non-standard composition: problem issues

Non-standard composition: problem issues

Ulia Vairakh

Irkutsk National Research Technical

University, Advertising and Journalism

Department

Irkutsk, Russia

[email protected]

Tatiana Dikun Irkutsk National Research

Technical University, Advertising and Journalism Department

Irkutsk, Russia [email protected]

Elena Nikitina

Irkutsk State University, Department of Pedagogy


Anna Kazorina Irkutsk National Research

Technical University, Department of Advertising and Journalism


Abstract - The article gives a review on problem areas

related to preparation for the composition. It is a part of final

essay examination. The conceptual apparatus in terms of

declared topic has been defined. There was revealed the way to

achieve a successful finishing of the exam. In this article the

author described theoretical and practical experience, and the

results of implementing author’s program («Final composition:

intensive practical training session» with a study guide

(«Intensive practical work «composition for a credit»; study

manual «Final composition for literature: preparation and

writing technique»). With the purpose of elaborating the

decisions for major issues aroused with the establishment of

new form of the exam assessment. There was described the

system of writing final compositions; criteria and efficient

characteristics for the essay learning process, tools for

assessing the quality of the learning process and the result of

Philological Education was described as well. The approaches

to evaluate educational attainments of students (for the final

compositions were considered and the assessment of essay

writing influenced by various factors was given. The potential

of various work forms including interactive ones used in

training sessions for the essay: «Fishbone diagram», «Lotus

flower» table, mind mapping, technology of creative workshops

was analyzed.

Keywords - Philological education, new form of assessment,

final composition, technology of critical thinking, originality,

interactive forms, technology of creative workshops.

I. INTRODUCTION

Modern philological education is focused on a harmoniously developed and intellectual person who is able to solve educational problems quickly and translate subject experience into practical applications in rapidly changing pedagogical conditions.

In the realities of school life it is difficult to navigate without the constructing new skills for discovering new knowledge. Philological education is going through a difficult period of reorientation, becoming the conditions of searching for other forms of the presentation of educational information and its evaluation. However, there are some problems in teaching the philological disciplines cycle: the low level of students' reading culture, the inability of the student to independently write creative work, the unwillingness to prove personal position, the immaturity of judgments in argumentation, etc.

All the giving above is directly related to a no less urgent problem that has arisen due to the formation of a particular type of modern adolescents thinking - clip thinking.

A number of researchers note the obvious advantages of such information perception: ensuring the protection of the brain from information overloads, the ability to switch from one source to another quickly, a quick response that makes it easy to get involved in work, master new material, respond more effectively and adjust to any changes; multitasking, allowing you to simultaneously listen to music, chat, surf the web, edit photos and do your homework.

At the same time, this type of thinking makes a young person flexible to manipulate and influence, deprives of the ability for long-term concentration, which makes it impossible to carefully study the training material that is firmly fixed in memory. The student doesn’t bother with the understanding and extraction of the main thing; he pays attention only to the general concepts and formulations. Thus, the analytical thinking ability is gradually reduced or completely lost, and the perception of parts and fragments of information between which it is impossible to establish semantic connections, generates only a thesis statement of thoughts.

II. MATERIALS AND METHODS (MODEL)

Philological science offers specialists various techniques that help a child to think and aim at building the ability to build a holistic, rather than a fragmented picture of objective reality, developing the ability to analyze, establish connections between phenomena.

In order to improve the quality of philological training in 2014 in Russia a final essay on literature was introduced. For two years, the feasibility of this final certification form was proved, but the evaluation of the essay still remains imperfect: “pass/fail”, which is determined by the text's compliance with five criteria: “compliance with the topic”, “argumentation, attraction of literary material”, “composition and the logic of reasoning”, “the quality of writing”, “literacy”.

The introduction of the essay into the educational process was not progressive and it was not accompanied by

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Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 331

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the educational and methodological materials developed and tested, therefore it was necessary to build the system of work with a new form of final certification as soon as possible. Y. Wyrah, A. Kazorina created the author's program of the elective course on the Russian language in grades 10-11 “The final essay on literature” in 2015. Intensive workshop “Writing for credit” in which the training of the final essay was based on the technology of critical thinking. The program was registered in the "Irkutsk Information and Methodological Center for Education Development" May 15, 2015, No. 31, POU 04463 Russian Internet site "Training, education, development, socialization". The program was reviewed and recommended at a meeting of the City Methodological Council for use in educational activities, P. No. 2 of May 28, 2015.

