obestateric emergency
DESCRIPTION
obygyny departementTRANSCRIPT
Ambo UniversityCollege of Health SciencesDepartment of Medicine
1
By : Aregahegn T & Aster.A
July,2014Ambo,Ethiopia
Obstetric Emergency
Outline
Before delivery
-Hyperemesis G
-PROM
-Abortion
-Ectopic P
-Preeclampsia & E
-Abreptio P
-Placenta P
During delivery
-Obstructed labour
-Uterine rupture
-Cord prolapse
After delivery
-Retained P
-Placenta accreta
-Injury to the cervix
2
Hyperemesis GravidarumIt is the actual vomiting in the morning , which
leads to dehydration & significant amount of wt loss
It is usually start between the 4th and 6th weeks of pregnancy and improves or disappears about the 12 th week.
The vomiting is not confined to the morning but it is repeated throughout the day until it affects the general condition of the patient
3
Etiology1 Hormonal:
High human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) stimulates the chemoreceptor trigger zone in the brain stem including the vomiting center
in the conditions where the hCG is high as in:-
a. early in pregnancy,
b. vesicular mole and
c. multiple pregnancy.
4
Cont’d2.Allergy: to the corpus luteum or the released
hormones.
3. Deficiency of:
a. adrenocortical hormone and /or,
b. vitamin B6 and B1
4.Nervous and psychological:
a due to psychological rejection of an
unwanted pregnancy,
b fear of pregnancy or labour so it is more
common in primigravidae
5
DiagnosisSymptoms:
>The patient cannot retain anything in her
stomach,
> vomiting occurs through the day and night even
without eating.
>Thirst, constipation and oliguria.
>In severe cases, vomitus is bile and/ or blood
stained.
> Finally, there is manifestations of Werniche’s
encephalopathy as drowsiness, nystagmus and
loss of vision then coma.
6
Cont’d
Signs:
Manifestations of starvation and dehydration: *Loss of weight.5%
* Sunken eyes.
* Dry tongue and inelastic skin.
* Pulse: rapid and weak.
* Blood pressure: low.
* Temperature: slight rise
7
Management
Hospitalization
For observation, fluid therapy
Intravenous fluids
Drugs
8
PROM
Premature ROM is defined as rupture of the chorioamnionic membranes prior to the onset of labor
Prolonged ROM usually refers to ROM for more than 24 hours
It is a complication in one quarter to one third of preterm births
9
Cont’d
• May or may not be associated with PTL (preterm labor)
• Complicates 1/3 of all preterm deliveries
• Around 1-2% of pregnancies
• Majority of patients delivery within 1 week
10
Risk Factors
• Previous preterm PROM
• Incompetent cervix
• Alterations in vaginal pH
– Infections
• Smoking
• Multiple gestation
11
Diagnosis
History – Gush of fluid
– Constantly wet
Physical – Pooling fluid - posterior fornix
– Fluid per os
– Examine with sterile speculum to prevent/limit digital exam of cervix, to minimize risk of ascending infection and amnionitis
12
Cont’dTest
– Fern - cervical mucus broad fern vs. amniotic fluid narrow fern
– pH (Nitrazine) - turns blue
– Cervicovaginal fetal fibronectin > 50 ng/ml
– Val-salvaImaging-Ultrasound
13
ComplicationMaternal effects Increase in chorioamnionitis
Increase in Cesarean delivery
Spontaneous labor in ~ 90% within 48 hr. of membrane rupture
Increased risk of placental abruption
Thromboembolic disease
14
Cont’d
Fetal effects
Increase in RDS
Increase in intraventricular hemorrhage
Increase in neonatal sepsis and subsequent cerebral palsy
Increase in perinatal mortality
Increase in cord prolapse
Abruption
Oligohydramnios
15
Management
Considerations
When?
• If later than 34 weeks, consider induction
• If <34 weeks, consider tocolysis for steroid course, then expectant management or delivery?
