Pre-Conference Presentation

Non-Human Rights-Holders and the

Hypocrisy of Fundamental Rights Law

by Ankita Shanker

I n th i s ses s i on , Ank i ta d i scus se s the d i s c repanc y be tween those who ho l dfundamenta l r i gh t s and those whose r igh t s a re fo rma l l y recogn i sed andlega l l y p ro tec ted . I n do ing so , she exposes an egreg ious gap in the lawbe tween i t s unde r l y i ng va lues and i t s e f f i cac y (o r l ac k thereo f ) i n upho ld ingthem through i t s p rov i s i ons . F i r s t , she exp la ins why an ima l s havef undamenta l r i gh t s and what th i s means . Next , she ou t l i nes how therecogn i t i on and pro tec t i on o f fundamenta l r i gh t s and assoc ia ted no t i onshave evo l ved over t ime . Th i s evo lu t i on has reac hed the po in t where a l lhuman be ings are bene f i c i a r ie s , bu t non -human an ima l s a re s t i l li nexp l i cab l y exc luded f rom i t s scope . Ank i ta argues tha t the law shou ldcon t inue to evo l ve unt i l t he fundamenta l r i gh t s o f a l l r i gh ts - ho lde r s , humanand non -human , a re recogn i sed and protec ted . F ina l l y , she br i e f l y addres se swhy we need to re spec t an ima l r i gh t s , no t j u s t qua an ima l r i gh t s , bu t a l soas a means to so l ve a number o f the wor ld ’s most p re s s ing p rob lems , manyo f wh i c h pose an ex i s ten t i a l r i sk to humans as we l l .

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© 2020 Ankita Shanker

KEY TERMS

• Non-Human Animals (“Animals”)

• Human Animals (“Humans”)

• Fundamental Rights (“FRs”)

• Sentience

• Exploitation2

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

WE NEED TO TALK ABOUT ANIMAL RIGHTS.

2 select examples of arguments that demonstrate why:

• “My personal choice [to exploit animals] should be respected.”

• How does the choice to exploit another trump the victim’s choice to not be

exploited?

• “The animals [I exploit] are treated well.”

• Even if that were true (and it almost never is), how does that justify the

exploitation?

“The scale, gravity, and legality of animal exploitation makes it the prime

contender for the worst abuse in the world today.”

“Animal welfare treats the symptoms of animal abuse, but the only way to

eradicate the disease is to cure the underlying condition.” 3

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

WHO HOLDS FRS?

“All sentient beings have fundamental rights in order to protect

the interests that are perceived through their consciousness.

The nature and content of these rights are relevant to protecting

these interests, and the maximum limits of these rights are

determined by the minimum requirements to protect the

corresponding rights of other rights-holders.”

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© 2020 Ankita Shanker

WHY?

“[…] the question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but, Can they

suffer? Why should the law refuse its protection to any sensitive being?” (Jeremy

Bentham, An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (first printed

1780, London: printed for T. Payne, and son, at the Mews Gate, published 1789, p.

cccix)

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© 2020 Ankita Shanker

• Premise 1: Humans have FRs.

• Premise II: Animals are like humans.

• Else,→ Questioning animal sentience

• Premise III: Like things are to be treated alike.

• Else,→Adopting supremacist notions

• Conclusion: Since humans have FRs, so do animals.

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© 2020 Ankita Shanker

WHOSE FRS ARE RECOGNISED AND PROTECTED?

“It often happens that the universal belief of one age of mankind — a belief

from which no one was, nor without an extraordinary effort of genius and

courage, could at that time be free — becomes to a subsequent age so

palpable an absurdity, that the only difficulty then is to imagine how such a

thing can ever have appeared credible.” (John S. Mill, Principles of Political

Economy with Some of Their Applications to Social Philosophy. (first published 1848,

London: Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer1871), p. 3)

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© 2020 Ankita Shanker

Select examples from early human rights documents:

• Magna Carta (England 1215);

• Broadest protection to the “free man”

• Partially excl. women (equal rights protection for women in 1968) and serfs (serfdom

abolished in 1574).

• Declaration of Independence (US 1776); Constitution (US 1787); Bill of Rights

(US 1791)

• Allegedly protected “all men” on an equal basis

• … implicitly partially excl. women (equal rights protection for women in late 20th C)

and excl. enslaved persons (slavery abolished in 1865, and equal rights protection for

African Americans in 1968)

• Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (France 1789)

• Broadest protection to active citizens

• Implicitly partially excl. women (equal rights protection for women in late 20th C) and

non-propertied men, and excl. enslaved people (slavery abolished in 1784 and then

again in 1848)

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© 2020 Ankita Shanker

• “Preserving the status quo is obviously beneficial for oppressors, but itis a weak reason to deny the oppressed their rights.”

