Solid Rock Outdoor Ministries (SROM) does not take any credit for the body of information below. This was put together by the National Outdoor Leadership School and by related associates. These principles and practices SROM has chosen to follow due to the amount of research that supports the suggested practices below. Instructors must follow SROM policies related to grizzly bear environments and utilize the practices below for education and teaching.

NOLS Grizzly Bear Practices March 2012

Minor revisions May 2012

The NOLS Grizzly Bear Practices were originally written in 1985 by Stef Kessler (former field faculty) and were titled the NOLS Alaska Bear Precautions. The information was revised in 1999, 2007, and 2009. Matthew Burke edited this 2012 revision with advice and input from a select group of nine other NOLS faculty. In addition, these practices are informed by numerous NOLS faculty who have lead courses in grizzly bear habitat and by Stephen Herrero, Ph.D and Tom Smith, Ph.D, who have conducted extensive research on bear-human interactions.

This document explains NOLS practices for traveling and camping in grizzly bear habitat. Many NOLS courses are conducted in prime grizzly bear habitat, while others are conducted in areas where grizzly bears pass through but are not residing (see Appendix C for specifics). Courses that take place in grizzly bear habitats typically also take place in black bear habitat. In such environments, these practices supersede NOLS black bear precautions.

Instructors are expected to teach these practices to students. Instructors should have a working knowledge of the NOLS book, Bear Essentials, and should strive to constantly increase their understanding of bear behavior and risk management so that they can apply judgment to unique or dynamic situations. Related NOLS Accepted Field Practices (NAFP) include 15.3, Grizzly Bears and River Travel and 15.5, Bear Food Storage Practices. Course Area Category

Teton Wilderness/ Absarokas 1

Wind Rivers 2

Big Horns 3 Rocky Mnt Nat Park 3

Snowy Range 3

Gros Ventres 1/2

Vedauwoo 3

Laramie Peaks 3

Category 1: Prime Grizzly habitat Category 2: Occasional Grizzly habitat Category 3: Primarily black bear habitat

Outline of this document I. Principal Goals II. Bear Awareness Triangle III. NOLS Grizzly Bear Precautions IV. If a Bear Sighting or Confrontation Occurs V. Teaching Bear Precautions on NOLS Courses Appendices

A. Bear Awareness Triangle: Red, Yellow, Green Light Examples B. Bear Behavior and Ecology C. How Bear Practices Vary by Location and Activity

I. PRINCIPAL GOALS:

From a risk management point of view, NOLS’ goals in bear country are twofold: avoid close encounters with bears and deter potential attacks. All of NOLS’ bear practices are informed by these two goals.

1. Strive to avoid close encounters with bears. Our Practice We strive to avoid close encounters with bears through practices aimed at preventing bears from coming to us and by identifying situations where we are more likely to encounter bears. In particular, courses strive to alert bears to a human presence outside the bear’s overt response distance by making loud human sounds—what we refer to as “bear calls.”

Bear Behavior Each bear has a personal space (called an overt response distance) that, when intruded upon, is likely to trigger a defensive response. These personal spaces vary according to the bear’s sex, species, and activity. They can range anywhere from less than 20 feet to more than a quarter of a mile. Bears, like all animals, have evolved for survival. If you are far enough away that the bear does not consider you a threat, it may ignore you and continue with its activity. Generally, once a bear gets a whiff of human scent or hears human noises, it will run away unless confronted within its personal space.

2. Be prepared to deter an attack in the event of an encounter.

Our Practice Our primary means of deterring an attack are to set and maintain adequate group sizes, stay close to group members, and practice bear encounter drills (including the use of bear spray).

Bear Behaviors If presented with a threat or some unknown intruder within its critical range, a bear will size up the nature of that threat and act as it sees fit. The threshold at which a bear opts to flee rather than confront appears to relate to the physical size of the threat. Statistics show that most bear attacks are confrontations with solo humans. Bear ecologist Tom Smith cites a large bear-human incident dataset from Alaska and Canada in which he says that two or more people have rarely ever been attacked when calmly making a stand against

a defensive bear attack1. The same dataset shows that large groups of people who are spread out are more likely to have the solo hiker in front be attacked by a surprised bear. What is key is that a surprised bear sees at least two contiguous people when it makes the snap decision between fight and flight.

Bears may attack humans defensively because we surprise them. More rarely they may prey on humans. The proper use of bear deterrent spray is highly effective in stopping bears from attacking and greatly reduces the chance of injuries to humans by bears (Smith, 2008). Biologist Stephen Herrero of Canada reports that in every documented case where spray was used, it retreated (Smith & Herrero, 2009).

