O C C A S I O N A L P A P E R S

I N

PACIFIC ETHNOMUSICOLOGY

No. 2, 1992

D E P A R T M E N T O F A N T H R O P O L O G Y

U N I V E R S I T Y O F A U C K L A N D

HGOROFUTUNA Report of a Survey of the

Music of West Futuna,

Vanuatu

By Allan Thomas and

Takaroga Kuautoga

Occasional Papers in Pacific Ethnomusicology

No. 2, 1992

This volume is the second of a series of data-orientated publications on Pacific ethnomusicology. The Papers are intended for material too long or specialised for publication elsewhere, in such fields as music ethnography, analysis, descriptions of recorded collections and archiving. Contributions are welcome, and prospective authors should contact the Editor before submitting a manuscript.

Series Editor: Richard Moyle

First published 1992

Archive of Maori and Pacific Music Department of Anthropology

University of Auckland Private Bag 92019, Auckland 1

New Zealand

Copyright © 1992 Allan Thomas

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording or

otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers.

I S S N 1170-7941 I S B N 0-908689-29-2

CONTENTS

In t roduc t ion 8

Details o f the Survey 12

O u t l i n e o f Ac t iv i t i e s 12

R e c o r d i n g s and E q u i p m e n t 13 T a g i M e m o r i a l Songs 13

K a f a 15

T a g i h k a i 17 D a n c i n g 18

Trad i t i ona l Games 20 Instruments and S o u n d T o y s 22

C h u r c h 22

C h r i s t m a s - N e w Y e a r 24

Str ing B a n d 25 S u m m a r y 26 B i b l i o g r a p h y 28

Glossary o f M u s i c a l T e r m s 28

A p p e n d i x 29

5

6

Futuna, showing the settlements at Ipao and Matagi (Napua and Imrae) and in the Herald Bay district (Itaromara, Isia, M o g a and Iasoa). The high flat centre o f the island is used for gardening, and is l inked to the settlements by precipitous tracks. The photograph on page 5 is taken from the southern point o f Herald Bay, looking towards the high interior. (Photograph: Allan Thomas, 1992.)

7

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H G O R O F U T U N A

This is a report o f a survey conducted i n Futuna i n 1990 as part o f the

Territorial Survey o f Oceanic M u s i c funded by Unesco and the Internal Grants Commit tee , Vic to r i a Univers i ty o f We l l i ng ton .

T h e report describes the activities, and outlines the findings, o f the survey. T h e transcriptions and type-descriptions are intended as w o r k i n g

definitions, and are not the result o f extensive analysis.

T h e report was substantially wri t ten i n the field i n September 1990

w i t h the typed copy sent to Futuna for checking. T h e addit ion o f transcriptions, some reflection and editing have subsequently occurred.

The orthography o f the written language is treated in detail in Dougherty 1983:1-14 to which reference should be made, readers should note the following :

j usually an "sh" sound h a glottal stop

g pronounced "ng"

8

INTRODUCTION

T a pepa ne i n ipena iefaru penaganea, fijikauga ia Tafaga tuai ia H g o r o Futuna . A 1990 a fijikauga ne i n ipena e Takaroga Kuau toga

Fu tuna m a A l l a n T h o m a s N e w Zea land .

T a n o h k a n o ita fijikauga tenei. P e ka fakatupuria a hgoro keke oji ia hgo ro tuai m a hgoro i n o p o g i ne i pe ka nage fakarufie pe kaso

touak i , pe a vakatagata n o r o m a i ka farigoina a Tafaga m o a penaganea ia hgoro keke o j i Fu tuna . A n e a o j i n i amoa ka nage Futuna , faru ka

nage ia Kal taral Senta i V i l a faru ka nage ita Un i fe s i t i V i k t o r i a N i u Si lan - M a nohnea oj i nomatakina anea feipenei pe kaiso touaki ia

fanua keke oj i ia Pasafik.

T a hnofo ia penaganea fou nofi j i i n o p o g i n e i a tagata k o j i k a i ta

toro toro ia penaganea iorea vahtupuna nohnofo iai tuai. A U n e s c o n e i s i tokina tafijikauga ne i pe kamatakina a K a s t o m keke oj i ia m o t u

keke ia pasafik.

A nea o j i n i amoa m o n i fakatupuria ita fijikauga tenei etapu ta pena mane ia i . K a i e m o gatama ia Vakatagata o j i n o r o m a i pe kirea k a -

farigoina a hgoro kastam keke oj i m a penaganea kage iai i t iorea fanua i Fu tuna . Efaru antafa f o k i n i amoa ita fijikauga tenei ia H g o r o H m o r i m a ta S t r ing B a n d .

T a fijikauga tenei a faki Fu tuna oj i eno hnofo i Futuna , ma i V i l a

itantafa ia f akor ik i m a i ta h m o r i m a ta M i n i s t a E Nah tape i n i gatahtasi

iai pe ka pena. A fakai Fu tuna o j i n i situ itantafa ita pena hgoro , fesaoa

hka i m a fesaoga, itantafa ita h m o r i , fakau fakairoa, a ganafune, gatamtane notafir i m a no S t r ing B a n d . A i g o a orea o j i n i serea itasi a norau ita pepa.

Feipe fakau o j i n is i tu ita fijikauga tenei n ikan ien i pe kamatakina a

tafaga rufie oj i o ta fanua i Fu tuna , m a kafakaria-kea k i a tagata oji uaitafa ita kere pe i Fu tuna ta fo i pahtoka ita tai no ia i a tagata m a kastam

rufie kage ia i .

