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OECD Affordable Housing Database – http://oe.cd/ahd OECD - Social Policy Division - Directorate of Employment, Labour and Social Affairs

The statistical data for Israel are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities.

The use of such data by the OECD is without prejudice to the status of the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem

and Israeli settlements in the West Bank under the terms of international law.

Last updated on 03/03/2020

HC3.1 HOMELESS POPULATION

Definitions and methodology

This indicator presents available data at national level on the number of people reported by public

authorities as homeless. Data are drawn from the 2019 and 2016 OECD Questionnaire on Affordable and

Social Housing (QuASH 2019, QuASH 2016) and other available sources. Overall, homelessness data are

available for 37 countries (Table HC 3.1.1 in Annex I). Further discussion of homelessness can be found in

the OECD Policy Brief, Better data and policies to fight homelessness in the OECD, available online (and

in French).

Comparing homeless estimates across countries is difficult, as countries do not define or count the

homeless population in the same way. There is no internationally agreed definition of homelessness.

Therefore, this indicator presents a collection of available statistics on homelessness in OECD, EU and key

partner countries in line with definitions used in national surveys (comparability issues on the data are

discussed below). As discussed below, even within countries, different definitions of homelessness may co-

exist. In this indicator, we refer only to the statistical definition used for data collection purposes.

Detail on who is included in the number of homeless in each country, i.e. the definition used for statistical

purposes, is presented in Table HC 3.1.2 at the end of this indicator. To facilitate comparison of the content

of homeless statistics across countries, it is also indicated whether the definition includes the categories

outlined in Box HC3.1, based on “ETHOS Light” (FEANTSA, 2018).

Key findings

Homelessness counts in most countries include rough sleepers, people living in accommodation for the

homeless and in emergency temporary accommodation, but definitions of homelessness vary across

countries.

Statistics from all countries include rough sleepers, except for data on Austria, Canada, Estonia, Ireland

and Slovenia, where rough sleepers are not separately identifiable. Data in 28 countries cover people living

in accommodation for the homeless and people living in emergency accommodation. Thirteen countries

include people living in institutions. Thirteen countries include people living temporarily with family and

friends due to lack of housing, and fourteen countries also cover people living in non-conventional dwellings.

Details are provided in Table HC 3.1.2, in Annex I.

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http://oe.cd/homelessness-2020

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Box HC3.1. Toward a shared definition of homelessness in Europe?

At European level, the European Federation of National Organizations Working with the Homeless (FEANTSA) developed a typology to define data collection on homelessness called ETHOS: the European Typology of Homelessness and Housing Exclusion, as well as a shorter version, “ETHOS Light”. These typologies illustrate the multiple dimensions of homelessness and are conceived to provide a common "language" for transnational exchanges on homelessness.

The typology allows authorities to indicate which categories are used in the statistical definition of homelessness in their country; not all countries will characterise individuals in each of the categories below as “homeless”.

The “ETHOS Light” typology proposes to categorise homeless populations as follows:

1. People living rough: Living in the streets or public spaces without a shelter that can be defined as living quarters (e.g. public spaces/external spaces)

2. People in emergency accommodation: People with no place of usual residence who move frequently between various types of accommodation (e.g. overnight shelters)

3. People living in accommodation for the homeless: People living in accommodations for the homeless, where the period of stay is time-limited and no long-term housing is provided (e.g. homeless hostels, temporary accommodation, transitional supported accommodation, women’s shelter or refuge accommodation)

4. People living in institutions: People who stay longer than needed in health institutions needed due to lack of housing; and people in penal institutions with no housing available prior to release

5. People living in non-conventional dwellings due to lack of housing: where accommodation is used due

to a lack of housing and is not the person’s usual place of residence (e.g. mobile homes, non-conventional buildings or temporary structures)

6. People living temporarily in conventional housing with family and friends due to lack of housing

Despite this attempt at a common standard, national data collection strategies and estimates still vary significantly within the European Union.

Source: FEANTSA, 2018, www.feantsa.org/download/fea-002-18-update-ethos-light-0032417441788687419154.pdf

In nearly all countries, less than 1% of the population is reported as homeless.

As shown in Table HC 3.1.1 below, the number of people reported as homeless accounts for less than 1%

of the population in nearly all countries for which data are available. In the United Kingdom, where

homelessness data are collected at the level of households, rather than individuals, Northern Ireland and

Scotland recorded homelessness rates in 2018 of 1.23% and 1.50%, respectively, but these estimates include

households that are threatened with homelessness (for more information, see Government Statistical Service,

2019).

New Zealand and Australia report a relatively large incidence of homelessness (0.94% and 0.48% of the

total population, respectively), and this is partly explained by the fact that these countries have adopted a

broad definition of homelessness:

● In New Zealand homelessness is defined as “living situations where people with no other

options to acquire safe and secure housing: are without shelter, in temporary accommodation,

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http://www.feantsa.org/download/fea-002-18-update-ethos-light-0032417441788687419154.pdf

http://www.feantsa.org/download/fea-002-18-update-ethos-light-0032417441788687419154.pdf



sharing accommodation with a household or living in uninhabitable housing” (Statistics New

Zealand, 2009).

● In Australia, people are considered homeless if “they do not have suitable accommodation

alternatives and their current living arrangement is i) in a dwelling that is inadequate, or ii) has

no tenure, or if their initial tenure is short and not extendable, or iii) does not allow them to

have control of, and access to space for social relations” (Australian Bureau of Statistics,

2012).

The country with the smallest share of homeless people is Japan (0.004% of the population in 2019),

where figures only refer to people sleeping rough, defined as “people who live their daily life in a park, a

riverbed, at a road, a station or other institutions” (Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, 2019). For

further information on the national definitions used to collect data on homelessness, see Table HC 3.1.1.

Although the homeless are a small share of the population in most countries, these figures still represent

roughly 1.9 million people across the OECD. Among the higher reported figures, the United States report

552,830 homeless people, and Germany, France, Canada, Australia and Brazil all report having over 100,000

homeless people in their most recent surveys.