• Chorioamnionitis necessitates immediate delivery
16
Cont’d
Supported Interventions- Tocolysis for steroid administration if no
contraindications and fetus 24 – 34 weeks
- Prophylactic antibiotics
May prolong latent period by an average of 5-7d
May reduce maternal amnionitis and neonatal sepsis
- Ultrasound for fetal weight
- Expectant management for any gestational age
17
Cont’d
• Steroids
– To enhance fetal lung maturation and
decrease RDS
• Tocolytics
– Randomized trials have shown no pregnancy
prolongation
18
ABORTION
Spontaneous abortion, or “miscarriage,” is defined as pregnancy loss before 20 weeks of gestation.
Most of these occur before 12 weeks.
10-15% of clinically recognized pregnancies terminate in spontaneous abortion.
19
Cont’dThe causes of spontaneous abortion are both
fetal and maternal.
Chromosomal anomalies such as aneuploidy, polyploidy, and translocations are present in approximately 50% of early abortuses.
Maternal factors include luteal-phase defect, poorly controlled diabetes, and other uncorrected endocrine disorders.
20
Cont’d
Physical defects of the uterus, such as submucosal leiomyomas, uterine polyps, or uterine malformations may prevent implantation adequate to support fetal development.
Systemic disorders affecting maternal vasculature, such as antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, coagulopathies, and hypertension, may predispose to miscarriage.
21
Cont’d
Finally, infections with bacteria such as Toxoplasma, Mycoplasma, and Listeria, as well as viral infections, have also been implicated as causes of abortion.
Ascending infection is particularly common in second-trimester losses.
Clinically the patient may have bleeding or shock.
22
Essentials of Diagnosis
Suprapubic pain, uterine cramping, and/or back pain
Vaginal bleeding
Cervical dilatation
Extrusion of products of conception.
Disappearance of symptoms and signs of pregnancy.
Quantitative -HCG
Abnormal ultrasound findings
23
Ectopic pregnancyThe term applied to implantation of the fetus
in any site other than a normal intrauterine location.
The most common site is within the fallopian tubes (∼90%).
Other sites include the ovary, the abdominal cavity, and the intrauterine portion of the fallopian tube (cornual pregnancy).
24
Cont’d The most important predisposing condition
are:
- Prior pelvic inflammatory disease resulting in
fallopian tube scarring
- Factors leading to peritubal scarring and
adhesions such as endometriosis, and
previous surgery.
- Intrauterine contraceptive devices
- Fallopian tube may normal in some cases25
Cont’d
Ovarian pregnancy is presumed to result from the rare fertilization and trapping of the ovum within the follicle just at the time of its rupture.
Abdominal pregnancies may develop when the fertilized ovum fails to enter or drops out of the fimbriated end of the tube.
26
Cont’d
In all these abnormal locations, the fertilized ovum undergoes its usual development with the formation of placental tissue, amniotic sac, and fetus, and the host implantation site may develop decidual changes.
27
Cont’d
Morphology. Tubal pregnancy is the most common cause of hematosalpinx (blood-filled fallopian tube) and should always be suspected when a tubal hematoma is present.
Initially the embryonal sac, surrounded by placental tissue composed of immature chorionic villi, implants in the lumen of the fallopian tube.
With time trophoblastic cells and chorionic villi start to invade the fallopian tube wall as they do in the uterus during normal pregnancy.
28
Cont’d
However, proper decidualization is lacking in the fallopian tube, and growth of the gestational sac distends the fallopian tube causing thinning and rupture.
Fallopian tube rupture frequently results in massive intraperitoneal hemorrhage.
29
Cont’d
Less commonly the tubal pregnancy may undergo spontaneous regression and resorption of the entire conceptus.
Still less commonly, the tubal pregnancy is extruded through the fimbriated end into the abdominal cavity (tubal abortion).
30
Risk FactorsHigh risk• Tubal surgery• Sterilization• Previous ectopic pregnancy• In utero exposure to diethylstilbestrol• Use of IUD• Documented tubal pathology
Moderate riskInfertility ,Previous genital infections ,Multiple sexual
partners
Slight risk• Previous pelvic/abdominal surgery, Cigarette smoking,
Vaginal douching ,Early age at first intercourse (< 18 years)
31
Clinical Features
The clinical course of ectopic pregnancy is punctuated by the onset of severe abdominal pain, most commonly about 6 weeks after a previous normal menstrual period, when rupture of the tube leads to pelvic hemorrhage.
