no. 4 2013matrix.ur.krakow.pl/~isig/gll/gll-4-2013.pdfgeomatics, landmanagement and landscape...

Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape

Scientific journal founded in 2012 at the University of Agriculture in Krakow

GLL Geomatics,Landmanagementand Landscape

UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE IN KRAKOW

No. 4 • 2013

Krakow

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Editor-in-Chief Józef Bieniek

Scientific Editor Urszula Litwin

Scientific Board Urszula Litwin (Krakow, Poland) – chair, Bohdan Cherkes (Lviv, Ukraine),

Ryszard Cymerman (Olsztyn, Poland), Krzysztof Gawroński (Krakow, Poland), Wiesław Kosek (Krakow, Poland), Zofia Więckowicz (Wroclaw, Poland), Theo Kötter (Bonn, Germany),

Marko Komac (Ljubljana, Slovenia), Eckart Lange (Sheffield, UK), Hans-Joachim Linke (Darmstadt, Germany), Karl-Friedrich Thöne (Dresden, Germany),

Walter Seher (Wien, Austria), Gernot Stöglehner (Wien, Austria), Beata Hejmanowska (Krakow, Poland), Volodymyr Hlotov (Lviv, Ukraine), Katarzyna Sobolewska-Mikulska (Warszawa, Poland),

Tadeusz Gargula (Krakow, Poland), Józef Hernik (Krakow, Poland), Jarosław Janus (Krakow, Poland), Krzysztof Koreleski (Krakow, Poland), Franciszek Woch (Puławy, Poland),

Stanisław Hodorowicz (Krakow, Poland), Oleksandr Dorozhynskyy (Lviv, Ukraine)

Topic Editors Geomatics: Andrzej Kwinta (University of Agriculture in Krakow)

Landmanagement: Jacek M. Pijanowski (University of Agriculture in Krakow) Landscape: Julia Gorzelany-Plesińska (University of Agriculture in Krakow)

Language Editor: Raul O. Castro (New York City Housing Authority, Office of the Mayor) Statistics Editor: Agnieszka Bitner-Fiałkowska (University of Agriculture in Krakow)

Copy-editing, proof-reading, DTP: Publishing House of the University of Agriculture in Krakow

Supported by the Society for Rural Development

The issue contains peer-reviewed papers.

Copyright © Publishing House of the University of Agriculture in Krakow, Krakow 2013

ISSN 2300-1496

Publishing House of the University of Agriculture in Krakow 31-425 Krakow, al. 29 Listopada 46

Tel.: (+48) 12 662 51 57 or 12 662 51 59 E-mail: [email protected]

www.wydawnictwo.ur.krakow.pl E-mail: [email protected]

www.gll.ur.krakow.pl

Editor sheets 7.5. Printing sheets 7.5. Issue 350 copies

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CONTENTS

Foreword .................................................................................................................................... 5

Ewa CieślikRegional food – a new outlook on the mountain areas ................................................ 7

Marta Czekaj, Janusz ŻmijaCommon Agricultural Policy towards the development of mountain areas.............. 21

Bianka Godlewska-DziobońClimate policy of the European Union and Polish labour market .............................. 35

Wiesław MusiałEconomical and natural value of mountains in Europe ................................................ 45

Grzegorz Olszyna, Tomasz Rokita, Andrzej Tytko, Marian WójcikRole of cable transport in the management and development of the mountain areas ........................................................................................................ 63

Andrzej Rudnicki, Adam TułeckiNarrow-gauge railway between Krościenko, Szczawnica, Piwniczna, Stara Lubovla as an instrument of sustainable development and integration for tourist municipalities in Poland and Slovakia .......................................................... 75

Jan SasNatural gas as transportation fuel – an offer for mountainous resorts ....................... 93

Antoni Tajduś, Krzysztof TajduśThe use of tunnels to development of transport in mountain areas ............................ 103

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FOREWORD

Mountain areas are characterized by the most specific and complex forms of the landscape. Natural and anthropogenic elements decide about it. In contrast, areas of the valleys to the upper limit of grazing areas have very specific interactions between human activities and natural processes in the landscape. An example might be shep-herding in the Małopolska Carpathians. As a result of decline in the number of sheep occurs not only the loss of jobs in shepherding and processing of the sheep products but also the disappearance of mountain clearings as part of the diverse landscape and space and viewpoints, which constitute tourist attractiveness of these areas with simul-taneous threat to endemic species, closely associated with sheep grazing such as spiss saffron or crocus – one of the most important symbols of the Polish mountains.