• Select examples of triggers that prompted the expansion of humanrights protections:

• Women’s rights movements

• Abolitionist movements

• Civil rights movements

• Rebellions/revolts/wars

• Law and policy changes:

• International declarations (e.g., ADRDM 1948, UDHR 1948, ASEAN HumanRights Declaration 2012)

• International treaties (e.g., ECHR 1950, ICCPR 1966, ICESCR 1966, ACHR1969,ACHPR 1981,ArabCHR 2004)

• Domestic laws and policies9

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

“[…] the time shall come when all men […] will be content with a vegetable

diet and will think on the murder of animals as now they think on the murder

of men.” (Dmitry S. Merezhkovsky, The Romance of Leonardo da Vinci (first

published 1900, translated from the original Russian by Herbert Trench, New York

and London: G.P. Putnam’s Sons 1912), p. 226)

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© 2020 Ankita Shanker

PROBLEM?

Rights-Holders

Beneficiaries of Rights

Recognitonand Protection

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© 2020 Ankita Shanker

MORE PROBLEMS?

• Human health

• Antimicrobial resistance

• Zoonoses

• Individual health conditions

• The environment

• Anthropocene extinction

• Environmental degradation

• Food availability

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© 2020 Ankita Shanker

HUMAN HEALTH: ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE AND ZOONOSES

• “Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major global threat of increasing concern. […]

two-thirds of the estimated future growth of usage of antimicrobials is estimated to

be within the animal production sector” (FAO, “Antimicrobial Resistance: Animal

production” (FAO)).

• Zoonotic diseases are increasing rapidly, and human activities, such as animal

product consumption, animal agriculture, domestication and selective breeding

of animals, taming of animals, encroachment into wildlife, loss of biodiversity,

climate change, etc. are the main drivers of zoonosis (UNEP, UNEP Frontiers 2016

Report: Emerging Issues of Environmental Concern (Nairobi: UNEP 2016), pp. 19, 22-23).

• “The greatest risk for zoonotic disease transmission occurs at the human-animal

interface through direct or indirect human exposure to animals, their products (e.g.

meat, milk, eggs..) and/or their environments” (WHO, “Zoonoses and the

environment” (WHO)). 13

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

“On average, one new infectious disease emerges in humans every four

months” (UNEP, UNEP Frontiers 2016 Report: Emerging Issues of Environmental

Concern (Nairobi: UNEP 2016), p. 18).

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© 2020 Ankita Shanker

Pathogens/Diseases/

Illnesses/Deaths

Affecting Humans

Number/Percentage

Attributable to

Zoonoses/Orginating in

Animals

Source(s)

Deaths/year millionsWHO EMRO, Sixty-first session of

the Regional Committee for the

Eastern Mediterranean: Zoonotic

disease: emerging public health

threats in the Region (WHO EMRO

2014), p. 1

Illnesses/year 1 billion

New pathogens detected in

past 30 years

75%

Emerging infectious

diseases

75%UNEP, UNEP Frontiers 2016 Report:

Emerging Issues of Environmental

Concern (Nairobi: UNEP 2016),

p.18Infectious diseases 60%

HUMAN HEALTH: INDIVIDUAL HEALTH CONDITIONS

Various independent organisations have found causal links between the

consumption of animal products (meat, fish, dairy, and eggs) and serious

and even fatal human health conditions, such as Alzheimer’s disease,

cancer (bowel, breast, ovarian, lung, prostrate, stomach), cardiovascular

disease, diabetes, neurotoxicity, osteoporosis, etc. (See, e.g., American

Cancer Society; Cancer Council; Cancer Research UK, German Cancer Research

Centre, International Agency for Cancer Research; National Cancer Institute;

Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine; World Cancer Research Fund;

World Health Organization).