32
Cont’d
Rupture of a tubal pregnancy constitutes a medical emergency.
In such cases the patient may rapidly develop hemorrhagic shock with signs of an acute abdomen, and early diagnosis is critical.
Chorionic gonadotropin assays, ultrasound studies, and laparoscopy may be helpful to diagnose.
33
PREECLAMPSIA AND ECLAMPSIA
Preeclampsia refers to a systemic syndrome characterized by widespread maternal endothelial dysfunction presenting clinically with hypertension, edema, and proteinuria during pregnancy.
Preeclampsia should be distinguished from gestational hypertension that can develop in pregnancy without proteinuria.
34
Cont’d
Minimum criteria
– BP ≥ 140/90 mm Hg after 20 weeks' gestation
– Proteinuria ≥ 300 mg/24 hours or ≥ 1 + dipstick
Increased certainty of preeclampsia
– BP ≥ 160/110 mg Hg
– Proteinuria 5.0 g/24 hours or ≥ 2+ dipstick
35
Cont’d– Serum creatinine > 1.2 mg/dL unless known
to be previously elevated
– Platelets
–Microangio< 100,000/mm3pathic hemolysis(increased LDH)
– Elevated ALT or AST
– Persistent headache or other cerebral or visual disturbance
– Persistent epigastric pain
36
Risk factors
• Primigravida
• Multipara with change of partner
• Chronic hypertension
• Chronic renal disease
• Diabetes mellitus
• Multifetal gestation
• Polyhydramnios
• RH Isoimmunizedpregnancy
• Hydatidiform mole
• Previous history of preeclampsia
• Family history of pregnancy induced hypertension
37
TypesMild pre-eclampsia: blood pressure ≥ 140/90 mmHg ± oedema.Severe pre-eclampsia:
- blood pressure >140/90 mmHg + proteinuria ± oedema or- diastolic blood pressure>110 mmHg or- cerebral or visual disturbances.
N.B.Imminent eclampsia : It is a state in which the patient is about to
develop eclampsia. Usually there are :- blood pressure much higher than 160 /110 mmHg ,- heavy proteinuria (+++or ++++),- hyperreflexia,- severe continuous headache,- blurring of vision,- epigastric pain.
Fulminating pre-eclampsia: a rapidly deteriorating pre-eclampsia tobe imminent eclampsia.
38
Classification
39
Criteria Mild preeclampsia Severe preeclampsia
Blood pressure < 160/110 > 160/110
Symptoms Absent Present
Proteinuria < 5 g/dl 24 hours collection > 5 g/dl; > 2+ on dipstick
Liver and Renal function Normal Abnormal
Platelet count Normal Thrombocytopenia
Pulmonary edema Absent Present
Convulsions Absent Present
HELLP syndrome Absent Present
Fetal growth restriction Absent Present
The presence of any one of the above findings is sufficient to lead to a classification of the preeclampsia into the severe category
Pathogenesis
The exact mechanisms leading to development of preeclampsia are still being investigated; however, it is clear that the placenta plays a central role in the pathogenesis of the syndrome, since the symptoms disappear rapidly after delivery of the placenta.
The placenta reveals various microscopic changes, most of which reflect malperfusion, ischemia, and vascular injury
40
Clinical FeatureThe onset is typically insidious, characterized
by hypertension and edema, with proteinuria following within several days.
Headaches and visual disturbances are serious events and are indicative of severe preeclampsia, often requiring delivery.
Eclampsia is heralded by central nervous system involvement, including convulsions and eventual coma.
41
Symptoms
• Visual disturbances: blurring of vision, flashes of light or blindness.
• Epigastric or right upper quadrant pain: due to enlargement and subcapsular haemorrhage of the liver.
• Nausea and vomiting : due to congestion of gastric mucosa and/ or cerebral oedema.
• Oliguria or anuria: due to kidney pathology. 542
Investigations
• Complete urine examination: for proteinuria, pus cells, RBCs, casts,specific gravity, culture and sensitivity .
• Kidney function tests: serum uric acid > 6 mg % is abnormal during pregnancy. It is more specific for pre-eclampsia than creatinine.