The quoted example shows the diversity of those areas where it is hard to carry out changes and lead investment projects. On the one hand due to the physiographic conditions, on the other hand to the specific nature of local communities. Concepts for the mountains should be implemented taking into account their “complex specificity”. These areas need huge expenditures on infrastructure and safety measures for making full use of their potential. The difficulty which was encountered at the stage of design-ing were not topographical and climatic conditions, but public opposition practically making impossible the purchase of land for a new, much-needed infrastructure.

Mountain areas, concepts for their development and protection require still enormous work of different groups of professionals. Therefore, we are very pleased that such outstanding group of scientists decided to lean on selected problems of the Polish mountains and to publish their papers in the fourth issue of Geomatics, Landmanagement and Landscape journal. These papers highlight the need for innova-tive scientific research in the above range, which would be supported by the efforts of politicians and investors aimed to open up the Polish mountains to the masses of enthusiasts of their countryside and specificity. This issue contains interesting results of research on some economic and natural aspects of mountains, the role of tourism infrastructure in sustainable development and the local integration, weight of mineral extraction or issues related to tourism. We are confident that these articles will provide interesting reading – a contribution to the exchange of scientific ideas and valuable research implementation and application initiatives.

Stanisław Hodorowicz, Senator of the Republic of Poland Urszula Litwin

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E. Cieślik

GLL

REGIONAL FOOD – A NEW OUTLOOK ON THE MOUNTAIN AREAS

Ewa Cieślik

Summary

Culinary tourism was characterized in the paper and the perspectives for its development were analyzed, as well as the possible uses of traditional and regional cuisine of the Podhale (moun-tain region of Małopolska) as a tourist product. Moreover, the cuisine of the Podhale Region was presented with its specialities, as well as the potential use of Polish regional cuisine in tourism to make it a tourist attraction, which may be of major importance for individual region or locality. It causes that a certain dish becomes identified with specific place, which attracts tourists to this region. Traditional dishes reflect also the customs prevalent in the given area; therefore a tourist may acquire information about the culture of the places he visits.

Keywords

culinary tourism • traditional food • regional Podhale cuisine

1. Introduction

Culture, customs and traditions of other regions are the most common tourist motiva-tion. Cultural tourism is an important factor in the development of not only the whole of human society, but also an individual person. It helps to keep the memory of ances-tors, to preserve their traditions and customs of given places that make the regions become unique, and therefore attractive to tourists.

Important role in the culture play regional, traditional dishes that are dependent on the geographical region, religion, traditions and customs prevailing in the area. An important part of cultural tourism is a culinary tourism. Application of Polish regional cuisine in the tourism and the creation of it the tourist attraction are important to the region.

In recent years, gastronomic services – especially in the countries with growing level of touristic services – become particularly important. In Poland a significant improve-ment in the quality and level of food services is also noticeable, as well as the overall development of gastronomic facilities. More and more often, regional cuisines and delicacies are becoming in many regions their brand. Therefore it is worth to consider how to use the regional cuisine in the promotion of touristic regions.

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The touristic product offered in rural areas consists mainly of accommodation or accommodation with meals. More and more often, as a touristic attraction connected with rural tourism farm, the role of food as a special offer is emphasized. Its competi-tive advantage may rely on the use of, traditional and regional products in tourist’s nutrition. Accommodation is the element of touristic product, which can be repetitive and copied regardless of location or geographical area. In contrast to the accommo-dation, gastronomic offer of the region or a rural tourism farm is a unique element, which attraction will long remain in the memory of tourists, and also is a magnet for visitors.

The aim of the paper was to characterize culinary tourism and analyse the perspec-tives its development as well as the possible uses of traditional and regional cuisine of Podhale (mountain region of Małopolska) as a tourist product. In addition, it is worth to stress that the role and importance of traditional regional cuisine in the field of cultural tourism is still increasing. In addition, I would like to stress a still increasing role and importance of traditional regional cuisine in the field of cultural tourism. The use of Polish regional cuisine in tourism and creation of it a touristic attraction is of great importance for the region, or city. It causes that a particular dish is identified with a particular place, which attracts tourists to the region.

Through traditional dishes the customs prevalent in a given area are reflected, therefore a tourist may acquire information about the culture of the places he visits.