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© 2020 Ankita Shanker

“The risk increases with the amount of meat consumed, but the data available

for evaluation did not permit a conclusion about whether a safe level exists”(WHO, “Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat”

(WHO 26 October 2015)).16

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

Substance(s) Carcinogenic Classification Source(s)

Chinese-style salted fish Group 1 (carcinogenic)

- links with cancer as

conclusively established as

for tobacco or asbestos

- established links to

colorectal cancer

- possible links to stomach

and bowel cancers

IARC, “Red Meat and Processed Meat”

in IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of

Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (vol. 114,

Lyon: IARC, WHO 2018); “Personal

Habits and Indoor Combustions” in

IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of

Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (vol. 100E,

Lyon: IARC, WHO 2012), pp. 501-510;

“Some Naturally Occurring Substances:

Food Items and Constituents,

Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines and

Mycotoxins” in IARC Monographs on the

Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to

Humans (vol. 56, Lyon: IARC, WHO

1993), pp. 41-82; WHO, “Q&A on the

carcinogenicity of the consumption of

red meat and processed meat” (WHO

26 October 2015)

Processed meat

Red meat Group 2A (probably

carcinogenic)

- probable links to colorectal

cancer

- possible links to stomach

and bowel cancers

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© 2020 Ankita Shanker

Substance Issue(s) Source(s)

Dairy

products

- Not or minimally linked with benefit to bone

health

- Linked with weakened bones, fractures, and

increased risk of prostate cancer and earlier

death

Diane Feskanich et al., “Milk Consumption During Teenage Years and Risk of Hip

Fractures in Older Adults” (January 2014) 168:1 JAMA Pediatrics 54; “New Review Finds

Dairy Products Linked to Prostate Cancer” (PCRM 22 April 2019), referring to Dagfinn

Aune et al., “Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and

meta-analysis of cohort studies” (January 2015) 101:1 AJCN 87; Yan Song et al., “Whole

milk intake is associated with prostate cancer-specific mortality among U.S. male

physicians” (February 2013) 143:2 JN 189

Eggs - Strongly linked with cardiovascular disease “80

percent higher coronary artery calcium scores,

a measure of heart disease risk”

- Linked with high cholesterol

- Increased “risk for diabetes by 68 [to 165]

percent”

- Increased “risk for a deadly form of prostate

cancer by 81 percent”

“Eggs Increase Risk for Heart Disease” (PCRM 1 July 2015), referring to Yuni Choi et al.,

“Egg consumption and coronary artery calcification in asymptomatic men and women”

(1 August 2015) 241:2 Atherosclerosis 305; “Health Concerns With Eggs: Eating Eggs Can

Be Hazardous to Your Health” (PCRM), referring to Yuehua Li et al., “Egg consumption

and risk of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes: A meta-analysis” (1 August 2013)

229:2 Atherosclerosis 524; “Eggs and Cholesterol Associated With Gestational Diabetes

Risk” (PCRM 12 April 2011), referring to Chunfang Qiu et al., “Risk of Gestational

Diabetes Mellitus in Relation to Maternal Egg and Cholesterol Intake” (15 March 2011)

173:6 AJE 649; “Eating Eggs Linked to Cancer” (PCRM 3 October 2011), referring to

Erin L. Richman et al., “Egg, Red Meat, and Poultry Intake and Risk of Lethal Prostate

Cancer in the Prostate-Specific Antigen-Era: Incidence and Survival” (December 2011)

4:12 AACR 2110

Meat (red or

white)

- Linked with high cholesterol Nathalie Bergeron et al., “Effects of red meat, white meat, and nonmeat protein sources

on atherogenic lipoprotein measures in the context of low compared with high

saturated fat intake: a randomized controlled trial” (2019) 110(1) AJCN 24

Seafood - Linked with toxicity from environmental

contaminants (e.g., neurological toxicity from

methylmercury)

“Chapter 4: Health Risks Associated with Seafood Consumption” in Committee on

Nutrient Relationships in Seafood: Selections to Balance Benefits and Risks Food and

Nutrition Board, Malden C. Nesheim & Ann L. Yaktine, Editors (eds.), Seafood Choices:

Balancing Benefits and Risks (Washington: NAP 2007)

• Blue zones are regions where residents on average live the longest and

healthiest lives (Dan Buettner, “The Secrets of Long Life” (National Geographic

November 2005); Michel Poulain et al., “Identification of a geographic area

characterized by extreme longevity in the Sardinia island: the AKEA study”

(2004) 39(9) Exp Gerontol 1423; Blue Zones, “History of Blue Zones” (Blue

Zones).

• Blue zone diets are primarily, if not exclusively, (95-100%, in fact!) plant-

based (Buettner, Ibid.; Poulain et al., Ibid.; Blue Zones, “Blue Zones Food

Guidelines” (Blue Zones).