• Coagulation status :Platelet count, fibrinogen and FDP as DIC may develop.
43
cont’d
• Eye fundus examination.
• Tests for foetal well being: as
- ultrasound,
- daily foetal movement count,
- non-stress test,
- oxytocin challenge test (if needed)
44
Complication
45
Fetal
• IUGR
• Oligohydramnios
• Placental infarcts
• Placental abruption
• Prematurity
• Uteroplacentalinsufficiency
• Perinatal death
Maternal
• CNS seizures & stroke
• DIC
• ↑↑ CS
• Renal failure
• Hepatic failure or rupture
• Death
Management
46
Mild preeclampsia Severe preeclampsia
Management depends on:•Gestational age •Fetal well being
If at term : •Admission •Ascertain fetal maturity •Terminate pregnancy via the most appropriate route
If preterm : Conservative management •Admission •Bed rest •Follow vital signs; organ function tests; platelet count; development of symptoms; level of proteinuria; evidence of hemolysis; fetal well being tests •If severe disease develops during conservative management or achieve fetal maturity; proceed to delivery
If any one of the evidences of severe preeclampsia develop or are present, conservative management option is not possible.
Conservative management is contraindicated. Management of severe preeclampsia includes: •Admission•Administration of anticonvulsants-valium; magnesium sulphate; phenytoin•Control of severe hypertension by IV antihypertensives such as hydralazine or labetalol•After mother is stabilized, proceed to delivery irrespective of fetal gestational age
Abruptio placentaDetachment of placenta after 24 weeks of
gestation and before delivery
Predisposing factors:
• Multiparity
• Hypertension
• Blunt external abdominal trauma (direct)
• Cocaine use
• Previous third trimester bleeding
• Age older than 35 years
47
Types
Revealed (80%)
- Pain + Vaginal bleeding
Concealed (20%)
-Pain/Shock
-No vaginal bleeding
48
Management
• Management is influenced by gestational age and degree of abruption
• Indicators for delivery-
– Fetal intolerance
– DIC
– Labor
• Vaginal delivery is acceptable
49
Cont’d• Correct SHOCK- IV access – 2 large bore
cannulae
-Crystalloids IV – emergency
-BLOOD as soon as possible
• Correct DIC - Heparin
• Catheterize - hourly urine output chart
• Assess for delivery
50
Placenta previa
Placenta attached in the lower segment
There are four grades
1) Low lying - lower than upper implantation
2) Marginal – placental edge approaches cervical os
3) Partial – implantation occludes portion of the cervical os
4) Total – implantation totally obstruct cervical os
51
Cont’d
52
Types
• Minor – Enters LUS but does not cover os
• Major – Covers internal os completely
53
Etiology
• Unclear
• Any damage to endometrium or myometrium
Scar tissue impedes migration away from
os
• Multiple pregnancy- large surface area
• Cigarette smoking- vasoconstriction
• Cocaine Use – Vasoconstriction-hypertrophy
• Rh issoimmunization
• Syphilis
54
Cont’d
• Previous Placenta Praevia
• Maternal Age – reduced uterine blood flow
needs greater surface area
• Parity - 3 previous deliveries 2.6 fold
Vessels at site of previous placenta reduced
flow discourage implantation
55
Presentation
• Antepartum Haemorrhage
- Late pregnancy
- Painless bleeding ( most common)
• Malpresentation
-Breech/High Head/Unstable lie in 3rd
trimester
56
Diagnosis
• The clinically important diagnosis of placenta previa is therefore a late second or early third trimester diagnosis (after 24-26 weeks gestation)
• Ultrasound is the easiest, most reliable way to diagnose (95-98% accuracy)
• Pelvic examination is contraindicated
57
Management
Antenatal
• Bed rest indicated
• Inpatient vs Outpatient
• Major Vs minor
• Anaemia
-Regular Hb
-X-match/Transfuse
58
Cont’d
• Delivery should depend upon type of previa
– Complete previa = c/section
– Low lying = probable attempted vaginal
delivery
– Marginal/partial = it depends!Consider “double setup” for uncertain cases
59
Obstructed labor
Obstructed labor is failure of progressive descent of the presenting part of the fetus in the birth canal for mechanical reasons inspiteof good uterine contraction.
