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ABSOLUTE NuTRITIONALDEFICIENCY: STARVATIONReasons for starvation vary in according tocircumstances. Complete deprivation mayoccur when fish are accidentally left in afacility, 0 in attempt to rear wild fish they mayrefuse to accept artificial foods they do notrecognize leading to starvation andunfavorable condition.Features of starved fish they are usuallydarker than normal and the flesh is softer.Starved larvae are referred to as pin headsbecause of their apparently enlarged head andslender body. Gills may be pale and starvingfish often have heavy parasite burdens. Annecropsy there is lack of abdominal fat, often a

.' distented gall bladder and general loss ofbloom on all visceral organs.Histopathological features arc markedreduction in sarcoplasmic content ofindividual myofibrils, with vacuolation and

single deficiencies to exist. Single deficiencyconditions were often described based onfeeding test diets wi th one particu larcomponent omitted. A general syndrome isoften in appearance or poor growth being theusual sign of ill health.The nutritional deficiencies are describedunder absolute and non-absolute nutritionaldeficienci es.

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IntroductionWild fish seldom show signs of nutritionaldiseases because natural aquatic tood arefairly nutritious especially in the essentialgrowth factors like vitamins and mineralsoccurring abundantly in plant organisms(Lagler et al.. 1972) It is when fish areconfined under artificial conditions thatnutritional deficiencies occur (Love, 1977).Only complete understanding of thenutritional requirements of culturedorganisms will allow the feed manufacturer ofculturist to adequately provide for the speciesunder culture. Generally, nutritional diseasesare not recognized as problem in the warmwater pond fish culture unless stocking ratesapproach or exceed 4,OOOkg per hectare(Olufemi, 1998). This is believed to be due toavailability of natural foods in the pondenvironment in variance to concrete tanks andthe likes, It is also well known that prolongedstorage of feed may result in reduction offeedquality particularly for vitamin' C andessential fatty acids. Contamination of feedsby Atlatoxins producing strains ofAspergillus has also been reported as causingproblems in Tilapia farms in Africa and'Southeast Asia (Olufcmi et al., 1983)Nutritional diseases are notoriously hard todefine in absolute terms, since it is rare for a

Key words: Nutrient, deficiencies, Cultured Fish, Diseases

AbstractIt is when fish are confined and fed supplemental feeds that nutritional deficiency symptomsoccur. Only complete understanding requirement of cultured organisms will allow the fedmanufacturer or cultist to provide adequately for the species under culture. The nutritionaldeficiencies are reviewed as absolute and non-absolute terms. The review concluded that deficitare interwoven and usually not limited to inadequacy or non inclusion of a certain feedingredient especially for aquatic animals.

ADEYEMO, A.O.Department of Fisheries Technology, Faculty of Agricultural Technology.

Niger Delta University, PMB 071, Wilberfoce Island, Bayelsa State.E-mail: Tcxt2abidun@.yahoo.com 08023040935

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NUTRITIONAL DEFICIENCIES PRESIDING TO DISEASE CONDITIONS INCULTURED FISH

Vitamin DeficienciesVitamins are of two groups-the fat soluble andwater soluble vitamins. Fat soluble vitaminsare complex organic substances found indifferent forms. The water soluble vitaminsare coenzymes 01" many essential enzymescatalyzing carbohydrate metabolism. Thefatty soluble vitamins can be stored within thebody and metabolized only slowly, so thatcumulative hypervitaminoses resulting. from

Lipids deficiency:Fish are capable of synthesizing fatty acids ofthe ?7 and '? series but not ?6 and ? 3 seriestherefore the '?6 and ?3 series are essential forfish unless these series are present up to 1% indiet, deficiency symptoms may result.Am o n g difieieney features aredcpi gmentation, fin erosion, cardialmyopathy and fatty infiltration of the liver inSalmonids (Cowey and Roberts, 1978).Turbot a wild marine fish ha shown a similarrequirement for ?3 series farty acids as freshwater species, while deficiency symptomsinclude ceroid deposition in the liver andthickening of the cell walls of lipid storagetissue. In fish species where liver is not amajor storage organ a pathological syndrome

lipoid live disease may occur especiallyfarmed fish fed trash fish or pelleted diets inwhich part of the lipid component has gonerancid. Lipids arc tox when rancid and reactwith protein to lover its illogical value with adeleterious effect on vitamins that are not anti­oxidants. (Dupree and Runner, 1994).

