Observational Field Observational Field ResearchResearch

Advantages and Role of Advantages and Role of ObservationsObservations

Records Records actual behavioractual behavior, not what , not what people say they said they did or people say they said they did or believe they will say/do. believe they will say/do.

Recorded behavior can be compared Recorded behavior can be compared to their statements, to check for the to their statements, to check for the validity of their responses. validity of their responses.

LimitationsLimitations

Observation techniques do not Observation techniques do not provide insights into what the person provide insights into what the person may be thinking, why they performed may be thinking, why they performed a behavior, or what might motivate a a behavior, or what might motivate a given behavior/comment. given behavior/comment.

That type of information can only be That type of information can only be obtained by asking people directly or obtained by asking people directly or indirectly. indirectly.

Ethical ConsiderationsEthical Considerations When people are being observed, whether When people are being observed, whether

they are aware of it or not, ethical issues arisethey are aware of it or not, ethical issues arise Technological advances--cameras and Technological advances--cameras and

microphones--make it possible to gather a microphones--make it possible to gather a significant amount of information about verbal significant amount of information about verbal and non-verbal behavior of customers as well and non-verbal behavior of customers as well as employees that might easily be considered as employees that might easily be considered to be an invasion of privacy or abusive, to be an invasion of privacy or abusive, particularly if the subject is unaware of being particularly if the subject is unaware of being observedobserved

Yet the information is used to make decisions Yet the information is used to make decisions that impact him/her.that impact him/her.

Should you Collect Your Data by Should you Collect Your Data by Observation?Observation?

Questions to consider:Questions to consider:

Is the topic sensitive? Is the topic sensitive? Can you observe the Phenomena? Can you observe the Phenomena? Do you have a lot of time? Do you have a lot of time? Are you sure what you are looking Are you sure what you are looking

for? for?

Types of ObservationsTypes of Observations

ObservationObservation is a primary method of is a primary method of collecting data by human, mechanical, collecting data by human, mechanical, electrical or electronic means. electrical or electronic means.

The researcher may or may not have The researcher may or may not have direct contact or communication with the direct contact or communication with the people whose behavior is being recorded. people whose behavior is being recorded. Observation techniques can be part of Observation techniques can be part of qualitative researchqualitative research as well as as well as quantitative quantitative researchresearch techniques. techniques.

Six Six DifferentDifferent Ways Of Classifying Ways Of Classifying Observation Methods: Observation Methods:

1.1. Participant and Nonparticipant Participant and Nonparticipant observation, observation,

2.2. Obtrusive and Unobtrusive (including Obtrusive and Unobtrusive (including physical trace observation),physical trace observation),

3.3. Observation in natural vs. contrived Observation in natural vs. contrived settings, settings,

4.4. Disguised and non-disguised observation,Disguised and non-disguised observation,5.5. Structured and unstructured observation, Structured and unstructured observation,

andand6.6. DirectDirect and indirect observation and indirect observation..

Two Commonly Used Methods Of Two Commonly Used Methods Of Direct ObservationsDirect Observations::

1.1. Continuous MonitoringContinuous Monitoring

2.2. Time AllocationTime Allocation

Continuous MonitoringContinuous Monitoring

Continuous monitoring (CM) involves Continuous monitoring (CM) involves observing a and recording (either observing a and recording (either manually, electronically, or both) as manually, electronically, or both) as much of their behavior as possible. much of their behavior as possible.

This may be problematic due to the This may be problematic due to the Hawthorne EffectHawthorne Effect, which showed that , which showed that people react to the attention they are people react to the attention they are getting from the researchers and their getting from the researchers and their behavior changes. behavior changes.

Two Major Techniques Of Two Major Techniques Of Continuous MonitoringContinuous Monitoring

Focal subject samplingFocal subject sampling

Sequence samplingSequence sampling

Focal Subject SamplingFocal Subject Sampling Used to study Used to study specificspecific behavior patterns. behavior patterns. Observe a Observe a singlesingle individual, for a specified time, individual, for a specified time,

recording recording allall instances of the behavior under study. instances of the behavior under study. Generates data on frequency of behaviors; used to Generates data on frequency of behaviors; used to

compare between single subjects (or groups of compare between single subjects (or groups of individuals) [for instance males vs. females, individuals) [for instance males vs. females, kayakers vs. rafters, etc.]. kayakers vs. rafters, etc.].

Qualitative observations are summed to produce an Qualitative observations are summed to produce an "ethogram: a description and inventory (usually with "ethogram: a description and inventory (usually with some information on relative frequency or sequence some information on relative frequency or sequence of expression) of all (or at least most) of the of expression) of all (or at least most) of the behavior patterns exhibited by a subject group. behavior patterns exhibited by a subject group.

The production of an ethogram requires The production of an ethogram requires considerable effort and numerous observation considerable effort and numerous observation periods throughout the life cycle of the subjectperiods throughout the life cycle of the subject. .

Sequence SamplingSequence Sampling Similar to focal subject sampling, in that a Similar to focal subject sampling, in that a specificspecific

individual is observed. individual is observed. Focus is on a Focus is on a chain or sequence of specific behaviorschain or sequence of specific behaviors

that are generally exhibited in a particular sequence. that are generally exhibited in a particular sequence. However, the observation period is not arbitrary, but However, the observation period is not arbitrary, but

begins when the observer thinks the behavioral begins when the observer thinks the behavioral sequence begins, and ends when the observer thinks it sequence begins, and ends when the observer thinks it ends. ends.

Some potential for subjectivity and bias. Some potential for subjectivity and bias. Careful and well-trained observers can usually Careful and well-trained observers can usually

recognize changes ("events") in the behavior of recognize changes ("events") in the behavior of subjects, and use these as starting and ending points subjects, and use these as starting and ending points for an observation period. Videography can be helpful.for an observation period. Videography can be helpful.