The following graphic provides a quick overview of NOLS’s common bear precautions. These practices are grouped to highlight how they support the principal goals in bear country. Many of the practices support both goals. The practices in bold are a NOLS group’s primary means of achieving each specific goal, this breakdown of our practices also parallels the common risk management framework of likelihood vs. consequence. All of the practices that fall under the heading “Avoid a Close Encounter” are practices that reduce the likelihood of having a close encounter with a bear. While all of the practices that fall under “Deter the Attack” are practices that aim to reduce the consequences of an encounter. This framework is often helpful when explaining why we adopt a particular practice.

II. THE BEAR AWARENESS TRIANGLE: When camping and traveling in bear country, one is presented with constant decisions about how to implement specific practices. How close do the group members need to stay to each other? How frequently should the group make bear calls? What is an appropriate group size to fetch water or to go defecate? How accessible does the bear spray need to be at any given moment? The ongoing need to make decisions and the number of factors to be considered in each decision can be overwhelming. For this reason, most instructor teams begin courses by simply laying out rules for students. However, as courses progress, instructors may introduce more judgment into this decision making process. This is especially important if student expeditions are a curriculum goal.

The Bear Awareness Triangle is a tool to help with this decision making process. The Human Factor, the Bear Factor, and the Environment are three variables that influence situational awareness and the need to continually reassess changing conditions. Each side of the triangle is accompanied by a few prompting questions. Refer to Appendix A for further explanation. We have also developed a stoplight metaphor using red, yellow, and green light conditions to Define different levels of risk.

Red light: the likelihood of a bear encounter is high, or the group’s ability influence the outcome of an encounter is hindered. Either the situation should be avoided or a high degree of diligence and preparation is necessary to avoid an encounter or repel an attack.

Yellow light: conditions are such that a bear encounter should be anticipated and people should be alert.

Green light: a close bear encounter is unlikely or can be readily managed.

The stoplight metaphor is useful for addressing how practices may vary for a variety of conditions.

III. NOLS’ GRIZZLY BEAR PRECAUTIONS:

The aims of this section are to define each practice, lay out minimum standards, and present the spectrum across which practices may vary in light of prevailing conditions. The information is organized into three sections: A. General practices; B. Practices while traveling; and C. Practices at camp.

A. General Practices

1. Group Size and Contiguity: • Group size is a primary factor in deterring a bear attack. A group only has a deterrent effect if the

members are close together at the moment that the bear makes its decision between fight and flight. • The default group size is four or more people. This includes time spent defecating. A group of four

provides a margin of error for novices and should be the norm in most circumstances. • After careful consideration, demonstrated competence, and in specific controlled circumstances (e.g.

walking between groups at the tents and the kitchens) group sizes of two or three students may be appropriate.

• The minimum group size is two. • At any given moment, each individual should be able to identify the group that they are a part of

should they need to muster together to face a bear.

The expectation to be in a group while defecating consistently pushes the limits of how far group members should be from each other. As a general rule people may spread out 10 or 15 yards in green- light conditions. In red-light conditions however, people shouldn’t venture much more than four yards from each other. In a red-light environment, four yards should still offer some small measure of privacy. Instructors need to set these standards consistently from day one.

2. Availability of Bear Spray

• Courses in areas of high likelihood of a bear encounter or long duration exposure such as wilderness courses in Alaska, the Yukon, or the Absarokas are to have one canister of bear spray per person.

• Courses in areas of lower likelihood of a bear encounter or short duration exposure such as courses in

the Wind Rivers, the Waddington Range, or Alaska and Yukon mountaineering courses could take one, though preferably two canisters of bear spray per hiking group/shelter.

• Bear spray needs to be accessible at all times; however, availability may differ whether in camp or

while traveling—see below.

• It is advised that, when possible, instructors demonstrate how to shoot bear spray and have students practice with an inert or expired canister before leaving for the field. If instructors have never shot bear spray, they should practice before going to the field.

• Be careful to avoid accidental discharge of bear spray. Though NOLS has had more injuries from

accidental discharge of bear spray than from bears, this concern should not deter people from having bear spray ready for quick use as necessary.

• Students may ask about guns as protection from bears. Scientists who study bear/human interactions

have found that bear spray is more effective than firearms at deterring an attack. Furthermore, in instances when an attack did occur, it was shorter in duration and the injuries were less severe when bear spray was used compared to firearms.

3. Bear Encounter Drills

Practicing bear encounter drills is intended to help students develop a conditioned response to a potential encounter. Instructors should have students practice what to do in an encounter throughout the course and in a wide variety of situations. Please see Section V. for a suggested format and examples.

B. Practices While Traveling

Traveling, in contrast to camping, increases the likelihood of coming upon a bear. Even in the best conditions, travel should be considered a yellow-light activity. In general, travel calls for larger groups sizes, closer proximity, and more accessible bear sprays than around camp.

