenditure, debt expenditure capital expenditure, expenditure,

borrowings and other liabilities, lending and Investment, contain:

Submission of annual report of the commission

Middle term expenditures

182

(a)

(iii) the strategic; economic, social and developmental priorities of the Federal

Government for the next three financial years,

(lv) an explanation of how the financial objectives, strategic, economic, social and

development priorities ,and fiscal measures set out pursuant to sub-paragraphs (i), (II)

an I (iii) of this paragraph relating to the economic objectives set out In section 16 of

the Constitution;

(c) an expenditure and revenue framework setting out:

(I) estimates of aggregate revenues for the Federation for each financial years, based on

the predetermined Commodity Reference Price adopted and tax revenue projections,

(ii) aggregate expenditure projection for the federation for each financial year In the next

three financial years, and

(iii) aggregate tax expenditure projection for the Federation for each financial year in the

next three financial years, and

(lv) minimum capital expenditure floor for Federation for each financial year in the next

three financial years:

Provided that, the estimates and expenditures provided under paragraph (d) of

this subsection shall be:

(i) based on reliable and consistent data certified In accordance with section 13 (2)

(b) of this Act;

(ii) targeted at achieving the macro-economic projection set out in subsection (2) (a)

of this section;

(iii) consistent with and derive from the underlying assumptions contained in the Macro-

economic framework, the objectives, policies, strategic priorities and explanations in

the Fiscal Strategy paper;

(d) a Consolidated Debt Statement setting out and describing the

fiscal significance of the debt liability of the Federal Government

and measures to reduce any such liability; and

(e) a Statement describing the nature and fiscal significance of contingent liabilities and

quasi-fiscal activities and measures to offset the crystallization of such liabilities.

12. The estimates of:

(1) Aggregate expenditure and the aggregate amount appropriated by the National

Assembly for each financial year shall not be more. than the estimated aggregate

revenue plus a deficit, not exceeding three per cent of the Estimated Gross Domestic

Aggregate expenditure calling

183

Product. or any sustainable percentage as may be determined by the National

Assembly for each financial year.

(2) Aggregate expenditure for financial year may exceed the ceiling imposed by the

provisions of subsection (1) of this section, If in the opinion of the President there is a

clear and present threat to national security or sovereignty of the Federal Republic of

Nigeria.

13. (1) The Minister shall be responsible for the preparation of the Medium-Term

Expenditure Framework.

(2) In preparing the draft Medium-Term Expenditure Term Framework, the Minister:

(a) may hold public consultation, on the Macro-economic - Framework, the Fiscal

Strategy Paper, the Revenue and Expenditure Framework, the strategic, economic,

social and developmental priorities of government, and such other matters as the

Minister deems necessary:

Provided that, such consultations shall be open to the public, the press and any

citizens or authorized representatives of organization, names of citizens, who may

attend and be heard

(b) Shall seek inputs form the:

(i) National Planning Commission,

(ii) Joint Planning Commission,

(iii) National Commission on Development Planning,

(iv) National Economic Commission,

(v) National Assembly

(vi) Central Bank of Nigeria,

(vii) National Bureau of Statistics,

(viii) Revenue. Mobilization Allocation and Fiscal Commission,

(ix) any other relevant statutory body as the Minister may determine; and

(c) Shall consider and reflect as may be deemed appropriate the input of the

bodies and persons referred to in subsection (a) and (b) of this section.

14. (1) The Minister shall before the end of the second quarter of each financial

year, present the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework to the Federal

Executive Council for consideration and endorsement.

(2) The Medium-term Expenditure Framework as endorsed by the Federal executive

Council shall take effect upon approval by a resolution of each house of the National

Assembly.

Preparation of middle term expenditure framework

Time limit for preparation of middle term expenditure framework to federal executive council

184

15. The Medium Term expenditure Framework as approved by the National Assembly

shall be published in the Gazette.

16. (1) Subject to subsection (2) of this section, the president may cause adjustments to be

made to a Medium-Term Expenditure -Expenditure Framework.

(2) Any adjustment to a Medium-Term Expenditure Framework shall be limited to:

(a) the correction of manifest error, and

(b) changes in the fiscal Indicators, which in the opinion of the President are significant.

17. States and Local Governments which so desire shall be and assisted by the Federal

Government to manage their fiscal Governments affairs within the medium-term

framework.

PART III – THE ANNUAL BUDGET

18. Notwithstanding anything to the contrary contained in this Act any other law, the

Medium-Term Expenditure Framework shall:

(1) Be the basis for the preparation of the estimates of revenue and expenditure required

to be prepared and laid before the National Assembly under sectlon.81 (1) of

Constitution.

(2) The sectoral and compositional distribution of the estimates of expenditure referred to

in subsection (1) of this section shall be consistent with the medium term

developmental priorities set out in the Medium Term expenditure Framework.

19. The estimates of revenue and expenditure (in the Act referred to as the annual budget

shall be accompanied by:

(A) A copy of the underlying revenue and expenditure profile for the next two years;

(b) a report setting out actual and budgeted revenue and expenditure and detailed analysis

of the performance of the budget for the 18 months up to June of the preceding

financial year;

Publication of middle term expenditure framework in the Gazette

Adjustment to the medium term expenditure framework

Assistance to states and local Governments.

Annual budget to be derived from medium term expenditure framework.

Annual budget to accompanied by certain documents.

185

(c) A revenue framework broken down into monthly collection targets prepared on the

basis of the predetermined Reference Commodity Price as contained In Medium-

Term Expenditure Framework;

(d) Measures on cost, cost control and evaluation of result of programmes financed with

budgetary resources;

(e) a Fiscal Target Appendix derived from the underlying Medium-Term Expenditure

Framework setting out the following targets for that financial year:

(i) target inflation rate,

(ii) target fiscal account balances,

(ill) any other development target deemed appropriate; and

(f) a Fiscal Risk Appendix evaluating the fiscal and other related risks to the annual

budget and specifying measures to be taken to offset the occurrence of such risks.

20. In preparing their annual budget, States and Local Governments may adopt the

provisions of this Part with such and modification as may be appropriate and

necessary.

PART IV - BUDGETARY PLANNING OF CORPORATIONS AND OTHER

RELATED AGENCIES

21. (1) The Government corporations and agencies and government owned companies listed in

the Schedule to this Act (In this Act referred to as the corporations) shall, not later

than 6 months from the commencement of this Act and for every three financial years

thereafter and not later than the end of the second quarter of every year, cause to be

prepared and submitted to the. Minister their Schedule estimates of revenue and

expenditure for the next three financial years.

(2) Each of the bodies referred to in subsection (1) of this section shall submit to the

Minister not later than the end of August In each financial year:

(a) An annual budget derived from the estimates

submitted in pursuance of subjection (1) of this

section; and

(b) projected operating surplus which shall be prepared in line with acceptable accounting

practices.

Application of part III to states and local governments.

Preparation of estimate of revenue and expenditure by corporation etc.

Schedule

186

(3) The Minister shall cause the estimates submitted in pursuance of subsection (2) of this

section to be attached as part of the Appropriation Bill to be submitted to the National

Assembly.

22. (1) Notwithstanding the provisions of any written law surplus and governing they

corporation, each corporation shall establish a general reserve fund and shall allocate

thereto at the end of fund each financial year, one-fifth of its operating surplus forth

year.

(2) The balance of the operating surplus shall be aid to the Consolidated Revenue Fund of

the Federal Government, not later than one month following the statutory dead line

for publishing each corporation’s accounts.

23. (1) The Corporation’s surpluses be classified as a Federal Treasury Revenue.

(2) Where a corporation’s result Is a deficit, the deficit shall be classified as the

corporation’s loss fur the fiscal year.

(3) Each corporation shall, not later than three months after the end of Its financial year,

cause to be prepared and published Its audited financial reports In accordance with

such rules as may be prescribed from time to time.

24. The provisions of sections 20, 21 and 22 shall cease to apply to any of the

corporations from the time of its privatization.

PART V - BUDGETARY EXECUTIVE AND

ACHIEVEMENT OF TARGETS

25. (1) The Federal Government shall cause to be drawn up in each financial year, an

Annual Cash Plan which shall be prepared by the office of the Accountant-General of

the federation.

Operating surplus and general reserve funds.

Classification of operation operating surplus

Classification of application of part IV.

Annual cash plan

187

(2) The Annual Cash Plan $hall be prepared In advance of the financial year setting out

projected monthly cash flows and shall be revised periodically to reflect actual cash

flows.

26. The Minister, shall within 30 days of the enactment of the Appropriation Act, prepare

and publish a disbursement Schedule derived from the Annual Cash Plan for the

purpose of implementing the Appropriation Act.

27. (1) The sums appropriated for a specific purpose shall be used solely

for the purposes specified in the Appropriation to Act

(2) Without prejudice to subsection (1) of this section, the Ministry may in

exceptional circumstances and in the overall public interest, recommended for

the approval of the National’ Assembly virements from sub-head of account,

without exceeding the - amount appropriated to such head of account.

28. (1) Where by the end of three months, after the enactment of the Appropriation Act,

the Minister determines that the targeted revenues may be insufficient to fund the

heads of expenditure In the Appropriation Act, the Minister shall, within the next 30

days of such determination take appropriate measures to restrict further commitments

and financial operation according to the criteria set in the Fiscal Risk Appendix

(2) Where the target revenue are re-established, either in part or in full, the

appropriations for which further commitments were restricted shall be restored

proportionately.

(3) The provisions of subsections (1) and (2) of this section shall not apply to statutory or

constitutional expenditure.

29. (1) Any proposed tax expenditure hall be accompanied by an evaluation of its

budgetary and financial implications in the year it becomes effective and in the three

subsequent years, and shall only be approved by the Minister, if it does not adversely

impair the revenue estimates in the annual budget or if it Is accompanied by

countervailing measures during, the period mentioned in this subsection through

revenue Increasing measures such as tax rate raises and expansion of the tax base.

(2) The provisions of this section shall not apply to;

(a) changes in the rates of the taxes mentioned in section 163 of the Constitution; and

(b) debt cancellation in an amount lower than the cost of collection.

Disbursement schedule

Power of minister to approve virements

Power to restrict further commitments.

Restriction on the grant of tax relief.

188

30. (1) The Minister of Finance, through the Budget Office of the Federation, shall

monitor and evaluate the implementation of the Annual Budget, assess the attainment

of fiscal targets and report thereon on a quarterly basis to the Fiscal Responsibility

Council and the Joint Finance Committee of the National Assembly.

(2) The Minister of Finance shall, cause the report prepared pursuant to subsection (1) of

this section to be published in the mass and ‘electronic and on Ministry of Finance

website, not later than 30 days after end of each quarter.

31. In implementing their annual budgets, States and Local Governments may adopt the

provisions of this Part with such modifications may be appropriate and necessary.

PART VI - PUBUC REVENUES

32. Any fund due to the Federation from any tier of government may be set off by the

Federation in or towards payment or remittance of any sum due to that tier of

government from the Federation.

33. The Executive Arm of the Federal Government shall, at least 30 days before the

deadline for the submission of its budget proposals, place at the disposal of the

National Assembly, the revenue estimate fb7the following year, including the net

current revenue and the respective memorandum items.

34. Estimated revenue shall be broken down by the Executive Arm of Government into

monthly collection targets, including, where applicable, a separate description of

measures to combat tax fraud and evasion.

PART VII - SAVINGS AND ASSET MANAGEMENT

35. (1) Where the reference commodity price rise above the predetermined level, the

resulting excess proceeds shall be saved in accordance with the provisions of

subsection (2) of this section.

(2) The savings of each Government in the Federation in pursuance to subsection (1) of

this section shall be deposited in a separate account which shall form part of the

Responsibility of the budget office to monitor and report on implementation

Application of part V to states and local governments.

Forecast and collection of public revenue

Revenue forecast.

Executive to breakdown estimated revenue.

Penalty for not compliance with part VI

189

respective Governments Consolidated Revenue Fund to be maintained at the Central

Bank of Nigeria by each Government.

(3) The Central Bank of Nigeria shall, in consultation with the Minister of Finance, the

state Commissioners of Finance, and Local Government Treasurers, invest, for and on

behalf of the Governments In tile Federation, the savings of each Government and

such investment can be undertaken in a consolidated manner, provided that, the shares

of each Government and income due to them from the investment are dearly

identified.

(4) The Central Bank of Nigeria in the discharge. of its obligation under subsection (3) of

this section shall, observe the lipids and conditions imposed by safety and prudential

considerations and the need to maintain macro-economic stability and such safety and

prudential conditions are to be agreed upon with Minister of Finance, Stat

Commissioners of Finance, and Local Government Treasurers.

(5) No Government in the Federation shall have access to the savings made in pursuance

to subsection (2) of this section, unless the reference commodity price falls below the

predetermined level for a period of three consecutive months.

(6) The augmentation referred to in subsection (5) of this section shall be limited to such

sums that will bring the revenue of government to the level contained in its budget

estimates.

(7) Notwithstanding the provisions of subsections (5) and (6) of this section and subject

to agreement by Federal and state Governments In the Federation, a proportion of the

savings may be appropriated in the following year for the capital project and

programmes.

PART VIII - PUBUC EXPENDITURES

36. (1) The creation, expansion or improvement in government action which result in an

expenditure Increase shall be accompanied by:

(a) an estimates of the budgetary or financial impact in the year it becomes effective and

in the two subsequent years; and

(b) a statement by the person requesting for the expenditure, stating that the increase is

consistent with the Appropriation Act and the Medium-Term Expenditure

Framework.

Conditions for increasing government expenditure

190

(2) The provisions of this section shall not apply to expenditures deemed inconsequential

and shall apply to State and local Government only to the extent to which they have

adopted these provisions.

37. The granting of any advantage or increase of remuneration, the creation of posts or

allocation of career structures and admission of personnel on any account by bodies

and entities including foundations established and maintained by the Federal

Government shall only be effected If, there is a prior budgetary allocation sufficient to

cover the estimated expenditure.

38. All contracts with regards to the exclusion of annual budget; shall comply with the

rules and guidelines on:

(a) procurement and award of contracts; and

(b) due process and certification of contract.

39. Any violation of the requirements in sections 36, 37 and

38 shall be an offence.

40. In incurring public expenditures, States and Local Governments may adopt the

provisions of this Part with such modifications as may be appropriate and necessary.

PART IX - DEBTAND INDEBTEDNESS

41. (1) The framework for debt management during the Financial year shall be based on

the following rules:

(a) Government at all tiers shall only borrow for capital expenditure and human

development, provided that, such borrowing shall be on concessional terms with low

interest rate and with a reasonable long amortization period subject to the approval of

the appropriate legislative body where necessary; and

(b) Government shall ensure that the level of public debt as a proportion of national

income is held at a sustainable level as prescribed by the -National Assembly from

time to time on the advice of the Minister.

(2) Notwithstanding the provisions of subsection 1 (a) of this section and subject to the

approval of the National Assembly, the Federal Government may borrow from the

capital market.

(3) Non-compliance with the provisions of this section shall make the action taken an

offence.

Conditions for increasing personnel expenditure

All contracts to comply with rules and guidelines.

Effect of violation of public expenditure rules.

application of part VIII to states and local governments.

Framework for debt management.

191

42. (1) The President shall within 90 days from the commencement of this Act and with

advice from Minister of Finance subject to approval of National Assembly, set overall

limits for the amounts of consolidated debt of the Federal, State Governments

pursuant to the provisions of items 7 and 50 of Part I of the Second Schedule to the

Constitution and the limits and conditions approved by the National Assembly, shall

be consistent with the rules set in this Act and With the fiscal policy objectives in the

Medium Term-Fiscal Framework

(2) Outstanding judgment debts not paid shall be considered part of the consolidated

debts for the purpose of application of the respective limits set in pursuance of this

section.

(3) For the purpose of verifying compliance with the limits specified pursuant to this

section, the Commission shall, at the end of each quarter, determine the amount of the

consolidated debt of each tier of government.

(4) The Commission shall publish, on a quarterly basis, a list of the Governments in the

Federation that have exceeded the limits of consolidated debt, indicating the amount

by which the limit was exceeded.