• “The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted” concluded

that whole-food, plant-based diets are better for health (Jill Edwards,

“The China Study: 3 Lessons We Need to Know” (T. Colin Campbell Centre for

Nutrition Studies 21 November 2018); T. Colin Campbell & Thomas M. Campbell

II, The China study: The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and

the Startling Implications for Diet, Weight Loss and Long-term Health (Dallas:

BenBella Books 2005).

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THE ENVIRONMENT: ANTHROPOCENE EXTINCTION

• 25% of life on earth, i.e., 1 billion species, are under threat of global extinction

as a result of human actions (Sandra Díaz et al., Report of the Plenary of the

Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services on

the work of its seventh session Addendum: Summary for policymakers of the global

assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental

Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (Intergovernmental

Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 29 May 2019), p 4).

• “The rate of global change in nature during the past 50 years is unprecedented in

human history. The direct drivers of change in nature with the largest global impact

have been (starting with those with most impact): changes in land and sea use; direct

exploitation of organisms; climate change; pollution; and invasion of alien species”

(Ibid., p. 4).19

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

THE ENVIRONMENT: ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

• “The destructive impact of animal agriculture on our environment far

exceeds that of any other technology on Earth” (UNEP, “Tackling the world’s

most urgent problem: meat” (UNEP 26 September 2018)).

• “The greenhouse gas footprint of animal agriculture rivals that that of every

car, truck, bus, ship, airplane, and rocket ship combined” (Ibid.).

• “Animal agriculture is the leading cause of species extinction, ocean dead

zones, water pollution, and habitat destruction” (Cowspiracy, “The Facts”

(Cowspiracy), referring to various sources).20

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

Some statistics gathered from the websites of Our World in Data and

Cowspiracy (and supplemented by additional calculations and

conversions) (Hannah Ritchie & Max Roser, “Environmental impacts of food

production” (Our World In Data 2020); Cowspiracy,“The Facts” (Cowspiracy)):

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Land Use (incl. Deforestation) Percentage Share of Animal

Agriculture

Source(s)

Direct agricultural land use (i.e., excl.

crops fed to “livestock”)

77%

(Data source: FAO)Global protein supply 37%

Global calorie supply 18%

Earth’s total land 45% Phillip Thornton et al., “Livestock and climate

change” (November 2011) 3 ILRI1, p. 1

Destruction of the Amazon

Rainforest (1-2 acres cleared/second

→ loss of c.137 species of flora and

fauna/day)

91% Sergio Margulis, World Bank Working Paper No.

22: Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian

Amazon (World Bank 2003), p. 9; Cowspiracy,

“The Facts” (Cowspiracy), referring to various

sources

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

22

Water Use Percentage Share of

Animal Agriculture

Source(s)

Global freshwater

consumption

20%-33% Mesfin M. Mekonnen & Arjen Y.

Hoekstra, “A Global Assessment of

the Water Footprint of Farm Animal

Products” (2012) 15 Ecosystems 401,

p. 409

Greenhouse Gas

Emissions

Percentage Share of

Animal Agriculture

Source(s)

Global greenhouse

emissions from food

production (i.e., excl.

supply chain

contributions)

65% Joseph Poore & Thomas Nemecek,

“Reducing food’s environmental

impacts through producers and

consumers” (2018) 360:6392 Science

987

Global greenhouse gas

emissions

51% FAO, "Livestock's Long Shadow:

environmental issues and options"

(Rome: FAO 2006); Robert

Goodland & Jeff Anhang, "Livestock

and Climate Change: What if the key

actors in climate change are...cows,

pigs and chickens?”

(November/December 2009) 22(6)

WorldWatch 10

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

Some more statistics gathered (and supplemented by additional

calculations and conversions):

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Impact on Oceans

and Ocean Life

Percentage/Volume Source(s)

Fully exploited

monitored marine fish

stocks (as of 2018)

90%

(of which 29% were

overfished or depleted)

Mukhisa Kituyi & Peter

Thomson, “90% of fish stocks

are used up – fisheries

subsidies must stop emptying

the ocean” (WEF 13 July 2018);

FAO,“Fisheries” (FAO)

Annual discards in

global marine capture

40% (by number)

80% (by weight)

Cowspiracy, “The Facts”

(Cowspiracy), referring to

various sources, incl. “9.