T a n u m r a ia tagata nohno fo ia takapito Fanua ifutuna ita nofajaga

tenei feipe 3-400 kaie more fuma ta n u m r a tasiana fok i ia fakai i Futuna nohnofo i Gauta ma i V i l a . Efaru nohnofo ia fijikauga efaru no ia

Haospete l kaie faru nohno fo ia skul .

INTRODUCTION

A record ing survey o f the music o f Fu tuna was under taken i n Augus t and September 1990 by Takaroga K u a u t o g a (resident o f Fu tuna and

f ie ldworker [since 1985] o f the V a n u a t u C u l t u r a l Centre) and A l l a n T h o m a s (Lecturer i n the S c h o o l o f M u s i c , V i c t o r i a U n i v e r s i t y o f

W e l l i n g t o n , N e w Zealand) .

T h e a im o f the survey was to r ecord examples o f each k i n d o f mus ic

i n Futuna for a rch iv ing and study purposes. A r c h i v e copies o f the recordings are deposited i n Futuna , i n the V a n u a t u C u l t u r a l Cen t r e

Por t V i l a , i n the Arch ives o f M a o r i and Pacif ic M u s i c ( A u c k l a n d Unive r s i ty ) , and the originals are he ld i n the As i a Pacif ic A r c h i v e ,

V i c t o r i a U n i v e r s i t y o f W e l l i n g t o n .

T h e Ter r i to r i a l Survey o f O c e a n i c music is a project p r inc ipa l ly funded by U n e s c o w h i c h aims to assist i n the conservat ion and

k n o w l e d g e o f the traditions o f the Pacif ic Islands.

T h e survey was approved by M i n i s t e r E d w a r d Na tape i and the C o u n c i l o f Chiefs i n Futuna, and supported by the V a n u a t u C u l t u r a l

Cen t re . O n Futuna , assistance was g iven by m a n y knowledgeab le singers and storytellers, by chu rch leaders, school teachers, w o m e n ' s organisations, the dance group, string band and others.

Those w h o participated are interested i n preserving the t radi t ion

o f Futuna and i n presenting an accurate pic ture o f it to outsiders.

Futunans value the special character o f the cus tom o f their r o c k y

homeland . T h e c o m m u n i t y numbers 400 people l i v i n g i n three regions o n the island. Perhaps double that n u m b e r l ive i n T a n n a and V i l a , where recordings were also made. T h o u g h isolated, the island

c o m m u n i t y is subjected to the 20th-century pressures o f modern i sa ­

t ion and change.

(A sample audio cassette o f Fu tunan music recorded o n this survey,

i n c l u d i n g the items transcribed for this O c c a s i o n a l P a p e r , is available f rom the As ia Pacif ic A r c h i v e , S c h o o l o f M u s i c , V i c t o r i a U n i v e r s i t y

o f W e l l i n g t o n , P O B o x 600, W e l l i n g t o n , N e w Zea land . Detai ls w i l l

be p rov ided o n request.)

10

Esore a kastam n i k o touak i kaie efaru ni toe kaie tasi a tafito vaga

ota kapman otea pe a "Kas t am K a m a t a k i n a " atagata kamanatunea ia i .

A kastam rufie area ka fakairoafeipe ia penaganea ota hnofo otagata. A kas tom tafiri n iko j ik i j i a ia p i to fanua oj i ma n i k o fakaria i V i l a ma

ianohnea waitafa kea feipe Austra l ia m a Japan m a ka rokea fok i ita kerenei o j i .

T a materu hgoro m a hka i teni pena ne i ka situ fakasisiana ia faikai futuna, ia hgoro m a hka i en i k o touak i m o n i k o vahgaromia ekiera.

A h a ka pena kitea pe katufa ia vakatagata n o r o m a i w a i m o a iakitea pe

ka farigoina anea nei? Efaru a mentua enei pe a fatoriki ota fanua ka pena.

1. A fatoriki j ik i tas i o j i ia p i to fanua i Fu tuna ka tukage ia tagata pe ka serea ia pepa a hgoro feipe ia T a g i ,

P isak i , U j i a , mefaru fok i eituai pe kanomentua ia penaganea iorea vahtupuna nipena n ihgoro iai tuai

pe kaiso Vahgaron ia . A f a t o r i k i ka tusia tasi anofajaga ita tau pekano pena ia tauoji pe a tagata oj i

ka pena tasi a fakatamauga ia hgoro tuai pe kano mentua ia hgoro m a ka fakairoa fok i a tagata oj i ia i .

2. A fator iki kanogia a " V a n u a t u Kaljaral Senta" pe kai kauna m a i ta tagata no pena kaset ia " V i d e o " pe eia kahma i k i Fu tuna kame i amoa a penaganea oj i

nopena ita R a m a g a . A kaset erua kapena tasi kanage

i V i l a kaie tasi n i o Futuna .

3. F o k i a fator iki ka sara tasi a retu pe kasi tokina ita

fijikauga tenei, itan tafa ita tape m a ta serea a kha i o j i . Pe ka saga ka pena itasi a pepa sisi Kaserea ita fesao i futuna m a ta (English), fok i pe a gatama nosku l ka

taua m a fakai waitafa fok i pe kano farigoina ia hka i ita fanua i Futuna .

A mentua oj i n i serea penei pe ta fijikauga tenei kaiso vahgapua kaie

ka pena pe ka matakina m o ka fafekina ma i efaru anea a tagata n i k o semanatunea fakasore iai pe ka matakina.