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Table HC 3.1.1: Estimated number of homeless people, 2019 or latest year available

Year Number of homeless

Homeless as % of total population1

Figures include more than persons 1) living rough, 2) living in

emergency accommodation, and 3) living in accommodation for the

homeless?

Australia 2016 116,427 0.48% Yes

Austria 2017 21,567 0.25% No

Brazil 2015 101,854 0.05% Not provided

Canada (2) 2016 129,127 0.36% No

Chile 2019 14,013 0.07% No

Croatia 2013 462 0.01% No

Czech Republic (3) 2019 23,900 0.22% Yes*

Denmark 2019 6,431 0.11% Yes

Estonia 2011 864 0.06% Yes

Finland 2018 5,482 0.10% Yes

France 2012 141,500 0.22% No

Germany (4) 2018 337,000 0.41% Yes

Greece 2009 21,216 0.19% Yes

Hungary 2014 10,068 0.10% No

Iceland 2017 349 0.10% Yes

Ireland 2018 6,194 0.13% No

Israel 2018 1,825 0.02% No

Italy (5) 2014 50,724 0.08% No

Japan 2019 4,555 0.00% No

Latvia 2017 6,877 0.35% Yes

Lithuania 2011 857 0.03% No

Luxembourg (6) 2014 2,059 0.37% Yes

Mexico 2010 40,911 0.04% Yes

Netherlands 2016 30,500 0.18% Yes

New Zealand 2013 41,207 0.94% Yes

Norway 2016 3,909 0.07% Yes

Poland 2019 30,330 0.08% Yes

Portugal (7) 2017 4,414 0.04% No

Slovenia 2015 2,700 0.13% No

Slovak Republic 2011 23,483 0.44% Yes

Spain 2012 22,938 0.05% No

Sweden 2017 33,250 0.33% Yes

United States 2018 552,830 0.17% Yes

United Kingdom: (8)

England 2017 (57,890

households) (0.26% households)

Yes, but limited to certain priority categories

Northern Ireland 2018 (9,673


Yes, but limited to certain priority categories; includes households threatened with homelessness

Scotland 2018 (36,465


Yes; includes households threatened with homelessness

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Wales 2018 (10,737


Yes, but limited to certain priority categories; includes households threatened with homelessness

1. (1) refers to population on first of January of the year of reference, see OECD Population database.

2. Canada: data refer to the number of emergency shelter users.

3. Czech Republic: This figure is the result of the first Census of homeless persons in the Czech Republic 2019, Roofless and selected houseless categories according to the ETHOS typology, undertaken by the Czech Research Institute for Labour and Social Affairs. This is an estimate of the number of roofless people in April 2019; note, however, that it does not include people living in commercial hostels (whose number has been growing during the last years), nor does it include people at the risk of losing housing or living in unacceptable housing.

4. Germany: Includes three main groups: i) Homeless refugees with an international protection status of more than one year (and eligible for job seeking allowance and renting regular housing in Germany, but still in temporary accommodation because they could not find regular housing), ii) Homeless people without such a background who are provided with temporary accommodation by municipalities, and iii) Homeless people who are provided by NGOs with some type of temporary accommodation or are known as homeless users of their advice centres (without permanent housing and in contact with the advice centre at least once in the preceding months).

5. Italy: Based on a survey carried out among homeless service users in 158 municipalities. The number of homeless people reported represents 0.24% of the population registered as resident in the surveyed municipalities.

6. Luxembourg: 2014 data refer to a study carried out by LISER; see Baptista and Marlier (2019).

7. Portugal: These data are the result of a national questionnaire circulated to all 278 Portuguese municipalities, with a response rate of 99%. The latest data indicate 4414 homeless people in Portugal: of which 1514 are living rough; 1094 are living in emergency accommodation; and 1806 are living in accommodation for the homeless (hostels, temporary accommodation, etc.).

8. United Kingdom: Data refer to households, not individuals. Data refer to the number of households applying for housing assistance to local authorities who are accepted as statutory homeless during the year of reference, yet there are some differences across the UK in whether a household is characteried as “priority need” (and thus eligible for assistance from the local authority), as well as the conditions to be eligible as “priority need”. Scotland, for instance, no longer categorizes households into priority need. There are also differences in the number of days used to trigger the provision of assistance from the local authority. Data for Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales include households threatened with homelessness. For more information, see Government Statistical Service (2019).

Sources: OECD Questionnaire on Affordable Housing, 2019, 2016 and 2014. For Germany: Data for 2004, 2014 and 2017 are from the Federal Association for the Support of Homeless (Bundesarbeitsgemeinschaft Wohnungslosenhilfe e.V. , or BAG W) (2019), www.bagw.de/de/themen/zahl_der_wohnungslosen/index.html; data for 2018 are from research project 534 published in 2019 by the Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs, "Develoment, structure and strategies to tackle homelessness", www.bmas.de/DE/Service/Medien/Publikationen/Forschungsberichte/Forschungsberichte-Arbeitsmarkt/fb534-entstehung-verlauf-struktur-von-wohnungslosigkeit-und-strategien-zu-vermeidung-und-behebung.html. For Italy: ISTAT (2014) Le persone senza dimora, www.istat.it/it/archivio/175984. For Luxembourg: Baptista, I. and E. Marlier (2019), Fighting homelessness and housing exclusion in Europe: A study of national policies, http://dx.doi.org/10.2767/624509. For Portugal: ENIPSA 2018 Report. For the United Kingdom: data for England were reported in the 2019 QuASH; data for Northern Ireland were retrieved from Department of Communities (2019), Northern Ireland Homelessness Bulletin April-September 2018, www.communities-ni.gov.uk/publications/northern-ireland-homelessness-bulletin-april-september-2018; data for Scotland were retrieved from Scottish Government (2019), Homelessness in Scotland Annual Publication 2018-19, www2.gov.scot/Topics/Statistics/Browse/Housing-Regeneration/RefTables/homelessness1819tablescharts; data from Wales were retrieved from StatsWales, Homelessness: Prevention of Homelessness by Area and Measure, https://statswales.gov.wales/Catalogue/Housing/Homelessness/preventionofhomelessness-by-area-measure-section66; see also Government Statistical Service (2019), Harmonisation of Definitions of Homelessness for UK Official Statistics: A Feasibility Report, https://gss.civilservice.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/GSS-homelessness-report-1.pdf.