Carbohydrate deficiency:Fish has limited capacity for carbohydratemetabolism, excessive CHO levels mayresults in liver degeneration and excessglycogen deposition. For instance salmonidsmay store high level of glycogen in the liverand also exhibit symptoms of diabetes whenfed too much CHO (Halver, 1972; Sncsko,1972). Diseases like sekoke occur in carp fedwith high level of starch rations (Yokote,

. (974)

Deficiency symptoms: Reduced growth rateis the general symptom for protein deficiencyand soliosis (curvature of the spine) Occurs asrelated trypotophan deficiency. In salmon itwas found out that scoliosis is related to thedepletion of serotonin (S-HT) one of the Trpmetabolites and a known neuro-transmitter inthe central nervous svstcrn and scolisisincluded tryptophan IS however reversible(Akiyama, 1992)

NON ABSOLUTE DIETARYDEFICIENCIES AND IMBALANCESProtein deficiency:It is in the interest 01 food manufacturer toeconomize protein components in fish diet,because it is the most expensive. However,protein is essential from maintenance,growth, reproduction and repletion ofdepleted tissues during migration and mayalso be used for energy metabolism.Nutritionally, satisfactory diets for culturedfish are those which have sufficient essentialand non-essential amino-acids. The proteinand amino acids requirements for someselected fish species in Nigeria wereresearched into and published by severalauthors including Eyo (2003) Tagbenro, et al.,(2000) Faturoti (et al 1986) Dificiencysymptoms may sometimes occure even in thepresence of apparent luxus of amino aicds,Such situation may arise either because theprotein is not completely digested or becausecertain amino acids have been renderedbiologically unavailable during processing. Aliberal supply of good protein must beavailableto fish throughout life (Eye, 2003)

central migration of sarcolemmal nuclei.There is an apparent increase in fibroblast andcollagen content of the digestive tract andother organs darkening and shrinkage ofexocrine pancreatic tissue. The melanomacrophage centres are prominent, possibleas a manifestation of the extension catabolismwhich has taken place (Cowey and Roberts,1978)

9

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causes corneal vascularisation, cloudiness,haemorrhagic eye, photophobia, dim vision,poor appetite, darkened skin andxerophthalmia (lIalver, 1972).VitaminB6 (Pyridoxine): Deficiency causesnervous disorder, epilepsies, anemia, growthreduction anorexia, ascites flexing ofopcrclcs, hyper-irritability, indifference tolight death and rapid onset of rigor mortis.Pantothentic acid: Deficiency causes clubbedgills, loss of appetite, lethargy necrosis of jaw,barbells, scarring cellular atrophy,sluggishness gills covered with exudates,general mumpy appearance prostration,channel catfish exhibited reduced growthwith nutritional gill disease with insufficientlevels of dietary Pantothenic acid (Stickney,1979).Nicotinic acid: Deficiency causes loss ofappetite, erratic hemoglobin and lowerythrocytes impaired muscus production"blume slime disease" convulsion, anorexia, .anemia colonic lesions, edema of stomach andcolon, uncoordinating jerky movements,muscle spasm·lethargy photophobia, swollengills, and high mortality.Folic acid: Deficiency symptoms are anemia,malformation and incomplete development ofblood cells resulting in poor growthhemorrhagic kidney and intestine, anorexia,ascites, dark coloration, erythropenia,exphthalmia and fragility of caudal fin.Ascobic acid: Defiency symptoms aregrowth retardation, lordiosis, and in erosion(Moore etaI1984); Ibiyo et a12007. Impairedwould healing, focal hemorrhage, twistedlde­formed hyaline cartilage in gill filaments andsclera of the eyes. .Inositol: Deficiency results to anemia,bloated stomach, poor growth, anorexia andskin lesions.1312(Cobalamin): Deficiency symptoms areanorexia, erratic hemoglobin and erythrocytecounts Fragmentation. .P-Amino benzoic acid: Non inclusion in feeddoes not show any significant change ingrowth. appetite or surv ivaI.