11

Some notable achievements i n re ta ining the t radi t ion have been

made; the p o l i c y o f the V a n u a t u G o v e r n m e n t i n hav ing performances at national and internat ional festivals has undoub ted ly he lped reinstate tradit ional dancing.

T h e survey p r o v i d e d an oppor tun i ty for Fu tunan people to th ink about the survival o f their oral t radi t ion and about posi t ive steps (wi th

wr i t t en records and archival tapes) w h i c h can be taken to strengthen it. A t the conc lus ion o f the survey some objectives were suggested

to the C o u n c i l o f Chiefs :

1. Tha t the chiefs shou ld encourage each family to remember and wr i t e d o w n t a g i so that the history o f

earlier generations is not lost. A c o m p e t i t i o n m i g h t be he ld to encourage families to do this. T h e

responsibil i ty for r emember ing the songs shou ld be shared by all the people.

2. Tha t the chiefs should request the V a n u a t u C u l t u r a l

Cen t r e to f i l m the ceremonies and dances w h i c h are done w h e n kingfish are caught. T h i s shou ld be done

i n canoes, beach, vil lage and m a r a e w i t h o lder m e n , w h o remember the cus tom di rec t ing the v ideo . (Copies o f the v ideo w o u l d be a rch ived i n V i l a and

he ld i n Futuna.)

3. Tha t the chiefs shou ld encourage the r eco rd ing and

w r i t i n g d o w n o f h k a i (traditional tales) and to l o o k

for ways o f h av ing these and other cus tom materials publ i shed i n the Fu tunan language as w e l l as Eng l i sh . These materials m i g h t then be used i n the schools,

and by interested people outside Futuna .

These suggestions a i m to con t inue the w o r k o f s t rengthening the oral t radi t ion.

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DETAILS OF T H E SURVEY

Outline of Activities T h e first approach was made to recognised singers o f the older

generation w h o were asked to record songs and stories. As w e became more aware o f the types o f music available, w e were able to request

particular kinds o f songs and to explore the repertoire more fully. T h e typology (see Glossary below) may be considered relatively complete in

the areas covered, though w i t h insufficient opportunity for investigation

i n women ' s singing, women ' s dance, incantations, and panpipes style or repertoire. In the areas covered, the limits o f the repertoire in any type

were not reached, though some songs and stories were recorded a number o f times. A t this stage it is not possible to give the extent o f the repertoire.

M u s i c w h i c h was recorded in performance context included custom

dance, songs i n folk tales, children's traditional games and church h y m n singing. T h e contemporary music o f the string band was also recorded

i n Tanna dur ing the compet i t ion at the national 10th Anniversary celebrations. These recordings i n performance context provide informa­

t ion for evaluating the solo recordings.

T h e documentat ion o f songs proved difficult for investigators and singers alike. A l t h o u g h used i n everyday conversation, the Futunan

language is not frequently writ ten, and translation into English proved difficult. T h e few translations included i n the documentation should be considered provisional unt i l further w o r k is carried out on them. In

addition to contemporary Futunan, the songs may have some other

language remnants, as w e l l as Vanuatu pidgin English.

Diff iculty was experienced because o f the spread o f the Futunan

commun i ty i n Vanuatu (Vila - Tanna - Futuna) and around the island o f Futuna itself. As n e w information was obtained, it w o u l d have been useful to check w i t h earlier informants, but this was seldom possible. T h e

two fieldwork periods i n Futuna totalled 5 weeks, and a short t ime was

also spent in Tanna and V i l a .

Johnnie Tapasei and M e i r i Seitu assisted the authors w i t h recording or translating. Special thanks are due to N u m a n i a , Yala , U k a i and R o s m y .

T h e Pastor and session, W o m e n ' s G r o u p and the School Teachers also contributed to the success o f this venture.

13

Recordings and Equipment Equipment used in the survey consisted o f a Sony T C D 5 M cassette

recorder, a Sony Digi ta l A u d i o Tape-corder T C D - D 1 0 cassette recorder w i t h stereo condenser microphone, and a J V C video recorder. B o t h the

video recorder and D A T cassette recorder were unable to be fully used o w i n g to the lack o f a w o r k i n g generator o n the island. T h e y were,

however, used for selected recordings o n Futuna.

Weather conditions for recording were generally poor; almost c o n ­stant w i n d and the lack o f solid buildings i n most parts o f the island made

it difficult to escape from extraneous noise.

C o p y i n g was possible in the field by combin ing the two cassette recorders (a complete set o f field tapes was left i n Futuna) but editing has

since been done at the School o f M u s i c , V ic to r i a Univers i ty o f Wel l ing ton . Interest centres o n the use o f D A T equipment, a relatively

new technology w h i c h provided recordings w i t h excellent definition.

TAGI MEMORIAL SONGS

O n e o f the pr inc ipa l purposes o f song i n Fu tuna is to r emember

and record events and people . Songs documen t history, especially the activities o f individuals . T h o u g h called " t a g i " , a w o r d -with

associations o f w e e p i n g o r l ament ing over death, the songs are no t p redominan t ly mourn fu l , but are factual accounts o f events i n a person's life (see E x . 1). In performance songs are often de l ivered i n

a quiet unadorned manner o r they may be sung and danced as kafa (See be low)

A l t h o u g h t a g i recount the events o f the life o f a specific i n d i v i d u a l

that person is not named i n the song. N o w that t a g i are se ldom performed, the k n o w l e d g e o f w h o a particular t a g i is about, as w e l l as a full k n o w l e d g e o f the text, seems i n i m m i n e n t danger o f b e i n g lost.