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http://www.bagw.de/de/themen/zahl_der_wohnungslosen/index.html

http://www.bmas.de/DE/Service/Medien/Publikationen/Forschungsberichte/Forschungsberichte-Arbeitsmarkt/fb534-entstehung-verlauf-struktur-von-wohnungslosigkeit-und-strategien-zu-vermeidung-und-behebung.html

http://www.bmas.de/DE/Service/Medien/Publikationen/Forschungsberichte/Forschungsberichte-Arbeitsmarkt/fb534-entstehung-verlauf-struktur-von-wohnungslosigkeit-und-strategien-zu-vermeidung-und-behebung.html

http://dx.doi.org/10.2767/624509

http://www.communities-ni.gov.uk/publications/northern-ireland-homelessness-bulletin-april-september-2018

http://www.communities-ni.gov.uk/publications/northern-ireland-homelessness-bulletin-april-september-2018

www2.gov.scot/Topics/Statistics/Browse/Housing-Regeneration/RefTables/homelessness1819tablescharts

www2.gov.scot/Topics/Statistics/Browse/Housing-Regeneration/RefTables/homelessness1819tablescharts

https://statswales.gov.wales/Catalogue/Housing/Homelessness/preventionofhomelessness-by-area-measure-section66

https://statswales.gov.wales/Catalogue/Housing/Homelessness/preventionofhomelessness-by-area-measure-section66

https://gss.civilservice.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/GSS-homelessness-report-1.pdf



The homeless population is heterogeneous

People experience homelessness in different ways, and the homeless population is increasingly diverse.

A smaller, but more visible, share of the homeless population experiences prolonged periods of

homelessness, or transitions in and out of homelessness over the course of several weeks, months or years

(i.e. “chronically homeless”). A larger share of the homeless population in most countries is homeless for

only a short period before finding a more stable housing solution (i.e. “transitionally” or “temporarily”

homeless). For instance, in Denmark, the transitionally homeless represent about two-thirds of the total

homeless population. The transitionally homeless population was almost five times bigger than the

chronically homeless population in the United States in 2018, compared to four and half times bigger in Chile

in 2019, and nearly four times bigger in Canada in 2016. The magnitude of the difference also depends on

the scope of the official homeless definition in a given country.

Further, while single men have traditionally been more likely to be homeless, homelessness among

several groups – including youth, families with children, and seniors – has increased. Nevertheless,

homelessness among these groups still represents a small share of the overall population.

As reported in the 2019 OECD Questionnaire on Affordable and Social Housing (QuASH), some

OECD countries report a rise in youth homelessness (among youth aged 15-29, unless otherwise

indicated). In New Zealand, homeless youth represented around 1.1% of the total youth population

in 2013 (11,076 homeless youth). In Australia, the share of homeless youth represented 0.77% of all

youth in 2016 (38,277 homeless youth); 0.49% of the total youth population in Canada in 2016

(34,209 homeless youth); roughly 0.21% of all youth in Denmark in 2019 (1,928 homeless youth

aged 18-29); and less than 0.15% of all youth in Finland and Ireland in 2018.

Among countries for which data are available over time, youth homelessness has increased in

Australia, Ireland and New Zealand. Ireland reported the largest increase, with a jump of 82% over

just a four-year period, from 2014 to 2018. Denmark experienced an increase in youth homelessness

(aged 18-29) of 43% between 2011 and 2017, but it has since declined between 2017 and 2019 (VIVE

- Knowledge of Welfare The National Center for Welfare Research and Analysis, 2019). Youth

homelessness grew by 20% in Australia between 2011 and 2016 and by 23% in New Zealand

between 2006 and 2013. In each of these countries except Ireland, youth homelessness grew faster

than the growth in the overall homeless population. Meanwhile, homelessness dropped among youth

in Canada (by 17% between 2011 and 2016), Finland (by 25% between 2019 and 2018), and England

(United Kingdom) (by 20% among 16-24 year olds between 2010 and 2017).

Homelessness among families with children has risen – in some cases, significantly – in several

OECD countries. Homelessness among families with children almost quadrupled in Ireland between

2014 and 2018, from 407 to over 1,600 households. Family homelessness in New Zealand increased

by 44% between 2006 and 2013, representing nearly 21 800 individuals in 2013. Family

homelessness in England (United Kingdom) increased by 42% between 2010 and 2017, representing

over 44 000 households in 2017. In the United States, families with children represented one-third

of the homeless population in 2018 (over 180,000 people in more than 56,300 families). Moreover,

some U.S. states saw a significant rise in family homelessness: between 2007 and 2018,

Massachusetts and Washington, D.C., experienced an increase in homelessness among families with

children of more than 90%, whilst New York saw a rise of 51% over that period (US Department of

Housing and Urban Development (HUD), 2018). By contrast, family homelessness declined in

Denmark and Finland in recent years.

While cross-national data are scarce, homelessness among seniors has increased in several OECD

countries. In Canada, while seniors (aged 65 and over) make up only a small share of users of

homeless shelters, the number of seniors using emergency shelters increased by about 50% from

2005 to 2016 (Government of Canada, 2019). England (UK) recorded a ten-year high of homeless

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people over the age of 60 in 2018, with the share of homeless seniors more than doubling in eight

years (Bulman, 2018). In New York City (US), homelessness among seniors has more than tripled

over the past decade, with the waiting list for affordable senior housing reaching up to seven years

in some cases (CBS New York, 2019).

Homelessness has increased in around one-third of OECD countries in recent years

Although comparability of data across countries is limited (see Data and comparability issues, below), it

is possible to identify trends in homelessness within some OECD countries, based on available information

from national sources. Measuring homelessness in terms of the percentage of the homeless as a share of the

total population, Australia, Chile, England (United Kingdom), France, Iceland, Ireland, Latvia, Luxembourg,

the Netherlands, New Zealand, Scotland (United Kingdom), Wales (United Kingdom) and the United States

have recorded an increase in homelessness.

The biggest increases in homelessness rates were recorded in Iceland and Ireland, although in

each country the homelessness rate remained at less than 0.15% of the population.