1. Bear Calls • Make loud, human noises while hiking to help alert any bears to your presence. In green light

conditions this can be done less frequently. • In red light conditions increase volume and frequency any time a group approaches terrain where

visibility is impaired or the wind is in your face. The farther your noise carries, the less likely you are to surprise a bear at close range. Shouting, singing, clapping, and talking loudly are all effective practices.

• Don’t make noises like a wounded animal or a bear; these may attract a bear.

2. Group Size and Contiguity • Students should travel in groups of four or more. • In a red-light environment (e.g. bushwhacking) group members should, ideally, be able to reach out

and touch each other. In contrast, in a green light environment, it might be appropriate to be spread out by five or ten yards on the trail.

• Keeping a hiking group together requires communication and discipline. It is a challenge that instructors must address starting on day one. It is paramount that the first hiker has a second person close behind.

• Avoid splitting a hiking group up into smaller satellite groups for scouting. Multiple groups in an area have a higher likelihood of bumping into a bear than one group, and there is the possibility of accidentally surrounding a bear.

Since instructors often travel as an I-team, it is common for instructors to travel in groups of three and sometimes two. Three and especially two-person groups, call for extra caution and increased discipline. Both members of a two-person I-team should have bear spray.

3. Bear Spray

• Bear spray should be carried in such a way to allow for a one-handed draw. It is preferable to carry bear spray on the body so that it is always with the person. A holster will be provided with each bear spray canister. Bear spray will be:

• Worn on the person with a waist belt or chest harness, or

• Attached to the backpack on the hip belt or a shoulder strap (various methods possible). This provides another option if wearing it on the person isn’t practical for some reason.

• Carrying bear spray in wand pockets of backpacks will no longer be acceptable.

• Carrying bear spray in pockets of clothing is not acceptable except in unusual situations e.g. a lost holster.

• Consider carrying bear spray in hand when:

• In areas of high bear density.

• A bear is known to be in the area, but it cannot be seen.

• In areas of low visibility, e.g. dense brush, “tight” terrain, i.e. ravines or gullies.

• During periods of low visibility, e.g. fog.

• Scouting a route ahead.

• Going to defecate.

• Additional considerations:

• If not everyone has a bear spray, the front traveler should be sure to carry one. If there are multiple bear sprays in a group, the second priority is to have the last person carry a bear spray.

• For boating courses, bear spray may be attached to the boat while on the water and should be carried in a holster on the person when on shore.

• If canisters of bear spray are lost, the course will adjust the number of hiking groups accordingly and consider options for replacement.

C. Practices at Camp In contrast to traveling, a bear encounter at camp is more likely to take the form of a bear coming upon a group of people. Consequently, practices at camp center around not attracting a bear to camp, and being prepared for a bear to wander into camp. Although bears are curious about their surroundings, they are often more afraid of humans than they are attracted to human food sources. Bears that become conditioned to human food tolerate human scent and may associate it with feeding. Reference Appendix B for more on habituated and food conditioned bears.

In some locations, camp layout, gray water disposal, and food storage practices will be prescribed by the land management agency. Otherwise, follow NOLS common practices for grizzly bear habitat listed below.

1. Separate tents from the kitchen area.

• Tents should be located upstream/upwind of the kitchen and, if possible, with visual contact between the two areas. The two areas should be far enough away from each other—100 yards is a good guideline—to provide a comfortable separation if a bear enters the kitchen area while the group is sleeping.

• Keep all cook groups close together so people can gather quickly if a bear is sighted. An ideal kitchen area is in the open and has good visibility in all directions. Good kitchen locations are on gravel bars, along rivers, and in open meadows or clearings.

2. Camping practices should strive to minimize all odors and contain necessary ones away from sleeping

areas.

• Do not eat in or near the tents.

• Where land management agencies require it, or when supervisors and instructors deem it appropriate, we should keep food unavailable from bears using electric fences, bear hangs, or bear canisters. In most of NOLS Alaska’s operating areas and in the Yukon we leave food bags unprotected in the kitchen area and have a long record of very low incident rates. This is consistent with recommendations from local wildlife managers. NOLS typically only uses bear canisters where required by land managers because they are extremely inconvenient on an extended expedition. However, we need to respond quickly to local bear activity and keep our food from bears. Food- conditioned bears quickly become human safety issues.

• Store all food, garbage, and odorous toiletries such as toothpaste, sunscreen, and mosquito repellent in the kitchen area to minimize the risk of attracting bears to the sleeping area. Remember to transfer trail food from backpacks to kitchen sites. Cook pots, utensils, cups, and bowls should all be stored in the kitchen. Keep food in specified food bags, and minimize contact with other equipment and clothes in the pack, boat, and camp. Lining food bags with garbage bags helps to contain odors.