(5) Where at the. end of any quarter, the consolidated debt of the Federal, State or Local

Governments exceeds the respective limits, it shall be brought within the limit not

later than the end of the three subsequent quarters with a minimum of 25 p. cent

reduction in the first quarter.

(6) Violators of the limits specified pursuant to this section shall:

(a) be prohibited from borrowing from internal or external sources, except for the

refinancing of existing debts; and

(b) bring the debt within the established limited by restricting funding commitments

accordingly.

(7) Where non-compliance with the limit specified pursuant to this section persist after

the time limited by subsection (5) of this section, the affected tier of Government shall

also be prohibited from receiving grants from any other. Government in the

Federation

(8) Whenever the fundamentals of the proposals referred to in this section are changed

due to economic instability or change in monetary or exchange policies, the President

shall submit to the National Assembly a request for a review of the current limits.

Limit of consolidated debt of Federal, States and Local Governments

192

43. (1) Servicing’ of external debts shall be the direct responsibility of the Government

that incurred the debt.

(2) The cost of servicing federal Government guaranteed loans shall be deducted at

source from the share of the debtor Government from the Federation Account’

PART X – BORROWING

44. (1) Any Government In the Federation or its agencies and corporations desirous of

borrowing shall specify the purpose for which the borrowing is intended and present a

cost- benefit analysis, detailing the economic and social benefits of the purpose to

which the Intended borrowing Is to be applied.

(2) Without prejudice to subsection (I) of this section, each borrowing shall comply with

the following conditions:

(a) the existence of prior authorization in the Appropriation or other Act or Law for the

purpose for which the borrowing is to be utilized; and.

(b) the proceeds such borrowing shall solely be applied towards long-terms capital

expenditures.

(3) Noting in this section shall be construed to authorize borrowing In excess of the limits

set out in section 44 of this Act.

(4) The Commission shall verify on a quarterly basis, compliance with the limits and

conditions for borrowing by each Government in the Federation.

(5) Without prejudice to the specific responsibilities of the National Assembly and.

Central Bank of Nigeria, the Debt Management Office shall maintain comprehensive,

reliable and current electronic database of internal and external public debts,

guaranteeing public access to the information.

45. (1) All banks and financial institutions shall request and

obtain proof of compliance with the provisions of this Part before

lending to any Government in the Federation.

46. (1) The Central Bank of Nigeria in its relations with Government agencies and

parastatals shall be subject to the following prohibitions:

(a) Purchasing fresh issues of government securities on thc date of its primary issue in the

market, except in the circumstances under subsection (2)of this section;

Servicing of external debt

Conditions for borrowing and verifications of compliance with limits.

Conditions for borrowing

Prohibition against CBN in its relation with government agencies and parastatals

193

(b) Exchanging on a temporary basis, the debt securities of any Government in the

Federation for Federal public debt securities and fo’rd purchase or sale of such

securities when the final result Is similar to an exchange; or

(c) Granting guarantees on behalf of any Government in the Federation.

(2) The Central Bank of Nigeria may only underwrite securities issued by the Federal

Government, which is rolled over, to refinance maturing securities.

(3) The underwriting permitted under; subsection (2) of this section shall be offset

through a public auction at market determined rate.

47. (1) Subject to the provisions of this Part, the Minister may with the approval of the

Federal Executive Council, grant guarantees on behalf of any Government In the

Federation.

(2) Any guarantee granted by the Minister shall be conditional upon the provision of a

counter-guarantee ii an amount equal to or higher than the guarantee obligation,

provided that, there are no overdue obligations form the requesting Government in the

federation to the guarantor and its controlled, corporations and such guarantee shall

also be in compliance with the following:

(a) counter-guarantee shall only be accepted from State or Local Governments; and

-

(2) Lending by banks and financial Institutions in. contravention of this Part shall be

unlawful.

(8) Whenever the fundamentals of the proposals referred to in this section are changed

due to economic instability or change in monetary or exchange policie5, the President

shall submit to the National Assembly a request for a review of the current limits.

(2) Any guarantee granted by the Minister shall be conditional upon the provision of a

counter-guarantee i an amount equal to or higher than the guarantee obligation,

provided that, there are no overdue obligations form the requesting Government in the

federation. To the guarantor and it’s controlled. Corporations and such guarantee shall

also be in compliance with the following:

(a) counter-guarantee shall only be accepted from State or Local Governments; and

b) the counter-guarantee required by the Federal Government from State or Local

Government or by State from Local Government, may consist in the appropriation of

tax revenue directly collected and resulting from statutory transfers and the guarantor

shall be authorized to retain such revenue and use the respective amount to repay

overdue debts.

Power of the minister to grant guarantees.

194

(3) In the case of foreign currency borrowing, Federal Government guarantee shall be a

requirement and no State, Local Government of Federal Agency shall, on its own

borrow externally.

(4) Any guarantee provided in excess of the debts limits set pursuance to section 44(1) of

this Act shall be an offence.

PART XI - TRANSPARENCY AND ACCOUNTABILITY

48. (1) The Federal Government shall ensure that its fiscal and financial affairs are

conducted In a transparent manner and accordingly ensure full and timely disclosure

and wide publication all transactions and decisions involving public revenues and

expenditures and their implications for its finances.

(2) The National Assembly shall ensure transparency during the preparation and

discussion of the Medium-Term expenditure Framework, Annual Budget and the

Appropriation Bill.

49. (1) The Federal Government shall publish their audited accounts not later than six

months following the end of the financial year.

(2) Federal Government shall, not later than two years following the commencement of

this Act and thereafter, not later than 7 months following the end of each financial

year, consolidate and publish in the mass media, its audited accounts tor the previous

year.

(3) The publication of general standards for the consolidation public accounts shall be the

responsibility of the office of the Accountant-General of the Federation.

50. The Federal Government through its budget within 30 days after the end of each

quarter, publish a summarized report on budget execution in such form as may be

prescribed by the Fiscal Responsibility Commission and not later than 6 months after

the end of the financial year, a consolidated budget execution report showing

implementation against physical and financial performance targets shall be published

by the Minister of Finance for submission to the National Assembly and

dissemination to the public.

PART XII –ENFORCEMENT

Fiscal transparency.

Publication of bulleted account.

Publication of summarized report on budget execution.

195

51. A person shall have legal capacity to enforce the provisions of this Act by obtaining

prerogative orders or other remedies at the Federal High Court, without having to

show any special or particular interest

PART XIII - MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS

52. Government securities, provided that, they are duly listed Guarantee loans or other

financial transactions under the law for their loans economic values as defined by the

Ministry.

53. The proceeds derived from the sale or transfer of public properties and rights over

public assets shall not be used t fin3nce recurrent and debt expenditure, provided that,

such proceeds may be used to liquidate existing liabilities directly charged against

such properties or assets.

54. The Federal Government may provide technical and financial assistance to States and

Local Government that adopt similar fiscal responsibility legislation along the same

lines as this Act for the modernization of their respective tax, financial and asset

administration.

55. The President shall, in addition to any other power, to conferred on him under this

Act, make regulations generally for the purposes of carrying into effect the provisions

of this Act

56. In this Act Appropriation Act’ means an Act or Law passed by the National or State

Assembly or Local Government authorizing spending from the Consolidated Revenue

Fund and includes a Supplementary Appropriation Act or law; “Appropriation Bill”

means the Bill referred to in sections 59 the Constitution of the Federal Republic of

Nigeria, 1999; “Aims of Government” means the Executive, Legislature and

Judiciary; “Borrowing term means any financial obligation arising from:

(i) any loan including principal, interest, fees of such loan;

(ii) the deferred payment for property, goods or services;

(iii) bonds, debentures, notes or similar Instruments;

(iv) letters of credit and reimbursement obligations respect thereto;

(v) trade or hankers’ acceptance;

(vi) capitalized amount of obligations under Leases entered into primarily as a method of

raising financing or of financing the acquisition of the asset leased;

(vii) agreements providing for swaps, ceiling rates, ceiling and floor rates, contingent

participation or other hedging mechanisms with respect to the payment of interest or

the convertibility of currency and

Enforcement.

Government security as collateral to guarantee loans.

Restriction on utilization of proceeds of sales of public assets etc.

Technical and financial assistance to states and local government.

Power of the

196

(viii) a conditional sale agreements, capital lease or other little retention agreement;

“Budget Call Circular” means a circular:

(I) requesting the submissions in a prescribed form, of the revenue and expenditure

estimates of ministries, extra-ministerial departments, and other executing agencies of

Government for the next financial year; and

(ii) giving details guidelines and instructions on the perpetration of the estimates and

expenditure in a manner consistent with the medium term developmental priorities set

out In the Medium Term Expenditure Framework;

“Capital Expenditure” means spending or an asset that lasts for more than one

financial year and expenses associated with the acquisition of such assets;

“concessional terms” means the terms of the loan must be at an interest rate not

exceeding 3 percent;

“consolidated debt7 means the aggregate of the outstanding financial obligations of

Government including those of its Parastatals and agencies at any point in time arising

from:

(i) borrowing money including principal, interest, fees of such

borrowed money,

(ii) the deferred payment for property, goods or services.

(iii) bonds, debentures, note or similar instruments,

(iv) letters of credit and reimbursement obligations with respect thereto,

(v) Guarantees,

(vi) trade or banker’s acceptances,

(vii) capitalized amounts of obligations under leases entered into primarily as a method of

raising financing or of financing the acquisition of the asset leased,

(viii) agreements providing for swaps, ceiling rates, ceiling and floor rates, contingent

participation or other hedging mechanisms with respect to the payment of interest or

the convertibility of currency and

(ix) a conditional sale agreement, capital lease or other little retention agreement;

“Cost-benefit-analysis” means an analysis that compares the cost of undertaking a service,

project or programme with the benefits that citizens are likely to derive from it;

“Fiscal Risk Appendix” An explanatory attachment that provide a set of indicator that can be

used to measure local fiscal risk;

“Fiscal Risk Target ”A provides numerical target for each risk indicator wit which a fiscal

entity will be considered fiscally healthy.

“Fiscal Year” has the meaning ascribed in the Constitution;

197

“Fiscal Policy Objectives” means the goals set by Government for attainment of set targets

for a given period;

“Government Owned Company” means a statutory corporative Government agency and a

company. in which Government controlling interest;

“Medium-Term Expenses Framework” means the document referred to and the content of

which is prescribed in section 1 of this Act; -

“Minister” means the Minister charged with the responsibility for finance;

“Net debt” means the Consolidated Debt less what is owed to Government, its Parastatals

and agencies at any point in time;

“President” means the President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria;

“Public Debt Securities” means public debt represented by securities issued by the Federal

Government (including those of the Central Bank of Nigeria), the State and Local

governments;

“Public Expenditure” means outlays other than those resulting into debt reduction;

“Public revenue” all moneys received by a Government in the Federation;

“Quarter” means one quarter of a financial year and quarterly shall be construed

accordingly;

“Recurrent Expenditure” means normal overhead and administrative .expenses and

personnel cost Including salaries, emoluments and other beqerits of employees;

“Reference Commodity price” means such price as may be determined by the President

subject to the approval of the National Assembly;

‘Refinancing of debt securities” means issuance of securities to repay the existing debt;

“State financial institution” means any financial institution in which one or more state

government has controlling shares;

“State” shall be construed to include the Federal Capital Territory;

“Tax expenditure projections” means the projected amount expected to be utilized in the

granting of tax relief or tax holiday;

‘Tax revenue projections” means the projected collectible tax or revenue within a particular

planning period; and

‘Tier’s of Government” means the. Federal, State and

Local Governments;

57. This Act. may be cited as the Fiscal Responsibility Act,

2007.

SCHEDULE

USE OF CORPORATIONS, AGENCIES AND

GOVERNMENT-OWNED COMPANIES

1. Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation.

198

2. Nigeria Deposit Insurance Corporation.

3. Bureau of Public enterprises.

4. National Agency for Science and Engineering Infrastructure.

5. Nigerian Soda) Insurance Trust Fund.

6. Corporate Affairs Commission.

7. National clearing and Forwarding Agency.

8. Nigeria Unity Line. V

9. Nigerian Airspace Management Agency.

10. Nigerian Shippers Council.

11 National Maritime Authority. V

12. Raw Material Research and Development Council.

13. Nigerian Civil Aviation Authority.

14. National Sugar Development Council.

15. Nigerian Postal Service.

16. Nigerian Ports Authority.

17. Federal Airport Authority of Nigeria.

18. Nigeria Mining Corporation.

19. Nigeria Re-Insurance.

20. Niger dock Nigeria Plc. V

21. Securities and Exchange Commission.

22. National Insurance Corporation of Nigeria

23. Nigeria Re-insurance Corporation.

24. Nigerian Telecommunication.

25. National Automotive Council.

26. Nigerian Tourism Development

27. National Communication Commission.

28. National Agency for Food & Drug Administration & Control.

29. Nigerian Customs Service.

30. Federal Inland Revenue Service.

31. Central Bank of Nigeria.

Any other corporation, agency or government-owned company that may be in duded

by Minister through a local notice.

EXPLANATORY MEMORANDUM

This Act, among other things, establishes the Fiscal Responsibility Commission

charged with the responsibility of monitoring and enfolding the provisions of this Act

to ensure greater accountability, transparency and prudence in the management of the

Nation’s resources by the Federal Government, Government-owned corporations or

199

companies and agencies as provided for under sections 13, 16 (1) and (2) and Item 60

of the Exclusive Legislative List s set out in Part 1 of the Second Schedule to the 1999

Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria and provides incentives to encourage

States and Local Government pass similar fiscal responsibility legislation.

I certify, in accordance with Section 2 (1) of the Acts Authentication Act, CAP. A2,

Laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2004, that this is a true copy of the Bill passed by

the both Houses of the National Assembly.

NASIRIJ IBRAHIM ARAB,

Clerk to the National Assembly

the day of July, 2007

200

SCHEDULE TO FISCAL RESPONSIBILITY BILL, 2007

(1)

SHORT TITLE

OF THE BILL

Fiscal

Responsibility

Bill, 2007

(2)

LONG TITLE OF THE

BILL

An Act to provide for

prudent management

of the Nations

resources, ensure long-

term macro-economic

stability of the national

economy, secure

greater accountability

and transparency in

fiscal operations within

a medium term fiscal

policy framework, and

the establishment of

the

Fiscal Responsibility

commission to ensure

the promotion and

enforcement of the

Nations economic

objectives:

(3)

SUMMARY OF THE

CONTENTS

OF THE BILL

The Bill provides for

prudent management of

the Nation’s resources.

ensure long-term macro-

economic stability of the

national economy, secure

greater accountability and

transparency In fiscal

operations within a

medium term fiscal policy

framework, and the

establishment of the

Fiscal Responsibility

Commission to ensure the

promotion and

enforcement of the

Nation’s economic

Objectives.

(4)

DATE PASSED BY

THE SENATE

21st February. 2007.

DATE PASSED BY

THE HOUSE OF

REPRESENTATIV ES

30th Day of May,

2007

I certify that the Bill has been carefully compared by me with the decision reached by the

National Assembly and found by me to be true and correct decision of the Houses and is

in accordance with the provisions of the Acts Authentication Act Cap. AZ, Laws of the

Federation of Nigeria, 2004.

NASIRU IBRAHIM ARAB,

Clerk to the National Assembly

19th Day of July, 2007

UMARU MUSA YARADUA, GCFR

President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria

30th Day of July, 2007.

201

APPENDIX X PUBLIC PROCUREMENT ACT, 2007

ARRANGEMENT OF

SECTION:

PART I - ESTABLISHMENT OF NATIONAL COUNCIL ON

PUBLIC PROCUREMENT

1. Establishment of the National Council on Public Procurement and its

membership.