T h e last t a g i to be composed is thought to have been for N i m o h o ,

a man w h o d ied i n 1976. T h e composer K a l a n u , w h o part icipated i n this survey, is n o w very o l d (born c.1906) and was unable to

remember this particular song. N o t a g i about w o m e n were recorded i n the survey.

14

T w o t a g i r eco rd ing dramatic historic events deserve special

m e n t i o n as impor tan t documents o f an oral t radi t ion. T h e y concern

the labourers ' trips to Queens l and and F i j i i n the late 19th century.

A l t h o u g h these songs relate to an historic event, individuals figure

p r o m i n e n t l y i n them. T h e t a g i about Queens land was recorded f rom

six singers w h o each gave a selection o f verses, ind ica t ing that the song

is imperfect ly remembered . 1

T o d a y , songs are commis s ioned for m e m o r i a l gatherings ( k a i t a r u a )

he ld a year or so after death. O n these occasions the grave is

decorated, there is feasting for the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y , and the pe r iod

o f m o u r n i n g (dur ing w h i c h , for example, a w i d o w may not remarry)

is comple ted . M o d e r n m e m o r i a l songs may be group composi t ions

i n string band o r other musical styles.

Ex . 1. T a g i O Vakesa.

- p — ^ ^

'-V—» ( A - ) v iU no - kc ma

J 1 - nu k o ta - fe - tia - tai V i - la

-S : - , 4 r r ' 4-

le

— r k i i - a va u nc ko - m

• a - ni

-«

1 V i • r i

• i ;

• put N i - mei

- f l — i n — i — i —

- g M u- • • • i f * fa - go - na va - u ni - mei - j i - ko - j i a vau - ta - po(-tu)

In the survey, this t a g i was sung by Naparau and M e r e ( r e c o r d i n g I tem

53). I f the t a g i was sung as a k a f a , the i d i o p h o n e beats w o u l d occur as

the first beat o f the bar, but these are not stressed i n the s inging i n this

unaccompan ied record ing . T h e full text appears i n the A p p e n d i x .

A n account of these two songs appears in Allan Thomas, "Songs as History; A Preliminary Assessment of T w o Songs of the Blackbirding Era Recently Recorded in Western Futuna, Vanuatu" . J o u r n a l ofPacific H i s t o r y (forthcoming).

15

K A F A

Songs w i t h rhythmic accompaniment were formerly performed at

festive gatherings. Participants sat beside a l og or giant bamboo, striking

it w i t h a short w o o d e n beater. T h e buttress roots o f a tree were also

ment ioned as a possible " d r u m " . A distinctive musical feature o f kafa

performance is the accelerated tempo at the end o f the song; typically, the

final repetition o f a chorus w i l l be performed at a faster tempo than the

rest o f the song. T h e change in tempo is not gradual, but abruptly

increases to more than double the original value, e.g. J = #7 to J = »*. A n y

dancing occurr ing dur ing the performance appears to be improvised.

T h e w o r d kafa has a n u m b e r o f related meanings. (Nos . 1-3 are

f rom D o u g h e r t y 1983):

1. R o p e made of husk fibres, sennit. This rope is made by splitting the coconut husk in half and beating it wi th sticks on a log or section of giant bamboo until soft, and then stripping the fibres out of smooth, twist and braid into rope.(Protopolynesian kafa - sennit) 2. Festival drum. Large hollow log or giant bamboo which drummers beat wi th sticks in accompanying tradi­tional songs and dancing, " h t a k a f a " , drum beating 3. A large traditional gathering involving drumming to set the beat for dancing and singing. 4. Performance o f a song with beating o f kafa drum, usually concluding wi th tempo acceleration. Different kinds of songs, including t a g i , can be performed as kafa.

A related performance is s u p r a t o i n w h i c h beating is done w i t h stones on the ground. In the past, w h e n two groups met and alternated i n song

performance, s u p r a t o was said to alternate w i t h kafa. Such alternation

could involve abusive songs (for example, between lineages). Cha l l eng­ing or abusive alternation, termed p i s a k e , is today found i n certain

children's games (see below).

T h e only performance o f kafa seen dur ing the survey was a commissioned performance by the dance group (see below), but i n d i ­

viduals singing t a g i frequently sang them as kafa by beating t ime and

increasing the tempo at the end o f the song.

Kafa performance. The costumed dance group performs a kafa using bamboo as the kafa idiophone. (Photograph: Al lan Thomas, Futuna, 1990.)

17

TAGIHKAI

A weal th o f oral narratives ( h k a i ) exists i n Futuna , ranging f rom fanciful nature stories ( " H o w the dove and the f ly ing fox got

married") to the exploits o f m y t h o l o g i c a l and legendary heroes, especially M a u i . M a n y contain short songs label led t a g i h k a i (see E x .

2). T h e texts o f the songs may be obscure but, f rom their context and the familiari ty o f the story, they are not misunders tood. T h e tales

themselves are t o ld i n contemporary Fu tunan language.

A notable feature o f the tales is the w a y each is precisely located

geographically, and often associated w i t h a certain area o n the island, usually w i t h p rominen t landscape features, especially large boulders

or stones. T h e tales often act as an explanat ion for the landscape features as w e l l as abundance or appearance i n nature. It was no ted

that most o f the stories or iginated i n the M a t a g i and H e r a l d B a y districts o f the island. T h e impression gained o f h k a i was that o f a

l ive ly s torytel l ing t radi t ion, not frequently per formed today as family even ing entertainment, but w e l l r emembered nonetheless.

Ex . 2. T a n a i o

Example 2 is Item 92 from the Survey, sung by Saola during the telling o f

the tale of Tanaio.