The result is a description of the sequence of behaviors The result is a description of the sequence of behaviors that are expressed in some type of activity or that are expressed in some type of activity or interaction.interaction.

Time AllocationTime Allocation Randomly selecting a place and time and then Randomly selecting a place and time and then

recording what people are doing when they are recording what people are doing when they are first seenfirst seen and before they see you. and before they see you.

Useful when you want to find out the percent of Useful when you want to find out the percent of time people are doing things (i.e., playing with time people are doing things (i.e., playing with kids, working, eating, etc.).kids, working, eating, etc.).

There are several sampling problems with this There are several sampling problems with this approach. approach.

1.1. A A largelarge representative sample is needed to generalize representative sample is needed to generalize about how people spend their time.about how people spend their time.

2.2. Questions such as Questions such as when, how often, and wherewhen, how often, and where to to observe are problematic. observe are problematic.

3.3. Many overcome these by visits to nonrandom Many overcome these by visits to nonrandom locations, at random times, and/or using scan locations, at random times, and/or using scan samplingsampling or instantaneous sampling.or instantaneous sampling.

2 Types of Time Allocation 2 Types of Time Allocation

Scan SamplingScan Sampling

Instantaneous SamplingInstantaneous Sampling

Scan SamplingScan Sampling A “census” of a large number of individuals leading to A “census” of a large number of individuals leading to

records of behavior records of behavior at the instant they are observedat the instant they are observed. . Because scan sampling must be done relatively Because scan sampling must be done relatively

quickly (otherwise it reverts to quickly (otherwise it reverts to focal subject samplingfocal subject sampling with short but variable sampling periods), it is usually with short but variable sampling periods), it is usually restricted to broad categories of behavior such as restricted to broad categories of behavior such as "feeding", "reading", or "resting". "feeding", "reading", or "resting".

Scan sampling is vital for estimates of time budgets: Scan sampling is vital for estimates of time budgets: what individuals in the group are doing at any given what individuals in the group are doing at any given time.time.

If 100 individuals are observed , and 70 are resting, 25 If 100 individuals are observed , and 70 are resting, 25 are feeding, and 5 are interacting aggressively, the are feeding, and 5 are interacting aggressively, the assumption is that any given individual spends 70% of assumption is that any given individual spends 70% of its time resting, 25% feeding, and 5% interacting its time resting, 25% feeding, and 5% interacting aggressively aggressively at that time of day and/or in that place.at that time of day and/or in that place.

Instantaneous SamplingInstantaneous Sampling One individual One individual is observed is observed repeatedlyrepeatedly, but behaviors , but behaviors

are are recorded at specified intervalsrecorded at specified intervals. . The specific behavior at the The specific behavior at the instant of observation instant of observation is is

recorded (hence the name "instantaneous recorded (hence the name "instantaneous sampling"). sampling").

For instance, one might observe a bird watcher at 30 For instance, one might observe a bird watcher at 30 second intervals. At one instant, the bird watcher second intervals. At one instant, the bird watcher might be searching for birds, at another, looking up might be searching for birds, at another, looking up a bird book, at another, walking rapidly along a trail. a bird book, at another, walking rapidly along a trail.

The result of this type of observation is a The result of this type of observation is a time/activity budget, which is derived from the time/activity budget, which is derived from the proportion of instantaneous observations in which proportion of instantaneous observations in which an individual is engaged in various activities. an individual is engaged in various activities.

Preferably, several individuals of the same subject Preferably, several individuals of the same subject group would be observed, to get group would be observed, to get averageaverage proportions of time spent on different activities. proportions of time spent on different activities.

Direct ObservationDirect Observation

Continuous Time Allocation

Focal Subject Sequence Scan Instantaneous

Know Know HowHow You Are Going To You Are Going To Interpret Your ObservationsInterpret Your Observations

DescriptiveDescriptive::RRequires no inference making.You see something and equires no inference making.You see something and write it down. write it down.

InferentialInferential::RRequires making inferences about the emotion/motives equires making inferences about the emotion/motives underlying what is observed. For example, you may underlying what is observed. For example, you may observe Tara pounding her keyboard. From this you observe Tara pounding her keyboard. From this you assume (correctly) that she is frustrated with yet another assume (correctly) that she is frustrated with yet another computer. computer.

EvaluativeEvaluative::Requires making an Requires making an inferenceinference andand a a judgmentjudgment from the from the observed behavior. For example, you may wonder observed behavior. For example, you may wonder whether computers and humans have a positive whether computers and humans have a positive relationship. "Positive" is an evaluative judgment. You relationship. "Positive" is an evaluative judgment. You observe Tara banging on her keyboard and conclude that observe Tara banging on her keyboard and conclude that humans and computers do not have a positive humans and computers do not have a positive relationship.relationship.

Field NotesField Notes

When writing field notes you should When writing field notes you should include descriptive as well as include descriptive as well as inferential data. It is important to inferential data. It is important to describe the setting and the mood in describe the setting and the mood in a detailed manner. All such things a detailed manner. All such things that may change behavior need to that may change behavior need to be noted. Especially reflect upon be noted. Especially reflect upon your presence. Do you think that you your presence. Do you think that you changed the behavior noticeably? changed the behavior noticeably?

Recording DataRecording Data

Recording data on blank sheets is Recording data on blank sheets is not recommendednot recommended!!

Create data recording forms and, Create data recording forms and, when possible, use simple codes to when possible, use simple codes to record data quickly.record data quickly.

Agree on what to observe and record Agree on what to observe and record as a team, practice, debrief, and as a team, practice, debrief, and refine. Practice again.refine. Practice again.