2. Functions of the Council.

PART II - ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BUREAU OF

PUBLIC PROCUREMENT

3. The establishment of the Bureau of Public Procurement.

4. Objectives of the Bureau.

5. Function of the Bureau.

6. Powers of the Bureau.

7. Director General and Staff of the Bureau.

8. Principal Officers of the Bureau.

9. Other staff of the Bureau.

10. Staff regulations.

11. Pension provisions.

12. Funds of the Bureau.

13. Financial year, budgeting and annual report.

14. Legal proceedings.

PART III - SCOPE OF APPLICATION

15. Scope of application.

PART IV - FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES FOR PROCUREMENTS

16. Fundamental Principles for Procurement.

PART V - ORGANISATION OF PROCUREMENTS

17. Approving authority.

18. Procurement planning.

19. Procurement implementation

20. Accounting officer.21. Procurement planning committee.

202

22. Tenders board.

23. Pre-qualification of bidders.

24. Open competitive bidding.

PART Xl- CODE OF CONDUCT

57. Code of conduct for public procurement.

PART XII - OFFENCES

58. Offences relating to public procurement.

PART XIII - MISCELLANEOUS

59. Miscellaneous.

60. Interpretation.

61. Short title

PUBUC PROCUREMENT ACT, 2007

2007 ACT No. 14

An Ad to establish the National Council on Public Procurement and the

Bureau of Public Procurement as the Regulatory Authorities Responsible for

the Monitoring and Oversight of Public Procurement; Harmonizing the

existing Government Policies and practices by regulating, setting standards and

developing the Legal Framework and Professional Capacity for Public

Procurement in Nigeria; and for Related Matters. Commence

[4th Day of June, 2007]

ENACTED by the National Assembly of the Republic of Nigeria:

PART I - ESTABLISHMENT OF NATIONAL COUNCIL ON

PUBLIC PROCUREMENT

1. (1) There is established the National Council on Public of the

Procurement (In this Act referred to as “the Council)

(2) The Council shall consist of: -

(a) the Minister of Finance as Chairman;

(b) the Attorney-General and Minister of Justice of the membership.

federation;

(c) the secretary to the Government of the Federation;

(d) the Head of service of the Federation;

(e) Economic Adviser to the President;

Establishment of the National Council on public procurement and its membership

Commencement

203

(f) Six part-time members to represent;

(i) Nigeria Institute of Purchasing and Supply Management;

(ii) Nigeria Bar Association;

(iii) Nigeria As-nation of Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Mines and

Agriculture:

(iv) Nigeria Society of Engineers;

(v) Civil Society;

(vi) the Media; and

(g) the Director-General of the Bureau who shall be the secretary of the Council.

(3) Notwithstanding the provisions of section (2), the Council; may co-opt

any person to attend its meeting but the person so co-opted shall not have

a casting vote or be counted towards quorum.

(4) The Chairman and other members of the Council shall be appointed by the

President

(5) Subject to subsection (2) of this section, a member of the Council being:

(a) the holder of an elective office under the Constitution of Nigeria, shall

hold office for a period he remains so elected and no more; and

(b) the Director-General of the Bureau, shall hold office on such terms and

conditions as may be specified in his letter of appointment.

2 The Council shall

(a) Consider, approve and amend the monetary and prior review thresholds

for the application of the provisions of this Act by procuring entities;

(b) consider and approve policies on public procurement;

(c) approve the appointment of the Directors of the Bureau;

(d) receive and consider, for approval, the audited accounts of the Bureau of

Public Procurement; and

(e) ”approve changes in the procurement process to adapt to Improvements In

modern technology”

(f) give such other directives and perform such other functions as may be

necessary to achieves the objectives of this Act.

PART II - ESTABLISHMENT OF THE BUREAU OF PUBLIC

PROCUREMENT,

3. (1) There is established an agency to be known as the Bureau of Public

Procurement in this Act referred to as “the Bureau

(2) The Bureau:

Functions of the council

The establishment of the Bureau of Public procurement

204

(a) shall be a body corporate with perpetual succession and a common seal;

(b) may sue and be sued in its corporate name; and

(c) may acquire, hold or dispose of any property, movable or immovable for

the purpose of carrying out any of its

function under this Act. Objectives

4. The objectives of the Bureau are: Of the

(a) the harmonization of existing government policies and bureau practices on

public procurement and ensuring probity, accountability and transparency

in the procurement process.

(b) the establishment of pr1dng standards and benchmarks;

(c) ensuring the application of fair, competitive, transparent, value-for-money

standards and practices for the procurement and disposal of public assets

and services; and

(d) the attainment of transparency, competitiveness and professionalism in the

public sector procurement system.

5. The Bureau shall Functions

(a) formulate the general policies and guidelines relating to public sector

procurement for the approval of the Council

(b) publicize and explain the provisions of this Act:

(c) subject to thresholds as may be set by the Council, certify Federal

procurement prior to the award of contract;

(d) supervise the implementation of established procurement policies;

(e) monitor the prices of tendered items and keep a national database of

standard prices;

(f) publish the details of major contracts in the procurement journal;

(g) publish paper and electronic editions of the procurement journal and

maintain an archival system for the procurement journal;’

(h) maintain a national database of the particulars and classification and

categorization of federal contractors and service providers;

(i) collate and maintain in an archival system, all federal procurement plans

and information;

(j) undertake procurement research and surveys;

(k) organize training and development programmes for procurement

professionals;

(I) periodically review the socio-economic effect of the policies on

procurement and advise the Council accordingly;

Objectives of the Bureau

Functions of the Bureau

205

(m) prepare and update standard biding and contract documents;

(n) prevent fraudulent and unfair procurement and where necessary apply

administrative sanctions;

(o) review the procurement and award of contract procedures of every entity

to which this Act applies;

(p) perform procurement audits and submit such report to the National

Assembly bi-annually;

(q) Introduce, develop, update and maintain related database and

technology;

(r) establish a single internet portal that shall, subject to section 16 (21) to this

Act serve as a primary and definitive source of all Information on

government procurement containing all public sector procurement

Information at all times; and

(s) Co-ordinate relevant training programs to build Institutional capacity.

6. (1) The Bureau shall have the power to:

(a) Enforce the monetary and prior review thresholds set by the Council for

the application of the provisions of this Act by the procuring

entities;

(b) subject to the paragraph (a) of this subsection, Issue certificate of “No

Objection” for Contract Award” within the prior review threshold for all

procurements within the purview of this Act;

(c) from time to time stipulate to all procuring entities, the procedures and

documentation pre-requisite for the Issuance of certificate of ‘No

Objection’ under this Act;

(d) where a reason exist:

(i) cause to be inspected or reviewed any procurement transaction to ensure

compliance with the provisions of this Act,

(ii) review and determine whether any procuring entity has violated any

provision of this Act;

(e) debar any supplier, contractor or service provider that contravenes any

provision of this Act and regulations made pursuant to this Act;

(f) maintain a national database of federal contractors and service providers

and to the exclusion of all procuring entities prescribe classifications and

categorizations for the companies on the register;

(g) maintain a list of firms and persons that have been debarred from

participating in public procurement activity and publish them in the

procurement journal;

(h) call for such information, documents, records and reports in respect of any

aspect of any procurement proceeding where a breach, wrongdoing,

Power of the Bureau

206

default, mismanagement and or collusion has been alleged, reported or

proved against a procuring entity or service provider;

(i) recommend to the Council, where there are persistent breaches of this Act

or regulations made under this Act for:

(i) the suspension of officers concerned with the procurement or disposal

proceeding in issue;

(ii) the replacement of the head or any of the members of the procuring or

disposal unit of any entity or the Chairperson of the Tenders Board as the

case may be;

(iii) the discipline of the Accounting Officer of any procuring entity;

(iv) the temporary transfer of the procuring and disposal function of a

procuring and disposing entity to a third party procurement agency or

consultant; or

(v) any other section that the Bureau may consider appropriate;

(j) call for the production of books of accounts, plans, documents and

examine persons or parties in connection with any procurement

proceeding;

(k) act upon complaints in accordance with the procedures set out in this Act;

(I) nullify the whole or any part of any procurement proceeding or award

which is in contravention of this Act;

(m) do such other things as are necessary for the efficient performance of its

functions under this Act;

(2) The Bureau shall serve as the secretariat for the Council.

(3) The Bureau shall, subject to the approval of the Council, have power to:

(a) enter into contract or partnership with any company, firm or person which

in its option will facilitate the discharge of its functions;

(b) request for and obtain from any procurement entity information including

reports, memoranda and audited accounts, and other Information relevant

to Is functions under this Act; and

(c) liaise with relevant bodies or institutions national and International for

effective performance of its functions

under this Act.

7. (1) There shall be for the Bureau, a Director-General who shall be

appointed by the President, on the recommendation of the Council after

competitive selections.

(2) The Director-General shall be:

Director General and Staff of the Bureau

207

(a) the Chief Executive and accounting officer of the Bureau;. (b) responsible

for the execution of the policy and day to day administration of the affairs

of the Bureau; and

(c) a person who possesses the relevant and adequate professional

qualification and shall have been so qualified for a period of not less than

15 years:

(3) The Director-General shall hold office:

(a) for a term of 4 years in the first instance and may be reappointed for a

further term of 4 years and no more; and

(b) on such terms and conditions as may be specified in his letter of

appointment.

(4) Without prejudice to the provisions of this Act, the Director General of the

Bureau may be removed form office at the instance of the President on the

basis of gross misconduct of financial impropriety, fraud, and manifested

incompetence proven by the Council.

8. (1) The Council shall appoint the principal officer for the Bureau after

competitive selection process

(2) The principal officers appointed under Section 9 (1) of this Section shall

each have the requisite qualification and experience required for the

effective performance of the functions of their respective Departments and

the Bureau as specified under this Act.

(3) The Council shall have power to modify the operational structure of the

Bureau as may be necessary to enhance the Bureau’s duties and functions

under this Act.

9. (1) The Council may appoint such officers and other employees as may,

from time to time, deem necessary for the purpose of the Bureau.

(2) Subject to the Pension Reform Act, the terms and conditions of service

(including remuneration, allowances, benefits and pensions) of officers

and employees of the Bureau shall be as determined by this Council.

(3) Without prejudice to the general of subsection this section, the Council

shall have power to appoint either on transfer or on recommend from any

public service in the Federation, such number of employees as may, be

required to assist the Bureau in the discharge of any of its functions under

the Act and persons so employed shall be remunerated (including

allowances) as the Council may consider appropriate.

Principal officers of the Bureau

Other Staff of the Bureau

Staff Regulations

208

10. (1) The Council may, subject to the provisions of this Act and within six

months of the inauguration, make staff regulations relating generally to the

conditions of service of the employees of the Bureau and without

prejudice to the foregoing, such regulations may provide for:

(a) the appointment, promotion and disciplinary control (including

dismissal) of employees of the Bureau; and

(b) appeal by such employees against dismissal or other disciplinary

measures.

(2) Until such regulations are made, any instrument relating to the

conditions of service of officers in the civil service of the

Federation shall be applicable.

11. Employees of the Bureau shall be entitled to pensions, and other

retirement benefits as prescribed under the pension Act.

12. (1) The bureau shall establish and maintain a Fund, to be approved by the

Council into which shall be paid and credited:

(a) the sums appropriated by the National Assembly for the running of the

Bureau;

(b) all subventions, fees and charges for service rendered or publications

made by the Bureau; and

(c) all other assets which may, from time to time, accrue to the Bureau.

(2) The Bureau shall charge its fund to meet all its expenditure.

(3) The Council may make regulations for the Bureau:

(a) specifying the manner in which assets or the funds of the Bureau are to be

held, and regulating the marking of payment into and out of the fund: and

(b) requiring the keeping of proper accounts and records for the purpose of the

fund in such form as may be specified inthe rules.

(4) The Bureau may, from time to time, apply the proceeds of the fund for:

(a) the cost of administration of the Bureau;

(b) the payments of salaries, fees and other remuneration, employees of the

Bureau or experts or professionals appointed by the Bureau;

(c) the maintenance of any property acquired by or vested in the Bureau; and

(d) any matter connected with all or any of the functions of the Bureau under

this Act.

(e) the payments of salaries, fees and other remuneration, of employees of the

Bureau or exports or professional appointed by the Bureau; and

Pension provision

Funds of the bureau

209

(f) any expenditure connected with all or any of the function of the Bureau

under this Act.

13. (1) The financial year of the Bureau shall be the same as that of the

Federal” Government.

(2) Not later than 6 months before the end of the financial year, the Bureau

shall submit to the Council an estimate of its expenditure and projected

income during the text succeeding year.

(3) The Bureau shall keep proper account and records of its receipts,

payments assets and liabilities and shall in respect of each financial year

prepare a statement of account in such form as the Council may direct.

(4) The Bureau shall within 6 months after the end of the financial year to

which the accounts relates cause the accounts to be audited in accordance

with guidelines supplied by the Auditor-General of the Federation.

(5) The Bureau shall at the end of each financial year, prepare and submit to

the council a report in such forms as shall accurately capture all activities

of the Bureau during the preceding year and shall include in the report a

copy of the audited accounts of the Bureau for that year.

14. (1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, no suit shall be commenced

against the Bureau before the expiration of 30 days after written notice of

an intention to commence the suit shall have been served upon the Bureau

by the intending plaintiff or his agent; and the notice shall clearly and

explicitly state:

(a) the cause of action;

(b) the particulars of the claim;

(c) the name and address of legal practitioner of the intending plaintiff; and

(d) the relief being sought.

(2) The Director-General of the Bureau,

. its officers, employees or agents shall not personally be subject to any

action, claim or demand by, or any person in respect of anything done or

omitted to be done in exercise of any functions or power conferred by this

Act upon the Bureau, its Director-General, officers, employees or agents.

(3) A member of the Bureau or the Director-Genera! or any officer or

employee of the Bureau shall be indemnified out of the assets of the

Bureau against any liability incurred by him in defending any proceeding,

whether civil or criminal, if the Proceeding is brought against him in his

capacity as a member, Director- Genera!, officer or other employee of the

Bureau.

Financial year budgeting and annual report

Legal proceedings.

210

(4) A notice, summons or other documents required or authorized to be served

upon the Bureau under the provisions of this Act or any other law or

enactment may be served by delivering it to the Director-General or by

sending it by registered post and addressed to the Director-General at the

principal office of the Bureau.

PART - SCOPE OF APPLICATION

15. (1) The provisions of this Act shall apply to all procurement of goods,

works, and service carried out by:

(a) the Federal Government of Nigeria and all procurement entities;

(b) all entities outside the foregoing description which derive at least 35% of

the fund appropriated or proposed to be appropriated for any type of

procurement described in this Act from the Federation share of

Consolidated Revenue Fund.

(2) The provisions of this Act shall not apply to the procurement of special

goods, works and services involving national defence or national security

unless the President’s express approval has been first sought and obtained.

PART IV - FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES FOR PROCUREMENTS

16. (1) Subject to any exemption allowed by this Act, all public procurement

shall be conducted:

(a) subject to the prior review thresholds as may from time to time be set by

the Bureau pursuant to Section 7 (1) (a)-(b);

(a) based only on procurement plans supported by prior budgetary

appropriations and no procurement proceedings shall be formalized until

the procuring entity has ensured that funds are available to meet the

obligations and subject to the threshold in the regulations made by the

Bureau, has obtained a “certificate of ‘No Objection’ to Contract Award”

from the Bureau;

(C) by open competitive biding;

(d) in a manner which is transparent, timely, equitable for ensuring

accountability and conformity with this Act and regulations deriving there

from;

(e) with the aim of achieving value for money and fitness for purpose;

(f) in a manner which promotes competition, economy and efficiency; and

Scope of application

Fundamental principal for procurement

211

(g) in accordance with the procedures and timeline laid down In this Act and

as may be specified by the Bureau from time to time.

(2) Where the Bureau has set prior review thresholds in the procurement

regulations, no funds shall be disbursed from the Treasury of Federation

Account or any bank account of any procuring entity for any procurement

falling above the set thresholds unless the cheque, payments or other form

of request for payments accompanied by a certificate of “No Objection” to

an award of contract duly issued by the Bureau.

(3) For all cases where the Bureau shall set a prior review thresholds, the

Bureau shall prescribe by regulation, guidelines and conditions precedent

to the award of certificate of “No Object/on,” under this Act.

(4) Subject to the prior review thresholds as may be set by the Bureau, any

procurement purported to be awarded without a “Certificate of ‘No

Objection’ to Contract Award” duly Issued by the Bureau shall be null and

void.

