objectives identify the role of thinking in learning use a ‘model of thinking’ to ‘model good...

Objectives

• Identify the role of thinking in learning• Use a ‘model of thinking’ to ‘model good thinking’• Identify the components of a Thinking Curriculum• Evaluate a range of active learning strategies for

promoting types of thinking• Produce real-world performance tasks

I want goodThinking on

this

This involves Critical Thinking – have I seen

this problem before, what are the likely causes, what information do I need to clearly interpret what’s

occurring....?

Good thinking, what’s that?

Problems of Definition

“But the heart of the problem is our failure to define such termsas critical thinking, problem solving, metacognition, reasoning,and abstract thinking. Without adequate definition and training, teachers lack the knowledge and skills to teach and test for these desirable but elusive human qualities”

(Haladyna, 1997)

Thinking – A major key for effective learning

“The best thing we can do, from the point of view of the brain and learning,is to teach our learners how to think” (Jenson, 1996, p.163)

“Thought is the key to knowledge. Knowledge is discovered by thinking, analyzed by thinking, organized by thinking, transformed by thinking, assessed by thinking, and, most importantly, acquired by thinking”

(Paul, 1993 vii)

Thinking is the key cognitive process that buildsUnderstanding

Debates about the relative merits of teaching content Vs process, transmission of knowledge Vs discovery learning, thinking Vs rote learning, etc, only cloud rather than help effective pedagogy. For example, there is now virtual agreement among cognitive psychologists that effective thinking - however defined - needs an extensive and well organized knowledge base. As Resnick (1989) summarizes:

Study after study shows that people who know more about a topic reason more profoundly about that topic than people who know little about it. (p.4)

Similarly, Satinover (2001), drawing from recent brain research makes the case for the importance of repetition in the learning process:

…these mundane chores are precisely what turns the fourth brain from a mass of randomness into a intellect of dazzling capacity. “Genius,”

according to Thomas Edison, “is one percent inspiration and ninety-nine percent perspiration. Of “critical thinking skills,” he had nothing to say. (p.49)

Knowledge, Rote-learning as well as Thinking are important in effective learning

What is thinking?

Thinking is the conscious and goal-directed mental activity we do in order to solve problems

Diploma in Chemical Engineering CP5033 Plant Safety & Loss PreventionDiploma in Chemical Engineering CP5033 Plant Safety & Loss Prevention

Copyright 2010: D. Sale & SM Cheah. All Rights ReservedCopyright 2010: D. Sale & SM Cheah. All Rights Reserved

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In a perfect world, In a perfect world, we would not have to thinkwe would not have to think

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Because we would never have to solve any problems

Find me a girlfriend – potential wife

Wife leaves me for Brad Pitt- What to do, lah?

A Model of Thinking



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Generating Possibilities

What do we do when wegenerate possibilities?

• Generate many possibilities • Generate different types of possibilities • Generate novel possibilities



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All creative products involve thecombining of old ideas or elementsin new ways

Comparison and Contrast

What do we do when we compare and contrast?

• Identify what is similar between things -

objects/options/ideas, etc

• Identify what is different between things

• Identify and consider what is important about both the

similarities and differences

• Identify a range of situations when the different features

are applicable



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Analysis

What do we do when we analyse?

• Identify relationship of the parts to a whole in system /structure/model

• Identify functions of each part

• Identify consequences to the whole, if a part was missing

• Identify what collections of parts form important sub-systems of the whole

• Identify if and how certain parts have a synergetic effect



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Inference and Interpretation

What do we do when we make inferences and interpretations?

Meta-cognition

Comparison& Contrast

Inference &Interpretation

Evaluation


Analysis

• Identify intentions and assumptions in data

• Separate fact from opinion in data • Identify key points, connections, and

contradictions in data• Make meaning of the

data/information available• Establish a best picture to make

predictions



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Evaluation

What do we do when we evaluate?

• Decide on what is to be evaluated

• Identify appropriate criteria from which evaluation can be made

• Prioritize the importance of the criteria

• Apply the criteria and make decision

Meta-cognition



Evaluation


Analysis



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Meta-cognition

What are we doing when we are meta-cognitive?

• Aware that we can think in an organized manner

• Actively thinking about the ways in which we are thinking

• Monitoring and evaluating how effective we are thinking

• Seeking to make more effective use of the different ways of thinking and any supporting learning/ thinking strategies /tools

Meta-cognition



Evaluation


Analysis



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• Being aware of one’s thinking, evaluating how well we are using the range of specific types of thinking and taking necessary corrective action

Put simply, meta-cognition is


Thinking about your

thinking

Thinking about your

thinking

What assumptions did I made?

