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OCR 21 st Century Science Unit B4a Revision Animal and Plant cells Respiration and Photosynthesis Slide 2 mitochondria contain enzymes for the reactions in aerobic respiration (in animals, plants and yeast) cell membrane allows gases and water to pass in and out of the cell freely while presenting a barrier to other chemicals nucleus or circular DNA in bacteria contains DNA which carries the genetic code for making enzymes used in the chemical reactions of respiration cytoplasm where enzymes and proteins are made chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and the enzymes for the reactions in photosynthesis Animal and Plant Cells Slide 3 Respiration Slide 4 Animals and plants have many uses for the energy they generate from respiration: 1)To perform the life processes, such as moving, _____ etc 2)To build up body _______ 3)To maintain a constant body ___________ (warm-blooded mammals only) 4)To build up sugars, ________ and other nutrients in plants 5)Active __________ Words nitrates, tissue, proteins, transport, growing Uses for respiration summary Slide 5 1) Glucose (sugar) can be used to make long chains of insoluble starch Glucose molecules Starch molecule Synthesis means making large molecules out of small ones. Two examples: 2) Glucose can be combined with nitrates to make proteins (for growth) Glucose molecules Proteins Synthesis Slide 6 all living things depend on chemical reactions within cells that require energy released by respiration Respiration is a series of chemical reactions that release energy by breaking down large food molecules in all living cells Aerobic Respiration glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water (+ energy released) C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O Slide 7 All living organisms have to move, _____, reproduce etc. Each of these life processes needs ENERGY. ___________ is the process our bodies use to produce this energy: Glucose + oxygen water + carbon dioxide + ENERGY The glucose we need comes from ______ and the oxygen from _________. Water and carbon dioxide are breathed out. The MAIN product of this equation is _________. Respiration happens in _________ in cells. Words breathing, energy, grow, respiration, food, mitochondria Aerobic respiration summary Slide 8 anaerobic respiration takes place in animal, plant and some microbial cells in conditions of low oxygen or absence of oxygen, to include: Anaerobic Respiration In Animal Cells: glucose lactic acid (+ energy released) In Yeast glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ energy released) Happens in roots in waterlogged soil bacteria in puncture wounds human cells during vigorous exercise Slide 9 Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration is when energy is provided WITHOUT needing _________: Glucose lactic acid + a bit of energy This happens when the body cant provide oxygen quick enough for __________ respiration to take place. Anaerobic respiration produces energy much _______ than aerobic respiration but only produces 1/20 th as much. Anaerobic respiration can also take place in other low-oxygen conditions, such as plant roots in _________ soil or bacteria in ________ wounds. Words oxygen, aerobic, quicker, puncture, waterlogged Anaerobic respiration summary Slide 10 4) 2) Mitochondria contain enzymes for respiration reactions Cell Membrane controls what comes in and out Cytoplasm - where enzymes are made Nucleus carries genetic info for making enzymes 1) 3) In bacteria cells, this job is done by circular DNA Respiration in cells Slide 11 OCR 21 st Century Science Unit B4b Revision Enzymes, Osmosis and Diffusion Slide 12 Enzymes in respiration and photosynthesis Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical uses. Here are two important natural uses for them: Cells use glucose to generate energy this process is called respiration. Respiration happens in mitochodria and is catalysed by enzymes. Photosynthesis is catalysed by enzymes in the cells. Slide 13 Enzymes- The lock and Key Model enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions cells make enzymes according to the instructions carried in genes molecules have to be the correct shape to fit into the active site of the enzyme (the lock and key model) Enzyme Substrate Slide 14 Factors affecting enzyme action (Denaturing) The shape of the enzyme is vital to its function. The main factors affecting enzyme action are 1.) temperature and 2.) pH 1.) High temperatures can destroy the enzymes special shape so it becomes denatured. 