(5) A supplier, contractor or service provider may be a natural person, a legal

person or a combination of the two. Suppliers, contractors or service

providers acting jointly are jointly and severally liable for all obligations

and or responsibility arising from this Act and the non-performance or

improper performance of any contract awarded pursuant to this Act.

(6) All bidders In addition to requirements contained In any solicitation

documents shall:

(a) possess the necessary:

(i) professional and technical qualifications to carry out particular

procurements;

(ii) financial capability;

(iii) equipment and other relevant infrastructure;

(iv) shall have adequate personnel to perform the obligations

of the procurement contracts.

(b) possess the legal capacity to enter into the procurement

Contract:

(c) not be In receivership, the subject of any form of insolvency or bankruptcy

proceedings or the subject of any form of winding up petition or

Proceedings;

(d) not have fulfilled all its obligations to pay taxes, pensions and social

security contributions;

212

(e) not have any director who has been convicted in any country for any

criminal offence relating to fraud or financial impropriety or criminal

misrepresentation or falsification of facts relating to any matter;

(f) accompany every bid with an affidavit disclosing whether or not any

officer of the relevant committees of the procurement entity of Bureau is a

former or present director, shareholder or has any pecuniary interest In the

bidder and confirmed that all information presented in its bid are true and

correct in all particulars.

(7) The procuring entity may require a bidder to provide documentary

evidence or other Information it considers necessary proof that the bidders

is qualified In accordance with this Act and the solicitation documents and

for this purpose any such requirements shall apply equally to all bidders.

(8) Whenever, It is established by a procuring entity or the Bureau that any or

a combination of the situations set out exists, a bidder may have its bid or

tender excluded from any particular procurement proceeding if:

(a) there Is verifiable evidence that any supplier, contractor or consultant has

given or promised a gift of money or any tangible item, or has promised,

offered or given employment or any other benefit, item or a service that

can be quantified in monetary terms to a current or former employee of a

procuring entity or the Bureau, in an attempt to influence any action, or

decision making of any procurement activity;

(b) a supplier, contractor or consultant during the last three years prior to the

commencement of the procurement proceedings. in issue, failed to

perform or to provide due care in performance of any public procurement;

(c) the bidders is in receivership or is the subject of any types of insolvency

proceedings or If being a private company under the Companies and

Allied Mater Act, is controlled by a person or persons who are subject to

any bankruptcy proceedings or who have been declared bankrupt and or

have made any compromises with their creditors within two calendar years

prior to the initiation of the procurement proceedings;

(d) the bidder is in arrears regarding payment of due taxes, charges, pensions

or social insurance contributions, unless such bidders have obtained a

lawful permit with respect to allowance, deference of such outstanding

payments or payment thereof In installments;

(e) the bidders has been validly sentenced for a crime committed in

connection with a procurement proceeding, or other crime committed to

gain financial profit;

213

(f) the bidder has in its management or is in any portion owned by any person

that has been validity sentence for a crime committed in connection with a

procurement proceedings, or other crime committed to gain financial

profit; and

(g) the bidder fails to submit a statement regarding Its dominating or

subsidiary relationships with respect to other parties to the proceedings

and persons acting on behalf of the proclaiming entity participating in

same proceedings or whom remains in subordinate relationship with other

participants to the proceedings.

(9) In such cases the procuring entity shall inform the Bureau, and person

referred to In subsection (8) (a)-(g) of this section, In writing that the bid

or tender in question has been excluded and the grounds for the exclusion

and to keep a record of same in the file pertaining to the public

procurement proceeding in question.

(10) All communications and documents issued by procuring entitles arid the

Bureau shall be in English language.

(11) AII communications regarding any matter deriving from this Act or

proceedings of public procurement shall be in writing or such other form

as may be stipulated by the Bureau.

(12) Every procuring entity shall maintain both file and electronic records of all

procurement proceedings made within each financial year and the

procurement records shall be maintained for a period often years from the

date of the award.

(13) Copies of all procurement records shall be transmitted to the Bureau not

later than 3 months after the end of the financial year and shall

(a) Information identifying the procuring entity and the contractors;

(b) the date of the contract award;

(c) the values of the contract;

(d) the detailed records of the procurement proceedings.

(14) All unclassified procurement records shall be open to inspection by the

public at the cost of Copying and certifying the documents plus an

administrative charge as may be prescribed from time to time by the

Bureau.

(15) The criteria Stipulated as the basis upon which suppliers or contractors

would be evaluated shall not be charged in the course of any procurement

Proceedings.

(16) The burden of providing fulfillment of the requirements for participation

In any procurement Proceedings shall lie on the supplier or contractor.

214

(17) A contract shall be awarded to the lowest evaluated responsive bid from

the bidders substantially responsive to the bid solicitation.

(18) Notwithstanding Subsection (16) of this Section, the Bureau may refuse to

issue ‘certificate of “No Objection” to Contract Award’ on the ground that

the price is excessive.

(19) Pursuant to subsection (17) of this section, the Bureau may direct either

that the procurement proceedings be entirely cancelled or that the

procuring entity conduct are-tender.

(20) Pursuant to Subsection (18) of this section, the Bureau may either direct

that the procurement proceedings be entirely cancelled or that the

procuring entity conduct a re-tender.

(21) The accounting officer of a procuring entity and any officer to whom

responsibility is delegated are responsible and accountable for any actions

taken or omitted to be taken either in compliance with or in contravention

of this Act.

(22) The accounting officer of a procuring entity has the responsibility to

ensure that the provisions of this Act and the regulations laid by the

Bureau are complied with, and concurrent approval by any Tenders Board

shall not absolve the accounting officer form accountability for anything

done in contravention of us Act or the regulation laid down hereunder.

(23) Procurement and disposal decisions of a procuring entity shall be taken in

strict adherence to the provisions of this Act and any regulations as from

time to time the laid down by the Bureau.

(24) Persons who have been engaged in preparing for a procurement or part of

the proceedings thereof may neither bid for the procurement in question or

any part thereof either as main contractor or sub-contractors nor may they

cooperate in any manner with bidders in the course of preparing their

tenders.

(25) A procuring entity shall not request or stipulate that a bidder should

engage a particular subcontractor as a requirement for participating in any

procurement proceedings.

215

(26) All procurement contracts shall contain provisions for arbitral proceedings

as the primary forms of dispute resolution.

(27) The values in procurement documents shall be stated in Nigerian currency

and where stated In a foreign currency shall be converted to Nigerian

currency using the exchange rate of the central Bank of Nigeria valid on

the day of opening at ender or bid.

(28) All procurement contract shall contain warranties for durability of goods,

exercise of requisite skills in service provision and use of genuine

materials and inputs In execution.

PART V - ORGANISATION OF PROCUREMENTS

17. Subject to the monetary and prior review thresholds for procurements in

this Act as may from time to time be determined by the Council, the

following shall be the approving authority for the conduct of public

procurement:

(a) in the case of:

(i) a government agency parastatal, or corporation, a Parastatals Tender

Board; and Approving authority.

(ii) a ministry or extra-ministerial entity, the Ministerial Tender Board.

18. Subject to regulations as may from time to time be made by the Bureau

under the direction of the Council, a procuring entity shall plan its

procurement by:

(a) preparing the needs assessment and evaluation;

(b) identifying the goods, work or services required;

(c) carrying appropriate market and statistical surveys and on the basis

prepare an analysis of the cost implications of the proposed procurement;

(d) aggregating its requirements wherever possible, both within the procuring

entity and between procuring entities, to obtain economy of scale and

reduce procurement cost;

(e) integrating its procurement expenditure into its yearly budget;

(f) prescribing any method for effecting the procurement subject to the

necessary approval under this Act; and

(g) ensuring that the procurement entity functions stipulated in this section

shall be carried out by the Procurement Planning Committee.

Approving Authority

Procurement planning

216

19. Subject to regulations as may from time to time be made by the Bureau

under direction of Council, a procuring entity shall, in implementing its

procurement plans:

(a) advertise and Solicit for bids in adherence to this Act guidelines as may be

issued by the Bureau from time to time;

(b) to Invite two credible persons as observers in every procurement process,

one person each representing a recognized;

(i) private sector professional organization whose expertise is relevant to the

particular goods or service being procured, and

(ii) non-government organization working in transparency, accountability and

anti-corruption areas, and the observers shall not intervene in

The procurement process but shall have right to submit their observation

report to any relevant agency or body including their own organizations or

associations;

(c) receive, evaluate and make a selection of the bids received in adherence to

this Act and guidelines as may be issued by the Bureau from time to time;

(d) obtain approval of the approving authority before making an award;

(e) debrief the bid losers on request;

(f) resolve complaints and disputes If any;

(g) obtain and confirm the validity of any performance guarantee;

(h) obtain a “Certificate of’ No Objection’ to Contract Award” from the

Bureau within the prior review threshold as stipulated In Section 3 (a) of

this Act;

(i) execute all Contract Agreements; and

(j) Announce and publicize the award In the format stipulated by this Act and

guidelines as may be Issued by the Bureau from time to time.

20. (1) The accounting officer of a procuring entity shall be the Accounting

person charged with line supervision of the conduct of all procurement

processes; in the case of ministries the Permanent secretary and in the case

of extra-ministerial departments and corporations the Director-General or

officer of co-ordinate responsibility.

(2) The accounting officer of every procuring entity shall have overall

responsibility for the planning of, organization of tenders, evaluation of

tenders and execution of all procurements and in particular shall be

responsible for:

(a) ensuring compliance with the provisions of this Act by his entity and

liable in person for the breach or contravention of this Act or any

regulation made hereunder whether or not the act or omission was carried

Procurement implementation

Accounting officer

217

out by him personally or any of his subordinates and Its shall not be

material that he had delegated any function, duty or power to any person

or group of persons;

(b) constituting the Procurement Committee and its decisions;

(c) ensuring that adequate appropriation is provided specifically for the

procurement in the Federal budget; (d) integrating his entity’s

procurement expenditure into its yearly budget:

(e) ensuring that no reduction of values or splitting of procurement! is carried

out such as to evade the use of the appropriate procurement method;

(f) constituting the Evaluation Committee;

(g) liaising with the Bureau to ensure the implementation of Its regulations.

21. (1) For each financial year procuring entity shall establish a Procurement

Planning Committee.

(2) The Procurement Planning Committee shall consist of:

(a) the accounting officer of the procurement entity or his representative who

shall chair the Committee;

(b) a representative of:

(i) the procurement unit of the procuring entity who shall be the Secretary,

(ii) the unit directly in requirement of the procurement,

(iii) the financial unit of the procuring entity, (iv) the planning, research and

statistics unit of the procuring entity,

(v) technical personnel of the procuring entity with expertise In the subject

matter for each particular procurement, and

(vi) the legal unit of the procuring entity.

22. (1) There Is hereby established by this Act in each procuring entity a

tenders board (In this Act referred to as “the Tenders Board”).

(2) Subject to the approval of the Council, the Bureau shall from time to time

prescribe guidelines for the membership of the Tenders Board.

(3) The Tenders Board shall be responsible for the award of procurements of

goods, works and services within the threshold set In the regulations.

(4) In all cases where there is a need for prequalification, the Chairman of the

Tenders Board shall constitute a technical sub-committee of the Tenders

Board charged with the responsibility for the evaluation of bids which

shall be made up of professional staff of the procuring entity and the

Procurement planning committee

Tender Board

218

Secretary of the Tenders Board who shall also be the Chair of the

Evaluation Sub-committee.

(5) The decision of the Tenders Board shall be communicated to the Minister

for implementation.

23. (1) Where a procuring entity has made a decision with respect: to the

minimum qualifications of suppliers, contractors or service providers by

requesting interested persons to submit applications, to pre-qualify, it shall

set out precise criteria upon which it seeks to give consideration to the

applications and in reaching a decision as to which supplier, contractor or

service provider qualifies, shall apply only the criteria set out In the

prequalification documents and no more.

(2) Procuring entities shall supply a set of prequalification documents to each

supplier, contractor or consultant that request them, and the price that a

procuring entity may charge for the prequalification documents shall

reflect only the cost of printing and provision to suppliers or contractors

and consultants.

(3) The prequalification document shall include:

(a) instructions to prepare and submit prequalification application;

(b) a summary of the main terms and conditions required for the procurement

contract to be entered into as 9 result of the procurement proceedings;

(c) any documentary evidence or other information that must be submitted by

suppliers, contractors or consultants to demonstrate their qualifications;

(d) the manner and place for the submission of applications to pre-qualify and

the deadline for the submission, expressed as a specific date and time

which allows sufficient time for suppliers, contractors or consultant to

prepare and submit their applications, taking into account the reasonable

need of the procuring entity; and

(e) any other requirement that may be established by the procuring entity in

conformity with this Act and procurement regulations relating to the

preparation and submission of applications to pre-qualify and to the

prequalification proceedings.

(4) The procurement entity shall respond to any request by a supplier,

contractor or consultant for clarification of the prequalification documents

Prequalification of bides

219

if the request is made at least ten days before the deadline for the

submission of applications to pre-qualify.

(5) The response by the procuring entity shall be given within a reasonable

time and in any event within a period of at most seven working days so as

to enable the supplier, contractor or consultant to make a timely

submission of its application to pre-qualify.

(6) The response to any request that might reasonably be expected. to be of

interest to other supplier, contractor or consultant shall, without

identifying the source of the request, be communicated to other suppliers

or contractors or consultants provided with the prequalification documents

by the procuring entity.

(7) A procuring entity shall promptly notify each supplier, contractor or

consultant which submitted an application to pre-qualify of whether or not

it has been pre-qualified and shall make available to any member of the

general public upon request, the names of the suppliers, contractors or

consultants who have been pre-qualified.

(8) Suppliers, contractors or consultants who have been pre-qualified may

participate further in the procurement proceedings.

(9) The procuring entity shall upon request communicate to suppliers,

contractors or consultants who have not been pre-qualified, the grounds

for disqualification.

(10) The procuring entity may require a supplier, contractor or service provider

who has been pre-qualifies to demonstrate its qualifications again in

accordance with the same criteria used to pre-qualify the supplier,

contractor consultant.

(11) The procuring entity shall promptly notify each supplier, contractor or

service provider requested to demonstrate its qualifications again whether

or not the supplier, contractor or consultant has done so to the satisfaction

of the procuring entity.

220

(12) The procuring entity shall disqualify any supplier, contractor or service

provider who fails to demonstrate its qualification again if requested to do

so.

PART VI- PROCUREMENT METHODS

(GOODS AND SERVICES)

24. (1) Except as provided by this Act, all procurements of goods and works

by all procuring entities shall be conducted by open competitive bidding.

(2) Any reference to open competitive biding in this Act means the process by

which a procuring entity based on previously defined criteria, effects

public procurements by offering to every interested bidder, equal

simultaneous information and opportunity to offer the goods and works

needed.

(3) The wining bid shall be that which is the lowest evaluated responsive bid

which has been responsive to the bid with regards to work specification

and standard.

25. (1) Invitations to bid may be either by way of National Competitive

Bidding or International Competitive Bidding and the Bureau shall from

time to time set the monetary thresholds for which procurements shall fall

under either system.

(2) Every invitation to an open competitive bid shall:

(i) in the case of goods and works under International Competitive Bidding,

the invitation for bids shall be advertised In at least two national

newspapers and one relevant internationally recognized publication, any

official websites of the procuring entity and the Bureau as well as the

procurement journal not less than six weeks before the deadline for

submission of the bids for the goods and works,

(ii) in the case of goods and works valued under National Competitive

Bidding, the Invitation for bids shall be advertised on the notice board of

the procuring entity, any official web sites of the procuring entity, at least

two national newspapers, and in the procurement journal not less than six

weeks before the deadline for submission of the bids for the goods and

works.

Open competitive bidding

Invitation to bid.

221

26. (1) Subject to the monetary and prior review thresholds as may from time

to time be set by the Bureau all procurements valued in excess of the

prescribe& by the Bureau shall require a bid security in an amount not

more than 2% of the bid price by way of a bank guarantee issued by a

reputable bank acceptable to the procuring entity.