Homelessness rose by 168% in Iceland between 2009 and 2017, accounting for 349 people in

2017. Ireland’s homeless population more than doubled between 2014 and 2017, from less than

3 000 people to over 6 000 people.

Moderate increases in homelessness rates were recorded in Latvia (a 60% increase between

2010 and 2017), France (a roughly 50% increase between 2001 and 2012), England (United

Kingdom) (a 32% increase between 2010 and 2017), the Netherlands (a 28% increase between

2010 and 2016) and New Zealand (a 14% increase between 2006 and 2013).

Small increases (less than 6%) in homelessness rates were recorded in Australia (a 5% increase

between 2011 and 2016) and Chile (a 4% increase between 2011 and 2019).

More nuanced trends can be observed in countries that collect homelessness data on an annual

basis. For instance, following an overall decline in homelessness by 15% between 2007 and

2018, homelessness increased slightly in absolute terms (by 0.3%) in the United States

between 2017 and 2018 (US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), 2018).

In Scotland (United Kingdom), the homeless rate increased by around 2% between 2017 and

2018, after experiencing a gradual annual decline since 2007 (Scottish Government, 2019).

Homelessness has fallen or remained relatively stable in about a quarter of OECD countries: Austria,

Canada, Denmark, Finland, Israel, Hungary, Norway, Poland and Sweden

The homelessness rate has declined – or remained relatively stable – in about a quarter of OECD

countries: Austria, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Hungary, Israel, Norway, Poland and Sweden.

Norway and Finland recorded the biggest drops in the homelessness rate: by 40% in Norway

between 2012 and 2016 and by 39% in Finland between 2010 and 2018.

More moderate decreases in the homelessness rate were recorded in Canada (a 14% decline

between 2010 and 2016), Austria (a 12% decline between 2013 and 2017), Israel (an 11%

decline between 2010 and 2018), and Sweden (a 7% decline between 2013 and 2017).

Poland recorded a very slight drop in the homelessness rate between 2013 and 2019. In

Denmark, homelessness declined slightly between 2017 and 2019 (from 0.12% to 0.11% of the

population), after progressively increasing since 2011.

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National estimates mask big differences within countries

In many OECD countries, homelessness is concentrated in big cities. For instance, Dublin accounted for

around 66% of the national homeless population in Ireland in 2019, even though it only represents about a

quarter of the country’s total population (Department of Housing, 2019). More than three-quarters of Latvia’s

homeless population was concentrated in Riga in 2017, whilst the cities of Tel Aviv (Israel), Auckland (New

Zealand) and Santiago (Chile) accounted for roughly half of the national homeless population (2019 OECD

QuASH). In the United States, half of the homeless population is concentrated in just five states, with a

quarter of the total homeless population in the state of California (US Department of Housing and Urban

Development (HUD), 2018).

Trends in homelessness also vary significantly within countries. A number of large metro areas have seen

their homeless populations swell, even as national averages record more modest changes. In England (United

Kingdom), despite a levelling off of rough sleepers nationally, their number has been increasing in London,

Birmingham and Manchester (Fitzpatrick et al., 2019). In Canada, homelessness rose in Toronto by 24%

between 2008 and 2014, whilst decreasing in Calgary and Metro Vancouver by 62% and 39%, respectively

(Doberstein, 2016). Homelessness in Tel Aviv (Israel) increased by 67% in absolute terms between 2011 and

2018, compared to only a slight increase in homelessness at national level. Homelessness rose by 142% in

absolute terms in the Brussels Capital Region (Belgium) between 2008 and 2018. In the United States,

homelessness increased by 57% in Los Angeles County and by 31% in New York City between 2012 and

2017, even as national trends were much more subdued (Evans, Phillips and Ruffini, 2019).

Data and comparability issues

Definitional differences drive some of the variation in the reported incidence of homelessness across

countries; these differences hamper international comparison and an understanding of the differences in

homelessness rates and risks across countries. For instance, several countries that adopt a broader definition

of homelessness report a higher incidence of homelessness, like Australia (0.48% of the population in 2016)

and New Zealand (0.94% in 2013), relative to countries with a narrower definition, such as Chile (0.07%),

Portugal (0.04%) or Japan (0.00%). However, definitional differences do not fully explain the variation in

homelessness rates across countries: several countries with a broad definition of homelessness report among

the lowest incidences of homelessness, such as Norway (0.07% in 2016), Poland (0.08% in 2019), Finland

(0.10% in 2018) and Denmark (0.11% in 2019).

Different definitions of homelessness can exist within the same country, depending on the purpose and

the collecting authority, producing vastly different homelessness estimates over the same territory. In the

United States, for instance, the definition of homelessness used by the Department of Housing and Urban

Development (HUD) – which is used to allocate federal funds to local authorities to address homelessness –

is narrower than that used by the Department of Education (Evans, Phillips and Ruffini, 2019), which forms

the basis of funding allocation to school districts to support homeless children and youth. The result is two

drastically different estimates of homelessness in the United States: while HUD estimated that nearly 500,000

people were homeless on any given night in 2016 (Henry et al., 2016), the Department of Education reported

roughly 1.36 million children and youth nationally experienced homelessness at some point over the same

year (National Center for Homeless Education, 2019).

Beyond definitional differences, there are a number of challenges in the scope and methods of data

collection that might affect measuring the full extent of homelessness.

There are different methods to collect data on homelessness. The type of housing solution of someone

experiencing homelessness – whether it is a shelter or emergency accommodation service, temporary lodging

with family or friends, or living out of a car or on the street – will be better reflected in some data collection

methods than others:

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Administrative data (such as registries from shelters and local authorities) can be an effective

means to assess the number of individuals using homeless services, and may better capture the

flows of people who transition in and out of homelessness over a given period; these estimates

tend to be much larger than point-in-time estimates. However, these data only paint a partial

picture of homelessness, as they leave out people who are not in contact with such services

(such as unsheltered homeless individuals or those who otherwise do not seek out support).