The prevalence in developing countries is about 1-2% in the referral hospitals
60
Risk Factors
Ht <150 cm
Previous Hx of prolonged or OL
Clinical pelvimetry
Soft tissue anomalies
Estimate size of fetus late in Pregnancy
61
Etiology
A. Maternal causes
Cephalo-pelvic disproportion (CPD)
•Contracted pelvis
•Bone deformities
• Soft tissue obstruction
62
Contracted pelvisGenerally contracted pelvis involves contracture
of:-
- the pelvic inlet
- the mid pelvis
- the pelvic outlet, or by combinations of
these.
Inlet contracture-
-AP diameter of < 10 cm – normally 11cm
-Transverse diameter of < 12cm ---normally
–13.5cm
-Diagonal conjugate <11.5cm,normally-12.5cm
63
Cont’d
Mid cavity contracture –
-AP < 11.5cm ---normally -11.5cm
-Transverse diameter < 9.5cm
Outlet contracture-
-Inter tuberous diameter <8cm- normally-10cm
64
Cont’d
Clinical pelvic assessment done after emptying the bladder & putting the woman in lithotomyposition.
• Then we assess the following:-
-Reachability of sacrum promontory.
-Smoothness &concavity of sacrum.
-Straightness of sidewalls and projection of
ischial spine.
-Size of pubic angle & intertuberous distance
65
Bone deformity
Small pelvis -developmental or congenital
Abnormal shape of the pelvis due to:
-Diseases like rickets & osteomalacia or
tuberculosis
-Previous accidents.
-Tumors of the bones.
-Childhood poliomyelitis affecting shape of the hips.
-Spine: -Lumbar kyphosis.
- Lumbar scoliosis
66
Soft tissue obstruction
Tight perineum in primi
Vaginal abnormalities- septa, scar, tumors
Cervical stenosis- infection, surgery, tumors
Uterine factors- fibroids, congenital anomalies
Ovarian tumor- impacted in the pelvis
67
B. Fetal causes Large sized fetus / Macrocosmic
Congenital anomalies- Hydrocephalus
Locked and conjoined twins
Shoulder dystocia
Malpositions and Malprsentation– Breech
– Transverse lie
– Brow presentation
– Mento- posterior position (face)
68
Diagnosis
History
– The patient is usually young teenage
– Abnormally prolonged labor
General examination
– Tired, exhausted and anxious.
– Tachycardic, tachypenic .
– Dehiydrated
-Temprature increase(>38)
69
Cont’d
Abdominal examination
– Hypertonic or hypotonic uterine contraction.
– Uterus is hard and tender
– FHR abnormality – tachycadia, bradycardia
or may be absent
– Bladder often distended.
– Catheterization may be often difficult
and the urine is blood stained.
70
Cont’d
Vaginal examination
-Vulva is edematous.
- Cervix fully or partially dilate& edematous
-The liquor is meconium stained and often
foul smelling.
-The presenting part is high, not engaged,
with excessive moulding and Large caput.
71
Complication
Maternal
- Maternal distress
–Uterine rupture – UNcommon in primi
–PPH- atonic or traumatic
– Infection -sepsis, abscess and peritonitis
– Infertility
–Psychological trauma
72
Cont’d
Fetal
• Cerebral birth trauma
• Asphyxia
• Early neonatal infection
• Congenital pneumonia
• Intracranial hemorrhage from excessive moulding.
• Birth injuries
73
Management
Prevention
• Good nutritional supply since childhood
• Avoid early marriage
• Universal ANC
–To screen out the " at risk mothers "
–Pelvic assessment at 38-39wks
• Promote family planning services
• Elective caesarean delivery when indicated
74
Cont’dSpecific treatment
• Resuscitation
• Broad spectrum antibiotics
• Operative delivery
– Episiotomies for some primis with tight perineum.
– Vacum / Forceps delivery
• Alive fetus and head < 1/5 above pelvic brim (+1)
• Mild-moderate moulding
– Destructive delivery
• Dead fetus, fully dilated cervix and no evidence of rupture or imminent rupture of the uterus
75
Cont’d
- Caesarean delivery
• Alive fetus with incomplete cervical dilatation or high station.
