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My Background in Ocean Optics (some dates are approximate)

1988-1996: Environmental Specialist for Active Optics Project

• Acquire and learn how to use multi-spectral radiance/irradiance sensor system, optical backscatter sensors, and beam transmissometers• Develop software to provide analysis products such as optical attenuation profiles vs. wavelength• Test experimental systems to “measure” nighttime “K”• Participated in 5 major sea tests plus numerous smaller sea tests• Write environmental summary reports on temporal & spatial variability

1992-1994: Environmental Specialist for MIW Program

• Deploy multi-spectral radiance /irradiance sensor system, optical backscatter sensors, and beam transmissometers in shallow coastal sites off Panama City & off Ocean City, Md• Write environmental summary reports on short-term temporal variability (< 1 week) at fixed sites

My Background in Ocean Optics (some dates are approximate)

1994 to 1997: Project Manager & PI for bio-optical monitoring system• Analyze & document results for sensors • Analyzed data from associated platforms

1996-2010: Environmental Specialist for active optics program

1995 to present: Proj Mgr/PI for ONR World-wide Ocean Optics Database (WOOD)

2001-2003: Littoral Warfare Advanced Development (LWAD)

• Project Scientist in the Yellow Sea supporting hyper-spectral optics system• Environmental expert for several sea tests, including exercise in East China Sea

Various Naval Applications of Ocean Optics• Mine Warfare:

- Sonar systems are typically used to find Mine-like Objects- Electro-Optical Identification (EOID) sensors are used to classify those

objects- Examples of EOID systems*:

- Areté Associates Streak Tube Imaging LIDAR (STIL) system- Northrop Grumman Laser Line Scan (LLS) system- Raytheon LLS system

• Special Operations Forces– Detectability of SEAL Delivery Vehicles– Detectability of submerged divers

• Underwater Communications– Optical properties of water directly impacts range & quality of transmission

• Port Security & Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW)– Passive Detectability– Active (e.g. Laser) Detectability

• Other Possible Application: Bathymetry Mapping

* Ref: “Electro-optic Identification Research Program,” James S. Taylor, Jr. and Mary C. Hulgan, Fifth International Symposium on Technology and Mine Problem, 22-25 Apr 2002, Monterey, CA

Airborne Mine Countermeasures (AMCM)• The MH-60S, fitted with Airborne Mine Countermeasures (AMCM) made its

first flight in July 2003.

• Lockheed Martin Systems Integration… is integrator for the MH-60S mine countermeasures systems which includes:

– Raytheon Airborne Mine Neutralization System (AMNS) with BAE Systems Archerfish expendable underwater vehicle that destroys the mines;

– Northrop Grumman Rapid Airborne Mine Clearance System (RAMICS), a non-towed mine neutralization system that will clear near-surface and surface-moored mines using a Kaman Aerospace laser target sensor and a 30mm mk44 gun;

– Raytheon AN/AQS-20A towed sonar with mine identification system which entered production in September 2005;

– Northrop Grumman airborne laser mine detection system, AN/AES-1 ALMDS,

• AN/AES-1 ALMDS detects and classifies floating and near-surface moored mines, using pulsed laser light. The ALMDS pod is mechanically attached to the MH-60S with a standard Bomb Rack Unit 14 (BRU-14) mount.

Ref: http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/mh_60s/

Airborne Laser Mine Detection System (ALMDS)

Operations Desert Storm and Desert Shield demonstrated the need for minehunting systems as an integral element of deployed forces. …Navy began developing …five airborne mine countermeasure systems to negate the identified threat. One of the systems, the Airborne Laser Mine Detection System (ALMDS), is a mine countermeasure that is intended to detect, classify, and localize floating and near-surface moored sea mines. The Navy will deploy the ALMDS on MH-60S helicopters to provide organic airborne mine defense for Carrier Battle Groups (Carrier Groups), and Amphibious Ready Groups (Amphibious Groups).…Areté Associates is contracted with Northrop Grumman to provide the STIL* sensor for the ALMDS system. The STIL sensor detects sea surface and near sea surface volume mines that the AN/AQS-20X system is not designed to detect.

* STIL = StreakTube Imaging Lidar

Airborne Mine Neutralization System (AMNS)

• Raytheon is receiving $14.7M for seven more AMNS systems

• Ref: info by Jeff Steelman via email from George Pollitt, 9-23-10

…. The airborne mine neutralization system will explosively neutralize bottom and moored mines using an expendable mine neutralize device. The system will be deployed from the MH-60 helicopter as part of the littoral combat ship mine countermeasures mission module.