Research has shown, for instance, that women are less likely to turn to shelters, preferring first

to seek out housing solutions with friends and families (Baptista and Marlier, 2019). Austria,

Canada, Chile, Costa Rica, Denmark, Estonia, England, Greece, Israel, Luxembourg, Latvia,

the Netherlands and the United States provided homelessness estimates based on annual

prevalence data.

Point-in-time estimates (such as the street counts), depending on how such estimates are

conducted, may be more effective in reaching homeless people who do not seek out formal

support, and provide an estimate of the stock of the homeless population on a given night.

However, such estimates fail to capture those who may be transitionally or temporarily

homeless in a given jurisdiction; they thus represent an underestimate of the full extent of people

who have experienced homelessness over a given period. Australia, Belgium (Brussels Capital

Region), the Czech Republic, Finland, Ireland, Japan, Norway, New Zealand, Poland, the

Slovak Republic, Sweden and the United States provided homelessness estimates based on

point-in-time data.

General population and census data provide additional information about some segments of

the homeless population, but such data are not collected on an annual basis. Australia and New

Zealand provide homelessness estimates drawing on census data.

In addition, some OECD countries report an increasing incidence of “hidden homelessness,” which refers

to people who do not appear in official statistics on homeless. Hidden homelessness tends to be more

prevalent among women, youth, LGTBI, victims of domestic abuse, asylum seekers, or people living in rural

areas and smaller communities (where shelters and social support services are less prevalent and where

homeless surveys may not be required) (National Advisory Committee on Rural Health and Human Services,

2014). For instance, The London Assembly (2017) estimated that around one in ten people in London

experienced “hidden homelessness” in a given year, and that one in five 16 to 25 year olds “couch surfed” in

2014 – roughly half of them for over a month. While there is no formal definition, the hidden homeless may

include:

people who are not in contact with any administrative support services, and are thus not

registered in any service database;

people who may not be eligible for support services, or may not be considered a priority case

to access limited public support services;

people living in unsustainable or inadequate shelter (e.g. in their car, with friends or family).

Incomplete geographic coverage and limited frequency and consistency of data collection represent

additional methodological challenges. For instance, some national data only cover the largest municipalities

(France, Italy, the United States), or the biggest region or city (Belgium, Iceland). Even in the presence of

national guidelines for homelessness counts to be conducted at subnational level, jurisdictions may interpret

and apply the guidelines differently, leading to local homelessness estimates that are difficult to compare

within a country.

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Frequency and consistency of data collection also pose challenges. Efforts have been made through the

OECD Questionnaire on Social and Affordable Housing to collect information on the number of homeless

persons over several years. Nevertheless, it was not possible to collect data for the same years for all countries

as the timing of homelessness counts is not harmonised across countries. For instance, two OECD countries

collect data on a monthly (Ireland) or quarterly (United Kingdom) basis. More commonly, countries collect

homelessness data on annually (Canada, Estonia, Finland, Israel, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands,

Norway, the United Kingdom, the United States) or bi-annually (Canada, Denmark, Poland); note that for

the case of Canada, the Shelter Capacity Report is published annually, while the National Shelter Study has

been published every 2-3 years, which provides estimates with a two-year time lag. Some countries conduct

regular homeless counts at longer intervals: every five years (Australia and New Zealand), six years (Sweden)

or ten years (the Slovak Republic). There have been no data collection efforts at national level in at least five

years in Bulgaria, Croatia, Estonia, France, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Mexico,

Romania, the Slovak Republic, Spain, Switzerland or Turkey.

In some cases, changes to the definition and/or methodology underlying data collection does not allow

for reliable comparison over time. Some countries do not have a regular system of data collection on

homelessness in place, and rely on information from one-off surveys without reference to one another.

As a result, official statistics – regardless of the methodology or the definition – likely

underestimate the extent of homelessness.

A full description of methodological issues in homelessness data collection is beyond the scope of this

indicator but more in-depth information can be found in Busch-Geertsema et al. (2014) and OECD (2015).

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Sources and further reading:

Australian Bureau of Statistics (2012), Information Paper – A Statistical Definition of Homelessness, www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/B4B1A5BC17CEDBC9CA257A6E00186823/$File/49220_2012.pdf

Baptista, I. and E. Marlier (2019), Fighting Homelessness and Housing Exclusion in Europe: A Study of National Policies, https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=738&langId=en&pubId=8243&furtherPubs=yes.

Bulman, M. (2018), Number of homeless pensioners in England hits 10-year high, figures show, The Independent, www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/homeless-pensioners-elderly-single-parent-household-housing-shelter-figures-a8419241.html.

Busch-Geertsema, V. et al. (2014), Extent and Profile of Homelessness in European Member States - A statistical update. European Observatory on Homelessness, Brussels.

CBS New York (2019), “Finding Affordable Housing In NYC Is Hard, It’s Almost Impossible If You’re A Senior”, CBS New York, CBS New York, https://newyork.cbslocal.com/2019/06/12/affordable-housing-nyc-seniors/

Clair, A. et al. (2019), “Constructing a housing precariousness measure for Europe”, Journal of European Social

Policy, Vol. 29/1, pp. 13-28, http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0958928718768334.

Department of Housing (2019), Homelessness Report August 2019, www.housing.gov.ie/sites/default/files/publications/files/homeless_report_-_august_2019.pdf.

Doberstein, C. (2016), Building a collaborative advantage : network governance and homelessness policy-making in Canada, UBC Press, https://books-scholarsportal-info.proxy.library.carleton.ca/en/read?id=/ebooks/ebooks3/upress/2016-12-

Edgar, B., et al. (2007) Measurement of Homelessness at European Union Level. European Commission, http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/social_inclusion/docs/2007/study_homelessness_en.pdf

Evans, W., D. Phillips and K. Ruffini (2019), Reducing and Preventing Homelessness: A Review of the Evidence and Charting a Research Agenda 1 A Report Prepared for the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

FEANTSA, Country Profiles, www.feantsa.org/en/resources/resources-database.

FEANTSA (2018), ETHOS Light: European Typology of Homelessness and Housing Exclusion, Measurement of Homelessness at European Union Level, www.feantsa.org/download/fea-002-18-update-ethos-light-0032417441788687419154.pdf.