2.) Different enzymes work best at different pH values. normal heat pH denatured Slide 15 Optimum conditions Enzymes are denatured beyond 40 O C Enzymes work best in certain conditions: Enzyme activity TemppH 40 0 C Could be protease (found in the stomach) Could be amylase (found in the intestine) Enzymes are used in industry to bring about reactions at normal temperatures and pressures that would otherwise be expensive. However, most enzymes are denatured at high temperatures and can be costly to produce. Slide 16 Diffusion and concentration gradients This results in a net movement from a region where they are of a higher concentration to a region of lower concentration high concentration low concentration Diffusion is the spreading of the particles of a gas, or of any substance in solution. The greater the difference in concentration, the faster the rate of diffusion. Slide 17 Slide 18 Diffusion Summary Diffusion is when particles spread from an area of high concentration to an area of ___ concentration. The particles move along a concentration _____ and this process takes no _____ (its a passive process). Diffusion can be accelerated by increasing the _______ of the particles, which makes them move _______. Words faster, low, gradient, temperature, energy Slide 19 Osmosis Slide 20 Slide 21 Osmosis summary Osmosis is a special kind of ___________. Its when water diffuses from a __________ area to a less concentrated area through a partially permeable _________ (i.e. one that allows water to move through but not anything else): In this example the water molecules will move from left to right (along the concentration ______) and gradually _____ the sugar solution. Plants use osmosis to take in water through their roots. Words membrane, concentrated, dilute, diffusion, gradient Water Slide 22 Which way does movement take place? Strong sugar solution Medium sugar solution Weak sugar solution Potato cells Slide 23 Active transport Slide 24 Active transport summary In diffusion substances moved along a concentration gradient. In active transport, substances move against this gradient: This process takes ______ and this comes from ___________. It enables cells to take in substances even though there are in very small __________. Root hair cells take in ______ using active transport. Words concentration, energy, respiration, nutrients Outside cellInside cell Cell membrane Slide 25 OCR 21 st Century Science Unit B5a Revision Animal & Plant cells and Stem cells Slide 26 Specialisation of animal cells White blood cell Egg cell (ovum) Ciliated epithelial cell Nerve cell (neurone) During the development of a multi-celled organism cells differentiate to form specialised cells: Slide 27 1. Guard cell can open and close to control exchange of gases and water loss 2. Sperm cell long tail providing movement s it can swim to and fertilise egg. Nucleus contains genetic material 3. Red blood cell concave disc shape - increases area to carry more oxygen 6. White blood cell can change shape to digest microbes 5. Root hair cell large surface area to absorb water and minerals. Thin cell wall so minerals can pass through easily. Positioned close to xylem tissue. 4. Egg cell (ovum) large maximum exposure for sperm, has a large food store 7. Neurone long like wires to carry messages around the body Slide 28 Cells, tissues and organs Basically, all living things are made up of cells A group of CELLS makes up a TISSUE A group of TISSUES makes up an ORGAN A group of ORGANS makes up a SYSTEM A group of SYSTEMS make up an ORGANISM Slide 29 Adult stem cells White blood cell Egg cell (ovum) Ciliated epithelial cell Nerve cell (neurone) It is also possible to have adult stem cells these are unspecialised cells that can become specialised later (but they cant form ALL types of cell) Adult stem cells can be found in places like bone marrow. Slide 30 Adult stem Cells Cells inside an organism contain the same genes. So how can cells specialise if they have the same genes and make the same proteins? The reason is that many of the genes in the nucleus are switched off so that the cell only produces the proteins it needs. It is possible to switch on different genes to make the cell produce different proteins this is the basis of stem cell research. Slide 31 Adult Stem cells As well as adult stem cells from bone marrow, stem cells can also come from... Egg and sperm Embryo Cloned embryos These stem cells have the potential to develop into any kind of cell. The rest of the embryo is destroyed. Most of these embryos come from unused IVF treatments. The ethical issue: Should these embryos be treated as humans? Slide 32 Meristems Plant growth occurs in areas called meristems. These meristems are mitotically active: Cells from the meristem behave like stem cells they can develop into any kind of cell. Cloned plants can be produced from these cells. This meristem causes the plant to grow upwards. This meristem causes the plant to grow in width. Slide 33 Phototropism Slide 34 Plant hormones The growth of roots and shoots is controlled by hormones: In the roots hormones slow down growth of the cells in the lower region, which makes the root bend down. In the shoots the hormone auxin is destroyed by light, so the shoot will bend towards the light as the cells on the shaded side grow quickest. Shoots grow towards light (positive phototropism) and against gravity (negative geotropism). Roots grow away from light (negative phototropism) and in the direction of gravity (positive geotropism). Slide 35 Phototropism summary Slide 36 Cuttings