What assumptions did I made?

How can I spot an error if I make one?

Do I know

what do I need to know?

Do I know

what do I need to know?


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Pedagogic Themes of a Thinking Curriculum

A science of learning approachto pedagogic design

Integration ofteaching, learningand assessment

Performance-basedassessment

Thinking as the ‘tool’for understanding

Real worldcompetency and problem-solving

Positive dispositionsand beliefs that support

effective learning

TCTC

Systematic infusion of types of thinkingin the curriculum

Learning Outcomes

InstructionalStrategies

AssessmentSystem

Types ofThinking

In basic terms this means that the types of thinking incorporated in the LearningOutcomes must be effectively taught through the Instructional Strategiesused and accurately measured in the Assessment System. (Aligned curriculum design)

Infusion Approach 1

Curriculum

Compare & contrast Analysis Inference & interpretation Evaluation Generating possibilities Metacognition

Infusion Approach 2

Curriculum

Real world applicationsof the subject content

Real world applicationsof the subject content

Specific types of thinking that underpincompetent performance

Specific types of thinking that underpincompetent performance

Identifying the Types of Thinking

Step 1• Refocus the curriculum

towards real world activities or competency

Step 2• Identify the types of thinking that

underpin competent performance in these real world activities through

COGNITIVE MODELINGIn doing this it is useful to start by asking

the question:

How does a highly competent

person think in the effective

execution of this activity?

Example from a Business LawModule:• Predict possible legal outcomes

in the event of a breach of contract

• Analyse the components of a contract

• Compare and contrast the expected and the actual behaviour of defendants

• Make inferences and interpretations concerning the behaviour

• Evaluate the possibility of specific outcomes

Writing learning outcomes

Write in direct performance terms – focusing on:

the Type of Thinking or Product Outcome• Analyse the impact of pollution on water quality

• Compare and contrast a range of retaining structures

• Generate new design options for marketing a health food

• Predict the outcomes of specified legal scenarios

• Conduct a product packaging tests for a specified product

• Prepare a voyage passage plan

• Write a programme in Java script to animate a range of figures

• Prepare a tender report

Promoting thinking – general instructional principles

• Systematically teach and model the types of thinking, taking students through the range of cognitive operations for each type of thinking

• Use appropriate language to direct and reinforce types of thinking (e.g., “Lets compare & contrast these two reactors”)

• Use structured questions to promote specific types of thinking (e.g., what inferences and interpretation scan we make about cloning from this data)

• Involve students in real world learning tasks which necessitate direct use of the types of thinking

• Consistently promote values and dispositions conducive to good thinking and effective learning (e.g., persistence, flexibility, attention to detail, etc)

Instructional methods and strategiesthat provide opportunities for thinking

• Questioning• Small group activities that involve specific types of thinking

(e.g. buzz groups, rounds, poster board tours, etc)• Co-operative learning structures• Case studies• Projects• Role play• Performance tasks that involve specific types of thinking• Discussion/Debates• Thinking Tools, e.g., Mind mapping, ‘Thinking Hats’, Plus-

Minus-Interesting, Forced Associations, etc

The Power of Questions

“Questions are the primary way we learn virtually everything”

“Thinking itself is nothing but the process of asking and answering questions”

“Questions immediately change what we focus on and, therefore, how we feel”

(Anthony Robbins, 2001, pp.179-8)

Using Questions

The effective use of questions is a powerful means of

promoting specific types of thinking, for example:• What are the similarities and differences between Hepatitis A and HIV?

• In what ways are these differences significant?

• What inferences and interpretations can be drawn from the data on HIV infection in Asia?

• How might we evaluate the effectiveness of the present HIV prevention programme?

• What is the relationship between HIV infection and poverty?

• What other ways might we make people more aware of HIV infection?

Ways in which meta-cognitive thinking can be developed & enhanced:

1. Make students Aware of this distinctively human capability and how it works

• Explain and demonstrate how metacognition works• Illustrate with a range of examples why metacognition is so

important in learning and personal success

1. Build metacognitive thinking into specific learning activities (e.g., project work

• Get students to reflect on and document the quality of their thinking, identifying challenges faced in their learning and how they have gone about tackling these challenges

2. Facilitate and reinforce metacognition through other ‘Teachable Moments’

• Whenever metacognitive thinking would be valuable to enhancing thinking and learning


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What do we mean by Cooperative Learning Structures?