Discard and bycatch in Shrimp

trawl fisheries" in Ivor Clucas,

A Study of the Options for

Utilization of Bycatch and

Discards from Marine Capture

Fisheries (Rome: FAO 1997)

Ghost fishing gear (as of

1997)

640,000 metric tonnes

or 10% of marine litter

Graeme Macfadyen et al.,

“Abandoned, lost or otherwise

discarded fishing gear” (Rome:

UNEP, FAO 2009), p. 11ff.© 2020 Ankita Shanker

FOOD AVAILABILITY

Some statistics gathered from the website of Cowspiracy (Cowspiracy, “The Facts” (Cowspiracy),

referring to various sources):

• Humans grow enough food to feed 10 billion humans.

• At least 50% of all grain grown worldwide is fed to animals reared as “livestock”.

• 82% of starving human children live in countries where food is fed to animals that are

eaten by Western countries.

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DailyWorldwide

Consumption

Humans Cows

• Water (by

volume)

5.2 billion gallons 45 billion gallons

• Food (by weight) 21 billion pounds 135 billion pounds

Food

production

Plant-Based

Food

Beef

• On 1.5

acres of

land (by

weight)

37,000

pounds

375 pounds

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

SOLUTION?

• Societal level: End exploitation of animals and their habitats

• Individual level: End our participation in such (aka “go vegan”)

“Veganism is a way of living which seeks to exclude, as far as is possible

and practicable, all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for

food, clothing or any other purpose” (The Vegan Society, “Definition of

Veganism” (TheVegan Society)).

• “Veganism is our future, because it is the only way we will have a

future.”25

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

REFERENCES

• African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (African Union 1981)

• American Convention on Human Rights (Organization of American States 1969)

• American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man (Organization of American States 1948)

• Arab Charter on Human Rights (League of Arab States 2004)

• ASEAN Human Rights Declaration (Association of Southeast Asian Nations 2012)

• Aune, D. et al., “Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of

cohort studies” (January 2015) 101:1 American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 87

• Bentham, J., An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (first printed 1780, London: printed for T.

Payne, and Son, at the Mews Gate, published 1789)

• Bergeron, N. et al., “Effects of red meat, white meat, and nonmeat protein sources on atherogenic lipoprotein

measures in the context of low compared with high saturated fat intake: a randomized controlled trial”

(2019) 110(1) The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 24

• Blue Zones, “Food Guidelines” (Blue Zones).

• Blue Zones, “History of Blue Zones” (Blue Zones)

• Buettner, D., “The Secrets of Long Life” (National Geographic November 2005) 26

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

• Campbell, T.C. & Campbell, T. M., The China study: The Most Comprehensive Study of Nutrition Ever Conducted and

the Startling Implications for Diet,Weight Loss and Long-term Health (Dallas: BenBella Books 2005)

• Choi, Y. et al., “Egg consumption and coronary artery calcification in asymptomatic men and women” (1

August 2015) 241:2 Atherosclerosis 305

• Clucas, I., A Study of the Options for Utilization of Bycatch and Discards from Marine Capture Fisheries (Rome:

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations 1997)

• Committee on Nutrient Relationships in Seafood: Selections to Balance Benefits and Risks Food and

Nutrition Board; Nesheim, M.C. & Yaktine, A.L. (eds.), Seafood Choices: Balancing Benefits and Risks (Institute of

Medicine of the National Academies) (Washington: The National Academies Press 2007)

• Cowspiracy, “The Facts” (Cowspiracy)

• Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (France 1789)

• Díaz, S. et al., Report of the Plenary of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and

Ecosystem Services on the work of its seventh session Addendum: Summary for policymakers of the global

assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform

on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and

Ecosystem Services 29 May 2019)

• Edwards, J., “The China Study: 3 Lessons We Need to Know” (T. Colin Campbell Centre for Nutrition Studies 21

November 2018)

• European Convention on Human Rights (Council of Europe 1950)

• Feskanich, D. et al., “Milk Consumption During Teenage Years and Risk of Hip Fractures in Older Adults”

(January 2014) 168:1 JAMA Pediatrics 54

• Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, "Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues

and Options" (Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations 2006)

• Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, “Antimicrobial Resistance: Animal production”

(Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations)27

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

• Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, “Fisheries” (Food and Agricultural Organization of the

United Nations)

• Goodland, R. & Anhang, J. “Livestock and Climate Change: What if the key actors in climate change are...cows,

pigs and chickens?” (November/December 2009) 22(6) WorldWatch 10

• International Agency for Research on Cancer, “Personal Habits and Indoor Combustions” in IARC Monographs

on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (vol. 100E, Lyon: International Agency for Research on

Cancer, World Health Organization 2012)

• International Agency for Research on Cancer, “Red Meat and Processed Meat” in IARC Monographs on the

Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (vol. 114, Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, World

Health Organization 2018)

• International Agency for Research on Cancer, “Some Naturally Occurring Substances: Food Items and

Constituents, Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines and Mycotoxins” in IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of

Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (vol. 56, Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health

Organization 1993)

• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (United Nations1966)

• International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (United Nations1966)

• Kituyi M. & Thomson, P., “90% of fish stocks are used up – fisheries subsidies must stop emptying the ocean”

(World Economic Forum13 July 2018)

• Li, Y. et al., “Egg consumption and risk of cardiovascular diseases and diabetes: A meta-analysis” (1 August

2013) 229:2 Atherosclerosis 524

• Macfadyen G. et al., “Abandoned, lost or otherwise discarded fishing gear” (Rome: United Nations

Environment Programme; Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations 2009)

• Magna Carta (England 1215)

• Margulis, S., World Bank Working Paper No. 22: Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon (Washington:

World Bank 2003)28

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

• Mekonnen, M.M. & Hoekstra, A.Y., “A Global Assessment of the Water Footprint of Farm Animal Products”

(2012) 15 Ecosystems 401

• Merezhkovsky, D. S., The Romance of Leonardo da Vinci (first published 1900, translated from the original

Russian by Herbert Trench, New York and London: G.P. Putnam’s Sons 1912)

• Mill, J.S. Principles of Political Economy with Some of Their Applications to Social Philosophy. (originally published

1848, London: Longmans, Green, Reader and Dyer 1871)

• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, “Eating Eggs Linked to Cancer” (Physicians Committee for

Responsible Medicine 3 October 2011)

• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, “Eggs and Cholesterol Associated With Gestational Diabetes

Risk” (Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine 12 April 2011)

• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, “Eggs Increase Risk for Heart Disease” (Physicians Committee

for Responsible Medicine 1 July 2015)

• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, “Health Concerns With Eggs: Eating Eggs Can Be Hazardous

to Your Health” (Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine )

• Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, “New Review Finds Dairy Products Linked to Prostate

Cancer” (Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine 22 April 2019)

• Poore, J. & Nemecek, T., “Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers” (2018)

360:6392 Science 987

• Poulain, M. et al., “Identification of a geographic area characterized by extreme longevity in the Sardinia island:

the AKEA study” (2004) 39(9) Experimental Gerontology 1423

• Qiu, C. et al., “Risk of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus in Relation to Maternal Egg and Cholesterol Intake” (15

March 2011) 173:6 American Journal of Epidemiology 649

• Richman, E.L. et al., “Egg, Red Meat, and Poultry Intake and Risk of Lethal Prostate Cancer in the Prostate-

Specific Antigen-Era: Incidence and Survival” (December 2011) 4:12 American Association for Cancer Research

2110

• Ripstein, A., “Beyond the Harm Principle” (2006) 34:3 Philosophy & Public Affairs 215

29

© 2020 Ankita Shanker

• Ritchie, H. & Roser, M., “Environmental impacts of food production” (Our World In Data 2020)

• Roda, P. (ed.) et al., “A third assessment of global marine fisheries discards. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture

Technical Paper” (Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations 2019)

• Song, Y. et al., “Whole milk intake is associated with prostate cancer-specific mortality among U.S. male

physicians” (February 2013) 143:2 The Journal of Nutrition 189

• The Bill of Rights (United States of America 1791)

• The Constitution of the United States (United States of America 1787)

• The Declaration of Independence (United States of America1776)

• The Vegan Society, “Definition of Veganism” (The Vegan Society)

• The Vegan Society, “The Dairy Industry” (The Vegan Society)

• The Vegan Society, “Why Go Vegan” (The Vegan Society)

• Thornton, P. et al., “Livestock and climate change” (November 2011) 3 Livestock Xchange: International Livestock

Research Institute 1, p. 1

• United Nations Environment Programme, “Tackling the world’s most urgent problem: meat” (United Nations

Environment Programme 26 September 2018)

• United Nations Environment Programme, UNEP Frontiers 2016 Report: Emerging Issues of Environmental

Concern (Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme 2016)

• Universal Declaration on Human Rights (United Nations 1948)

• World Health Organization Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, Sixty-first session of the Regional

Committee for the Eastern Mediterranean: Zoonotic disease: emerging public health threats in the Region (World

Health Organization Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean 2014)

• World Health Organization, “Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed

meat” (World Health Organization 26 October 2015)

• World Health Organization, “Zoonoses and the environment” (World Health Organization)

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