Fitzpatrick, S. et al. (2019), The homelessness monitor: England 2019, www.crisis.org.uk.

Fondation Abbe Pierre and FEANTSA (2019), The Fourth Overview of Housing Exclusion in Europe 2019, www.feantsa.org/en/report/2019/04/01/the-fourth-overview-of-housing-exclusion-in-europe-2019?bcParent=27.

Government of Canada (2019), Highlights of the National Shelter Study 2005 to 2016,

www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/homelessness/reports-shelter-2016.html#h4.

Government Statistical Service (2019), Harmonisation of Definitions of Homelessness for UK Official Statistics: A Feasibility Report, https://gss.civilservice.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/GSS-homelessness-report-1.pdf.

Henry, M. et al. (2016), The 2016 Annual Homeless Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress, Part 1: Point-in-Time Estimates of Homelessness, https://files.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2016-AHAR-Part-1.pdf

ISTAT (2014), Le persone senza dimora, www.istat.it/it/archivio/175984

http://oe.cd/ahd

https://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/B4B1A5BC17CEDBC9CA257A6E00186823/$File/49220_2012.pdf

https://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/B4B1A5BC17CEDBC9CA257A6E00186823/$File/49220_2012.pdf

https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=738&langId=en&pubId=8243&furtherPubs=yes

https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/homeless-pensioners-elderly-single-parent-household-housing-shelter-figures-a8419241.html

https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/homeless-pensioners-elderly-single-parent-household-housing-shelter-figures-a8419241.html

https://newyork.cbslocal.com/2019/06/12/affordable-housing-nyc-seniors/

https://www.housing.gov.ie/sites/default/files/publications/files/homeless_report_-_august_2019.pdf

https://books-scholarsportal-info.proxy.library.carleton.ca/en/read?id=/ebooks/ebooks3/upress/2016-12-

https://books-scholarsportal-info.proxy.library.carleton.ca/en/read?id=/ebooks/ebooks3/upress/2016-12-

http://ec.europa.eu/employment_social/social_inclusion/docs/2007/study_homelessness_en.pdf

http://www.feantsa.org/en/resources/resources-database

http://www.crisis.org.uk/

http://www.feantsa.org/en/report/2019/04/01/the-fourth-overview-of-housing-exclusion-in-europe-2019?bcParent=27

http://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/homelessness/reports-shelter-2016.html#h4

https://gss.civilservice.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/GSS-homelessness-report-1.pdf

https://files.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2016-AHAR-Part-1.pdf

https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/175984



London Assembly Housing Committee (2017), Hidden homelessness in London, www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/london_assembly_-_hidden_homelessness_report.pdf.

Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare (2019), “Results of a nationwide survey (approximate number survey) on the reality of homelessness”, www.mhlw.go.jp/content/12003000/000505478.pdf

National Advisory Committee on Rural Health and Human Services, (2014), Homelessness in Rural America - Policy Brief July 2014, www.hrsa.gov/advisorycommittees/rural/publications/homelessnessruralamerica.pdf.

National Center for Homeless Education (2019), Federal Data Summary School Years 2014-15 to 2016-17: Education for Homeless Children and Youth.

OECD (2020), “Better data and policies to fight homelessness in the OECD”, OECD Policy Briefs on Affordable Housing. [Également disponible en français]

OECD (2015), Integrating Social Services for Vulnerable Groups: Bridging Sectors for Better Service Delivery, OECD Publishing, Paris. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264233775-en

Scottish Government (2019), “Homelessness in Scotland: Annual Publication 2018-19 – Tables and Charts”, www2.gov.scot/Topics/Statistics/Browse/Housing-Regeneration/RefTables/homelessness1819tablescharts.

Statistics New Zealand (2009), Homelessness Definition, http://archive.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/people_and_communities/housing/homelessness-definition.aspx

US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) (2018), The 2018 Annual Homeless Assessment Report (AHAR) to Congress, Part 1: Point-in-Time Estimates of Homelessness,

https://files.hudexchange.info/resources/documents/2018-AHAR-Part-1.pdf (accessed on 21 June 2019).

VIVE - Knowledge of Welfare The National Center for Welfare Research and Analysis (2019), Homelessness in Denmark 2019: National mapping.

http://oe.cd/ahd

http://www.mhlw.go.jp/content/12003000/000505478.pdf

https://www.hrsa.gov/advisorycommittees/rural/publications/homelessnessruralamerica.pdf

http://oe.cd/homelessness-2020

http://oe.cd/sans-abrisme-2020

http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264233775-en

https://www2.gov.scot/Topics/Statistics/Browse/Housing-Regeneration/RefTables/homelessness1819tablescharts

http://archive.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/people_and_communities/housing/homelessness-definition.aspx



ANNEX 1

Table HC 3.1.2: Definition of homelessness used for the purpose of data collection¹

Definition of homelessness used for data collection Including people:

Living rough

In emergency accommodation

Living in accommodation for the homeless

Living in institutions

Living in non-conventional dwellings due

to lack of housing

Living temporarily in conventional housing with family and

friends Other categories included /

notes

Australia

People are considered as homeless if they do not have suitable accommodation alternatives and their current living arrangement: are in a dwelling that is inadequate; or have no tenure, or if their initial tenure is short and not extendable; or does not allow them to have control of, and access to space for social relations.

Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes

People living in boarding houses (due to lack of suitable accommodation alternatives);

people living in severely crowded dwellings

Austria "Registered homelessness": number of people who have a note of their status of homelessness (Vermerk des Obdachlosenstatus) or are registered in accommodations for the homeless.

No Yes Yes Yes No No People who have a note of

their status of homelessness

Canada

There is no nationally agreed definition of homelessness. Homelessness as defined for statistical purposes is defined as an individual who spends 1 or more nights in an emergency homeless shelter. This definition is the best estimate we have for homelessness in Canada, though it is recognised that it is likely an underestimate as it is not able to count those experiencing homelessness outside of emergency homeless shelters.