(2) The Bureau shall from time to time specify the principal terms and

condition of the required bid security in the tender documents.

(3) When the procuring entity requires suppliers or contractors submitting

tender to provide a bid security the requirement shall apply to each

supplier or contractor.

27. (1) All bids in response to an invitation to open competitive bidding shall

be submitted in writing and in addition to any other stipulated in the tender

documents signed by an official authorized to bind the bidder to a contract

and placed in a sealed envelop.

(2). All submitted bids shall be deposited in a secured tamper- proof bid-box.

(3) All bids submitted shall be in English language.

(4) The procuring entity shall issue a receipt showing the date and time the

bid was delivered.

(5) Any bid receive after the deadline for the submission of bids shall not be

opened and must be returned to the supplier or contractor which submitted

it.

(6) No communication shall take place between procuring entities and any

supplier or contractor after the publication of a bid solicitation other than

as provided in this Act.

Bid security

Submission of bids

222

28. A procuring entity may:

(a) reject all bids at any time prior to the acceptance of a’ bid, without

incurring thereby any liability to the bidders; and

(b) cancel the procurement proceedings in the public interest, without

incurring any liability to the bidders’

29. (1) The period of validity for a bid shall’ be the period specified in the

tender documents.

(2) A procuring entity may request suppliers or contractors to extend the

period of validity for an additional specified period time

(3) A supplier or contractor may refuse the request for the extension of bid, in

which case the effectiveness of its bid will terminate upon the expiration

of the un-extended period of effectiveness.

(4) A supplier or contractor may modify or withdraw its bid prior to the

deadline for the submission of bids.

(5) The modification or notice of withdrawal is effective if it is received by

the procurement entity before the deadline for the submission of tenders.

30. All bids shall be submitted before the deadline or date specified in the

tender documents or any extension of the deadline for submission and the

procuring entity shall:

(a) permit attendees to examine the enveloped in which the bids have been

submitted to ascertain that the bids have not been tampered with;

(b) cause all the bids to be opened in public, in the presence of the bidders or

their representatives and any Interested members of the public;

(c) ensure that the bids opening takes place immediately following the

deadline stipulated for the submission of bids or any extension thereof;

(d) ensure that a register is taken of the names and addresses of all those

present at the bids opening and the organizations they represent which is

recorded by the secretary of the tenders board; and

(e) call-over to the hearing of all present, the names and address of each

bidder, the total amount of each bid, the bid currency and shall ensure that

Rejection of bids.

Validity period of bids, modification and withdrawal of tenders.

Bids opening

223

these details are recorded by the secretary of the Tenders board or his

delegate in the minutes of the bid opening.

31. (1) All bids shall be first examined to determine to determination if they:

(a) meet the minimum eligibility requirements stipulated in the bidding

documents;

(b) have been duly signed;

(c) are substantially responsive to the bidding documents;

and

(d) are generally in order.

(2) A procuring entity may ask a supplier or a contractor for clarification of its

bid submission in order to assist in the examination, evaluation and

comparison of bids.

(3) The following shall not be sought, offered or permitted:

(a) changes in prices;

(b) changes of substance in a bid; and

(C) changes to make an unresponsive bid responsive.

(4) Notwithstanding sub-Section (3) of this Section, the procuring entity may

correct purely arithmetical errors that are discovered during the

examination of tenders.

(5) The procuring entity shall give prompt notice of the correction to the

supplier or contractor that submitted the tender.

(6) A major deviation shall result in a rejection of bid while a minor deviation

shall be subjected to clarification.

(7) The following shall be considered as major deviations:

(A) with respect to clause in an offer;

(i) unacceptable sub contracting,

(ii) unacceptable time schedule if time is of essence,

(iii) unacceptable alternative design, and

(iv) unacceptable price adjustment.

(b) with respect to the status of the bidder:

(i) the fact that he is ineligible or not pre-qualified, and

(ii) the fact that he is uninvited;

(c) with respect to bid documents an unsigned bid;

(d) with respect to time, date and allocation for submission:

(i) any bid received after the date and time for submission stipulated in the

solicitation document,

(ii) any bid submitted at the wrong location.

Examination of bids

224

(8) In case of major deviations, bids shall not be considered any further and,

where unopened, shall be returned as such to the bidder. a

(9) In all cases of rejection, a letter stipulating the reasons for rejection shall

be sent, and the bidder shall not be permitted to amend his bid to become

compliant.

(10) Subject to any provision to the contrary, the following shall be considered

as minor deviations:

(a) the use of codes;

(b) the difference in standards;

(c) the difference in material

(d) alternative design;

(e) alternative workmanship;

(f) modified liquidated damages;

(g) omission in minor items;

(h) discovery of arithmetical errors;

(I) sub-contracting that is unclear and questionable;

(j) different methods of construction;

(k) difference in final delivery date;

(I) difference In delivery schedule;

(m) completion period where these are not of essence;

(n) non-compliance with some technical local regulation;

(o) payment terms; and

(p) any other condition that has little Impact on the bid.

(11). In cases not mentioned above and where there exist a doubt as to whether

a particular condition In a bid Is a major or a minor deviation, the

following rules shall apply:

(a) where the Impact on the costs Is major, It shall be regarded as a major

deviation; and

(b) where the impact on the costs Is minor, It shall be regarded as a minor

deviation.

(12) In cases of minor deviations, written classification may be obtained from

the supplier or contractor and, where applicable, and offer made for the

correction of the minor deviation.

(13) Where a supplier or contractor does not accept the correction of a minor

deviation, his bid shall be rejected.

(14) At the stage of evaluation and comparison, all minor deviation shall be

quantified in monetary terms.

(15) For the rejection of a bid, a written notice shall be given promptly to the

supplier.

225

32. (1) For the evaluation and comparison of bids that have been adjudged as

valid for the purposes of evaluation, no other method or criteria shall be

used except those stipulated in the solicitation documents.

(2) The objective of evaluation shall be to determine and select the lowest-

evaluated responsive bid from bidders that have responded to the bid

solicitation.

(3) In the Course of its determination of the lowest evaluated responsive bid

from the bidders that have responded to the bid solicitation the Tender

Boards shall, in particular, undertake the fallowing processes as

applicable:

(a) checking of deviations;

(b) checking of omissions with qualification of same;

(c) application of discounts, as applicable;

(d) clarification with bidders of questionable minor deviation;

(e) qualification in monetary-terms of such questionable deviations;,

(f) Conversion to common currency;

(g) calculation ‘and tabulation of bid amount with domestic preference where

applicable;

(h) determination of the lowest calculated prices in order of rank;

(i) post-qualification of bidders, where applicable;

(j) listing-of rejection of bids, where applicable;

(k) decision of rejection of all bids where justifiable;

(I) recommendation for award; and

(m) writing up of the bid evaluation report.

(4) All relevant factors, in addition to price, that will be considered for the

purposes of bid evaluation and the manner in which such factors will be

applied shall be stipulated in the solicitation documents.

(5) Such factors shall be calculated in monetary terms as stipulated in the

solicitation documents and shall include:

(a) for goods, among others, costs of transportation and insurance, payment

schedule, delivery time, operating costs, efficiency, compatibility of the

equipment, availability of services and spare parts, related training, safety,

environmental benefits or losses by damages;

(b) for works, in addition to factors stipulated in Section 34 (1) of this Act,

and subject to Section 34 (2) of this Act, if time is a critical factor, the

value of early completion; and

Evaluation of bids

226

(c) the value of early completion under Section 35 (2) of this Act shall not be

taken into account unless, in conformity with criteria pre-set in the bidding

documents, the conditions of contract provide for commensurate penalties

in case of late delivery.

(6) When bid prices are expressed in two or more currencies, the ‘prices of

all bids shall be converted to Nigerian Currency, according to the rate and

date of rate specified in the solicitation documents.

(7) If suppliers were pre-qualified, verification provided in the submission for

pre-qualification shall be confirmed at the time of award of contract and

award may be denied to a bidder who no longer has the capability or

resources to-successfully perform the contract.

(8) After opening of bids, information relating to the

Examination, clarification and evaluation of bids and recommendations

concerning award shall not be disclosed to bidders or to persons not

officially concerned with the evaluation process until the successful bidder

is notified of the award.

33. (1) The successful bid shall be that submitted by the lowest Acceptance.

Acceptance cost bidder from the bidders responsive as to the bid of bid

solicitation.

(2) Notwithstanding subsection of this section, the

selected bidder needs not be the lowest cost bidder provided the procuring

entity can show good grounds derived from the provision of this Act to

that effect.

(3) Notice of the acceptance of the bid shall immediately be given to the

successful bidder.

34. (1) A procuring entity may grant a margin of preference

in the evaluation of tenders, when comparing tenders from

domestic bidders with those from foreign bidders or when comparing

tenders from domestic suppliers offering goods manufactured locally with

those offering goods manufactured abroad.

(2) Where a procuring entity intends to allow domestic preferences, the

bidding documents shall clearly indicate any preference to be granted to

domestic suppliers and contractors and the information required to

establish the eligibility of a bid for such preference.

Acceptance of bids

Domestic preferences

227

(3) Margins of preference shall apply only to tenders under international

competitive bidding.

(4) The Bureau shall by regulation form time to time set the limit and the

formulae for the computation of margins of preference and determine the

contents of goods manufactured locally.

35. (1) In addition to any other regulations as may be prescribed by the

Bureau, a mobilization fee of not more than 15% may be paid to a supplier

or contractor supported by the following:

(a) in the case of National Competitive Bidding-an unconditional bank

guarantee or insurance bond issued by an institution acceptable to the

procuring entity; and

(b) in the case of international Competitive Bidding-an Unconditional bank

guarantee issued by a banking Institution acceptable to the procuring

entity.

(2) Once a mobilization fee has been paid to any supplier or contractor, no

further payment shall be made to the supplier or contractor without an

interim performance certificate issued in accordance with the contract

agreement.

36. The provision of a Performance Guarantee shall be a Co precondition for

the award of any procurement contract upon which any mobilization fee is

to be paid, provided however it shall not be less than 10% of the contract

value in any case or an amount equivalent to the mobilization fee

requested by the supplier or contractor whichever is higher.

37. (1) Payment for the procurement of goods, works, and services shall be

settled promptly and diligently.

(2) Any payment due for more than sixty days from the date of the submission

of the invoice, valuation certificate or confirmation or authentication by

the Ministry, Extra-Ministerial Office, government agency, parastatal or

corporation shall be deem a delayed payment.

(3) All delayed payments shall attract interest at the rate specified in the

contract document.

(4) All contracts shall includes terms, specifying the interest for late payment

of more than sixty days.

Mobilization fees.

Contract performance granted

Interest on delay payment

228

38. (1) Every procuring entity shall maintain a record of the comprehensive

procurement proceedings.

(2) The portion of the records referred to in this Section shall, on request, be

made available to:

(a) any person after a tender; proposal, offer or quotation has been

accepted or after procurement contract; and

(b) suppliers, contractors or consultants that submitted tenders,

proposals, offers or quotations, or applied for prequalification,

after a tender, proposal, offer or quotation has been accepted or

procurement proceeding have been terminated without resulting in

a procurement contract

(3) A disclosure of procurement proceedings records, prior to’ award of

contract may be ordered by a court, provided that when ordered to do so

by a court, the procurement entity shall not disclose such information, if

its disclosure would:

(a) be contrary to law;

(B) impede law enforcement; or

(c) prejudice legitimate commercial interests of the parties.

(4) The procuring entity shall not be liable to suppliers, contractors or service

providers for damages owing solely to failure to maintain a record of the

procurement proceedings in accordance with this Section.

(5) The records and documents maintained by procuring entities on

procurement shall be made available for inspection -by the Bureau, an

investigator appointed by the Bureau and the Auditor General upon

request, and where donor funds have been used for procurement, donor

officials shall also have access upon request to procurement files for the

purpose of audit and review.

PART VII- SPECIAL AND RESTRICTED METHODS OF

PROCUREMENT

39. (1) notwithstanding the provisions of this Act, the

Bureau tendering may issue certificate of No Objection’ upon

conditions hereinafter prescribed.

Recorded payment proceedings.

Two stage tendering

229

(2) A procuring entity shall engage in procurement by two stage tendering:

(a) where it is not feasible for the procuring entity to formulate

detailed specifications for the goods or works or, in the case of

services, to identify their characteristics and where it seeks tenders,

proposals or offers on various means of meeting its needs in order

to obtain the most satisfactory solution to its procurement needs;

(b) where the character of the goods or works are subject to rapid

technological advances; where the procuring entity seeks to enter

into a contract for research, experiment, study or development,

except where the contract includes the production of goods in

sufficient quantities to establish’ their commercial viability or to

recover research and development costs, where the procuring

entity applies this Act to procurement concerned with national

security and determines that the selected method is the most

appropriate method of procurement; or

(c) where the tender proceedings have been utilized but were not

successful or the tenders were rejected by the procuring entity

under an open competitive bid procedure and the procuring entity

considers that engaging in new tendering proceedings will not

result in a procurement contract.

(3) The provisions of this Act as regards the process for open competitive

bidding shall apply to two-stage tendering proceedings except to the extent

that those provisions vary from this section.

(4) The invitation documents:

(a) shall call upon suppliers or contractors to submit, in the first stage of two-

stage tendering proceedings, initial tenders which contain their proposal

without a tender price; and.

(b) may solicit proposals that relate to technical, quality or other

characteristics of the goods, works or services as well as contractual terms

and conditions of supply and may stipulate the professional competence

and technical qualifications of the suppliers or contractors.

(5) The procuring entity may, In the first stage, engage in negotiations with

any supplier or contractor whose tender has not been rejected under an

230

open competitive bidding procedure with respect to any aspect of its

tender.

(6) In the second stage of the two tender proceedings the procuring entity:

(a) shall invite suppliers or contractors whose tenders have not been rejected

to submit final tenders with prices on a single set of specifications;

(b) may, in formulating the specifications, delete or modify any aspect of the

technical or quality characteristics of the goods, works or services to be

procured together with any criterion originally set out in these documents,

evaluate and compare tenders and ascertain the successful tender;

(c) may add new characteristics or criteria that conform with this Act;

(d) shall communicate to suppliers or contractors in the invitation to submit

firm tenders, any deletion, modification or addition; and

(e) may permit a supplier or contractor who does not wish to submit a final

tender to withdraw from the tendering proceedings.

(7) The final tenders shall be evaluated and compared in order to ascertain the

successful tender as defined in an open competitive bid.

40. (1) Subject to the approval by the Bureau, a procuring entity may for

reasons of economy and efficiency engage in procurement by means of

restricted tendering if:

(a) the goods, works or services are available only from a limited number of

suppliers or contractors;

(b) the time and cost required to examine and evaluate a large number of

tenders is disproportionate to the value of the goods, works or services to

procured; or

(c) the procedure is used as an exception rather than norm.

(2) Where a procuring entity engages in restricted tendering on the basis that:

(a) the good works and service are available only form a limited number of

suppliers or contractors, it shall invite tenders from all the suppliers and

contractors who can provide the goods, works or services; and

(b) the time and cost required to examine and evaluate a large number of

tenders is disproportionate to the value of the goods, works or service, it is

shall select in a non- discriminatory manner of the number of suppliers or

contractors to ensure effective competition;

Restricted tendering

231

(3) For the purposes of subsection (2), of this section, the procuring entity

shall cause a notice of the selected tendering proceedings to be publish in

the procurement journal.

(4) The provisions of this Act regarding the open competitive bidding

procedure shall apply to the selective tendering proceedings, except to the

extent that those provisions are varied by this Section.

41. (1) A procuring entity may carry out procurements by requesting for

quotations from suppliers or contractors where the value of the goods or

works to be procured does not exceed a sum that shall be set in the

procurement regulation.

(2) Generally quotations shall be obtained from at least 3 unrelated

contractors or suppliers.

(3) Each contractor or supplier from whom a quotation is requested shall:

(a) be informed whether any factors other than the charges for the goods,

works or services themselves, such as any applicable transportation and

insurance charges, customs duties and taxes are to be included in the price;

and

(b) give only one quotation and shall not be allowed to charge or vary the

quotation.