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relatively massive intakes arc possible, theyare namely vitamins A,D ,E and KVitamin A has 2 active forms, A 1, and 2(Amalchcr, 1972) Hypovtaminoses ofVitamin A in fish results in poor growth,keratomalacia, odemena, exphotalmia,ascites, blindess and hemorrhages at the baseof the fins and kidneys (Gupta and Gupta,2005)Vitamin 0 referred to as calciferol may not bean absolute requirement for fish thoughreduced bone ash and poor food conversionoccur in deficiencies cases.Vitamin E inclusion in feeds preventsrancidity of unsatureated fats and Vitamin Adegeneration. Deficiency results inmyopathy, steatites, ceroid in liver, spleen andkidney, clubbed, gills, exphthalmia,pericardial oedema, fed blood, cell fragility,depigmentatio, microcytic, anaemia,exudaive diathesis, hemorrhages poor growthandmortalities.Vitamin K's primary function is as acomponent of the blood clotting mechanism,it is also bacteriostatic with co-enzymeproperties. Deficiency results in prolongedclotting time and hemorrhages into musclesand viscera coupled anemia in chronic cases.The signs are similar to those of ViralHemorrhagic Septicemia infection. Whendicoumarols (rat poison) contaminates fishfood it antagonizes vitamin K metabolism.Use of poison in storage must be handled withgreat care: (Gupta and Gupta, 2006).Vitamin B 1 (Thiamin) is water soluble, it isessential [or digestion, reproduction andcentral/peripheral nerve functions. Thiamindeficiency results in change of colour,hemorrhages at basc of fin, hyper excitabi Iitywith paralysis or aberrant swimming,anorexia. ataxia. muscle atrophy, oedema,poor growth, vascular degencration,melanosis in older fish, cornea opacities anddeath. (Deupree and Hunncr, 1984).Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin): is important inrespiration within poorly vascularised tissuessuch as the cornea of the eye. I)cfieicllcy

1.0

Realism Aquaculture, Achievement,Constrainsts and Perpectives. Editedby Biho, M; Rosenthal, HandSindermann, C.J. EuropeanAquaculutre Society, Bredone,Belgium.

Cowey, C.B. and Roberts, R.J. 1978.Nutritional Pathology ofTeleosts. InFish Pathology. R. 1.Roberts (Editor)Bail1iere Tindall. London

Dupree, K.H. and Hunner, J.Y 1984.Nutrition Feeds and Feeding Practices3rd Report to the Fish Fanners. U.S.Department of the Interior Fish andwild life service. 141-157

Eyo, A.A. 2003. Fundamentals of FishNutrition and Diet Development. AnOverview. National Workshop onFish Feed Development and FeedingPractices in Aquaculture. FAO­NSPFS-NlFFRI

Fagbenro, , O. A. Adeparusi, E. O. andFapohunda, 0.0. 2000 Feedstuff andDietary Substitution for Farmed Fishin Nigeria. National Workshop onFish Feed Development and FeedingPractices in Aquaculture. FAO­NSPFS-NIFFR

Faturoti, E.O. Balogun, A.M. and Ugwu,L.L.C 1986. Nutrient Utilization andGrowth Response of Clarias lazerafed Different Dietary Protein Levels.Nigerian Journal of Applied Sciencesand Hydrobiology 1:41-45.