This program has been tested in many schools at Irkutsk (No. 6, No. 14, No. 26, No. 19, No. 40, No. 45, No. 63, Leonov’s school and many others). Teachers of the Russian language and literature give good feedback about the authors' program and noted the timeliness and expediency of the presented system of preparation for the final essay on literature.

The introducing program experience showed the need to develop other educational paths in teaching how to write an essay, so it was necessary to create educational and methodological support for it: the training manual “Final essay on literature”. Intensive workshop “Essay on the credit” (Irkutsk, 2015) [2]; training manual “The final essay on literature: preparation and writing technology” (Moscow, October 2016, practice Practical Pedagogy, reprinted 2017, 2018, 2019) [3].

The manuals are based on the development of critical thinking, interpreted as “a set of qualities and skills that determine a high level of student and teacher research culture appraisal, reflexive thinking for which knowledge is not the ultimate, but the starting point, reasoned and logical thinking, which is based on personal experience and verified facts” [6, 15]. In the new conditions of transition to the basic state educational standard [13], it is necessary to change the approach to the form of final certification, applying interactive forms of education [1, 8, 11].

The criteria for evaluating the essay should be revised to take into consideration the subject formation and meta-subject universal learning activities in the context of the implementation of the FSES.

It should be noted that the methodological recommendations for the final essay contain an excerpt from the “Journal of the Ministry of Public Education” dated 1872: “From an essay written by a secondary school pupil should not be expected neither novelty nor originality of thought, nor completeness of content, which requires multilateral knowledge and more mature deliberation, nor an elegant language, the acquisition of which requires not only teaching, but also special talent; but this work should be written in the language correct, pure and accurate, its presentation should satisfy the conditions of logical connection and consistency, and the content should be natural and efficient, directly related to the topic. ” [5, p. 51-85]. It is hard not to agree with these recommendations, but

it is necessary to take into account completely different pedagogical conditions of school education.

It is true that the essay should reflect the student’s civic, moral and moral maturity.

III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Recently, the system of preparation for writing an essay has been updated to reflect the features of the educational process and includes: a) compulsory writing of essays on a template in the classroom; b) oral analysis of essays based on evaluation criteria; c) discussion of the methods of high-quality processing of texts, analysis of the arguments, options for entry and conclusion, and language bridges from one thought to another; e) conducting individual consultations on the writing of the text; e) students rewrite failed works; g) inclusion in the lesson of case studies related to the formation of skills of writing the final essay.

The authors are convinced of the need to take into account the approximate criteria for evaluating the essay at the university when preparing for the final essay in the 11th form, among which the originality criterion is highlighted. Unfortunately, in the philological preparation of the student there is such a problem: the final essays are devoid of originality, stereotyped and not independent.

One of the ways to develop originality of thinking is to build a cause-and-effect Ishikawa diagram (“fish bone”) [14], which determines the range of problems in the thematic area and clearly represents the course of reasoning on a specific topic of the work. Ishikawa Kaoru writes that “in the Quality Management Guide, published in 1962, J.M. Juran called the cause-effect diagram“ Ishikawa diagram, ”and now it is known by this name” [ 7, p.38].

The route for applying the Ishikawa diagram includes the following steps:

1. The formulation of the main problem by all the participants.

2. The studied problem is recorded on the right side in the middle of a blank sheet of paper and is enclosed in a frame to which the main horizontal arrow fits to the left it is the “back”.

3. The main causes of the problem (“causes of the first level”) are located at the top and bottom of the sheet. They are connected by slanted arrows with the central line.

4. The secondary causes (“causes of the second level”) are located parallel to the center line and are related to the causes of the first level. According to this principle, a further hierarchy of causes of the problem has been built.

5. In the analysis should be identified and recorded all the factors including even the smallest.

6. The reasons are evaluated and structured according to their importance’s which are more important, which facts subsequently will influence the effective solution of the problem.

7. The diagram contains the necessary information: keywords, literary examples, questions, conditions for the existence of the problem, etc.


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When working on a thematic area, students are asked to formulate basic questions. For example, in the direction of "Mind and Feelings", schoolchildren see the following problems: What is more important: the mind or feelings? When do feelings submit to reason? When does the mind depend on the senses? How do feelings and mind relate to each other? Why do people need the mind and feelings? When feelings and mind are in agreement?