A Structure is a content free way (tool) for organising social

interaction in the classroom. Content is placed into a structure to

create a Activity which necessitates cooperative learning.

Activities are then designed into lessons to meet specific learning

outcomes (e.g., activating prior learning, promoting types of

thinking, reinforcing key content understanding, developing

social skills, etc)

Timed Pair Share

Basic Theme:

In pairs, students share with a partner for a

predetermined time while the partner listens

carefully. Then partners switch roles

Steps1 Teacher announces a topic and states 4 Partner B acknowledges what was

the question/problem each student will learned (e.g., “One thing I learned as I

have to share on listened to you was…”)

2 Teacher provides instructions on how to 5 Pairs switch roles: Partner B speaks;

select partner and allocates time for task Partner A listens

3 In pairs, Partner A speaks; Partner B 6 Partner A acknowledges learning

listens

A useful adaptation of this is to allow a THINK time before the sharing – known as Think-Pair-Share)

Numbered Heads TogetherBasic Theme:Students are presented with a question or problem-they “put their heads together”, generate and explore possible answers/solution

Steps1 The teacher has students numbered off 3 The teacher tells the students to “put their within groups, so that each student has heads together”, discuss their possible answers, a number: 1, 2, 3, 4. agree their best answer and make sure that all group members know the ‘correct’ answer2 The teacher asks a question or presents a problem and gives ‘think time’ for 4 After a defined period of time (or when the students individually students indicate they are ready) the teacher calls a number (1, 2, 3, or 4), and all students with that number can raise their hands to respond

Circle the Sage

Basic Theme:

Each team-mate gathers around a different “Sage” to learn

the content; they then return to compare notes

Steps

1 Teacher identifies “Sages.”

2 “Sages” spread out around the 4 Sages teach; disciples take notes

room and stand

3 Each member of each team 5 Disciples return to their teams, and

gathers around a different sage, compare notes with team-mates.

to become a “Disciple.”

Thinking Tools and Techniques• Mindmapping (A learning & thinking tool)

• Thinking Hats (A thought management tool)

• Plus-Minus-Interesting (A simple practical tool for identifying positives, negatives and unsure elements in a situation)

• Force-Field Analysis (A critical and creative thinking tool for managing change)

• Forced Associations (A creative thinking technique to break out of traditional patterns of perception and thinking)

• PO (A creative thinking technique)

• SCAMPER (A creating thinking tool)

• Morphological Matrix (A creative thinking tool for creating multiple combinations)

Note: thinking tools and techniques don’t do the thinking, they only provide a means for organizing your thinking

Mind Map of Edward De Bono’s Thinking Hats

Blue Hat

Red Hat

Black Hat

Green Hat

Yellow Hat

MetacognitionOverview

FeelingsOwn view

NegativeLogical

PositiveOptimistic

CreativeNew ideas

Mind Maps can promote alltypes of thinking as well as aid memory and learning

White HatFacts onlyNo opinions

Plus-Minus-InterestingPLUS MINUS

INTERESTING

Forced Associations (Random Triggers)

Forced Associations is a technique for linking another thinking pattern into the one we are presently using. We do this by selecting a random concrete nounfrom a different field and combining it with the problem under consideration.

For example, we might be looking at ways to make lifts quicker.

By choosing a random word ‘Mirror’ could lead to installing mirrors by lifts. As we know this is a popular solution for ‘slow lifts’. The lift doesn’t go faster,but people waiting don’t notice this as they look in the mirror.

Force Associate with ‘Mirror’

PO (Provocative Operation)

PO involves making deliberately provocative statements, which seek toforce thinking out of established patterns.

Examples: “Everybody should go to prison”“Lets abolish schools”

Having made a provocative statement, it is then necessary to suspend judgementand use the statement to generate ideas. For example, you can generate ideas by examining:

• The consequences of the statement• What the benefits could be?• What would need to change in order to make it a sensible statement?• What would happen if a sequence of events changed?