18

Almos t all telling o f h k a i dur ing the survey was done whi le direcdy

facing the tape recorder, and wi thout audience encouragement or interaction. A l t h o u g h this was an artificial setting for storytelling, local

evaluation o f the recordings suggested that the content was the same w h e n a story was performed for an audience, though it is suggested that

subtle changes might be made to make the delivery more entertaining w h e n an audience was present. Some tellers ( Y a w o i , Kaiaha, Saola) made

their tales more entertaining by emphasising humorous incidents w i t h varied voice levels, and speed o f delivery. Several tales were recorded

more than once, for comparative purposes.

DANCING

Tradit ional dancing is n o w often associated w i t h a particular group w h i c h has performed i n recent years at festivals o n national or interna­

tional occasions. K n o w l e d g e o f dancing was maintained over the last century (c. 1870 - 1970) by k n o w n individuals in defiance o f church

disapproval or prohibi t ion.

A decisive change i n the status o f dance occurred i n the 1970s when ,

for a visit to the N e w Hebrides by Q u e e n Elizabeth II, a group rehearsed dances for a performance i n Por t V i l a . T h e subsequent performing history o f dancing is intertwined w i t h that o f String B a n d playing, w h i c h

has also gained a national reputation from appearance at Festivals.

F o l l o w i n g the Queen's visit i n 1974 were the First Nat ional Arts Festival i n 1979 and the Independence Festival i n 1980 at both o f w h i c h a Futunan group performed. In 1988 the Futunan group was chosen to represent

Vanuatu at the 5th Festival o f Pacific Arts i n Townsvi l le , Australia, and

the success o f their performance led to a return trip to perform at E x p o i n Brisbane. In 1989 the group spent one m o n t h at the Asian E x p o at Fukuoka , Japan, w i t h a heavy schedule inc luding short performances six

times a day. These performance tours are highly valued and sought-after

experiences, w i t h serious training schedules and selection procedures.

In addition to the personal experience o f travel, the group has spent time i n Por t V i l a en route to performance venues and, w i t h money earned

from performing at hotels, they were able to make a large donation to the

19

new church bui ld ing i n M i s s i o n Bay , Futuna.

T h e group has an established repertoire o f traditional dances each

associated w i t h a distinctive song type:

1. T o k a . Dances ofpeace or "resolution o f conflict" performed at dawn

at a marae festival. T w o types o f t o k a are distinguished (by the manner i n w h i c h the dancers ho ld an implement, and by song): T o k a T o r o j i a , and T o k a Sore.

2. H g o r o r a g i n a . A dance used o n a number o f festive occasions; the song contains the distinctive call or shout called " r a g i n a " .

3. N a m a u i a . T h e most frequently performed festive dance, performed

by m e n or w o m e n or m e n and w o m e n . T w o styles o f dance are identified for Futuna and A n e i t y u m .

4. K a i m a t a . Fishermen's songs. T h e or igin o f the dance is not k n o w n (See E x . 3).

5. K q f a . (See above)

6. P o h p o k i g a A dance originally performed around a catch o f kingfish

or tuna. T h e reception o f these fish was the occasion for a ritual w h i c h included a p o h p o k i g a dance o n the beach w h e n the fish were landed,

and at the m a r a e where they were brought to be distributed among the communi ty .

Ex. 3. H a k e M a i r u e a , a k a i m a t a .

2(1

TRADITIONAL GAMES

T e n o f these, w i t h chants or songs, were recorded i n the survey

f rom ch i ld ren at the schoo l i n H e r a l d B a y . A l t h o u g h the games are w e l l k n o w n a m o n g the adult popu la t ion , not all were k n o w n by the

school teachers (who had had their educat ion outside Futuna) or by the ch i ld ren . T h e r eco rd ing therefore served to reactivate some

games for the current generat ion o f ch i ld ren . Some o f the games w i t h count ing were considered by the teachers as suitable for classroom use.

A m o n g the games no ted are t w o examples o f tag, "Rougasau " and

" T a p a l i a " , each o f w h i c h have abusive songs. These were indicated as the remnant o f p i s a k i , or " g i v i n g abuse i n song" , an act ivi ty w h i c h

used to take place be tween the t w o lineages at adult festivals.

O t h e r examples i n v o l v e a guessing game, " R i s i r i s i " and coun t ing

out " T u k u t u k u " , where the rules are relatively clear. A n o t h e r group o f games was those w h i c h seem to be enact ing some story, a l though

the story itself is not exp l ic i t ly related i n the game: S i n a l u p e , S i l i tafe, W a i j i j i k a , and T a p e l u motesa are i n this category.

Ex. 4. T a p e l u motesa, a children's game.

This game is Item 64 in the Survey.The song contains both semispoken

and chanted text — all features w h i c h are otherwise absent i n the

repertory o f songs recorded i n Futuna. T h e same music is used in another

game song, N i g i n i g i t o n a , " P i n c h the l u m p " .

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In this game, each player grasps the index finger of another player, making a tower of hands in the centre of a circle of about six players. The top finger of the tower is struck from side to side by the leader's index finger while the song is sung (see photograph). After the song, the player with the top finger takes it, smells it, and puts it under his arm. The next finger in the tower is then treated in the same way, When all the fingers have been done, the players sing a different song, swaying from side to side, each player having both index fingers in their armpit. After this song, the players pull down their lower eyelids. A game similar to T a p e l u motesa is found in Tokelau and elsewhere in West Polynesia.