Slide 37 OCR 21 st Century Science Unit B5b Revision DNA and Mitosis & Meiois Slide 38 Inside the nucleus the genetic code is in the cell nucleus of animal and plant cells but proteins are produced in the cell cytoplasm Slide 39 DNA DNA has a double helix structure both strands of the DNA molecule are made up of four different bases which always pair up in the same way: A with T, and C with G the order of bases in a gene is the genetic code for the production of a protein Slide 40 DNA and coding for proteins the order of bases in a gene is the code for building up amino acids in the correct order to make a particular protein Slide 41 1) DNA unravels and a copy of one strand is made 2) The strand copy is made to produce RNA 3) The copy (with its code) then moves towards the ribosome 4) The ribosome decodes the code which tells the ribosome how to make the protein In other words, genes do NOT leave the nucleus but a copy of the gene (the mRNA) carries the genetic code to the cytoplasm. Building proteins Slide 42 Slide 43 DNA summary Some facts: - DNA has a double ______ structure - This contains instructions on what a cell does, how the organism should work etc - The instructions are in the form of a ______ - The code is made up from the four ____ that hold the strands together with hydrogen bonds; A always pairs with T and C with G - The bases represent the order in which _____ acids are assembled to make specific ________ Words helix, amino, code, bases, proteins Slide 44 Chromosomes in body cells In body cells the chromosomes are in pairs Body cells have two sets of chromosomes; Sex cells (gametes) have only one set. Sex cells (gametes) are made by meiosis Slide 45 Asexual and sexual reproduction Slide 46 cell division by mitosis produces two new cells that are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell a fertilised egg cell (zygote) divides by mitosis to form an embryo parent cell mitosis daughter cells Mitosis Slide 47 Each daughter cell has the same number of chromosomes and genetic information as the parent its a clone. The chromosomes are copied The chromosomes separate The nucleus divides Mitosis Slide 48 Mitosis summary Slide 49 meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes in meiosis, it is important that the cells produced only contain half the chromosome number of the parent cell a zygote contains a set of chromosomes from each parent. Meiosis Slide 50 Each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes of the parent. Meiosis Slide 51 Meiosis summary Slide 52 Mitosis: 1.Used for growth and repair of cells 2.Used in asexual reproduction 3.Cells with identical number of chromosomes and genetic information are produced (clones) Meiosis: 1.Used to produce haploid gametes for sexual reproduction 2.Each daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes of the parent Mitosis Vs Meiosis Slide 53 OCR 21 st Century Science Unit B6a Revision Nervous system and Reflex actions Slide 54 The nerve cell The CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS) enables us to react to changes in our surroundings (stimuli). It consists mainly of the brain, the spinal chord, nerve cells (neurones) and receptors. Slide 55 Receptor cells Types of receptor: 1)Light receptors in the eyes 2)Sound receptors in the ears 3)Taste receptors on the tongue 4)Smell receptors in the nose 5)Touch, pressure and temperature receptors in the skin 6)Changes of position receptors in the ears (balance) Slide 56 The nerve cell NucleusMuscle strands (effector) Axon a long extension of cytoplasm surrounded by a membrane Nerve cells (neurons) are elongated with branched endings to connect to many muscles fibres and aid the transmission of electrical impulses: Fatty sheath to increase the speed of transmission and to insulate the neuron from surrounding cells Slide 57 CNS and PNS There are two types of neurone we need to consider: The Central Nervous System (CNS) is the spinal cord and brain: The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is the collection of neurones connected to the CNS: 2) Motor neurone Impulse These carry impulses from the CNS to effectors 1) Sensory neurone Impulse These carry impulses from the receptors to the CNS Slide 58 Synapse summary Neurones never ____ each other there is a small gap between them called a _____. A signal is sent from one _______ to the next by a _______ transmitter across the synapse (called a neurotransmitter). These transmitters are then ________ back into the sensory neurone to be used again. This process only reacts with specific chemicals that bind to the receptor molecules. Words chemical, synapse, neurone, touch, reabsorbed Slide 59 A conscious action is one where the brain makes a considered response. Heres what happens: Stimulus Receptor Sensory Neurone Coordinator Motor Neurone Effector Response 1) Receptors in your skin detect a stimulus 3) Here another sensory neurone carries the signal to the brain 4) The brain decides to move away the hand 5) This impulse is sent by MOTOR NEURONES to the hand muscles (the effectors) via the