(4) No negotiation shall take place between a procuring entity and a

contractor or supplier with respect to quotation.

(5) The procurement shall be awarded to the qualified contractor or supplier

that gives the lowest priced responsive quotation.

(6) Where the total value of the procurement is not more than a sum that shall

be set In the regulation, the procurement entity may not obtain the

Bureau’s approval.

42. (1 ) A procuring entity may carry out any emergency procurement where:

(a) goods, works or services are only available from a particular supplier or

contractors, or if a particular supplier or contractor has exclusive rights In

Request for quotations

Direct procurement

232

respect of the goods, works or services, and no reasonable alternative or

substitute exits; or

(b) there is an urgent need for the goods, works or services and engaging in

tender proceedings or any other method of procurement is Impractical due

to unforeseeable circumstances giving rise to the urgency which is not the

result of dilatory conduct on the part of the procuring entity;

(c) owing to a catastrophic event, there is an urgent need for the goods, works

or services making it impractical to use other method of procurement

because of the time Involved In using those methods;

(d) a procuring entity which has procured goods,

equipment, technology or services from a supplier

or contractor, determines that:

(i) additional supplies need to be procured from that supplier or contractor

because of standardization,

(ii) there is a need for compatibility with existing goods, equipment,

technology or services, taking into account the effectiveness of the

original procurement in meeting the need of the procurement entity,

(iii) the limited size of the procurement in relation to the original procurement

provides justification,

(iv) the reasonableness of the price and the unsuitability of alternatives to the

goods or services in question merits the decision.

(e) the procuring entity seeks to enter into a contract with the supplier or

contractor for research, experiment, study or development, except where

the contract includes the production of goods in qualities to establish

commercial viability or recover research and development costs; or

(f) the procuring entity applies this Act for procurement that concerns

national security, and determines that single-source procurement is the

most appropriate method of procurement.

(2) The procuring entity:

(a) may procure the good, works or services by inviting a proposal or price

quotation from a single supplier or contractor.

(b) shall include in the record of procurement proceedings a statement of the

grounds for its decision and the circumstances in justification of single

source procurement.

Emergency procurement

233

43. (1) A procuring entity may for the purpose of this Act, carry out an

emergency procurement where:

(a) the country is either seriously threatened by or actually confronted with a

disaster, catastrophe, war, insurrection or Act of God;

(b) the condition or quality of goods, equipment, building or publicly owned

capital goods may seriously deteriorate unless action is urgently and

necessarily taken to maintain them in their actual value or

usefulness; or

(c) a public project may be seriously delayed for want of an item of a minor

value.

(2) In an emergency situation, a procuring entity may engage in direct

contracting of goods, works and services.

(3) All procurement made under emergencies shall be handled with

expedition but along principles of accountability, due consideration being

given to the gravity of each emergency.

(4) Immediately after the cessation of the situation warranting any emergency

procurement, the procuring entity shall file a detailed report thereof with

the Bureau which shall verify same and if appropriate issue a Certificate of

No Objection’.

PART VIII-PROCUREMENT OF CONSULTANT (SERVICES)

44. Where a procuring entity wishes to procure services for Its needs which

are precise and ascertainable:

(a) it shall solicit for expressions of interest or applications to pre-qualify to

provide the services by publishing a notice to that effect in at least 2

national newspapers and the procurement journal;

(b) where the value of the service to be procured is less than one million naira,

or with the approval of the Bureau, of such a low value that only national

consultants would be Interested, the procuring entity may without placing

any notice request at least 3 and not more than 10 consultants or service

providers to make proposal for the provision of the services in a format

stipulating:

(i) a statement of qualifications of the consultant to provide the service;

(ii) a statement of understanding of the procuring entity’s needs;

(iii) the methodology for providing the service;

(iv) the time frame for providing the service; and

(v) the cost or fee for the service.

Expression of interest to provide services for ascertained needs.

234

45. (1) A procuring entity wishing to procure service for ib needs may do so

by requesting for proposals when it intends to enter into a contract for the

purpose of research, experiment, study or development, except where the

contract includes the production of goods in quantities sufficient to

establish their commercial viability or to recover research and

development cost.

(2) The procuring entities shall procure the services of consultants by

soliciting for expressions of interest by publishing a notice to that effect in

2 national newspapers and the procurement journal.

(3) A procuring entity may make direct request to a limited number of

consultants, requesting proposals for the provision of a service if:

(a) the services are only available from no more than 3 consultants;

(b) the time and cost required to examine and evaluate a large number of

proposals would be disproportionate to the value of the services to be

performed, provided that it invites enough consultants to ensure

transparent competition; or

(c) it is in the interest of national defense and security or similar reason of

confidentiality.

46 (1) Request for proposals shall include:

(a) the name and address of the procurement entity;

(b) a requirement that the proposal are to be prepared in the English language;

(c) the manner, place and deadline for the submission of proposals;

(d) a statement to the effect that the procuring entity reserves the right to

reject proposal;

(e) the criteria and procedures for the evaluation of the qualifications of the

consultants;

(f) the requirements on documentary evidence or other information that shall

be submitted by consultants to demonstrate their qualifications;

(g) the nature and required characteristics of the services to be procured

including the location where the services are to be provided and the time

when the services are to be provided;

(h) whether the procuring entity is seeking proposals on various possible ways

of meeting Its needs;

(i) a requirement that the proposal price-is to be expressed in Nigeria

currency;

Request for proposal to provide services for unascertained needs.

Content of the requests for proposal

235

(j) the manner in which the proposal price is to be expressed, including a

statement on whether the price covers elements apart form the cost of

services, such as reimbursement for transportation, lodging, insurance, use

of equipment, duties or taxes;

(k) whether the procedure to ascertain the successful proposal shall be based

on the lowest cost -or quality and cost or a combination of the lowest cost,

quality and criteria other than cost but stipulated in the request for

proposals; and

(I) a short list to be made of only national consultants for consulting

assignment, contract within a set threshold in the procurement regulation

provided that national consultants possess such requisite skills

(2) The procuring entity shall provide the same information to every

consultant requested to submit proposals.

47. (1) A consultant shall be allowed to request for clarification on the request

from the procuring entity and such request may be made within a

reasonable time to be specified.

(2) A procuring entity may, whether on its initiative or as a result of a request

for clarification by a consultant, modify the request for proposal by issuing

an addendum at any time prior to the deadline for submission of proposals.

(3) The addendum shall be communicated promptly before the deadline for

the submission of proposals to the short listed consultants to whom the

procuring entity has provided the request for proposals and shall be

binding on those consultants.

(4) If the procuring entity convenes meeting m consultants, it shall prepare

minutes of the meeting containing the issues submitted at the meeting for

clarification of the request for proposal and its responses to those issues,

without identifying the sources of the requests for clarifications.

(5) The minutes shall be provided promptly before the deadline for the

submission of proposals to the consultants participating in the selection

proceedings to enable them takes the minutes into account in preparing

their proposal.

48. (1) The procuring entity shall allow sufficient time for the preparation and

submission of the request proposals but shall in no case give less than 30

Clarification and modification of requests for proposal

Criteria for evaluation of proposal.

236

days between the issue of the notice or request and the deadline for

submission.

(2) The technical and financial proposals shall be submitted simultaneously

but in separation envelopes.

(3) A proposal received after the deadline for submission of proposals shall be

returned to the sender unopened.

(4) Immediately after the deadline for submission of proposals, the technical

proposals shall be opened for evaluation whilst the financial proposals

shall remain sealed and kept in a secure bid-box until they are opened

publicly.

(5) The technical evaluation committee shall not have access to or insights to

the financial proposals until the evaluations including any Tender Boards

review are concluded.

49. (1) The procuring entity shall establish criteria to evaluate the proposals

and prescribe the relative weight to be accorded to each criterion and the

manner in which they are ü be applied in the evaluation of:

(a) the qualification experience reliability professional and managerial

competence of the consultant oi service provider and m the personnel to be

involved in providing the services;

(b) the effectiveness of the proposal submitted by the consultant or service

provider in meeting the need of the procuring entity;

(c) the proposal price, including any ancillary or related

cost;

(d) the effect that the acceptance of the proposal will have on the balance of

payments position and foreign reserves of the government, the extent of

participation by local personnel, the economic development potential

offered by the proposal, including domestic investment or other business

activity, the encouragement of employment, the transfer of technology the

development of managerial, scientific and operational skills and the

counter trade arrangements offered by consultant or service providers; and

(e) national defence and security considerations.

Submission of proposal

237

(2) A procuring entity may accord a margin of preference for domestic

consultants or service providers, which shall be calculated in accordance

with the regulations and guidelines as issued from time to time by the

Bureau and shall be reflected in the record of the procurement

proceedings.

50. (1) The procuring entity shall select the successful proposal by either

choosing the proposal with: the lowest evaluated price, or

(ii) the best combined evaluation in terms of the general criteria set out in the

request for proposals and the price quoted.

(2) The procuring entity shall include in the record procurement a statement

of the grounds and circumstances on which it relied to select either of the

procedures in subsection (1) of this section.

(3) Nothing in this Section shall prevent the procuring entity from resorting to

the use of any impartial panel of experts to make the selection.

51. (1) Where the procuring entity elects to choose the successful proposal

based on technical and price factors, it shall establish a weight with

respect to quality and technical price factors of the proposals in

accordance with the criteria other than price as might have been set out in

the request for proposals and rate each proposal in accordance with the

such criteria and the relative weight and manner of application of the

criteria as stipulated in the request for proposals; and then

(2) The procuring entity shall compare the prices of those proposal that have

attained a rating at or above the threshold;

(3) The procuring entity shall notify the consultants whose proposal did not

meet the minimum qualifying mark or were non responsive to the

invitation for proposals and terms of reference : after the evaluation of

quality is completed within a period of 14 working days after decision has

been taken by the procurement entity;

(4) The name of the qualifying consultants, the quality scores for the technical

component of the proposal shall be read aloud and recorded alongside the

General selection procedure (services)

Procedure for selection of proposal where price is a factor.

238

price proposed by each consultant or service provider when the financial

proposals are opened;

(5) The procuring entity shall prepare the minute of public opening of

financial proposals which shall be part of the evaluation report and shall

retain this record.

(6) The successful proposal shall be:

(a) the proposal with the best combined evaluation in terms of the criteria

established under subsection (1) of this section from price in the case of

quality and cost-based selection;

(b) the proposal with the lowest price in the case of least-cost selection; or

(c) the highest ranked technical proposal within the budget.

(7) The Consultants with the winning proposal shall be invited for

negotiations, which shall focus mainly on the technical proposals.

(8) The proposed unit rates for staff-months d reimbursable shall not be

negotiated unless there exceptional reasons.

52. (1) Where the procuring entity elects to make a quality based selection,

based on consultant’s qualifications or single source selection, it shall

engage. in negotiations with consultants in accordance with this Section.

(2) The procurement entity shall:

(i) established a weight with respect to quality and price of the proposals;

(ii) invite for negotiations on the price of its proposal, the Consultant that has

attained the best rating in accordance with subsection (1) of this Section;

(iii) inform the Consultants that attained ratings above the weight that may be

considered for negotiations with the consultant with the best rating do not

result in a procurement contract; and

(iv) inform the Consultant with the best rating, that it is terminating the

negotiations if it becomes apparent to the procuring entity that the

negotiations with that Consultant, invited under subsection (b), will not

result in a procurement contract.

(3) The procuring entity shall, if negotiations with the consultant with the best

rating fails, invite the Consultant that obtained the second best rating, and

if the negotiations with that Consultant do not result in a procurement

contract, the procuring entity shall invite the other suppliers or contractors

Selection procedure where price is not a factor

239

for negotiations on the basis of their rating until it arrives at a contract or

rejects the remaining proposals.

(4) The procuring entity shall treat proposals and any negotiations on

selection procedure as confidential and avoid the disclosure of their

contents to competing consultants.

PART IX - PROCUREMENT SURVEILLANCE AND REVIEW

53. (1) The Bureau may review and recommend for investigation by any

relevant authority any matter related to conduct of procurement

proceedings by a procuring entity, or the conclusion or operation of a

procurement contract If it considers that a criminal investigation Is

necessary or desirable to prevent or detect a contravention of this Act.

(2) The relevant authority may in the course of investigation:

(a) require an officer, employee or agent of the procuring entity or bidder,

supplier, contractor, or consultant to produce any books, records, accounts

or documents;

(b) search premises for any books, records, accounts or documents;

(c) examine and make extracts from and copies of books, records, accounts or

documents of any procuring entity, bidder, supplier, contractor or

consultant

(d) remove books, records accounts or documents of the procuring entity,

bidder, supplier, contractor or consultant for as long as may be necessary

to examine them or make extracts from or copies of them but the

investigator shall give detailed receipt for the books records, accounts or

documents removed;

(e) require an officer, employer or agent of the procurement entity or bidder,

supplier, or contractor or consultant:

(i) to explain an entry in the books, records, accounts or documents:

(ii) to provide the investigator with information concerning the

management or activities of the procurement entity or bidders as

may be reasonably required;

(f) explain an entry in the books, records, accounts or documents and

(g) provide the investigator with information concerning the management or

activities of the procurement entity or bidders as may be reasonably

required.

Bureau to recommend investigation

240

(3) The Bureau may, pursuant to the advice of the procuring entity, results of

its review of a procurement or report of investigation by a relevant

government agency issue a variation order requiring a contractor at his

own expense to repair, replace, or to do anything in his her contract left

undone or found to have been carried our with Inferior or defective

materials or with less skill and expertise than required by the contract of

award.

(4) The Bureau shall, if satisfied that there has been a contravention of this

Act or any regulations in relation to procurement proceedings or

procurement contracts, take action to rectify the contravention which

action shall include:

(a) nullification of the procurement proceedings;

(b) cancellation of the procurement contract;

(c) ratification of anything done in relation to the proceedings; or

(d) a declaration consistent with any relevant provisions of this Act.

(5) On completion of the investigation, the relevant authority shall if an

offence is disclosed, take all necessary steps to commence prosecution and

inform the Bureau and the procurement entity accordingly, but where no

offence is disclosed, the file shall be dosed and the Bureau and procuring

entity shall be duly informed.

54. (1) A bidder may seek administrative review for any or breach by a

procuring or disposing entity under the provisions of this Act, or any

regulations or guidelines made under this Act or the provisions of bidding

documents.

(2) A complaint by a bidder against a procuring or disposing entity shall first

be submitted in writing to the accounting officer who shall:

(a) within fifteen working days from the date the bidder first became aware of

the circumstances giving rise to the complaint or should have become

aware of the circumstances, whichever is earlier;

(b) on reviewing a complaint, the accounting officer shall make a decision in

writing within 15 worki1g’ days indicating the corrective measures to be

taken if any, including the suspension of the proceedings where he deems

it necessary and giving reasons for his decision; or

Administrative review

241

(c) where the accounting officer does not make a decision within the period

specified in sub-Section (2) (b).

(3) The bidder is not satisfied with the decision of the accounting officer the

bidder may make a complaint to the Bureau within 10 working days from

the date of communication of the decision of the accounting officer.

(4) Upon receipt of a complainant, the Bureau shall promptly:

(a) give notice of the complaint to the respective procuring or

disposing entity and suspend any further action by the procuring or

disposing entity until the Bureau has settled the matter;

(b) unless it dismisses the complaint:

(ii) nullify in whole or in part an unlawful act or decision made by the

procuring or disposing entity;

(iii) declare the rules or principles that govern the subject matter of the

complaint; and

(iv) revise an improper decision by the procuring or disposing entity or

substitute its own decision for such a decision.

(5) Before taking any decision on a complaint, the Bureau shall notify all

interested bidders of the complaint and may take into account

representations from bidders and from the respective procuring or

disposing entity.

(6) The Bureau shall make its decision within twenty- one working days after

receiving the complaint, stating the reasons for its decisions and remedies

granted, if any.

(7) Where the Bureau fails to render its decision within the stipulated time, or

the bidder is not satisfied with decision of the Bureau, the bidder may

appeal to the Federal High Court within 30 days after the receipt of the

decision of the Bureau, or expiration of the time stipulated for the Bureau

to deliver a decision.