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INSTRUMENTS AND SOUND TOYS

P u , the c o u c h shell t rumpet , is kept at the m a r a e and reserved for

signals to the w h o l e c o m m u n i t y , for example , special meetings or emergencies. R e c e n t l y it has been used to signal the start o f the

w e e k l y market (held o n the m a r a e ) .

K a f a (See above) N o specially constructed instrument is reserved

for this beating. A n y available or n e w l y cut giant b a m b o o is the most usual " d r u m " . T h e beaters for kafa zxtkane. T e r m s for beating or

p l ay ing instruments or rhythms are: h t a kafa (to beat kafa), p a p a k i (to clap), p u i a (to b l o w the p u ) , a m o s i a ( t o play guitar).

F a g o v a v a , panpipes, were not heard du r ing the record ing survey

though some older people ( temporari ly absent f rom the island) were said to be able to make and play them.

Instruments p layed casually as s o u n d - p r o d u c i n g toys are often

c a l l e d ^ w , w h i c h is the name o f an obsolete flute. N o t h i n g was k n o w n o f this flute, t h o u g h the d ic t ionary provides a connec t ion to

Po lynes ian practice i n the w o r d f a g u s u " to breathe th rough the nose", and b a m b o o flutes cal led f a g u f a g u or f a n g u f a n g u are reported f rom

W e s t e r n Polynes ia . T h e instruments p layed as toys inc lude the jews

harp (fago), ro l l ed leaf (fago), leaf w h i z z e r ( r a g o h p a ; l i terally, "noisy f ly") , and slit tube (fagoigoi).

C H U R C H

Futuna has a dis t inguished chu rch history be ing , i n 1839, the first

place i n Melanes ia vis i ted by the L o n d o n Miss iona ry Society ( L M S )

pioneer , J o h n W i l l i a m s . T h e L M S miss ion suffered many set-backs i n these southern islands o f the (then) N e w Hebr ides , i n c l u d i n g the murde r o f W i l l i a m s h imse l f and also o f the first Samoan missionaries

i n the M o n g a district o f Fu tuna . F r o m the 1850s, people f rom the

n e i g h b o u r i n g island o f A n e i t y u m , w h o had been trained by the missionaries, accompl i shed the convers ion o f many i n Futuna, and f rom 1866 there was a resident E u r o p e a n missionary i n the person o f

the R e v . Joseph C o p e l a n d . In these years the first books i n Fu tunan

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were pr in ted by J o h n G e d d i e , missionary o n A n e i t y u m , w h o was followed i n this w o r k by D r W i l l i a m G u n n . T h e first h y m n b o o k

had "primers and li teracy charts" but no trace o f this section o f the o l d h y m n b o o k was located i n Futuna . A l t h o u g h the or ig ina l b o o k was

reprinted i n the 1970s, this sect ion was o m i t t e d and a chart o f

c o m m o n guitar chords added.

T h e first publ i shed co l l ec t ion o f hymns conta ined 124 hymns . Its title is " A h g o r o H m o r i " , and each h y m n identifies the source o f either

the text or tune. These are abbreviated as fo l lows: S & S [ S o n g s a n d So/05] , H y m n a r y , E v a n H y [ E v a n g e l i s t i c H y m n a l ] , A l e x a n d e r ' s H y m n s , U n . H y [ U n i o n H y m n a l ] , F r . C h . H y [Free C h u r c h H y m n a l ] ,

J u b i l e e Songs, Gems of P r a i s e , S c o t . H y . [ S c o t t i s h H y m n a l ] , Songs of t h e G o s p e l .

T h e title page o f the second co l l ec t ion o f 190 hymns is m o r e

expl ici t :

Some M o r e Hymns of Futuna Language (Efarufoki a hgoro i avisau Futuna)

Translated by Elder Vaega and the people of Futuna arranged by R N Meake

December 1973

These hymns are all w e l l k n o w n n o w and (as most o f the h y m n books have disintegrated) are sung f rom m e m o r y . T h e c h u r c h has

plans to reprint these t w o books as one. A l s o i n use is the V a n u a t u

b o o k New L a e f B o o k 3, a co l l ec t ion i n B i s l a m a . A sample was also made o n the r eco rd ing survey o f A c t i o n Songs — verses conce rn ing B i b l e stories w h i c h are sung w i t h hand actions. These appeared to

be o f recent o r i g in .

H y m n - s i n g i n g is a v igorous t radi t ion i n the Fu tuna Presbyterian

C h u r c h . A deacon (or another person) acts as leader i n the hymns ,

chos ing the p i t c h and starting each verse. A l l s inging o f the o lder h y m n repertoire and the b i s l a m a hymns is unaccompan ied , t hough guitars are used w i t h some children 's choruses and i n the s inging o f

Assembly o f G o d adherents. A m o n g the musica l features observed

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i n the u n a c c o m p a n i e d h y m n s inging were the raising o f the p i t ch for

the final or penul t imate verse, m e l o d i c alteration, and part s inging ("soprano, alto, tenor, bass" are names used).

A m a r k e d characteristic is the strident " M e l a n e s i a n " voca l style

e m p l o y e d by some singers. Fu tunan h y m n - s i n g i n g is said to be h igh ly regarded i n Vanua tu , hav ing a w i d e audience at such times as the

Genera l Assembly (held i n Fu tuna i n 1989) and radio hymn-s ing ing .

M o s t o f the hymns were recorded d u r i n g the survey at t w o C o m b i n e d Presbyterian services w h e n the people o f the three districts

came together at one o f the churches. A t these c o m b i n e d services cho i r items are g iven by the several districts and organisations o f the

island, i n add i t ion to congregat ional s inging.