• Alive fetus with Brow or Mento posterior position or face
• Alive or dead fetus with evidence of imminent
uterine rupture.
- Caesarean Hysterectomy
• Severely bruised lower uterine segment
• Major uterine vessels torn
76
Uterine Rupture
Tear in the wall of the uterus w/c commonly occurs in the lower uterine segment.
Common in multiparas and rarely occurs in primiparas.
Peak incidence is 3rd /4th pregnancy.
It can occur anteriorlly , posteriorlly , laterally or combination of these.
-anterior rupture is the commonest
77
In obstructed labour:
- It is usually in lower uterine segment.
- Usually oblique or transverse.
- More on the left side due to;
i) dextrorotation of the uterus.
ii) left occipito-positions are more common.
In rupture scar:
At the site of the scar.
78
Cont’d
Can be complete or incomplete
1 Complete(true) uterine rupture-includes the entire thickness of the uterine wall
and serosa resulting in direct communication
with peritoneal cavity.
2 Incomplete (uterine dehiscence)-is the defect of the uterine wall that is
contained by the visceral peritoneum or broad
ligament.
-common in patients with prior C/S scar79
Cont’d
Incidence
0.05% for all pregnancies.
0.8% for women with low-transverse uterine
scar.
4-8% -prior classic scar.
all pregnancies following myomectomy may be complicated by uterine rupture.
80
Causes• OL specially in multis
• Rupture or dehiscence of previous c/s scar
• Excessive stimulation
• Difficult instrumental delivery
• Internal podalic version -particularly after drainage of the liquor
• Difficult manual removal of placenta
• Sharp penetrating trauma
81
Clinical features History
• History of prolonged labor
• Worsening abdominal pain (supra pubic)
persisting b/n contraction
• Sudden cessation of uterine contraction
• Absent fetal movement
• Variable degree of vaginal bleeding
• Shoulder pain on lying down due to irritation of the phrenic
nerve by accumulating blood under the diaphragm
82
Cont’d P/E-reduced BP
-feeble and rapid pulse/impalpable-Signs of severe anemia-pallor
• Abdomen -tender & distension-Scar of the previous operation. -easily palpable fetal parts-absent FHB & uterine contraction-signs of fluid collection/variable shifting dullness
• Pelvic examination
-active vaginal bleeding-the presenting part may be impacted or
retracted in to peritoneal cavity.
83
Differential Diagnosis
• Abruptio placentae.
• Disturbed advanced extrauterine pregnancy.
• Other causes of acute abdomen.
84
Management
1 Supportive management
• Secure IV line with two lines
• Vigorous infusion of crystalloids
• Do HCT ,B/g
• Broad spectrum IV antibiotics
• Catheterize
85
2 Definitive management
• Repair- If it is amenable for repair and the
patient did not complete her family.
-usually with tubal ligation if future
fertility is not desired.
• Hysterectomy-total/subtotal if posterior,
lateral
• Subtotal hysterectomy is less time consuming
so it is done if there is no cervical tear.
86
Cord presentation and prolapseCord presentation and prolapse describe a
situation in which the umbilical cord is felt anterior to the fetal presenting part on vaginal examination.
If the membranes are intact it is a cord presentation while with ruptured membranes it is identified as a prolapsed cord.
As long as the membranes are not ruptured, the risk of compression and asphyxia is low.
87
Cont’d
Cord prolapse can be:
1 Overt- being felt inside the cervix, the
vagina or even hanging outside the introitus.
2 Occult- with the cord anterior to
the presenting part in the lower segment but
not felt on digital vaginal exam
88
Cont’d
Cord prolapse can occur in:
– vertex and frank breech presentations-0.5%
– complete breech -5%
– footling breech -15% and
– shoulder presentation -20%.
89
Etiology
• Malpresentations in labor
• PROM
• Amniotomy with a high fetal station
• Polyhydramnios with sudden membrane rupture
• Second twin delivery
• Internal podalic version
• Cephalopelvic disproportion in labor
90
Complications
• Cord compression and constriction of umbilical vessels due to cold exposure outside the introituscan lead to fetal asphyxia and death.