S C A M P E R

SCAMPER is a checklist that helps tothink of ways to improve existing products

or create new ones

SubstituteCombine

AdaptMagnify, Minify, Modify

Put to other useEliminateReverse

Morphological Matrix

This tool encourages new possibilities through combining options

X

X

X

X

X

X

OPTIONS

OP

TIO

NS

Force-Field Analysis

Equilibrium

Forces driving change Forces resisting change

The objective is to move the balance to the right, which can be achieved by:• identifying forces, their causes and strength• planning and acting to assist the driving forces• planning and acting to reduce the resisting forces• using some of the resisting forces against each other if possible

CurrentSituation

CurrentSituation

DesiredSituation

DesiredSituation

Potency: 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 :Potency

What are ‘Real World’ Learning Tasks?

“Central to a pedagogy that seeks to promote the development of good thinkingis the systematic use of well constructed and managed learning tasks that reflect

real world activity and involve the use of specific types of thinking.

(Wasserman, 1993, p.20)

Such tasks are often referred to as Performance-Tasksas they concentrate on the thoughtful application of knowledge

in real life contexts

Rationale for using Real World Tasks

“Methods which are permanently successful in formaleducation … go back to the types of situation which causesreflection out of school in ordinary life. They give pupilssomething to do, not something to learn; and the doing isof such a nature as to demand thinking, or the intentionalnoting of connections; learning naturally results”.

(Dewey, 1916)

“Real-world learning has a backbone of problem-solving,production of work-authentic products, and investigation and research, in which all knowledge, processes, and techniquesconnect and are used. Most people are motivated to learnwhen engaged in a problem or project they care about”.

(Glasgow, 1997)

Types of Real World Tasks

• Real work projects and tasks• Simulations• Problem solving through case studies• Problem-based learning (PBL) activities• Presentations• Any activity that essentially models what would be

done by people in the world of work

Example 1: Design and conduct a small experiment to test the Halo Effect

In groups of 3-4, design and conduct a small experiment to test the Halo Effect in person perception.You may choose the particular focus for the experiment, but it must:• Clearly test the Halo Effect in person perception• Be viable in terms of accessing relevant data• Meet ethical standards in conducting experiments with persons• Follow an established method and procedure• Produce results that support or refute the hypothesis

Once completed, the experiment should be written up in an appropriate format of approximately 2000 words. It should document the importantstages of the experiment and compare and contrast the data found with existing findings on the Halo Effect.

Example 2: Design A Food Package

Select a food product and design the packaging that you think will give itbest marketability. You must be able to identify the product attributes,protection and enhancement needed to satisfy the functional andmarketing requirements, and use suitable packaging material(s) andpackage type. The work produced should reflect the quality of yourthinking in the following areas:• identify the criteria for evaluating the marketability of a product• analyze the components of a product that constitute an effective design• generate new ways of viewing a product design beyond existing standard forms• predict potential clients response to the product given the information you have• monitor the development on the group’s progress and revise strategy where• necessary

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Steps in designing performance tasks

Step 1: Identify clearly the knowledge, skills andprocesses to be incorporated into the task

For this step it is important to:• Choose specific topic areas in your curriculum that encompass key

underpinning knowledge (e.g., central concepts, principles, procedures) and skills essential for understanding and performance in real world applications.

• Identify the types of thinking that are important for promoting student understanding and subsequent competence in these topic areas. For example, generating possibilities, analysis, comparison and contrast, inference and interpretation, evaluation, etc.

• Identify other process skills (e.g., communication, team-working, managing learning, etc) that are important for competent performance in the identified areas.

Steps in designing performance tasks

Step 2: Produce the learning task

It is important that the task:

• Clearly involves the application of the knowledge, skills and processes identified from Step 1.

• Is sufficiently challenging, but realistically achievable in terms of student’s prior competence, access to resources, and time frames allocated.

• Successful completion involves more than one correct answer or more than one correct way of achieving the correct answer

• Clear notes of guidance are provided, which:– Identify the products of the task and what formats of presentation are acceptable

(e.g. written report, learning materials, portfolio, oral presentation, etc)– Specify the parameters of the activity (e.g. time, length, areas to incorporate,

individual/collaborative, how much choice is permitted, support provided, etc)– Cue the types of thinking and other desired process skills– Spell out all aspects of the assessment process and criteria.

Key considerations in producing a marking scheme

•Performance areas assessed to reflect learning objectives•Performance criteria for each performance area•Marks weighting for each performance area to reflect table of specifications/assessment blueprint•sources of Performance evidence to be used (e.g., written/oral questioning, product, observation, etc)•Format for marking scheme – checklist, rating scale/ scoring rubric

Marking Formats for performance assessments

Decide on the basis of level ofInference in making assessment decision

analytic or holistic rubric – what’s the difference, and on what basis would you decide?