CHRISTMAS - NEW YEAR

A l t h o u g h the survey d i d not witness these seasonal celebrations,

they were deemed sufficiently dist inct ive to warrant co l lec t ing a descriptive account:

A t Chr is tmas the w h o l e popu la t ion gathers at one place for chu rch

services, sports, s inging and dancing. T h e entertainments that each vil lage provides are devised and rehearsed for the occasion. W h i l e not over t ly compet i t ive , the special features o f each con t r ibu t ion w i l l

be the subject o f discussion and evaluat ion by the audience.

M u c h o f the danc ing for the festival is "ac t ion song" or "Po lynes ian

d a n c i n g " i n w h i c h hand gestures illustrate the words . These are songs o f w e l c o m e and also songs descr ibing everyday activities. M i m e s are also per formed s h o w i n g such activities as fishing, or the te l l ing o f o l d

stories. M a n y o f these items are h u m o r o u s l y portrayed, some are o l d

favourites, others n e w l y made up .

T h e start o f proceedings involves a ceremonia l entry on to the host

marae w i t h speeches and specially composed songs. Leaders o f the v i s i t ing group are w e l c o m e d w i t h l e i s presented du r ing the s inging

o f a song. T h e visitors " o p e n the gate" to the m a r a e w i t h speech and song and the cu t t ing o f a r i b b o n . A t the end o f the days o f festivity

a danc ing procession gives presents (rice, soap, etc.) to the host vil lage.

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These festivities w i t h sports and feasting o c c u p y Chris tmas day

itself and the t w o o r more days f o l l o w i n g . W e d d i n g s may also be i nc luded i n the festivities.

A n o t h e r gathering called P u n a n i may o c c u r at N e w Y e a r at the

same village as the Chris tmas festivities. Af te r m i d n i g h t o n 31 D e c e m b e r (marked by the sound o f P u , c h u r c h be l l and drums) a

group goes f rom house to house. T h e occupants o f a house ask the group for songs (string band songs, hymns , choruses) and reward the

singers w i t h presents. D u r i n g the s inging the occupants w i l l put

perfume and p o w d e r o n the v i s i t ing group .

W h e n m o v i n g to the next house, the group is j o i n e d by the occupants o f the house they have just sung at. In the m o r n i n g , w h e n

all houses have been visi ted, the accumula ted gifts are dis tr ibuted a m o n g the v i s i t ing villages (in the same manner i n w h i c h f ood is

distr ibuted at a major feast).

STRING BAND

M u s i c o f the string band forms a musica l l i n g u a f r a n c a for V a n u a t u w h i c h , l ike p i d g i n Eng l i sh , is shared (wi th regional variations) w i t h

other parts o f Melanes ia . Futuna's band is w e l l k n o w n i n Vanua tu ,

it is frequently heard o n the radio, has made several trips abroad, w o n

compet i t ions , and publ i shed cassettes.

T h e musical characteristics o f Fu tuna are related to classical str ing band sound: ma le -vo ice ha rmony , variety o f percussion sound, no ampl i f ica t ion. T h e r e are at present t w o Fu tuna bands, one i n Po r t

V i l a w h i c h plays tw ice a w e e k at L e L a g o n hote l , and one i n Fu tuna .

T h e repertoire is largely shared, t hough each band has a composer . T h e repertoire h o w e v e r is not exclusive, any con temporary song may

be g iven a string band treatment.

St r ing band i n Fu tuna is thought to have had its o r i g i n i n the 1960s w h e n a Samoan o n A n i w a had a ukule le (and banjo band) and taught

others w h i l e o n a visit to T a n n a . O n e Fu tunan bought a ukule le and

played it, and the m o v e m e n t progressed f rom there. A particular mark o f Futuna's band is the "bot t le p i a n o " — a r o w o f bottles each

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f i l led to a different level w i t h water to create a scale. T h e "bot t le -

player" plays a part icularly v i r tuoso l ine w h i c h enlivens the musical texture.

D u r i n g the survey, recordings o f the string bands were made at the

V a n u a t u 10th Annive r sa ry celebrations i n Tanna , w h i c h i nc luded a S t r ing B a n d c o m p e t i t i o n . T h e c o m p e t i t i o n requi red three songs:

one o n the 10th Ann ive r sa ry o f Independence, one o n health and one free cho ice i t em. T h e direct ions to the judges conta ined expl ic i t

standards for evaluating the mus ic , i n c l u d i n g the variety o f ins t ru­ments, clarity o f words , a g o o d message, u n i f o r m dress and the

popular response o f the audience. Fu tuna w o n this compe t i t i on against the other bands o f the reg ion , N o i s y B o y s and C o n a Boys .

SUMMARY

T h i s short r eco rd ing survey p r o v i d e d an oppor tun i ty to record

examples o f the m a i n types o f mus ic o f Fu tuna and to out l ine some o f the features o f this mus ic system. T h e small c o m m u n i t y contains

m a n y knowledgeab le musicians, several o f w h o m supported the survey w i t h performances. A l t h o u g h the older t radi t ion is valued for its distinctiveness, the current use o f music also includes m o d e r n

h y m n - s i n g i n g and music i n string band style. C o n t r i b u t i n g to a

s trengthening o f the o lder t radi t ion are the performance o p p o r t u n i ­

ties p r o v i d e d by nat ional and internat ional festivals, the activities o f the V a n u a t u C u l t u r a l C e n t r e and, hopeful ly , the activities associated w i t h this survey.