EOID Sensor SystemsThe EOID laser line scan technology uses a diode-pumped Nd: YAG laser that provides 500 mW of power for the Raytheon system and 160 mW for the Northrop Grumman system, both operating at 532 nm wavelength. The Raytheon system was a research and development sensor maintained and operated by CSS while the Northrop Grumman system was sized to fit into the AN/AQS-14A(V1) towed body. The laser illuminates a small spot, which is synchronously scanned by a photomultiplier receiver to build up a raster-scanned image. The laser scans downward through a 70-degree field-of-view (FOV). Figure 1 represents the EOID scanning scheme for target identification.

1.0 /m0 /m

Variability in c 532 nm

Worst

MiddleBest

Example of How Optical Values Affect Imagery

Ref: Smart,J.H., “Optical Climatologies for US Navy Missions,” Mine Warfare, April 2002

Airborne Mine Neutralization System (AMNS):

uses “Archerfish” UUV controlled via fiber-optic link to helo; UUV has sonar & optical

sensors

Environment•<Xkt wind speed•<X sig wave height •mean period?•<Xkt current

FO for ACS/Video

and C2

ACS tracking of NTR by LHS for navigation

Safe standoff ~xxyds (horizontal)

LHS Depth (XXft)

Hover Altitude

(XXft)

Target•<Xft by YftR AOU•No false cues•Vert/horiz motion?•Diam: XX – YY ft

Water Depth > XXft

Case Depth0-XX’

•Daylight operations only

•NTR trajectory for re-acquire?•NTR trajectory for endgamge?

•Re-acquire involves acoustic detection of case•Endgame could involve detection of mooring

3.5km of FO for ACS/Video and C2

Conceptual View of How uses “Archerfish”

“To acquire the target, Archerfish activates its short range sonar and video link, transmitting sonar imagery and video pictures back to its controller for inspection and identification. The advanced maneuvering capabilities enable it to traverse the target to obtain images from a variety of angles providing the controller with detailed identification information.Following confirmation of target, Archerfish is maneuvered in place where the mine is detonated…”

http://www.baesystems.com/ProductsServices/bae_prod_2.html

Transit to Uncertainty Area

Reacquire

Identify

Final ApproachNeutralize

Common Console

Common Neutralizer (Expendable & Exercise)

AN/ASQ-235 Airborne Mine Neutralization System (AMNS)

LHS with Neutralizers

CSTRS w/ AMNS Jettison Testing

Steps to Target Neutralization

4

6Reacquisition

Search Area(RSA)

NeutralizerTrack

Launch Point

1

2

3

4,5,6

Actual Location

Reported Location

Reacquire MLO Final Approach Identify MLO Maneuver to Neutralize

Neutralize TargetLaunch & Transit

532

WaterCurrent

1

Safe Depth ValidSO ARM sentPilot Master ARM sent

Safe Depth ValidSafe Standoff validPilot Master ARM validSO ARM validSO FIRE sent

Safe Standoff valid Safe Standoff valid Safe Standoff valid

Achieve Safe Depth valid

Safe Depth validSafe Standoff validARM Timers complete

Operational Standoff

350m

4 Way Pointsshown

Safe Standoff250m

Testing Highlights• High Current at Carderock CWC (Nov-Dec

05)– 77 Runs at various water speeds up to

Maximum– Estimated Successful Prosecutions: 92%

• At-Sea CT Testing (15 Dec 05 - 21 June 06)– Performed Successful Attack Runs against

all Target Types in Shallow and Deep Target Fields.

– 43 Missions Against Targets• MH-53 CT / DT Flight Tests (28 July – 15

Aug 06)– 26 Missions Against Targets– Total Average Ts (All Targets) = 7m 13s

Special Operations (SPECOP) Forces

• Possible Concerns: -Detection of underwater light sources used by SPECOP forces:

-Light sticks were developed by the U.S. Navy as an inconspicuous and easily shielded illumination tool for special operations forces dropped behind enemy lines. Besides their use as children's toys, they are also used extensively as a navigation aid by divers searching in muddy water. The light sticks glow as a result of the energy released by a chemical reaction.