• Avoid spilling food or wiping hands or utensils on clothes.

• Store used feminine products with other attractants in the kitchen. Studies have concluded that menstruation does not attract bears or provoke attacks, but used feminine products may have an odor.

• Used bear spray is considered an attractant and should be stored in the kitchen. Wash off the canister soon after use. Do not stay in an area where the spray has been discharged. If you cannot leave, maintain heightened awareness, and depart the area as soon as practical. If any residue is left on clothes, tents, or equipment, rinse them thoroughly with water.

3. Disposal of gray water

• Gray water means wastewater other than bodily waste (e.g. dishwater, toothpaste, hand-washing water). To minimize odors, dispose of gray water by either pouring it into a moving body of water or a sump hole. Keep soap out of all bodies of water, since it is harmful to many aquatic organisms.

• Where practical and permitted by regulations, dispose of gray water directly into a creek or a river. Pots can be rinsed directly in bodies of water if all food particles have been removed and bagged. Many rivers and streams can withstand gray water and minor food particles with little ecological impact, especially compared to the impact of food-conditioning a bear. Use of low-volume streams is dependent upon instructor judgment.

• When a stream or river is unavailable or inappropriate, pour gray water directly into a sump hole. Minimize the food particles entering the sump to reduce potential for bears to associate sumps with food. Make sure the hole is large enough to prevent overflow of dirty gray water. The sump should be covered when not in use.

• Groups can disperse their impact by taking soap and water to defecate, and washing hands while away from camp and kitchen.

4. Dispose of fish carefully.

• Fish and other greasy food smells are especially attractive to bears.

• Cook and eat fish right away.

• Any knife used to gut the fish should be kept with kitchen articles.

• Clean fish away from camp and throw the guts in the water to minimize odors. Dispose of bones and other remains in the water also. If this is not possible, deposit them at least one-quarter mile from camp.

5. Sleeping area layout

• Arrange tents in a line or a semi-circle when possible to prevent trapping a bear inside a cluster of tents where escape routes are not obvious.

• Set up tents where you have clear sight lines in all directions. Avoid being too close to bushes where bears may travel or rest unseen.

• Avoid camping near game and human trails; bears use these trails too. On dark nights, bears rarely leave trails because they can’t see where they are going.

• Sleep in a tent. Since it is a larger object than a sleeping person a bear is less likely to identify it as possible food

6. Group size and movement around camp • Frequent travel between the sleeping area and the kitchen helps establish a human presence in the area.

This presence, if combined with high visibility and strong bear awareness, allows flexibility with group size around camp. Use all of the factors in the Bear Awareness Triangle to assess the likelihood of a bear encounter in camp.

• Bear practices make it challenging to get personal time. In green-light conditions, individuals seeking “solo time” at camp may separate themselves by 10 to 15 yards from supporting group members. These individuals should position themselves to maximize their awareness of the surroundings.

• It is sometimes appropriate to make bear calls around camp. For example when walking to the kitchens first thing in the morning, or if visibility is restricted.

• Continued alertness is important at camp. Be ready to re-assess your situation if conditions change or as you gather more information.

7. Keep the bear spray where the people are (refer to B 3 above).

• It should accompany people on day hikes, to defecate, in kitchens, in camp, during personal time, etc. • Bear spray should always be accessible, and people should be able to regroup quickly. • Keep bear spray in each tent vestibule when sleeping.

IV. IF A BEAR SIGHTING OR CONFRONTATION OCCURS:

A bear encounter may take many forms. Courses need to be prepared for the worst-case scenario. If a bear is encountered at close range and the bear charges, people will have only seconds to react. It is impossible to predict exactly how a bear will react, but the following standard responses to bear encounters have been shown to avert the situation or minimize injury.

Bears can move very quickly. Based on a sprinting speed of 40 miles per hour, a grizzly can cover 100 yards in just over five seconds. It can accelerate from 0 to 40 mph in five jumps. A bear can reach a target from a quarter- mile away in just over 20 seconds.

When a bear is spotted, stop, stand your ground, and draw the bear spray from the holster. Assess the situation: try to identify what species of bear you are facing (reference Appendix B), and then do the following depending on how the bear acts:

Unaware bear—bear does not know you are present:

• Avoid the bear. Quietly leave the area or let the bear move off on its own. If you must move where the bear will see, hear, or smell you, let it know you are coming—talk loudly and calmly, and move your group upwind so it can smell you.

• If you see one bear, be aware of the possibility that there are cubs or sub-adults in the area.