Schoolchildren highlighted an important issue of direction, e.g.: How do mind and feelings relate to each other? Then they thought up questions that reveal the diagram’s main question. The teacher was writing repeated questions on the blackboard to indicate the range of problems during the discussion of the problem:

• In a crowd, feelings prevail over reason. How to resist it?

• How to find harmony between the expectations of society and your desires?

• Why did individual historical epochs differently assess the significance of feelings and reason?

• How does a rational/emotional person live?

• How do the mind and feelings depend on the upbringing and education of a person?

Work with questions continues and students need to consider possible answers to formulated questions. Schoolchildren respond to groups in order to determine the causes of the first level in the diagram. In working on the problem “How do feelings and mind relate to each other?” It was revealed that feelings and mind can be unidirectional and can be opposite. (Fig. 1). The reasons for the second level will be the conditions under which the interaction of mind and feelings. At this stage, group work is organized, during which the teacher or schoolchildren record repeated reasons for the second level on the board.

Fig. 1. Causal diagram “fish bone” (mind and feeling)

At this stage, group work is organized, during which the teacher or schoolchildren record repeated reasons for the second level on the board. In the context of this problem, it was revealed that the mind and feelings are in harmony when a person analyzes actions.

Reason and feelings reach equilibrium when a person experiences positive emotions (love, joy, inspiration). They help to achieve success in everything and where the power of reason is required: in science, in work.

Negative emotions (anger, resentment, envy, etc.) can also activate the rational side of human nature.

Reason and feeling can become a hindrance in the case when a person is trying to adjust to circumstances. In difficult situations, harmony between the rational and emotional is impossible. A person to reason or feelings can be dictated by temperament: phlegmatic more rational than melancholic or choleric.

The causal diagram of the “fish bone” (Fig. 1.) clearly demonstrates the findings and possible directions for the development of the subject of the essay: from the range of problems to their solutions. Students can be invited to include in the diagram examples taken from literary works as “third-level causes”. Causal diagram “fish bone” (Mind and feeling).

Consider a fragment of the essay written after the work

on critical thinking development. The text of the fragment is

given in Chart 1, where the ratio of the parts of the work

with the elements of the fish-bone diagram is presented.

To argue the position, the student chooses one of the

reasons for the second level: feelings and mind help each

other when a person reflexes, analyzing actions (Fig. 1). The schoolchild connects this condition with the

problem “How does the ratio of mind and feelings depend on the upbringing and education of a person?” (Fig. 1). The schoolchild complicated the task and formulated the thesis as a statement.


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A pupil with poor knowledge can focus on the use of the question in the diagram. The thesis is disclosed on the example of the novel by A. Berzhes “A Clockwork Orange”, therefore, the text is characterized by literature centric: the criteria for evaluating the essay allow the attraction of works of world literature. The fragment ends with a microexpression, which corresponds with the thesis (Fig. 1).

TABLE I. FRAGMENT OF THE ESSAY “HOW DO FEELINGS

AND MIND RELATE TO EACH OTHER?”

Text of composition Diagram

Feelings and mind are inseparable: throughout life, they determine the character, actions, and

behavior.

A person differs from the animal in the presence

of the mind, making it more difficult to feel and

experience.

Our reflection and persistent attempts to realize good and evil, right and wrong form in us

principles and moral principles that make us care

about others and appreciate the world around us. Many of us are sure that the more intelligent a

person is smarter, the more humane and

compassionate he should be.

Feelings and minds help each other

when a person

reflexes, analyzes his actions.

However, this is not always the case.

Humanity and mercy do not always depend on a

person’s education.

Problem: how does

the ratio of mind

and feelings depend on the upbringing

and education of a

person?

For example, let's remember the novel “A

Clockwork Orange” by Anthony Burges. The

main character, Alex, spends most of his time at home listening to classical music. He has

intellectual friends like him. At night, they are

engaged in raids on shops, beating passersby. Alex is an excellent student, well versed in

classical music and has just a phenomenal

memory, but he has no compassion and sympathy for others. He does not understand that you can’t

hurt other people. Alex has neglected humanity

and compassion, he is indifferent to the grief of others. Indifference gave rise to cruelty in him,

and now it is difficult to call him a man. On the

example of the novel by E. Berzhes, we can see that the mind and feelings are two elements

connected with each other and at the same time

quite independent. A person must equally responsibly treat both the development of the

mind and the education of feelings, only their

agreement helps us to remain people and go through life.