Ref: http://www.articlesbase.com/education-articles/importance-of-chemiluminescence-and-bioluminescence-2075376.html

- Detection of bioluminescence from SEAL Delivery Vehicle or swimmers

ASW Applications: Daytime Passive Optical Detection

Example of Hull Detectability from Airborne Observer

November Yellow Sea

Chinese sub

Src: unknown

Example of Hull Detectability from Airborne Observer

19

Src: http://www.militaryphotos.net/forums/showthread.php?164653-Submerged-submarines

Passive Optical Hull Detection

• Problem:– Submarines operating

at shallow depths in clear littoral waters can be visible to an airborne observer

• Mitigation Approach:– Install COTS optical

sensors to monitor water clarity + detectability models = predict of vulnerability to visual detection 20

Src: http://media.photobucket.com/image/photo%20of%20submerged%20submarine/cbleyte/submarine_submerged_visible.jpg

Passive Optical Hull & Surface Wake Detection

Visual Detection

Submarines operating at or near the surface are potentially vulnerable to visual detection. Anything that protrudes above the surface, such as a periscope, antenna, or mast will leave a significant wake if the submarine is moving at any speed over a few knots. And, since depth control and steerage is quite difficult at low speeds, it is not uncommon for submarines to be traveling at least 4 or 5 knots just below the surface.

The periscope (for example) will create a wake, called "feather", which is quite visible, and will also leave a remnant of its passage, called a "scar". The scar is a long streak of foam or bubbles left behind after the object passes. The feather may be just a few meters, but the scar may be tens of meters long. Either may be visible for up to 10 miles, and are easily spotted by low flying aircraft in the vicinity.

Periscopes and other protruding masts and antennas are also often painted in dark or camouflage colors to reduce their visibility.

If the water is especially clear, the submarine hull or its shadow may be visible for a few hundred feet under water, but is usually not distinguishable unless the water is shallow with a light colored bottom (like white sand).

21

Src: see notes page

Factors Affecting Visual Detection

Sun Angle

Clouds

Altitude, Look Angles, Dwell Time

HazeSurface Clutter

Target DepthTarget Reflectance

Water ClarityWater Reflectance

Bottom DepthBottom Reflectance

Factors Affecting Detectability• Primary environmental factors influencing optical hull detection

– Water clarity– Sea state– Atmospheric conditions (especially cloud cover &

fog)– Illumination

• Primary operational factors influencing optical hull detection– Submarine depth– Hull contrast– Proximity/altitude/angle/training of observers– Period of exposure

• Secondary factors– Bottom contrast

Example of Underwater Visibility

Src: http://www.militaryphotos.net/forums/showthread.php?164653-Submerged-submarines

Diver visibility range & attenuation

cC

Vmrangevisibility Lln),( −=

CL contrast detection limit for human beingc optical beam attenuation coefficient (m-1)

From Radiative Transfer Theory,• Priesendorfer (1976)• Duntley (1963)

Backscattering is NOT a good proxy for visibility

Zaneveld and Pegau (2003)

Accuracy better than 10%

( )[ ]081.065018.18.4+

=c

V

Other Possible ASW Applications: Nighttime Passive Optical Detection due

to Bioluminescence

• Complements acoustics - does not replace it

• Prevalent in the acoustically noisy littorals where boats must operate shallow

• Many initial submarine detections are by non-acoustics

Bioluminescence:Why Should the Navy Care?

Factors Affecting Bioluminescence Detectability

Signature Intensity• Platform Speed • Platform Depth • Bioluminescence Potential• Water Clarity

Summary of Concept Demo on US Submarine

• Photometer successfully collected Bioluminescence intensity while a USS Submarine was underway

• Could distinguish night/day Bioluminescence in signatures, even without validated time stamps

• Could distinguish higher/lower Bioluminescence based on depth of Submarine

What is Bioluminescence: An optical parameter

• Emission of light by living organisms• Turbulence initiated chemical reaction• Globally distributed phenomenon

– est. 70% of marine organisms bioluminesce– measured from equator to Arctic pack ice

• Blue-green in color which travels furthestin the ocean

All images, Harbor Branch (E. Widder)

UNCLASSIFIED

UNCLASSIFIED

Bioluminescent organisms can be mechanically stimulated to produce light. Turbulence generated by a ship’s passage or even the movement of dolphins and fish is enough to create the glow.

What causes these organisms to glow?

Does it matter? Those cells are so small.

The luminescence of a single dinoflagellate is readily visible to the dark adapted human eye. Most dinoflagellates emit about 6 e+8 photons in a flash lasting only about 0.1 second. Much larger organisms such as jellyfish emit about 2 e+11

photons per second for sometimes tens of seconds.