PART X- DISPOSAL OF PUBLIC PROPERTY

55. (1) This Section shall apply subject to the Public

Enterprise (Commercialization and Commercialization) Act 1999.

Disposal of public property

242

(2) For the purpose of this Act every procuring entity shall also be disposing

entity

(3) The open competitive bidding shall be primary source of. receiving offers

for the purchase of any public property offered for sale.

(4) The Bureau shall, with the approval of the Council:

(a) determine the applicable policies and practices in relation to the disposal

of all public property;

(b) issue guidelines detailing operational principles and organizational

modalities to be adopted by all procuring entities engaged in the disposal

of public property; and

(c) issue standardized document, monitor implementations enforce

compliance and set reporting standards that shall be used by all procuring

entities involved in disposal of public property.

(5) For the purposes of this Act, public property is defined as resources in the

form of tangible and non-tangible assets (ranging from serviceable to the

unserviceable):

(a) created through public expenditure; (b)acquired as a gift or through deeds;

(c) acquired in respect of intellectual or proprietary rights:

(d) acquired on financial instruments (including shares, stocks bonds etc.) and

(e) acquired by good will and any other gifts of the Federal Government.

(6) The means of the disposal of public assets shall include:

(a) sale and rental;

(b) lease and hire purchase;

(c) licenses and tenancies;

(d) franchise and auction;

(e) transfers from one government department to another with or without

financial adjustments; and

(f) Offer to the public at an authorized variation.

56 (1) Before slating any public property for disposal, the accounting officer

(Whether acting in his own authority or at the direction of any superior or

other authority (in charge of any public property set for disposal shall

authorize the preparation of a valuation report for such property by an

independent Evaluator, or such professional with the appropriate

competence to carry out the valuation

(2) The disposal of assets whether or not listed in the Assets register for a

procuring entity shall be planned and integrated into the income and

expenditure budget projection of the procuring entity.

Planning of disposal

243

(3) The disposal of assets referred to in subsection (2) of this section shall be

timed to take place when the most advantageous returns can be obtained

for the asset in order to maximize revenue accruing to the government.

(4) All procuring entities shall distribute responsibilities for the public

property between the procurement unit and the Tenders Boards.

PART XI- CODE OF CONDUCT

57 (1) The Bureau shall, with the approval of the Council, stipulated a Code

of Conduct for all public officers, suppliers, contractors and service

providers with regards to their standards of conduct acceptable in matter

involving the procurement and , disposal of public assets.

(2) The conduct of all persons involved with public procurement, whether as

official of the Bureau, a procuring entity, supplier, contractor or service

provider shall at all times be governed by principles of honesty,

accountability, transparency, fairness and equity.

(3) All officers of the bureau, members of Tenders Boards and other persons

that may come to act regarding the conduct of public procurements shall

subscribe to an oath as approved by Council.

(4) All persons in whose hands public funds may be entrusted for whatever

purpose should bear in mind that its utilization should be judicious.

(5) Where a transaction involves the disposal of assets, principles of honesty,

accountability, transparency, fairness and I equity shall continue to apply

to the same extents as where it I involves procurement.

(6) These principles shall apply at all times, particularly when:

(a) making requisition for or planning of procurements;

(b) preparing solicitation documents;

(c) receiving offers in response to any form of solicitation towards a

procurement or disposal;

(d) evaluating and comparing offers confidentially and in complete neutrality;

(e) protecting the interest of all parties without fear or favour; and

Code of conduct for public procurement

244

(f) obviating all situations likely to render an officer vulnerable to

embarrassment or undue influence.

(7) All public officers shall handle public procurement and disposal of assets

by:

(a) ensuring adequate time for preparing offers;

(b) complying with this Act and all derivative regulations; and

(c) receiving strict confidentiality until completion of a contract.

(8) All public officers involved in public procurement and disposal of assets

shall maintain the highest standards of ethics in their relationships with

persons real or corporate who seek government commerce whether as a

bidder, supplier, contractor or service provider by developing transparent,

honest and professional relationships with such persons.

(9) Every public officer involved directly or indirectly in matters of public

procurement and disposal of assets shall:

(a) divest himself of any interest or relationships which are actually or

potentially inimical or detrimental to the best interest of government and

the underlining principles of this Act; and

(b) not engaging or participate in any commercial transaction involving the

federal government, its ministries, extra- ministerial departments,

corporations where his capacity as public officer is likely to confer any

unfair advantage - pecuniary or otherwise on him or any person directly

related to him.

(10) Any person engaged in the public procurement and disposal of assets who

has assumed, or is about to assume, a financial or other business outside

business relationship that might involves a conflict of interest, must

immediately declare to the authorities any actual or potential interest

(11) Such a declaration shall be given such consideration at the relevant level

as is necessary so that, where it is seen that remedial action is taken, a

conflict of interest is present.

(12) A conflict of interest exists where a person:

(a) possesses an interest outside his official duties that materially encroaches

on the time or attention which should otherwise be devoted to affairs of

government

245

(b) possesses a direct or Indirect interest in or relationship with a bidder,

supplier, contractor or service provider that is inherently

Unethical or that may be implied or constructed to be, or make possible

personal gain due to the person’s ability to influence dealings;

(c) entertains relationships which are unethical, rendering his attitude partial

toward the outsider for personal reasons or otherwise inhibit the

impartiality of the person’s business judgments;

(d) places by acts or omissions the procuring entity he represents or the

Government in an equivocal, embarrassing or ethically questionable

position;

(e) entertains relationships compromising the reputation or integrity of the

procuring entity he represents or the Government;

(f) receives benefits by ,taking personal advantage of an opportunity that

properly belongs to the procuring entity he represents or the Government;

(g) creates a source of personal revenue or advantage by. using public

property which comes into his hands either in course of his work or

otherwise; and

(h) disclose confidential information being either the: property of his

procuring entity, the Government or to a I supplier, contractor or service

provider to unauthorized persons.

(13) A persons involved in the disposal of assets, shall not either by a third

party or by himself be interested in any manner buying directly or

indirectly these assets and shall not have or obtain any type of advantage

or revenue from the disposal for a period of three years after the disposal.

58. (1) Any natural person not being a public officer who contravenes any

provision of this commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a term

of imprisonment not less than 5 calendar years but not exceeding 10

calendar years without an option of fine.

(2) Any 6ffence in contravention of this Act shall be tried by the Federal High

Court.

(3) Prosecution of offences under this Act shall be instituted in the name of

the Federal Republic of Nigeria by the Attorney General of the Federation

Office relating to public procurement

246

or such other officer of the Federal Ministry of Justice as he may authorize

so to do, and in addition, without prejudice to the Constitution of the

Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999, he may:

(a) after consultation with the Attorney-General of any state of the federation,

authorize the Attorney-General or any other officer of the Ministry of

Justice of that state; or

(b) if the relevant authority so requests, authorize any legal practitioner in

Nigeria to undertake such prosecution directly or assist therein.

(4) The following shall also constitute offences under this Act.

(a) entering or attempting to enter into a collusive agreement, whether

enforceable or not, with a supplier; contractor or consultant where the

prices quoted in their respective tenders, proposals or quotations are or

would be higher than would have been the case has there not been

collusion between the persons concerned;

(b) conducting or attempting to conduct procurement fraud by means of

fraudulent and corrupt acts, unlawful influence, undue interest, favor;

agreement, bribery or corruption;

(c) directly, indirectly or attempting to influence in any manner the

procurement process to obtain an unfair advantage in the award of a

procurement contract;

(d) splitting of tenders to enables the evasion of monetary thresholds set;

(e) bid-rigging;

(f) altering any procurement document with the intent to influence the

outcome of a tender proceeding;

(g) uttering or using fake document or encouraging their use; and

(h) willful refusal to allow the Bureau or its officers to have access to any

procurement records.

(5) Any person who while carrying out his duties as an officer of the Bureau,

or any procuring entity who contravenes any provision of this officer of

the Bureau, or any procuring entity who contravenes any provision of this

Act commits an offence and is liable, on conviction to a cumulative

punishment of:

(a) a term of imprisonment of not less than 5 calendar years without any

option of fine; and

(B) summary dismissal from government services.

247

(6) Any legal person that contravenes any provision of this commits an

offence and is liable on conviction to a cumulative penalty of:

(a) debarment from all public procurements for a period of not less than 5

calendar years; and

(b) a fine equivalent to 25% of the value of the procurement in issue.

(7) Where any legal person shall be convicted pursuant to subsection (4) of

this section, every director of the company as listed in its records at the

Corporate Affairs Commission shall be guilty of an offence and is liable

on conviction to a term of imprisonment not less than 3 calendar years but

not exceeding 5 years without an option of fine.

(8) An alternation pursuant to subsection 4(f) shall include:

(b) insertion of documents such as bid security or tax clearance certificate

which were not submitted at bid opening; and

(c) request for clarification in a manner not permitted under this Act.

(9) Collusion shall be presumed from a set of acts from which it can be

assumed that there was an understanding, implicit, formal or informal,

overt or covert under which each person involved reasonably expected that

the other would adopt a particular course of action which would interfere

with the faithful and proper application of the provisions of this Act.

(10) Bid-rigging pursuant to subsection 4 (e) means an agreement between

persons whereby:

(a) offers submitted have been pre-arranged between them; or

(b) their conduct has had the effect of directly or indirectly restricting free and

open competition, distorting the competitiveness of the procurement

process and leading to an escalation or increase in costs or loss of value to

the national treasury.

(11) For the purpose of the presumption under Section 51(7) of this section,

consideration shall be given to a suspect’s ability to control the

procurement proceedings or to control a solicitation or the conditions of

the contract ih question, whether total or partial.

(12) For the purposes of Section 59(5) of this section, its hall be sufficient to

prove that a reasonable business person should have known that his action

248

would result in his company or’ firm having an undue advantage over

other bidders to the detriment of the national treasury.

PART XIII – MISCELLANEOUS

59. (1) The fixing of the seal or the Bureau shall be authenticated by the

signature of the Chairman, the Director- General or of any other person

authorized generally or specially to act for purpose by the Council.

(2) Any contract or instrument which, if made or executed by a person not

being a body corporate, would not be required to be under seal may be

made or executed on behalf of the Bureau by the Director-General or any

person generally or specially authorized to act for that purpose by the

Council.

(3) Any document purporting to be document duly executed under the seal of

the Bureau shall be received in evidence and shall, unless and until the

contrary is proved, be presumed to be so executed.

(4) The validity of any proceeding of Council or of a committee thereof shall

not be adversely affected by any vacancy in the membership of the

Council or committee, or by any defect in the appointment of a member of

the Councilor of a committee, or by reason that a person not entitled to do

so took Part in the proceedings of the Council or Committee.

60. In this Act:

“Accounting officers means the person charged with line supervision of

the conduct of all procurement processes;

“Accounting authority it means the person charged with overall

responsibility for the functioning of a ministry, extra ministerial

department or corporation;

“Assets” includes tangible and Intangible things which have been or may

be sold or procured for consideration;

“Bid security” means a form of time specified in the bid;

“Deba” means the placing of a firm company or natural person on a list of

person ineligible to participate in any procurement proceedings under this

Act;

Miscellaneous

Interpretation

249

“Certificate of No Objection” means the document evidencing and

authenticating that due process and the letters of this Act have been

followed in the conduct or effect payments to contractors suppliers from

the Treasury;

“Contractor or supplier” means any potential party to a procurement contract

with the procuring entity and includes any corporation, partnership, individual,

sole proprietor, joint stock company, joint venture or any other legal entity

through which business is conducted;

“Excessive price” means a monetary value proposed by a bidder for any

procurement which Is in the estimation of the Bureau unreasonable and

injudicious after consideration of the actual value of the item in question plus all

reasonable imputations of cost and profit;

“Goods” means objects of every kind and description including raw materials,

products and equipment and objects in solid, liquid or gaseous ‘form and

electricity as well as service incidental to the supply of the goods;

“Interim Performance Certificates” means evidence that a contractor or supplier

as performed its obligations under procurement contract up to a level stipulated by

the contractor but not meaning completion;

“International Competitive Bidding” means the solicitation of bids from both

domestic and foreign contractors and suppliers;

“Lowest evaluated responsive bid” is the lowest price bid amongst the bids that

meets all the technical requirements and standard as contained in the tender

document;

“Margin Of Preference” means the extra mark up on price allowed any domestic

contractor or supplier bidding under International Competitive Bidding without

being otherwise disadvantageous to the terms of price;

“Minor Value” means a monetary value which is not in excess of the monetary

thresholds set for any approving authority by the Bureau;

“Monetary Threshold” means the value limit in Naira set by the Bureau outside

of which an approving authority may not award a procurement contract;

250

“National Competitive Bidding” means the solicitation of bids from domestic

contractors and suppliers registered or incorporated to carry on business under

Nigeria Law;

“Negotiation” means discussions to determine the terms and conditions

of a contract or procurement;

“Open Competitive Bidding” means the offer of prices by individuals or firm

competing for a contract, privilege or right to supply specified goods, works,

construction or services;

“Procurement” means acquisition;

“Procurement proceedings” means the initiation of the process of effecting a

procurement up to award of a procurement contract;

“Procuring entity” means any public body engaged in procurement and includes

a Ministry, Extra-Ministerial office, government agency, parastatal and

corporation;

“Public Procurement” means the acquisition by any means o; goods, works, or

services by the government;

“Relevant authority” includes Economic and Financial Crimes Commission and

Independent Corrupt Practices Commission;

“Services” means the rendering by a contractor or supplier of his time and effort

and includes any object of procurement other than goods, works or construction;

“Solicitation Documents” means the bid solicitation documents or any other

documents for solicitation of offers proposals or quotations;

“Special Purpose Goods” means any objects of armaments ammunition

mechanical electrical equipment or other thing as may be determined by the

President needed by the Armed Forces or Police Force as well as the services

incidental to the supply of the objects;

251

“Substantially Responsive” means the response to bid solicitations which virtually

answers to all needs of a procuring entity as stipulated in the bid solicitation

documents;

“Supplier” means a real or legal person that provides supply of goods,

contracting of works or consultants;

“Threshold” refers only to the approving and not the actual process of ward;

“Validity Period” means the period during which a bidder agrees not to increase

the cost of bids or to remove any components of the bid;

“Works” means all works associated with the construction, reconstruction,

demolition, repair or renovation of a building, structure or works, such as site

preparation, excavation of a building, Installation of equipment or materials,

decoration and finishing, as well as service incidental to construction such as

drilling, mapping, satellite photography, seismic investigation and similar services

provided pursuant to the procurement of contract, where the value of those

services does not exceed that of the construction itself;

title 61. This Act may be cited as the Public Procurement Acts, 2007. I certify, in

accordance with section 2 (1) of the Acts Authentication Act, cap. 4, Laws of the

federation of Nigeria 1990, that this is a true copy of the Bill passed by both

House of the National Assembly.

NASIRU IBRAHIM ARAB,

Clerk to the National Assembly

1” Day of June, 2007.

EXPLANATORY MEMORANDUM

This Act establishes the National Council on Public Procurement and the Bureau of

Public Procurement as the regulatory authorities responsible for the monitoring and

oversight of public procurement, harmonizing the existing government policies and

practices by regulating, setting standards and developing the legal framework and

professional capacity for Public Procurement in Nigeria.

252

SCHEDULE TO FEDERAL PROCUREMENT BILL 2007

I certify that this Bill has been carefully compared by me with the decision reached by the National Assembly and found by me to be

true and correct decision of the Houses and is in accordance with the provisions of the Acts Authentication Act Cap. 4, Laws of the

Federation of Nigeria, 1990.

NASIRU IBRAHIM ARAB,

Clerk to the National Assembly

1st Day of June, 2007

ALHAJI UMARU MUSA YAR’ADUA, GCFR

prescdent of the Federal Republic of Nigeria

4th Day of June, 2007.

1)

Short title of

the public

procurement

ill, 2007.