• Partial cord occlusion may give the fetus some time but in complete cord occlusion the fetus can die of asphyxia in 5-7 minutes if cord compression is not immediately relieved.
• There is increased maternal risk from cord prolapse because of emergency operative vaginal or abdominal delivery performed in order to salvage the fetus
91
Diagnosise
• In the vagina or inside the cervix anterior to the presenting part
– Check for pulsation and its rate
– Replace the cord immediately into the vaginal ( not inside the uterus) canal if outside the introitus
• If membrane is intact, cord presentation is diagnosed
• In all malpresentations, a careful search for cord presentation or prolapse should be made
• Occult cord prolapse can only be diagnosed by detection of abnormal fetal heart rate patterns
• In cases of malpresentations, sonographic search can also be made for cord anterior to the fetal presentation
92
Management
Immediate management If cord is pulsating:• Put mother in knee-chest position• Initiate oxygen administration by face mask
5L/min• Insert bladder catheter and infuse the bladder
with 0.5L of saline • Replace the cord into the vaginal canal• Push fetal presenting part upwards via the
examining hand in the vagina to relieve compression of the cord by the presentation
• Prepare for immediate delivery 93
Cont’dDelivery :Non-pulsatile cord: • Manage as any other labor as the cord prolapse will
not alter the course of labor (dead fetus)
Pulsatile cord: Second stage of labor: • Expedite delivery by forceps delivery if other
conditions for forceps delivery are met. • Breech extraction if other conditions for breech
extraction are met (full cervical dilation) First stage of labor: • caesarean delivery.
94
Postpartum hemorrhage
Excess blood loss after delivery (>500ml )
It is the leading cause of maternal mortality
Types- Primary PPH in the first 24 hours
- Secondary PPH the first 24 hrs to 6 weeks.
Massive PPH may be truly terrifying
95
Etiology
• The “4 T’ s” : tone, tissue, trauma, and thrombosis
• Uterine atony, i.e., failure of the uterine contraction and retraction of myometrial muscle fibers following delivery of the baby.
• PPH in a previous pregnancy is a major risk factor and every effort should be made to determine its severity and cause.
• Birth weight, labor induction and augmentation, chorioamnionitis
96
Cont’d
Primary PPHThe most important cause of massive PPH is uterine
atony when the uterus is not contracted
Steps to stop bleeding1. Massaging the uterus to cause it to contract2. Bimanual compression-Under general anaesthesia,
the uterus is firmly compressed for 5-30 minutes 3. Uterine contraction is maintained by oxyitocin4. Prostaglandin -through the anterior abdominal wall.
97
Aetiology:
(A) Placental site haemorrhage:
(I) Atony of the uterus(90%)
II) Retained placenta.
(III) Disseminated intravascular coagulation
(B) Traumatic haemorrhage:
Rupture uterus, cervical, vaginal , vulval or perineal lacerations.
98
Complications
1- Maternal death in 10% of postpartum haemorrhages.
2- Acute renal failure.
3- Embolism.
4- Sheehan’s syndrome.
5- Sepsis.
6- Anaemia.
7- Failure of lactation
99
Cont’d
Secondary PPH
1. Retained products or conception
2. Uterine infection
3. placenta accrete
4. Injury to cervix
100
Retained placenta
IncidenceRetained placenta is found in 2% of deliveries.
The frequency of retained placenta is markedly
increased at gestation <26 weeks
At term, 90% of placentas will be delivered within 15
minutes.
Once the third stage exceeds 30 minutes, there is a
ten-fold increase in the risk of hemorrhage
101
Causes:
• Atony of the uterus :due to causes mentioned before.
• Constriction ring.
• Rupture uterus :where the placenta passes to the peritoneal cavity.
• Abnormal adherence of the placenta which may be:
i) Simple adhesion: Manual separation can be done
easily.
ii) Morbid adhesion: Placenta accreta
102
Clinical Picture
• Bleeding :occurs only if the placenta is separated partially or completely.
• Uterus :is lax in case of atony.
• Vaginal examinationmay reveal:
i- Constriction ring.
ii- Rupture uterus.
iii- Morbid placental adherence where there is
no plane of cleavage
103
Management
When the placenta is delivered, it should beinspected for completeness.