Aware bear—bear is aware of your presence: • Stand your ground, group together shoulder to shoulder, and face the bear. A bear is less likely to attack

two or more people standing next to each other. − Do not run. − Do not turn your back. − Do not back up. − Do not kneel down in front of a bear.

• Do not move toward the bear. Watch the bear to see what it does in response to your presence. • Get the bear spray out of its holster (if it isn’t already) and prepare to use it. • Help the bear identify you as human. Speak to the bear in an assured, audible voice. • Once the bear establishes your identity, it may move away.

A bear may stand its ground to display its dominance, inviting you to leave. It may “woof” or pop its teeth together, or both. It’s trying to size up the situation. It may turn sideways to look bigger. Oblige the bear. Back away slowly, speaking calmly and quietly. If you show no hostility, the bear may leave. A sow with cubs can be more dangerous than a single bear. Her first impulse may be immediate intimidation. Her objective is to stop the disturbance and get you to leave immediately so she can return to her cubs.

Charging bear:

A bear may charge to assert its dominance, but not attack. These false charges or bluffs are designed to intimidate the intruder. It may repeatedly charge a short distance and retreat or charge and pass right by.

However, there is no way to know if a charge is a bluff or the bear is going to attack.

If a bear charges: • Stand your ground as described above for an aware bear. • When the bear is just beyond the range of your spray (about 15 yards away) one person shoots a one-

second blast of bear spray so that the bear runs into it approximately 10 yards away from you.4 This should stop the bear from charging. Most bear sprays have a range of 30 feet (9 meters). Check your bear spray for specifics.

If the bear keeps charging: • Shoot the bear spray again continuously.5 (While everyone who has bear spray in the group could

shoot it, there is a need to keep some for another possible encounter.) • Aim for the bear’s face, because eyes, nose and mouth are where the spray is most effective. • Empty the can if the bear’s approach persists. • Be aware that wind speed and direction will affect your accuracy and that bear spray is likely to

affect you too.

Attacking bear:

If you are actually attacked (being bitten or clawed) by a grizzly: • If knocked down, stay down. Get into defensive position. Keep your pack on. Lie face down with

your legs apart. This position makes it more difficult for the bear to flip you over and attack your face. Place your hands behind your neck.

Wait to drop and play dead until you have used your bear spray and the bear actually strikes. Dropping sooner may turn a bluff charge into an attack. Don’t move or resist. The bear generally bites and swats the victim a few times and then runs away. The bear will most likely lose interest once you appear “killed.” It may attempt to cover you with dirt or twigs as a cache. Remain still until you are sure it is gone. Getting up too soon could provoke another attack. Most survivors of bear attacks relate that they felt little or no pain at the time of the attack. Victims who play dead are not usually seriously injured or killed.

If the attack continues despite passivity, then fight back. Use any weapon available. Consider: sticks, rocks, hiking poles, or anything you have access to. Concentrate on the bear’s head, eyes, and nostrils.

If someone is being attacked, someone else should shoot bear spray at both the bear and the person being attacked to drive the bear away. The bear spray will affect the person who was attacked, but these effects are temporary and this action may minimize injuries.

If you are being attacked by a black bear:

• Defend yourself aggressively rather than playing dead. Black bears rarely defend their cubs or food from humans, so it is best to assume that a black bear attack is a predatory attack.

Encountering a bear at close range—within 30 yards—means that your immediate response can significantly affect how the bear will respond. Any bear sighting is memorable and any bear encounter can be frightening—more so if that encounter is at close range. Because of the speed at which a bear can move, you may only have one or two seconds to recognize the situation, get the bear spray out, stand your ground, and shoot the bear spray; any other action like yelling, turning away, or trying to run will likely result in an attack.

The best defenses are bear spray and group size.

V. Teaching Bear Precautions on NOLS Courses: We cannot completely eliminate the risk of a bear attack, but we can minimize the likelihood and consequences through proper education and practices. It is important that students understand that their best protection against bears is an alert awareness of their surroundings and conscientious practice of the travel and camping techniques we teach.

Start developing a heightened awareness and respect for bears on the first day of the course. Strive to teach appropriate practices and respect without creating fear. Remember that successful practices create invisible results: no bears seen. Thus camping and travel techniques must be enforced and monitored continuously until

they become second nature.

Instructors should continuously verbalize and point out their observations and decisions relating to bear risk. Introduce the sides of the bear awareness triangle in short classes, and then reference them regularly. Gradually delegate decisions about bear practices to student leaders. Coach those leaders on the use of the bear awareness triangle.

Distances We use yards as the primary unit of measure this document. In the field, it is often more practical to use paces to measure distances. A pace is about a yard. It is useful to have everyone pace out 100 yards so that they will have a reference for how long their pace is.