Gupta, S. K. and Gupta, P.C. 2006. Generaland Applied Ichthyology. (Fish andFisheries) S.Chand and Co. Ltd. RamNagar, New Delhi.

Helver, 1. E. 1972 The Vitamins. In FishNutrition. Ed J. E. Halver.AcademicPress New York and London

lbiyo, L.M.; Arteh, L.J. 0.; Omotosho, 1.8.and Madu, C.T. 2007. Profitability ofan Economic Diet in Practical Fish·Fanning: A case study of Vitamin CInclusion in the Diet ofHeterobranehus longifilis fingerlings.

ReferencesAkinyarna, T. 1992 Scoliosis of Fishes

Caused by Tryptophan deficiency. InControl of Diseases in Aquaculture.Proceedings of the J9'h U.S. JapanMeeting on Aquaculture. Ise, MiePrcfacrurc, Japan 29-30'\ October,t990. National Oceanic- andAtmospheric Administration ReportNMFSSl11.7-12

Castle, 1.0. 19R6: Aquaculture Nutrition. In

Biotin: Deficicy symptoms are anemiaanorexia, blume slim disease colonic lesionscontracted caudal fins, dark colourationerythrocyte fragmentation, moralities muscleatrophy poor growth spatic convulsion.Choline: Deficiency causes anemia, poor foodconversion, poor growth, vascular stasis andhemorrhage inkidney and intestine.MINERAL DEFICIENCIESCalcium deficiencies causes poor growth,poor feed efficiency and high mortality.Phosphorus insufficiency portrays skeletalabnormalities poor growth and feed efficiencyand bone rnineralsation, while Magnesiumdeficiencies causes renal calcinosis, loss ofappetite, poor growth and high mortality,Deficiency symptoms of iron are hypochronic microcytic anemia, copper deficiencyis only evident in poor growth. Manganesedeficiencies is evident in short and compactbody and abnormal tail growth, iodinedeficiency is thyroid hyperplasia and zincdeficiencies are cataract, caudal fin and skinerosion coupled with growth depression.ConclusionDeficiency symptoms arc seen to beinterwoven and nutritional disorder in anycultured organism may not be limited to just aparticular deficiency or non inclusion ofcertain feed components. It is thereforeadvisable culturist and feed manufacturers toinclude adequate amount of essentialnutrients in feed at an times irrespective of theanimal's stage of growth. PREVENTION ISBETTER TIIAN CURE

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Olufcmi, B.E.~Roberts, RJ. and Freichs, G.N. 1983 Serological Aspects ofAspergillomycosis inCultured Tilapa(Oreochromis niloticus) Tropical Vet.29:38

Sniezko, S.F. 1972Nutritional Fish Diseases,In Fish Nutrition, Ed. I. E. Halver.Academic Press. New York andLondon. 404-437

Stckney,R. R. 1979Principles of WarmwaterAquaculture. Wiley Inter SciencePub. NewYork.

Yokotc, M. 1974 Spontaneous Diabetes inCarp (Cyprinus carpio. SpecialPublication Japan Sea Fish Lab. 67-74.

Proceedings of the zr' Annualconference of Fisheries Society ofNigeria calabar 13th_17th November2006. 270-275

I.agler, K.F. Bardach, J .E. Miller, R.R. andPassino, 1972. ICHTHYOLOGY. 2nd

EditionWilley S. U.S.ALovell, R.T. 1977. Digestibility of Nutrients

in Feedstuffs for Catfish. In Nutritionand Feeding of Channel Catfish.Southernb Cooperative SeriesBulletin 218. Auburn AgriculturalExperiment Station, Abur University,Alabama.

Olufemi, B.E. 1998 Fish Husbandary andMedicine: The Experience of aTropical Veterinarian. InauguralLecture. University of Ibadan.Publication