Manual exploration of the uterine cavity asrequired.
If the placenta is retained, the operatorshould use the fingers of one hand orCurettage with a blunt instrument.
Antibiotics should be routinely administered
104
Manual Removal of The Placenta• The procedure is done under general anaesthesia.
• The right hand is introduced along the umbilical cord into the uterus.
• The lower edge of the placenta is identified and by a sawing movement from side to side the placenta is separated from its bed.
• Grasp the placenta and deliver it out.
• Examine the placenta and membranes for completeness.
• The left hand is supporting the uterus abdominally throughout the procedure.
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Complications of Retained Placenta
1- Shock.
2- Postpartum haemorrhage.
3- Puerperal sepsis.
4- Subinvolution
5- Retained parts with subsequent haemorrhage, infection, placental polyp formation or choriocarcinoma.
6- Complications of the methods used for its separation
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Placenta accretaPlacenta accreta is a retained placenta that is
morbidly adherent to the uterine wall.
Types1.Accreta vera (75-85%)- in which the placenta
adheres to the myometrium without invasion into the muscle.
2.Increta (17%)-, in which it invades into the myometrium.
3.Percreta (5%)- in which it invades the full thickness of the uterine wall and possibly other pelvic structures, most frequently the bladder
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Cont’d
In a patient with a previous cesarean section
-Previous one has 14% risk of placenta a.
-Previous two has 24% risk of placenta a.
-Previous three has 44% risk of placenta a.
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Management
1. Hysterectomy
2. Simple excision of the site of trophoblast
invasion with over sewing of the area to the
uterine
3. Internal iliac artery ligation
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Injury to the cervix
After a vaginal delivery, the majority ofwomen will have lacerations or bruisingof the cervix.
Bleeding which continues despite a well-contracted uterus is an indication for examining the cervix.
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Etiology
• Forceps, ventose or breech extraction before full cervical dilatation.
• Manual dilatation of the cervix.
• Improper use of oxytocins.
• Precipitate labour.
Predisposing Factors:
• 1- Cervical rigidity.
• 2- Scarring of the cervix.
• 3- Oedema as in prolonged labour.
• 4- Placenta praevia due to increased vascularity.111
Types:
1- Unilateral :more common on the left side due to:
i) Dextro-rotation of the uterus.
ii) Left occipito-anterior position is the commonest.
2- Lateral.
3- Stellate:multiple tears extending radially from the
external os like a star.
4- Annular detachment
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Diagnosis:
• Postpartum haemorrhage,in spite of well
contracted uterus.
• Vaginal examination :The tear can be felt.
• Speculum examination : using a posterior wall self
retaining speculum or vaginal retractors and 2 ring
forceps to grasp the anterior and posterior lips of
the cervix so the tear can be visualised.
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Complications
• Postpartum haemorrhage.
• Rupture uterus due to upward extension.
• Infection: cervicitis and parametritis.
• Cervical incompetence leading to future recurrent abortion or preterm labour.
• Ureteric injury: from the extension of the tear or during its repair.
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Vaginal Lacerations
Causes:
(I) Primary lacerations less common and caused by :
1- Forceps application.
2- Destructive operations.
3- Vacuum extraction if the cup sucks a part from the vaginal wall.
(II) Secondary lacerations :more common and are due to extension from perineal or cervical tears.
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Management
Immediate repair :Continuous locked cut gut sutures are taken starting from above the apex to control bleeding from the retracted blood vessels.
Tight pack :may be needed to control bleeding from a raw surface area. Foley's catheter should be inserted before packing and both are removed after 12-24 hours.
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Cont’d
Deep lacerations, and particularly those thatinvolve the vaginal vault, need to bemanaged under anaesthesia.
A laceration into the vault could extendforward to the bladder or laterally towardsthe uterine artery at the base of the broadligament
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Management
• Prompt recognition of the injury and action to control the bleeding
• Repair
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References
Current Obstetrics and Gynecologic diagnosis
Williams Obstetrics 23rd edition
Management of common problems in GYN and Obs 5th edition
Simplified Obstetrics
Aptudate
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