UNCLASSIFIED

UNCLASSIFIED

Bioluminescence

You don’t have to be a large target to be vulnerable to detection by bioluminescence. Figures show low light level camera detection of a 10 in. diameter sphere at different depths.

Depth = 10 ft. Depth = 20 ft.

Optical Clarity

• The clarity of the water depends on multiple factors and varies depending on depth, location, currents, outflow from rivers to name a few factors.

• Objects may be vulnerable due to color and configuration. If the target has a high contrast against the background it is more likely to be spotted.

• In clear, shallow areas where bottom reflectance is high (e.g., white sand, light colored coral), vertical (downward) detection of relatively dark objects will be enhanced due to contrast.

Yellow Sea, East China Sea, & Philippine Sea: Historical Optical ClarityVertical (left) & Horizontal (right) Visibility

•Most turbid of the 4 areas, most historical data available•Dominated by tidal cycle, coastal waters very dirty•Vertical visibility 20-40+ ft in deeper waters•Vertical visibility 0-10 ft in all coastal areas•Summer rainy season, clearer waters in winter months

•Turbid in coastal areas, very clear offshore•Straits high spatial and temporal variability, with vertical visibilities from 5-30 ft. Values can be artificially low due to shallow bathymetry off the west coast of Taiwan.•Vertical visibility 40-80+ ft offshore •Vertical visibility 0-10 ft coastally•Summer rainy season, clearer waters in winter months

6-10 m

6-10 m

0-1 m 1-2

m

3-6 m

~15-30 m

~6-15 m

South China Sea and Philippine SeaHistorical Optical Clarity/Vertical Visibility

•Least historical data available of 4 areas•Highly turbid along northern boundaries, much clearer offshore•Vertical visibilities 40-60+ ft offshore in deep waters•Vertical visibilities 0-20 ft coastally•Summer rainy season, clearer waters in winter months•Clear waters around Philippines and further south

•Very clear waters in all of Philippine Sea•Vertical visibilities 30-80+ ft throughout•Minimal effects of tides and summer rainy season•More turbid pockets around Northern Philippine Islands, but generally very clear with little variability

~12-15 m

> 10 m

Other Possible Applications: Bathymetry Mapping in Shallow Coastal Waters

Bathymetry from Ocean Color• Knowledge of ocean bathymetry is important for navigation & for

scientific studies of the ocean's volume, ecology, and circulation, all of which are related to Earth's climate.

• In coastal regions detailed bathymetric maps are critical for storm surge modeling, marine power plant planning, understanding of ecosystem connectivity, coastal management, and change analyses.

• Because ocean areas are enormously large and ship surveys have limited coverage, adequate bathymetric data are still lacking throughout the global ocean.

• Satellite altimetry can produce reasonable estimates of bathymetry for the deep ocean [Sandwell et al., 2003, 2006], but the spatial resolution is very coarse (∼6–9 kilometers) and can be highly inaccurate in shallow waters, where gravitational effects are small.

• Depths retrieved from the ETOPO2 bathymetry database for the Great Bahama Bank are seriously in error when compared with ship surveys & no statistical correlation was found between the two

• Determining a higher-spatial-resolution (e.g., 300-meter) bathymetry of this region with ship surveys would require ~ 4 years of nonstop effort.

Ref: Lee, Z., et.al., "Global Shallow-Water Bathymetry From Satellite Ocean Color Data,” EOS, Transactions American Geophysical Union, VOL. 91, NO. 46, P. 429, 2010, doi:10.1029/2010EO460002

Bathymetry from Ocean Color

Fig. 1 (a) Depth of {he Great Bahamas Bank retrieved from the E70P02 bathymetry database. (b) Scatter plot between in situ depth and E70P02 bathymetry of matching locations (inset shows ETOP02 bathymetry under 60 meters). (c) bottom depth derived from Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MER/S) measurements (14 December 2004) by the hyper-spectral optimization process exemplar (HOPE) approach. (d) like Figure I b, a scatter plot between in situ depth and M£RIS depths (rounded to nearest integer to match ETOPO2 format; blue indicates 14 December 2004,green indicates 6 September 2008). The coefficient of determination (R2) represents all data points (281) in the plot. Note the color scale difference in Figures 1a and Ic. Black pixels represent land or deep waters.

Bathymetry from Ocean Color