Bear Encounter Drills Bear encounter drills should be a regular part of the curriculum. They are a chance to reinforce what is taught in the initial bear encounter class and an opportunity to get students thinking about a variety of scenarios and variables. At least occasionally, students should practice all of the actions they are expected to perform, including playing dead and fighting back. When possible, students should practice shooting inert bear sprays before going into the field. Do not fire bear sprays during drills in the field. Also consider the hazard of removing bear spray safeties during every bear drill. It is something every student should practice, but it does not need to be done during every drill.

The drills may take a wide variety of formats. Initially they will likely be slow walk-throughs of what to do in an encounter. As students gain confidence and experience, drills might start to take on more of a pop quiz format: catch students when their bear practices are compromised and get them to demonstrate how they would respond. For example, how would a group respond if they ran into a bear and had forgotten bear spray?

The drills should emphasize conditioning physical responses to bear encounters, especially the initial response to stand one’s ground, draw the bear spray, and group up.

Here is an acronym to help students master the fundamentals and to give them something to fall back on when practicing drills:

Stand your ground

Pull the bear spray: draw it from its holster and remove the safety

Round up your group: stand shoulder to shoulder

Act human: talk to the bear

Yield: don’t threaten the bear, stand until the bear leaves, or slowly back away.

Below are two examples of bear encounter drills: 1. While hiking early in the course, run the students through this scenario involving a curious bear.

• You see a bear about a quarter mile distant. Quiz the students on what to do about an unaware bear. Discuss whether they should stand together and pull their bear sprays at this stage. This will likely depend on the situation.

• The bear becomes aware of you and starts running toward you. Reference the SPRAY acronym, and if they haven’t yet, have them pull out their bear sprays and stand shoulder to shoulder.

• The bear stops about 30 yards from the group and stands on its hind legs and stares at you. Have the students practice talking to the bear and standing together.

• The bear drops to all fours and circles downwind of you. Have the students rotate to continue facing the bear, and explain that it is likely circling downwind to get their scent.

• It faces you and stands again, gets a smell of you and then decides to wander off.

2. Build up to this scenario with slower paced drills that hit all of the components of an attack. • A group is hiking single file through dense brush. The lead hiker comes into a small clearing and

encounters a bear less than 10 yards away. Take this opportunity to remind students how exposed a hiker is at the front of the line.

• The bear charges immediately. There won’t always be time to group up, and in a worst-case scenario, there may not even be time to draw the bear spray and illustrates why bear spray should be out carried in hand.

• The bear is on the lead hiker before he can deploy his bear spray. Have the lead student practice playing dead.

What should the rest of the group do? They should group up, stand their ground, and spray the bear with bear spray, even though they will also spray their course mate.

• The bear flees after being sprayed. This scenario would flow nicely into a first aid scenario, and would also be a good opportunity to talk about the use of Personal Locator Beacons during a hiking day.

Curriculum Opportunities Bear camping and travel skills draw on NOLS leadership, environmental studies, and risk management curriculum. Good leadership, a strong awareness of and respect for one’s surroundings, and good Leave No Trace practices all add up to effective bear camping and traveling skills.

Leadership Efficient bear camping requires strong designated, peer, and self-leadership. Verbalizing observations from the Bear Awareness Triangle when traveling and determining the bear camping guidelines for each campsite can be important jobs for designated student leaders. These responsibilities help students develop judgment, encourage them to communicate with each other, and empower them with real risk-management responsibility. As peer leaders, students should hold each other accountable for consistently bear camping well. Bear camping requires teamwork; the need to act as a group in all activities creates opportunities for practicing good expedition behavior by volunteering to be someone’s buddy. Bear camping is smoothest when everybody is organized with their personal gear, has planned their time thoughtfully, and maintains self-discipline.

Sense of Place Living and traveling in bear country demands a strong awareness of one’s surroundings. This awareness of the environment encourages the development of a sense of place. The experience of being a mere visitor to a place that is the home of a large predator/omnivore can be awe-inspiring.

Leave No Trace By making sure that we do not food-condition bears, we are both protecting ourselves and also being respectful of the bears by disturbing their lives as little as possible. We have a responsibility to teach how Leave No Trace techniques and practices would be different in areas without a bear threat. Make clear the variables you are weighing in balancing bear avoidance practices with Leave No Trace techniques.

Independent Student Group Travel Bear camping and traveling techniques are critical skills that students need to learn. As such, careful evaluation of students’ abilities, judgment, and reliability is an important component of determining their competency for independent travel. The minimum group size for any independent student group travel is four; however, in grizzly habitat there is an advantage to having larger groups. Consider the Bear Awareness Triangle and the total number of students on the course. Branch directors and program supervisors may set a minimum group size for a particular course and/or route. Students should understand that when on ISGE, their presence in the backcountry is smaller than when traveling or camping with the entire course and therefore calls for heightened awareness and precautions.