Decide format on the basis of whether the item involves High or Low Inference

• Low inference items are those where the performances being tested are clearly visible and there is a widely established correct answer (e.g., conducting a fire drill, setting up an experiment) Here a Checklist is most appropriate

• High inference items involve performances that are less directly visible and/or more open to subjective judgement (e.g., creative writing, managing a team) Here a rating scale/scoring rubric is most appropriate

A major challenge to test design is to produce tasks that require low inference scoring systems. Unfortunately, many worthwhile student outcomes reflecting higher order thinking lend themselves more to high inference scoring.

Scoring Rubrics (rating scale)

A scoring rubric is a prepared scoring system for assessing performance in activities where professional judgement is involved in the assessment decision.

• There are two main types of rubrics:– Holistic (focuses on overall assessment of a product, process or

performance - without judging the component parts separately)– Analytic (assesses – scores – each individual ‘part’ of an assessment

activity and then totals an overall score

There are benefits and limitations to each – what do you think they are?

Holistic versus Analytic Rubrics

Holistic rubrics enable a focus on the overall performance and are more economical in terms of assessment time. They are typically used for summative assessment and where some variation in reliability in parts of the assessment components can be accepted, provided the overall assessment decision has good validity and reliability.

In contrast, analytic rubrics enable a greater focus on the specific elements of the areas of learning involved and make possible a much better utilization of formative assessment in the assessment process. This has considerable benefits, as Gibbs (2008) highlights: Research in schools has identified that the way that teachers provide and use feedback, and engage students with feedback, makes more difference to student performance than anything else that they can do in the classroom. (p.6)

What rubrics can and cannot do…

It is also important to remember that the rubric does not make the assessment decision; this is the responsibility of the assessing lecturer

Rubrics provides a guiding frame for focusing attention on the key elements/constructs (performance criteria) of the assessment area and summary descriptors of a range of performances.

Developing a checklist

• Identify the important components - procedures, processes or operations - in an assessment activity– for example, in conducting an experiment one important operation

is likely to be the generation of a viable hypothesis• For each component, write a statement that identifies

competent performance for this procedure, process or operation– in the above example, the following may be pertinent:

A clear viable hypothesis is described• Allocate a mark distribution for each component - if

appropriate– this is likely to reflect its importance or level of complexity

Note: Checklist are most useful for low inference items –where the performance evidence is clearly agreed and there is little disagreement relating to effective or ineffective performance (e.g., observable steps)

Assessment checklist for Assignment 1: Design and conduct a small experiment to test the Halo Effect

Performance Areas/criteria:

1. The context of the experiment is accurately described 2. A clear viable hypothesis is presented 3. The method/procedure is appropriate 4. There is no infringement on persons 5. Findings are clearly collated and presented 6. Valid inferences and interpretations are drawn from the data

and comparison is made with existing data 7. The write-up of the experiment meets required conventions

The allocation of marks for each performance area will reflect the weighting allocated in the Table of Specifications

Developing a scoring rubric

• Define the performance area/learning targets for an assessment (must relate to learning outcomes)– for example, ‘Valid inferences and interpretations are drawn from the

data and comparison is made with existing data’• Identify and describe the key attributes that underpin

competence for each performance area (preferably observable and measurable)– Using the above example (attributes – concept, types of thinking)

• Validity• inference and interpretation• comparison and contrast

• Write a concise description of performance at a range of levels from very good to very poor – for example, 5 = very good; 1 = very poor

Note: Rating Scales/Scoring Rubrics are most for useful for high inference items –where the performance evidence requires considerable professional judgement in making an assessment decision

Scoring Rubric for Example 1:Valid inferences & interpretations are drawn, comparison with

existing data is made

Score Description

5 All valid inferences are derived from data. Interpretations are consistently logical given the data obtained. All essential similarities and differences with existing data are identified and their significance fully emphasised.

4 Most of the valid inferences are derived from data. Interpretations are mainly logical given the data obtained. Most essential similarities and differences with existing data are identified and their main significance emphasised.

3 Some valid inferences are derived from data. Some logical interpretations are made from data obtained. Some essential similarities and differences with existing data are identified and their significance partly established.

2 Few valid inferences are derived. Interpretation of findings are limited . Comparison and contrast with existing data is partial and its significance not established.

1 Failure to make valid inferences and interpretations

objectives identify the role of thinking in learning use a ‘model of thinking’ to ‘model good...

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