spinal chord 2) The impulse is carried by SENSORY NEURONES to the spinal chord 6) Which then moves the hand away A Conscious action Slide 60 A conscious nervous pathway Slide 61 Copy and complete Slide 62 3 types of neurons Slide 63 The reflex arc Slide 64 Simple reflexes Babies can demonstrate simple reflexes: 1)Stepping reflex (legs step back if you hold the baby up) 2)Startle (or moro) reflex (when a baby hears a loud noise it spreads its arms and legs out) 3)Grasping reflex (gripping your finger with their hands) 4)Rooting reflex 5)Sucking reflex (for breast feeding) Slide 65 Summary Slide 66 OCR 21 st Century Science Unit B6b Revision Learning and memory Slide 67 Drugs and the nervous system Drugs are classed as a substance that affects the central nervous system, causing changes in psychological behaviour and possibly addiction. They do this by affecting the transmission of impulses. Consider Ecstasy for example: Ecstasy (MDMA) blocks the sites in the brains synapses where the transmitter substance serotonin is removed. Beta blockers and Prozac can also affect the transmission of impulses. Slide 68 Some drugs stop the impulse from passing across the Drugs such as strychnine cause all the muscles in the body to go into a continuous spasm of contraction. This also stops the person from . Serotonin is a chemical released in the brain that gives feelings of pleasure. Lack of this chemical can lead to feelings of . Prozac is an drug that causes serotonin concentration to build up in synapses. The Prozac molecule blocks the re-uptake of serotonin from a synapse. Beta blockers are drugs that can help people who suffer from angina (chest pain due to a condition). They work by blocking the receptor sites on heart muscle cells so impulses from nerves which would speed up the heart are from passing to the heart. WORDS: synapse. Breathing depression anti-depressant heart prevented Drugs and the nervous system summary Slide 69 The cerebral cortex The cerebral cortex is the part of our brain most concerned with intelligence, memory and consciousness. By studying the effects (e.g. memory/sight loss) when different parts of the brain are damaged scientists have been able to identify which parts of the brain control which functions. Slide 70 EEG and MRI 1) An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a visual record of the electrical activity generated by neurons in the brain. It works by amplifying and detecting the electrical signals from the brain. 2) Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanning is a new technique that produces images of different cross sections of the brain and uses colours to represent activity. Slide 71 Conditioning- Pavlovs dogs Ivan Pavlov, 1849- 1936 I won the Nobel Prize in 1904 and am most famous for investigating conditioned responses: 1)Steak + dog = saliva 2)Steak + bell + dog = saliva 3)Bell + dog = saliva Notice that the final response (saliva) has no direct relation to the stimulus (the bell). Conditioned reflexes can increase an animals chance of survival! Slide 72 Bird finds a black caterpillar and tastes it. It tastes good so it is eaten Bird finds a black and orange caterpillar and tastes it. It is poisonous and tastes bad so it is not eaten Bird finds a black and orange caterpillar but avoids it because it is poisonous Bird finds a hairy black and orange caterpillar, this one is harmless but the bird still avoids it. Underline the primary stimulus Circle the secondary stimulus Put a box round the conditioned response Extension: Answer the following questions in your exercise book: 1.Which organisms benefit? For each one explain how. 2.Which caterpillar would you expect to find in the highest numbers? Explain your answer. Slide 73 Complex behaviour When the brain is asked to do certain tasks different areas are activated. New experiences cause new neuron pathways to develop, while pathways that are not used are eventually destroyed. This is why we become better at certain tasks when we practice them more often. PET scan showing areas activated by doing algebra. Slide 74 Memory Our memory is divided into two types: short term and long term. Short-term memory lasts for about 30 seconds. This is why, when you look up a new telephone number, by the time the call has ended you have forgotten the number. If more information arrives than can be held in the short-term memory then some is lost (forgotten). Long-term memory may last the whole of your life. When you sing the words of a favourite song, you are using your long- term memory. Although we often complain about how hard it is to learn new things, there is no limit to how much information you can store in your long-term memory. Ways of improving short term memory, e.g. a phone number Ways of improving long term memory e.g. exam revision Slide 75 Multistore model Scientists have produced models to help explain how memory works. So far, none of these models has provided an exact explanation. The multistore memory model can be used to help explain some steps involved in long-term and short-term memory. Slide 76