References

Gookin, J. & Reed, T. (2009). Bear essentials: Hiking and camping in bear country. Stackpole.

Herrero, S.; Smith, T.; DeBruyn, T.D.; Kerry Gunther,K.; & Matt, C.A. (2005). From the Field: Brown bear habituation to people—safety,

risks, and benefits (2005). Wildlife Society Bulletin 2005, 33(1):362–373

Herrero, S.; Higgins, A.;Cardoza, J.; Hajduk, L.; & Smith, T. (2011). Fatal Attacks by American Black Bear on People: 1900-2009. The

Journal of Wildlife Management 75(3):596–603; 2011;

Smith, T.; Herrero, S.; DeBruyn, T.; & Wilder, J. (2008) Efficacy of bear deterrent spray in Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management,

72(3).

APPENDIX B. BEAR BEHAVIOR AND ECOLOGY

Understanding how different bears interact with their environment is an important component of bear avoidance and defense.

Black bears (Ursus americanus) weigh roughly 300 pounds (max 600 lbs.) and can be five to six feet long. They come in a variety of solid colors from jet black to cream.

Grizzly bears are typically the subspecies Ursus arctos horriblis. Some Alaskan islands are home to the Kodiak brown bear subspecies U. a. middendorffi. These two subspecies behave the same, so this paper uses the terms “brown bear” and “grizzly bear” interchangeably. Locally, some wildlife experts use these terms to denote different populations, but the global convention is that they mean the same thing.

Brown bears weigh from 500 to 900 pounds (max 1,400 lbs.). Brown bears vary in color from dark brown to blond, and many have a lightcolored tip to their longer guard hairs, giving them a grizzled look. Size and color alone can’t reliably differentiate between black and grizzly bears.

Grizzlies have a prominent shoulder hump and a dished face profile. They also tend to have straighter and longer claws. Distinguish between the species' tracks by examining a good front track: black bears have a highly arched line of toes; grizzly bear toes fall in a broader, straighter line (Gookin, 2009).

Bear Behavior Bears learn their social skills by interacting with other bears and often treat humans like they treat other bears. A knowledge of the different evolutionary paths of these two bears helps in understanding their behavior. The black bear evolved in mountains and forests: areas with plenty of cover and trees. Thus, when placed in a threatening situation, it was adaptive for the black bear to flee or to climb a tree. Although a bear sow with cubs is always dangerous, the black bear sow has the protective advantage of sending her cubs up a tree to safety. In the rare case where a black bear attacks a human, it is almost always a predatory attack rather than a defensive attack.

The brown/grizzly, however, evolved in high plains, tundra, and open meadows, where there aren’t as many places to hide or trees for cubs to flee to. Grizzlies are also significantly larger than black bears. For many reasons, grizzlies are more aggressive than black bears when defending themselves and/or offspring.

For the discussion of bear precautions on NOLS courses, it is best to assume that all bears are dangerous and are to be avoided. If you do have a bear encounter, you may not have the time or ability to determine the species. Assume you are encountering a dangerous bear, and act accordingly.

Bear Ecology Bears feast and famine at different times of the year. This is an excellent opportunity to help students understand the ecological concept of resources intersecting in both place and time. Bears feed on salmon when the salmon tend to be running; they feast on sedges when they are young and tender; they feast on berries when the crop is ripe; they feast on carrion when they get the opportunity. Understanding bears' opportunistic behavior can provide us insights as to where bears tend to be at different times of the season and can serve to guide our behaviors.

Bears tend to avoid conflict and rarely attack anything but another solitary animal. They chase competitors off of their food and away from their own personal space. Grizzlies protect their cubs aggressively, but black bears usually either bluff charge or just run away.

Bears and Humans Some bears become habituated to humans. This bear-human habituation varies from place to place. Identify habituated bears by their lesser overt reaction distance (Hererro et al, 2005), which just means that they are comfortable being closer to people.

Identify food-conditioned bears by behavior that shows them approaching humans looking for food; this means they have developed an attraction for human food that is now stronger than their fear of humans. A starving bear may also show this same boldness and should be treated with similar caution. If you think you are dealing with a food-conditioned bear, make it very difficult for the bear to get your food and camp closely together. Bears that have become habituated to humans and food conditioned present significant risks to humans.