Problem: how does the ratio of mind

and feelings depend

on the upbringing and education of a

person?

The causal diagram of Ishikawa can be used in

individual work on a specific topic of the essay.

In contrast to the Ishikawa diagram, the disadvantages of which include: the absence of a logical check of the causes leading chain to the root cause; the inability to validate the findings; constant coordination of the work of students by the teacher - the Lotus Flower diagram or Lotus blossom, it is a problem analysis technique, it is more labor-intensive and productive. It was developed by Yasuo Matsumura (Japan) and reflects the strategy of creative thinking, invented by the poet Thomas Eliot, who created his poem “Barren Land”.

The study must begin with the main topic, dividing it into subtopics, each of which is accompanied by variations. "Lotus Flower" requires concentration, total dedication of participants in the educational process. “Blooming Lotus” consists of a large square, which is divided into 9 small squares. Each of the 9 squares is divided into 9 small squares according to the same principle. Drawing a chart "Lotus Flower" is to fill all the squares. The main theme is placed in the center, and in a circle there are 8 sub-topics or arguments. Then each of the arguments is transferred from the central square to the center of the squares located on the periphery. The next step - around each of the 8 arguments, write 8 facts in favor of this argument. [9, p.100] The essence of the method lies in the formulation of 64 topics for reflection in the framework of the proposed thematic area. Many of them are interrelated and allow you to define problem-thematic matrix circles of direction.

Consider the process of drawing the diagram “Lotus Flower” in the thematic area “Experience and mistakes”. At the first work stage, schoolchildren are invited to work independently. In the center is placed the name of the thematic direction, to which students make up 8 questions, arranging them in a circle. At the next stage, 8 repetitive questions are selected from the list of proposed questions. The first part of the diagram is drawn up with a teacher capable of eliminating irrelevant and contrived problems. As the example of the first level diagram is presented on Figure 2.

Fig. 2. Level 1. Lotus flower chart (experience and errors)

At the next stage, the class was divided into 8 groups, each of which is proposed to compile eight possible answers to one of the questions. The complexity of this work lies in the fact that it is easy to create the first three, and eight answers are not easy to come up with and the student needs to find non-standard solutions. One of the examples of the second level is presented in Figure 3.


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Fig. 3. Level 2. Lotus flower chart (experience and errors)

The undoubted advantage of the Lotus Flower technique is the identification of particular problems: in this case, drawing up a chart on one of the aspects of the topic becomes extremely difficult or impossible.

In preparation for the final essay, the construction of the Lotus Flower technique can be complicated by placing not a topic in the center, but a problem question (Fig. 4). At the first level, pupils need to identify possible causes of the problem, and at the second level, determine the conditions for their occurrence.

Fig. 4. Level 1. Lotus Flower Chart (Experience and Errors)

Originality of thinking is associated with the pupil’s ability to build associations between images and phenomena. The more unexpected the associative connection is, the more original the line of reasoning looks. However, the modern pupil is accustomed to the template presentation of arguments.

Another model of the “radiant thinking” is the “mental map” (intellect map, mind map, cognitive map, scheme by T. Buzan). The basis of the method is a reasonable assumption that the human brain thinks nonlinearly, by associations and hierarchical models. The mental map is a

universal tool for structuring, understanding, processing and storing information. [4, 12]. A visual representative system is able to cope with all information processing. Today's pupil - visual is focused on this type of thinking, therefore the organization of the educational process and mental activity becomes more effective if mental systems (primary - verbal presentation of information at the consciousness level; leading - opening access to internal information and processing it; reference - final verification of information, presented at the level of consciousness) will reflect the visualization of information. The mind map allows to structure and process information that appears unclear and irrelevant at the first stage. Making the mind map, the pupil’s intellectual potential at the consciousness and subconsciousness level is used.

Consider the results of the work with the mental map in preparation for the final essay in the process of learning activities. At the first stage of acquaintance with the method, we recommend organizing work in groups. To save time, pupils can be offered to consider examples of mental maps or to make a map with a teacher. It must be remembered that for the compilation of the mental map, A4 paper is required (for the individual construction of the model) or A3 (for group work), as well as colored pencils and felt-tip pens.