Fatu'ana, the Futuna String Band at the Festival Pacific Arts, 1988.(Photo­graph: G i l Hanly, Townsville, 1988.)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Capell , A.,1958.77ie C u l t u r e a n d L a n g u a g e of F u t u n a a n d A n i w a , New H e b r i d e s . Oceanic Linguistic Monograph N o . 5, Sydney: Universi ty o f Sydney.

Crowley , Terry, 1 9 9 0 . A n I l l u s t r a t e d B i s l a m a - E n g l i s h a n d E n g l i s h - B i s l a m a D i c t i o n a r y . V i l a , Vanuatu: Vanuatu Extension Centre o f the Universi ty o f the South Pacific.

Dougherty, Janet, 1983 West F u t u n a - A n i w a A n I n t r o d u c t i o n t o a P o l y n e s i a n O u t l i e r L a n g u a g e . Universi ty o f California Publications i n Linguistics 102. Berkeley: Universi ty o f California Press.

G u n n , W i l l i a m , n.d. G o s p e l i n F u t u n a . G u n n , W i l l i a m , n . d . H e r a l d s of t h e D a w n . Paton,John G . , 1894. J o h n G P a t o n : M i s s i o n a r y t o t h e New H e b r i d e s . A n A u t o b i o g r a p h y

James Paton, (ed.). London : Hodder and Stoughton. Pond , W e n d y , 1988. Notes from an interview wi th members o f the performing

group at the Pacific Festival o f Arts, Townsvi l le , Australia.

Glossary of Musical Terms

b a u a song type. f a k a m i m i j i a song composed under inspiration. h k a i legend or tale. A spoken narrative which often contains short

songs, t a g i h k a i . hgorofetakaro a play song. h g o r o h g o r o s a k i a paddling song. Also dance performed wi th a paddling song. hgororagina a danced song, containing a distinctive call, r a g i n a . kafa song performance wi th rhythmic beating; also the wooden

log drum, and the festival at which the performance occurs. k a i m a t a fishermen's song. m a n a g r i v e a dance using coconut shell halves. n a m a u i a a festive dance, for men or women. T w o types are named for

the islands o f Futuna and A n e i y t u m ( K e a m u ) p i s a k i singing abusive songs competitively between groups. s u p r a t o song performance, in the manner of kafa, using stones instead

of the log drum for percussion accompaniment. tafiri arafea an entry dance, leading-in the performing group. tagi a memorial song. Song which recounts a life history or

records an event. M a y be sung as a kafa. t a g i h k a i short songs in h k a i . tanes m a r i contemporary dance. t o k a a dance wi th weapons or implements. T w o kinds of t o k a are

distinguished, Toka Torojia and Toka Sore.

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Appendix

Example 1. Tagi O Vakesa

1. Avau nokomanu ko tafetiata i V i l a ie kaia vau nokomanu vir i ia pua nimei fagona vau nimeijikijia vautapotu.

chorus V a u nokomanu kaia vau nokomanu ie kaia vau nokomanu aue tukusoa kaia vau nokomanu kontou aki koe tukusoa.

2. Sanfakauia akoe sau tukumai tosoa notagi iatakoe no pari kai kaie vau sau tukatu kita kafano kiateia.

3. Tukuai ta vaka tere ia vavanea ie ma noko uru ia peau vau nokomanu mei fori Teturepa samei htau kitaua i Faeme.

4. V a u nokomanu avau sa hravetoto ie rotata mai ta ramaga hlama Teitoka, Tarufa ma Yauniwa ro taena korua an tanemate.

5. Vau nokomanu avau sewirakanu ie ni papura ie moma vau nokomanu ta purou o Teitoka kanoko hkana ta nouru.

6. Vau nokomanu avau sakaiau kego ie nifiriria ie Naur ik i vau nokomanu taseru otukigoa kainirofaji tanoura.

7. Avau nokomanu avau saniu takaro ie ni papura ie fata itamrae Tamumu pero tupe tanea kanoko takaro anorau.

8. Vau nokomanu avau sa purepuku kanoko faoa tukuhfine vau nokomanu tapaka iateia korotakakea kogafoa.

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This tagi commemorates Vakesa, a man who lived towards the end oflast century, and was composed by his mother, Pasiva. The first three verses of the song allude to the circumstances of his death — Vakesa had travelled to Vi la on a quest to find his brother but, while he was there, he became sick and died. The seven verses which follow each mention a feature of Vakesa's life. For example, verse 4 is as follows:

I am a flying fish at the season of Ramaga, the light o f Teitoka, Tarufa and Yauniwa, ready for you to catch.

"Ramaga" is the season for catching flying fish, and the light is the flaming torch in the canoe in which the friends Teitoka, Tarufa and Yauniwa are fishing wi th Vakesa. The subsequent verses each picture an activity personi­fying it in the same way :

5. I am the s e w i r a leaf... 6. I am the white tail-feather... 7. I am the coconut... 8. I am the round shell... 9. I am the rooster 10. I am the compassionate bird...

Each verse is preceeded by " V a u nokomanu" - "I am floating", or "I am dreaming". A translation of the start of each verse could read (e.g., Verse 5) "I am dreaming that I am the s e w i r a l ea f .

Ex . 2. T a n a i o T a n a i o (x2) t a t a m a i tapo (x2) amoe mijia n a i o o o T a n a i o T a n a i o

In this h k a i (traditional tale), Tanaio is an ugly sea-snake l iving at Feiava in the sea-passage at Herald Bay. H e is intending to to marry one of the 10 daughters o f Sina and Puga who brings food and sings this song -

Tanaio, it is nearly night [I will] sleep and dream o f Tanaio

Tanaio rejects her wi th a song which has the same melody.