No Yes Yes No No No

http://oe.cd/ahd




Living rough





to lack of housing



notes

Chile

People who sleep in public or private places without an infrastructure that can be characterised as housing, even if its house is in a precarious state. This excludes families and people living in squatter settlements. People that lacking a fixed, regular and adequate accommodation for the night, find a one-night residence, paying or not for this night-service, in places run by public or private entities that provide temporary shelter. This group incorporates people who stay in nursing homes and hospices, run by charity or business.

Yes Yes Yes No No No

Czech Republic (1)

Homeless is a general term for the heterogeneous group of population covering both visible homeless people, i.e. persons sleeping rough (roofless), and people who are not able to procure any dwelling and hence live in accommodation for the homeless, as well as people living in insecure accommodation and people staying in conditions which do not fulfil the minimum standards of living in the particular cultural and social environment.

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes* Yes

Persons living in unsuitable conditions (e.g. atypical,

informal residential buildings) and legally insecure housing.

Denmark (2)

The homeless are regarded as people who do not have their own dwelling or room (owned or rented), but who stay in temporary housing arrangements, or stay temporarily and without a contract with family, friends or acquaintances. The homeless are also regarded as people without a place to stay on the following night.

Yes Yes Yes No* Yes Yes

Estonia

Estonia has no legal definition of "homeless". For statistical purposes, a homeless person is a person, who has no legal relationship (ownership, lease agreement, permanent accommodation agreement) to any buildings, rooms or parts thereof that would qualify as housing and who has no source of income necessary for acquiring a place to live and no social skills to change his or her status in the given circumstances.

No Yes Yes No No No

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Living rough





to lack of housing



notes

Finland

Homeless people include those living out of doors, in various temporary shelters and night shelters and institutions due to lack of a dwelling (e.g. shelters, nursing homes, psychiatric hospitals, institutions for mentally handicapped). Also released prisoners with no known dwelling are included in homeless people. In addition, the homeless comprise those living temporarily with friends and relatives and itinerants.

Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes

France

People who has spent the night before the survey in homeless shelters or other accommodation provided by a support organization, or in places not meant for human habitation (streets, gardens, railway stations : unsheltered homeless) .


Germany (3) Persons who are not currently living in accommodation which they have a legal right to occupy as tenant or owner-occupier (or have permission to occupy from the householder)

Yes* Yes Yes Yes* Yes* Yes*

Greece

1. The homeless are recognised as a vulnerable group to which social protection is provided. The homeless are defined as all persons legally residing in the country with no access or with insecure access to adequate owned, rented or bestowed housing that meets the necessary technical standards and is provided with basic services of water and electricity. 2. The homeless include especially those living on the streets, in shelters, those hosted temporarily out of necessity in institutions or other structures, as well as those living in inadequate accommodation.

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

Hungary

Homeless people shall be persons without any registered place of residence, except for persons whose registered places of residence are accommodation for homeless people, and any person shall be deemed to be homeless who spends nights in public areas or premises not designed for housing purposes.


http://oe.cd/ahd




Living rough





to lack of housing



notes

Iceland

Homeless is defined as a person who does not have access to traditional housing; does not have a shelter to stay in nor a place to stay in regularly; stays wherever possible every night, including in a guesthouse, in a shelter or with other people. Those who come from temporary shelter, such as from prison or from drug treatment, have a history of multiple housing and social difficulties and are not guaranteed shelter one or two months before leaving the temporary accommodation are listed herewith.


Ireland

Reported figures refer to persons in state funded emergency accommodation, overseen by local authorities. A person shall be regarded by a housing authority as being homeless if — (a) there is no accommodation available which, in the opinion of the authority, he, together with any other person who normally resides with him or who might reasonably be expected to reside with him, can reasonably occupy or remain in occupation of, or (b) he is living in a hospital, county home, night shelter or other such institution, and is so living because he has no accommodation of the kind referred to in paragraph (a), and he is, in the opinion of the authority, unable to provide accommodation from his own resources.

No Yes Yes No No No

http://oe.cd/ahd




Living rough





to lack of housing



notes

Israel

Homeless is defined as a person at least 18 years old who lives in abandoned houses, gardens, public places, or building locations; suffers from physical and emotional neglect. Usually without active relationships with their family; doesn't put in the effort to change his way of life and cannot lead a normal lifestyle. A homeless person faces one or more of the following: * A history of instability in living locations and constant mobility across the country * Doesn't have a national identification * Lacks resources for survival * Addiction to psychoactive substances like alcohol and drugs * A history of violence and personal and family crises * A history of physical and/or mental illness with psychiatric hospitalization backgrounds * Fundamental lack of trust towards the establishment and its authorities * Not functioning in most aspects of life and a history of failures and rejections In Israel, there is a distinction made between a homeless person and a person without a home due to housing problems and is actively trying to change their situation with the help of the Ministry of Construction and Housing. The following are not considered homeless: * Individuals or families who cannot repay their loans and are exiled from their houses * Individuals who have restraining orders due to violence in their homes * Ex-inmates * Minors under the age of 18

Yes Yes Yes Yes No No

http://oe.cd/ahd




Living rough





to lack of housing



notes

Italy

A person is considered to be homeless when he/she suffers from poverty and lack of adequate housing, i.e. he/she cannot autonomously find and keep an accommodation. The definition includes all those who: live in public spaces (on the streets, in shacks, abandoned cars, caravans or barns); sleep in night shelters and are forced to spend many hours per day in public spaces/in the open; live in homeless hostels and temporary accommodation; live in other specific types of supported accommodation for the homeless. It excludes all people who: live in overcrowded dwellings; live temporarily with friends or family because of lack of housing; live in illegally occupied properties or camps.


Japan Homeless is defined as people who live their daily life in a park, a riverbed, at a road, a station or other institutions.

Yes No No No No No

Latvia Primary homeless person (including persons living in streets or without a shelter or living quarters)


Lithuania

A homeless person is a person who does not own an accommodation or building or does not have any other right to use such an accommodation or building and resides in temporary accommodation or public places.

Yes .. .. No No No

Luxembourg The definition of homeless covers: roofless people, houseless people, people living in insecure housing and people living in inadequate housing.


Mexico No information available on the definition used by National Ministry of Statistics and Geography (INEGI)

New Zealand

Homelessness is defined as living situations where people with no other options to acquire safe and secure housing: are without shelter, in temporary accommodation, sharing accommodation with a household or living in uninhabitable housing.

Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes Persons living in uninhabitable

housing

http://oe.cd/ahd




Living rough





to lack of housing



notes

Norway

A person is homeless when he/she lacks a place to live, either rented or owned, and finds him/herself in one of the following situations: - Has no place to stay for the night. - Is referred to emergency or temporary shelter accommodation. - is a ward of the correctional and probation service and due to be released in two months at the latest. - Is a resident of an institution and due to be discharged in two months at the latest. - Lives with friends, acquaintances or family on a temporary basis.


Poland

Homeless is a person who does not stay in a living accommodation and who is not registered for permanent residence therein or a person who does not stay in a living accommodation and is registered for permanent residence in a dwelling which is not adequate for living.

Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No

http://oe.cd/ahd




Living rough





to lack of housing



notes

Portugal

A person who, irrespective of his/her nationality, racial or ethnic origin, religion, age, sex, sexual orientation, socio-economic status and physical and mental health condition, lives in the following conditions: - No roof, living in the public space, housed in an emergency shelter or living in a precarious place; - Public space - spaces for public use such as gardens, metro / bus stations, bus stops, parking lots, sidewalks, viaducts, bridges or others; - Emergency shelter - any equipment which immediately accommodates, free of charge and for short periods of time, persons who do not have access to another overnight accommodation; - Precarious place - place that, due to the conditions in which it is allowed, a public use, such as abandoned cars, stairwells, entrances of buildings, abandoned factories and buildings, abandoned houses or others; or - Without a house, being in temporary accommodation destined for the purpose: temporary accommodation (equipment which accommodates persons who do not have access to permanent accommodation and who promote their insertion, e.g. Temporary Accommodation Centers).


Slovak Republic

The Census 2011 used the concept of "secondary homelessness", defined as persons enumerated in dwellings outside the housing stock, collective accommodation facilities of temporary accommodation (dormitory, halfway home, shelter, hostel for homeless people, facilities for homeless people), without shelter and in a fictitious house. The term fictitious house was used when the person did not live in a dwelling or a family house. The reason for this was that, formally, every inhabitant must be counted in a dwelling and dwelling in a house/residential building.


http://oe.cd/ahd




Living rough





to lack of housing



notes

Slovenia In Slovenia there is no "official" definition of homeless. Those who use night shelters (emergency accommodation), accommodation for homeless and those who use different day programmes for homeless

No Yes Yes No No No People who use different day

programmes for homeless

Spain

People sleeping rough, people living in emergency accommodation provided by the local authority or an NGO, people staying in long-stay group accommodation provided by the local authority or an NGO (non-emergency centres, shelters for victims of domestic violence, centres for asylum seekers or irregular migrants), people living in buildings that would commonly be considered unsuitable for human habitation, people living in temporary accommodation such as pensions or guest houses, people living in squats.


Sweden

Including 1) Acute homelessness (Emergency accommodation, overnight shelters, women’s shelters, rough sleeping. Hotels, campsites, hostels, caravans, mobile homes, etc.). 2) Institutional care, category housing, penal institutions (Penal or correctional institutions, healthcare institutions, treatment centres). 3) Long-term housing solutions (Housing solutions provided by the municipal social services, temporary accommodation, transitional supported accommodated housing). 4) Short-term housing solutions (Temporary living in conventional housing with friends, acquaintances, family or relatives. Temporary (less than three months) sublet contracts in conventional housing. The person must have been in contact with social services or other care providers to be included in the statistics).


http://oe.cd/ahd




Living rough





to lack of housing



notes

United Kingdom

England: Definition of statutory homelessness up to 3 April 2018: A household that meets the eligibility criteria, has been assessed as priority need (has children, is disabled, elderly, a care leaver or ex armed forces among others) and is unintentionally homeless or threatened with homelessness in 28 days. The person who approaches must be 18 or over, or 16 and over if a care leaver. Definition of statutory homelessness from the 3rd April 2018: A household who approaches a local authority for assistance, who is eligible for help and is either homeless or threatened with homelessness within 56 days. Northern Ireland: A household who approaches a local authority for assistance, who is eligible for help and is either homeless or threatened with homelessness within 28 days. Scotland: A household who approaches a local authority for assistance, who is eligible for help and is either homeless or threatened with homelessness within 56 days. Scottish legislation does not include ‘priority need’ so there are fundamental differences in who is eligible for housing between Scotland and the rest of the UK. Wales: A household who approaches a local authority for assistance, who is eligible for help and is either homeless or threatened with homelessness within 56 days.

Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes

Figures only include those who are unintentionally homeless and who are in 'priority need'

categories - with the exception of Scotland (see table

HC1.1.C)

United States

The Point-in-Time (PIT) count is a count of sheltered and unsheltered homeless persons on a single night in January. HUD requires that Continuums of Care conduct an annual count of homeless persons who are sheltered in emergency shelter, transitional housing, and Safe Havens on a single night. Continuums of Care also must conduct a count of unsheltered homeless persons every other year (odd numbered years).


1. Czech Republic: The census counts with provisional housing such as people living in temporary buildings, empty buildings or buildings without an occupancy approval (official permit to use the building for living in). Not included are however persons living temporarily in their workplaces as those are very difficult to be counted. People living in caravans or other types

http://oe.cd/ahd



of mobile housing are not included. Also there is a number of persons living in parks or forests in small dwellings that have been counted in the census, while persons living in legally rented cottage dwellings are building the line where the dwellings are not perceived as unconventional anymore and so not included in the census.

2. Denmark: persons living in institutions are only considered homeless if they are to leave the institution within the next month without any new place to stay.

3. Germany: Entries marked with an (*) indicate that individuals in this category are characterised as homelessness so far as they are known to be homeless by local advise centres.

Sources: OECD Questionnaire on Affordable Housing, 2019, 2016 and 2014. For Italy: ISTAT (2014) Le persone senza dimora, https://www.istat.it/it/archivio/175984. For United Kingdom: Government Statistical Service (2019), https://gss.civilservice.gov.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/GSS-homelessness-report-1.pdf.

http://oe.cd/ahd

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