The technique of making a mind map includes the following requirements:

1. It is important to put words on the branches. Branches must be “alive” and flexible. Creating a mental map by analogy with the traditional scheme contradicts the essence of the mind maps method. Schematizing champers the sight movement on branches and creates superfluous identical objects.

2. You need to write one keyword on each line. Each word contains many associations, so “gluing” words reduces the freedom of thought. Separate words writing can create bundles of associations.

3. The line length should be equal to the length of the word. It is more economical and “cleaner”.

4. It is necessary to write in block letters as clearly and as possible.

5. It is recommended to vary the size of the letters and the thickness of the lines depending on the degree of keyword importance.

6. It is necessary to use the drawings and symbols (for the central theme the picture is obligatory), preferably colored. The mind map can generally consist entirely of pictures.

7. It is necessary to organize the space so that there is no empty space left, but at the same time it is not necessary to place the branches too close to each other.

8. Overgrown branches can be enclosed in the contours so that they do not mix with neighboring branches.

9. The sheet and words should be placed horizontally ("landscape page orientation"). This card is more convenient to read and there is no need to turn it.

In the future, groups are invited to draw up a mind map on the proposed topic of the essay. During the lesson, the


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teacher coordinates the group work process in accordance with the tasks of preparing for writing the text of the argument with the literary material help. Thus, pupils may be asked to include indications of illustrative material in the map, which can be used in the composition or supplement the map with new associations. For example, when we work on the topic “Is it appropriate to speak about honor and conscience in our time?” It was suggested to add a number of associations and views related to the question: “Is it ever an honor without conscience?” (Fig. 6). The question caused a lot of difficulties, its discussion turned into a discussion, during which many agreed that conscience is the moral core of a person.

If a person has conscience and honor, then he is calm, compassionate, in his life there is love and friendship. An example of such people in the literature can be considered the hero of the novel A.S. Pushkin "The Captain's Daughter" - Petrusha Grinev and the hero of the novel L.N. Tolstoy "War and Peace" - Pierre Bezukhov.

On the other hand, when a person loses honor, but his conscience remains, peace disappears, shame, fear, self-doubt appear. Rodion Raskolnikov who is the main character of the novel "Crime and Punishment" by FM. Dostoevsky, can be considered as the example in such case.

A person without conscience will not be tormented: he is indifferent and calm, because he is capable of any meanness and evil. Lack of conscience always means lack of honor, this is confirmed by the image of Luzhin in the novel by F.M. Dostoevsky "Crime and Punishment." the course of reasoning in the form of an apple branch is visually decorated at Figure 6, where the apple symbolizes conscience, and the leaf - honor.

Fig. 5. Mind map “Is it appropriate to speak of honor and conscience in

our time?” (honor and dishonor)

The mind map on the topic “Is it appropriate to speak about honor and conscience in our time?” became a visualized outline for an essay, an example of which is given above.

The text of the essay is different figuratively and the breadth of the argumentation involved, not all the evidence in the essay is indisputable, but the genre of the final essay is defined by the developers as an essay, which does not exclude some freedom in argumentation and composition. The main requirement of the essay is the expression of one’s

own position, to which the given text of the essay corresponds.

Is it appropriate to speak of honor and conscience in

our time? He is an honest man… Such an assessment of moral

qualities by society was the highest in pre-revolutionary Russia. “Honor uniform” means “honor officer”. For the opportunity to be and be considered an honest man, a nobleman, people shot at duels and died. Life was equal to honor. Pushkin, Lermontov, Griboedov ... Honor has no geographical boundaries. There is no difference in this sense between the European duel and the Japanese seppuku. Does the honor have time frame? Why in our time there was such a question?

What kind of characteristics do we not give to the people around us: kind, cute, intelligent, fair or, on the contrary, evil, cruel, aggressive, closed ... But “honest” sounds like an anachronism. It seems to us that it does not matter for the characteristics. It is more importantly, the person was kind, generous ...But honor… It should be: none of us is ready to forgive betrayal; we do not want to be deceived. But honor is more difficult than just being honest and being able to tell the truth. Honor is the ability to live in harmony with your conscience, the presence of which is the cause of any person’s deed. It is the core of our morality. And it is always important. And in our time it is especial, because the terrible 20th century was left behind, there was not enough mercy and kindness, love for people and compassion, in which they often forgot about honor and conscience, and treason was perceived as a service to the state. Entire generations grew up in an atmosphere of inverted ideas of good and evil, of right and wrong, of honor and conscience.