(2)

Long title of the Bill

An Act to establish the National

council on public procurement and the

Bureau of Public procurement as the

regulatory authorities responsible for

the monitoring and oversight of public

procurement, harmonizing the existing

Government policies and practices by

regulating, setting standards and

developing the legal framework and

professional capacity for public

procurement In Nigeria: and

(3)

Summary of the contents of the Bill

This 8111 establishes the National

Council on public procurement and the

Bureau on Public procurement as the

regulatory authorities responsible for the

monitoring and oversight of public

procurement, harmonizing the existing

Government policies and practices by

regulating, setting standards and

developing the legal framework and

professional capacity for public

procurement in Nigeria.

(4)

Date passed

by the

Senate

17th May,

2007.

(5)

Date passed by

the House of

Representatives

30th May, 2007.

253

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adeyemo, O.A. (1989), Oyo State Senior Policy Seminar on Budgeting,

Ibadan: NCEMA National Seminar Report.

Adubi, A.A. and Obioma, E.C. (1999), “Public Expenditure Management in

Nigeria”, edited by Komolafe, O.S; Jalilian, H, and Hiley, M. in

Fiscal Policy Planning and Management in Nigeria, Ibadan:

NCEMA.

Addison, D. and Wodon, Q. (2007), “Macroeconomic Volatility, Private

Investment, Growth, and Poverty in Nigeria”, Munich Personal

RePEc Archive: Online at http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/11113/

Ajayi, S.I. (2002), “The 2002 Federal Government Budget, Some Remarks”.

The CBN Bullion,Vol.26.No.2. April/June.

Akinkugbe, A. (2004), “Budget Implementation and National

Development: The Way Forward”, The Nigerian Accountant,

ICAN Journal, Vol.37, No.2, April/June.

Akpan, H.E and Ndebbio, J.E. (1996), “Fiscal Operations in a

DepressedEconomy: Nigeria: 1960-90”, African Economic

Research Consortium.

Alade, S.O. (2003), “Fiscal Adjustment in Nigeria: Issues in Capital

Expenditure”, CBN Bullion, Vol.27, No.2.

Anyafo, A.M.O. (1996), Public Finance in a Developing Economy.

The Nigeria Case, Enugu: Banking and Finance, UNEC.

Anyanwu, J.C., Oyefusi, A. and Oaikhenan, H. (1997), The

structure of the Nigeria Economy (1960-1997)

Ayodele, O.S. and Obafemi, F.N. (2004), “Channels Through which

Parallel Market Exchange Premium Affect Economic Growth in

Nigeria”. AERC, April.

Agiobenebo, T.T. (1998) Public Sector Economics: Theories, Issues, and

Applications, 2nd

edition, Port Harcourt: Lima Computers.

254

Aigbokam, B.E. (1997), “Fiscal Decentralization, Wagner’s Law and

Government Size: The Nigeria Experience”. Journal of Economic

Management, 4 (2) June.

Asika, N. (2001), Research Methodology in Behavioural Science, Lagos:

Longman, Nigeria Plc.

Ahmad, I. (2009), “Role of Public Expenditure and macroeconomic

Uncertainly in Determining Private Investment in large scale

Manufacturing sector of Pakistan”, International Research Journal

of Finance and Economics, Issue 26.

Barro, R.J. (1991), “Economic Growth in A Gross Section of

Countries”, The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol.52,

Balassa, B. (1978), “Exports and economic growth: further

evidence,” Journal of Development Economics 5: June.

Barro, R. (1989), “Economic growth in a cross section of countries.”

NBER Working Paper 3120 Cambridge, Mass: National Bureau of

Economic Research.

Buhari, A.L. (1993), ICAN/Polytechnic Public Finance, Ilorin:

University Press.

Castles, F. and Dowrick, S. (1988), “The Impact of Government

Spending Levels on Medium-Term Economic Growth in the

OECD, 1960-85.” Discussion Paper 199 Australian National

University.

Colliac, S. and Djistera, A.A. (2006), The Effect of Procyclical Public

spending on Economic Growth: An Application to Education in

latin American, University Montesquieu Bordeaux iv

Constantinos, A. (2009), Government Spending and

Economic Growth: Econometric Evidence from the South

Eastern Europe (SEE)

255

Journal of Economic and Social Research, 11(1) 1-16

Demirguc-Kunt, A. and Levine, R. (1996), “Stock Market

Development and Financial Intermediaries. Stylized Facts”, The

World Bank Economic Review, Vol.10. No.2

Diamond, J. (1990), “Fiscal Indicators for Economic Growth; An

Illusory Search” IMF Working Paper (August).

Diamond, J. (1989). “Government expenditure and economic

growth: an empirical investigation.” WP/89/45, International

Monetary Fund.

Dornbusch, R. and Reynoso, A. (1989) “Financial

factors in economic development.” American Economic Review,

May.

Easterly, W. (1990),“Endogenous growth in developing countries

with government- induced distortions.” Unpublished, World Bank;

August.

Ezekwesili, O. (2004), Due Process: History, Functions, Organisation

and Features, The Journal of Certified National Accountant

ANAN, July- December

Ezirim, C.B. (2006), Explaining the Size of Public Expenditure in Less

Developed Countries: Theory and Empirical Evidence from Nigeria,

Journal of Banking and Finance, UNEC, Vol.6

Ezirim, B.C., Muoghalu, M.L. and Elike, U. (2008), Inflation versus

Public Expenditure Growth in the US: An Empirical Investigation,

North American Journal of Financial Banking Research, vol.2 No.2

Ejaz, G. And Musleh-Ud D. (2006), The Impact of Public

Investment on Economic Growth in Pakistan, The Pakistan

Development Review 45 : 1

Fajingbesi, A.A. and Odusola, A.F. (1999), Public Expenditure and

Growth, Ibadan: NCEMA

256

Fortune, P. (1998), “Mutual Funds Part 11: Fund Flows and Security

Returns”, New England Economic Review.

Ferguso, S.P., (2006),” Public and Quasi-Public Expenditure and

Economic Sustainability in the High-Risk Palestinian Economy,”

Graduate Faculty of Economics, New School University

Fabrizio, C., Patrizio T.and Emilio, C. (2007), Public Expenditure and

Growth volatility: Do "globalization" and institutions matter, United

Nations Economic Commission for Africa, University of Milan –

Bicocca.

Ghani, E. and Musleh-ud, D.(2006), “The Impact of Public Investment

On Economic Growth in Pakistan”, The Pakistan Development

Review, 45 : 1*

Goffman, I.J., (1968), ‘On the Empirical Testing of Wagner’s Law: A Technical Note’, PublicFinance/ Finance Publiques, 23, 3, 359-64.

Goffman, J.J. and D.J. Mahar, (1971), ‘The Growth of Public Expenditures in Selected Developing Nations: Six Caribbean Countries’, Public

Finance/Finance Publique, 26, 1, 57-74.3

Granger, C.W. (1969),“Investigating Casual Relations by

Econometric Models and Cross-Special Methods”, Econometrics,

Vol.37.

Gujarati, D.N. (1995), Basic Econometrics, Singapore: Mcgrew-Hill

Book Co.

Gupta, S.P., (1967), ‘Public Expenditure and Economic Growth: A Time series Analysis’, PublicFinance/Finances Publique, 22, 4, 423-61.

257

Gallagher, M. (1994), “Government Spending in Africa: A

Retrospective of the 1080’s” Journal of American Economies 3 (1)

April.

Hemming, R. (1991), “Public Expenditure, Stabilization and

Structural Adjustment”. In Public Expenditure Handbook: A Guide

to Public Policy in Developing Countries. Key-young Chu and

Richard Hemming, ed., Washington, D.C. IMF.

Hurilaws, (2007), Budget Analysis II (1999-2007): Test for

Progressive Realisation of the Millennium Development Goals

(MDG) in Nigeria, Lagos: Hurilaws Publications.

Iyoha, M. (2002), Review and Appraisal of the 2002 Federal

Government Budget Performance, The Bullion, CBN Journal, Vol. 26.

No.1, April/June.

Isiaku, D.U. (1987), “Government Expenditure Pattern”, Being a

Paper Delivered at a Public Finance Seminar held at the

University of Nigeria, Enugu, Nigeria.

Khan, M.S. and Villanueva, D. (1991), Macroeconomic Policies and

Long-Term Growth: a Conceptual and Empirical Review. AERC

Special Paper, 13.

Komolafe, O.S. (1999), An Overview of Issues in Fiscal Policy

Planning andManagement in Nigeria, edited by Komolafe, O.S;

Jalilian, H, and Hiley, M. in Fiscal Policy Planning and

Management in Nigeria, Ibadan: NCEMA.

Komolafe, O.S., Julilian, H. and Hiley, M. (1999), Fiscal Policy

Planning and Management in Nigeria, NCEMA, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Koester, R.B. and Kormendi, R. (1989), “Taxation, Aggregate

Activity, and economic growth: Gross country evidence on some

258

supply-side hypotheses.” Economic Inquiry ; July.

Kweka J.P and Morrissey, O. (2000), “Government spending and

Economic Growth” Tanzania, 1965-1996, Credit Research Paper

Central for Research in Economic Development and International

Trade, University of Northingham

Levine, R. and Zervos, S. (1996), “Stock Market Development and

Long-Run Economic Growth”, The World Bank Policy Research

Paper, 15

Landau, Daniel. (1983), “Government expenditure and economic

growth: a cross section study.” Southern Economic Journal 49:

783-92; January. 985. “Government expenditure and economic

growth in the developed countries: 1952-76.” Public Choice 47:

Maku, O. E., (2009), Does Government Spending Spur Economic

Growth in Nigeria? Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye

Nigeria, Online at http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/17941/:

MPRA Paper No. 17941

Mann, A.J., (1980), ‘Wagner’s Law: An Econometric Test for Mexico 1925- 1976’, National TaxJournal, 33, 189-201.

Mark, H. (1999), “Fiscal Policy within a Simple Macroeconomic

Model”.NCEMA, National Seminar Report (1989).

Marlow, M. (1988), “Private sector shrinkage and the growth of

industrialized economies.” Public Choice, 49 (2): 143-54.

Marsden, K. (1983), “Links between taxes and economic growth:

some empirical evidence.” The World Bank Working Paper 605,

Washington: The World Bank.

Matei, A. and Matie, L. (2008), “Performance of Public Expenditure

Management at Local Government level in Romania” National

School of Political Studies and Public Administration , Romania

259

Martin, R. and Fardmanesh, M. (1990), “Fiscal variables and

growth: a cross sectional analysis.” Public Choice 64: 239-51;

March.

Michaely, M. (1977), “Exports and growth: an empirical

investigation.” Journal of Development Economics 4: 49-53:

March

Michalopoulos, C. and Jay, K. (1973), “Growth of Exports and

Income in the developing World: A Neoclassical View”. Agency

for International Development Discussion Paper 28 Washington;

November.

Michas, N. A., (1975), ‘Wagner’s Law of Public Expenditures: What is the Appropriate Measurement for a Valid Test’, PubliFinance/Finances

Publiques, 30, 1, 77-84.4

Murthy, N.R.V, (1993), ‘Further Evidence of Wagner’s Law for Mexico: An Application of Cointegration Analysis’, Public Finance/

Finances

Publiques, 48, 1, 92-96.

Musgrave, R.A., (1969), Fiscal Systems. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

National Bureau of Statistics –National Accounts Survey (2007)

Nwankwo, I. (2004). Due process in Public Sector Accounting, The

Nigerian Accountant, ICAN Journal, Vol. 37, No. 2.

Nzenwa, S.O.E. (2000), Micro-Credit and Development: Poverty

Alleviation in Nigeria, Lagos: Centre for the Development and

Civic Education

Obadan, M.I., Oshinebo, B.O. and Uga, E.O. (2002), “Democratic

260

Governance and the Imperatives of Effective Planning and

Budgeting”, edited by Obadan, M.I., Oshinebo, B.O. and Uga, E.O

Ibadan. NCEMA

Obinyeluaku, M., (2006), Fiscal Policy Rules in Nigeria: Fixed or

Variable? University of KwaZulu-Natal

Ogiogio, G.O. (1995), “Government Expenditure and Economic

Growth in Nigeria”. Journal of Economic Management 2 (1),

October.

Ohiba, N. (2008), “Who should provide public infrastructure in Nigeria”,

Economic Reflections, Volume B. No.4

Ojo, M. O. and Okunroumu, T. O. (1992), “Why Fiscal Policies

Matter In African Countries, Economic and Financial Review, CBN

Vol 30 No 4

Oluyemi, S.A. (2004), “Supplementary Budgeting in Nigeria: Impact

and Problems”, The Journal of the Institute of Chartered

Accountants of Nigeria, Vol.37, No.2, April/June.

Onuchukwu, 0. (2001), “An Econometric Analysis of Government

Expenditure Behaviour in Nigeria”. Journal of Industrial Business

& Economic Research, 5 (2) : 956-972.

Onwumere, J.U.J. (2005, 2009), Business and Economic Research

Methods, Lagos: Don-Vinton Limited.

Orsmond, D. (1990), “The Size of Government and Economic

Growth: A Methodological Review.” Unpublished, International

Monetary Fund ; August.

Osayimwese, I. and Iyare, S. (1991), The Economics of Nigerian

Federalism: Selected Issues in Economic Management, Oxford

University Press, Publics, Vol. 21, No.4.

Otani. I. and Villanueva, D. (1989),“Theoretical Aspects of Growth

in Developing Countries: External Debt Dynamics and The Role of

Human Capital.” Staff Papers, International Monetary Fund, 36:307-

42

261

Ozurumba, B. A. (2008), Impact of Public Sector Deficits on

Economic Development of Nigeria, Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis,

FUTO, Owerri.

Peacock, A. T. and Wiseman, J.(1961), The Growth of Public

Expenditure in the United Kingdom, Princeton: National Bureau

of Economic Research.

Polak, J. (1989) Financial Policies and Development, Paris: OECD

Press.

Premchand, A. (1989), Government Budgeting and Expenditure

Controls: Theory and Practice, Washington DC, IMF

Pryor, F.L., (1968), Public Expenditures in Communist and Capitalist

Nations. London: George Allen and Unwin.

Rajan, R.G. and Zingales, L. (1998), “Financial Dependence and

Growth”, American Economic Review, Vol. 88.

Ram, R. (1985) “Exports and economic growth: some additional

evidence.” Economic Development and Cultural Change. Vol:

415-25.

Ram, R., (1987), ‘Wagner’s Hypothesis in Time Series and Cross Section

Perspectives:Evidence from “Real” Data for 115 Countries’, Review of

Economics and Statistics, 69, 2,359-93.

Rastow, W.W. (1971), Politics and the Stages of Growth.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Robinson, S. (1971), “Sources of Growth in Less Developed

Countries.” Quarterly Journal of Economics, 85 (3): 391 408.

262

Saunders, P. (1985), “Public Expenditure and Economic Performance

in OECD Countries.” Journal of Public Policy, 5:1-21; February.

Skinner, J. (1987),“Taxation and output growth: evidence from

African countries.” NBER Working Paper 2335 Cambridge. Mass:

National Bureau of Economic Research.

Samuelson, P.A. (1980), Economics, 11th

edition, Tokyo: McGraw-

Hill Kogakasha.

Solow, (1956), “A Contribution to the Theory of Economic Growth”,

Quarterly Journal of Economics, February.

Swan, T. (1956), “Economic Growth and Capital Accumulation”,

Economic Record, November.

Tyler, W. (1981), “Growth and export expansion in developing

countries: some empirical evidence.” Journal of Development

Economics, 9: 121-30; August.

Tsauni, A.M.(2007), An Examination of Casual Relationship between

Education Expenditure and Economic Growth in Nigeria. Journal of

Social and Management Sciences, Vol.12.

Ugwu, C.C. (2002), “Real Sector Policies in the 2002 Budget” The

CBN Bullion, Vol.26.No.2.

Ukwu I. U., Obi A.W. and Ukeje S. (2003 ), Policy Options

For Managing Macroeconomic Volitality in Nigeria, Enugu:

African Institute for Applied Economics .

Weede, E. (1986). “Sectoral Reallocations, Distributional Conditions,

and the Welfare State as Determinants of Economic Growth in

Industrialized Democracies,” European Journal of Political

Research, 14:501-19.

263