An aggressive bear is one that enters a camp when it is obviously occupied, or otherwise encroaches on the personal space of humans. If you observe bear behavior in a high-density bear area, you’ll see that some bears are much more aggressive than others. Mild aggressiveness toward humans may be mere curiosity when a bear checks you out. Extreme aggressiveness includes bears that have become so habituated and food conditioned that they seek humans as prey. These predatory bears are typically black bears (Herrero, 2011). Although extremely rare, the risk of this scenario is greatest during seasons with poor natural feed. The bear often will follow its victim for an extended period of time before attacking. Under such circumstances, you must fight aggressively if attacked. Use the bear spray! Aim for its eyes and nose! Punch, hit, and stab the bear with anything available to deter it.

If a bear is clearly aware of your presence, is not easily hazed (e.g., doesn’t respond to shouts and waving by your group), and appears fixated on you or your camp, this is a dangerous situation and you need to exercise extreme caution. Such bears may include food conditioned or predatory bears and demand the most extreme caution. If you can’t get rid of a problem bear, leave the area.

APPENDIX C. HOW BEAR PRACTICES VARY BY LOCATION AND ACTIVITY

Bear practices vary from location to location. Practices in a particular area depend on the types of bears common to that area and the local regulations. In order to summarize practices across a wide variety of landscapes, we have created three general categories that a course area could fit into.

Category 1. Prime grizzly bear habitat. Grizzly bears are common.

Category 2. Areas where grizzly bears are not common, but an encounter is possible.

Category 3. Primarily black bear habitat. Practices are focused on black bears.

Course Area Zone Definitions

Course Area Category

Teton Wilderness/ Absarokas 1

Wind Rivers 2

Big Horns 3 Rocky Mnt Nat Park 3

Snowy Range 3

Gros Ventres 1/2

Vedauwoo 3

Laramie Peaks 3

Bear Practices Defined for Each Zone

Category 1. Prime grizzly bear habitat: follow all practices as described in the above document.

Category 2. Occasional grizzly habitat (e.g. the Wind Rivers)

A. GENERAL

1 GROUP SIZE Although still relevant, there are no particular requirements regarding group size. It is acceptable to be alone within the standard considerations for a NOLS course.

2 AVAILABILITY OF B.S. Bring a minimum of one bear spray per cook group or hiking group, whichever is greater.

3 BEAR DRILLS Regular bear encounter drills are recommended.

B. TRAVELING

1 BEAR CALLS Recommended in red light conditions but not necessary regularly.

2 GROUP CONTIGUITY Not strictly enforced but still relevant for deterring an attack.

3 ACCESSIBILITY OF B.S. Ideally carried on the person in a holster, as in prime grizzly bear habitat (category 1).

C. AT CAMP

Follow local regulations. If there are none:

1 CAMP LAYOUT Separate camp and kitchen by 100 yards.

2 FOOD STORAGE Keep odorous items in the kitchen area, as in prime grizzly bear habitat. Use specific food storage strategies (bear fences, canisters, or hangs) as deemed appropriate.

3 GRAY WATER DISPOSAL Follow local regulations and LNT considerations.

4 DISPOSAL OF FISH Same as in grizzly habitat.

5 SLEEPING AREA Best to sleep in a tent or a group. If sleeping alone, stay within voice contact.

6 GROUP SIZE Not enforced, but still relevant for deterring an attack.

7 BEAR SPRAY Should be where the people are, as in prime grizzly bear habitat.

Category 3. Primarily black bear habitat

A. GENERAL

1 GROUP SIZE Although still relevant, there are no particular requirements regarding group size. It is acceptable to be alone within the standard considerations for a NOLS course.

2 AVAILABILITY OF B.S. Bring a minimum of one bear spray per cook group or hiking group, whichever is greater.

3 BEAR DRILLS Occasional bear encounter drills are recommended.

B. TRAVELING

1 BEAR CALLS Typically only when alone, or when a bear is in the area (red light conditions).

2 GROUP CONTIGUITY Not enforced but still relevant for deterring an attack.

3 ACCESSIBILITY OF B.S. Ideally carried on the person in a holster, as in grizzly bear habitat.

C. AT CAMP

Follow local regulations. If there are none:

1 CAMP LAYOUT Separate camp and kitchen. Thirty yards (100 ft.) is the recommended distance.

2 FOOD STORAGE Keep odorous items in the kitchen area, as in grizzly bear country. Use specific food storage strategies (bear fences, canisters, or hangs) as deemed appropriate.

3 GRAY WATER DISPOSAL Follow local guidelines and LNT considerations.

4 DISPOSAL OF FISH Follow local guidelines and LNT considerations.

5 SLEEPING AREA Best to sleep in a tent, or a group. If sleeping out alone, stay within voice contact.

6 GROUP SIZE Not enforced but still relevant for deterring an attack.

7 BEAR SPRAY Should be where the people are, as in grizzly bear habitat.