Now we need to be honest with ourselves, to recognize that we are responsible for both ourselves and others. A person of honor and literature teaches us to take responsibility for the actions and words. Pierre Bezukhov, after a duel with Dolokhov, realizes that the cause of the incident was himself, if not for his weakness, insecurity, he would not have been married to Helene, a stupid and depraved woman, then there would not be this ridiculous duel in which Dolokhov was accidentally wounded, a person, in essence, is not bad, because he dearly and tenderly loves his old mother, his mother and humpback sister. It is difficult to realize and even less to accept, but a person of honor will never blame other people for his unsettled life.

It is always important to talk about honor, but in our time it is necessary to talk about it with children, because the principles of morality are laid in childhood. Perhaps this is the way to save the world from repeating the mistakes of the 20th century, because peace and happiness for humanity can only be given to people of honor and conscience, who will find it difficult to shoot at their own kind. (Berdnikov P., 388 words)

The route of applying the mind map in learning the final essay includes the following stages: discussion of the key words of the topic of the essay, work with illustrative material (proverbs, sayings, artistic works, films, etc.); lesson independent work (group, steam) on the addition and visualization of the material; structuring the collected


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information on the modules in the form of a mind map; presentation it in a group or individually; evaluation of the content of the mind map, discussion and addition; writing an essay.

Creating mind maps in preparation for the final composition solves the problem of non-standard composition. The mind map is a product of independent and creative activity, therefore, the essay created on its basis will differ from the template. Mapping activates the intellectual abilities of students in the case when the topic seems incomprehensible or perceived at the first reading is wrong.

IV. CONCLUSION

The modern form of state attestation is considered by many as an attempt to restore the quality of traditional humanitarian education of the Soviet period and the pre-revolutionary Russia. Improving the quality of education, improving education is impossible without attracting innovative methods and means of training and control. The final essay has a meta-subject character and is designed to objectively assess the graduate’s ability to practice in practice the knowledge gained, his tendency to innovate, the desire to improve the personality. Preparing for the final essay in this sense becomes an activity aimed at the development of meta-subject matter. To carry out this activity is impossible without the involvement of new technologies, strategies and methods. The listed methods (Ishikawa diagram, lotus flower, mind map), technology of creative workshops enable the release of creative potential. Color, signs, symbols, drawings help the pupil to structure, interpret and memorize information. The ability to think outside the box, open up in the familiar new, plan not only learning activities, but also the life - these are the meta-subject universal learning activities that will be formed in preparation for the new form of final certification.

REFERENCES

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[3] Y. Vairah, and A.V. Kazorina “The final essay in literature: preparation and writing technology: ucheb method. Manual”, Moscow: INFRA-M, 2016.

[4] Journal of the Ministry of Education, no.7, pp. 51-85, 1872.

[5] A. Zagashev, and S.I. Zair-Bek, “Critical thinking: the development of technology”, St. Petersburg : Alliance «Delta», 2003.

[6] K. Ishikawa, “Japanese quality management”, M.: Economics, 1988.

[7] P. Sloan, “Art originality of thinking. Exercises for the brain and finding creative solutions”, Kiev : Companion Group, 2011.

[8] S.S. Miroshnikov, “Using the technique of «Lotus Flower» as an interactive method of teaching of discipline «and Pure bases of physical training: biology and chemistry»”, in Physical education and sports training, no 2, pp.98-103, 2016.

[9] H. Mueller, “Making mental maps: a method of generating and structuring idea”, Moscow: Omega L, 2007.

[10] H. Adler, “NLP schedule. Thinking in pictures and images”, St. Petersburg: Peter, 2003.

[11] E.V. Reznikov, and A.I. Vlasov, “Prospects for the use of concept maps to build the knowledge base of TRIZ”, in TRIZ. The practice of methodological tools, Moscow, pp. 140-145, 2011.

[12] D. Halpern, “Psychology Critical Thinking”, St. Petersburg : Peter, 2000.


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non-standard composition: problem issues

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