2. Conditions and limitations of culinary tourism development

Polish cuisine is very tasty and varied. It’s uniqueness is engendered by high-quality of food commodities and products and by culinary heritage, which contributed to the creation of excellent dishes to the local cuisine which are great tourist attraction. Regional products and kitchen are creating the region’s image [Sieczko 2007b]. Regional cuisines and traditional foods prepared according to the old recipes more and more often determine the attractiveness of the site, which is visited by tourists. Also note that eating habits are constantly evolving. Natural factors, religious, historical, etc have the significant influence on changing the habits. People’s lives are shaped by the environ-ment around them: climate, geological conditions, availability of plant and animal raw materials and drinking water.

For the sake of local identity and distinctiveness great importance has the legal protection of products manufactured traditionally. Legal protection of the regional products was enabled by the accession of Poland to the European Union. Integration with the EU has given a new dimension to local products, produced by traditional methods, according to old recipes, which simplifies the dissemination and protection from oblivion both technology and dishes and food products. The idea of a regional product determines its origin and assumes that it should be the farm-to-table asso-ciated with the region. Produced agricultural raw materials are processed in a local processing plant; next regional specialties are prepared of them and are served by the local gastronomy. Following this, in the region is created a network of specially-marked

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primary producers, processing plants and restaurants, where the regional products are prepared and traditional dishes of the region are served.

An important step in the history of revival of regional and traditional Polish prod-ucts was the entry into force of the 2005 Act for the registration and protection of names and indicators of agricultural products and foodstuffs and traditional products. [Ustawa… 2004].

Registration of the products of a specific nature, in accordance with the adopted Act, makes possible the protection of the native specialties, and also their promotion at the markets of the whole EU. The Act regulates the registration procedure at the national level – from the moment of submition of the application to sending it to the European Commission. To protect regional specialties, according the legislation, the name of the product or the foodstuff can be registered as Protected Destination of Origin, Protected Geographical Indicator or Traditional Speciality Guaranteed. The primary objective of the system is to protect and promote regional and traditional products, which are char-acterized by their high quality and special features arising from the circumstances of the geographical area of origin or traditional production methods [Kamińska 2009].

Producers and consumers benefits resulting from this law are interrelated. Consumers of traditional and regional products receive warranty that the products are of high quality, which is the result of its origin from a particular site or compliance by manufacturers, the old exceptional methods of production. If we can win the trust of buyers it will result in a higher demand for these unique products, which in turn will enable the establishment of higher prices and increase producers’ incomes.

On the one hand we have a system protecting regional and traditional products, supporting their producers and safeguarding the quality for the consumers; on the other hand, in rural areas an interest in traditional dishes and traditional regional cuisine is growing. From this should already be a simple way for the promotion of the local culinary specialties as interest in rural tourism. How much more interesting for “city dwellers” is the menu where we have food with exotic and intriguing sounding names and tastes, ingredients and products that we can not try anywhere else.

Regional cuisine od Podhale could be used as a tourism product, attracting tourists and bringing income.

The factors limiting the possibility of the development of culinary (gastronomy) tourism are:• a number of legal and formal constraints related for example with the preparation of

the application for entry on the list of traditional products or the duty to implement quality systems (HACCP) in the local gastronomy facilities,

• poor awareness of the potential contained in Polish restaurants (among both service providers and consumers),

• lack of research on Polish culinary traditions (eg, cooperation of historians and product researchers on the history of the food industry),

• lack in Poland of elaborations containing detailed descriptions of the cuisine of the region – which could be used in culinary tourism.

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Rather negatively influencing factor for the cultivation and promotion of Polish culinary traditions is the activity of large food companies and restaurants. Their policy is rather to promote “industrial food”, which is not conducive to the develop-ment of gastronomic traditions that are close to „natural foods”. Therefore, a database of gastronomy and Polish culinary traditions (in several languages) should be created in Internet, what could be prepared, for example, by Polska Organizacja Turystyczna (Polish Tourist Organization). A number of initiatives at the local and regional level should be considered as a positive sign. Their goal is to cultivate and promote Polish cuisine and culinary traditions (e.g. by organizing competitions, gastronomic festivals, etc.). These activities are supported among others by professionals working in gastron-omy, which can cause that they will be interested in the promotion of Polish culinary traditions abroad.

Return to regional cuisine, digging out the old recipes, can reveal the charms of the old Polish cuisine, long forgotten, which is worth to restore it and thus preserve from the oblivion [Siczko 2007a]. The regional cuisine may become a development poten-tial for many places in Poland. It is sufficient to have a well organized promotion and propagation of the traditional dish, for example by:• promoting foods, traditional products with high quality and nutritional value (such

as sourdough bread),• carrying out research in fields related to tradition and history of Polish art of cook-

ing,• promotion of the culinary art, so that it is accessible to a wide group of purchasers for

example through workshops (production of oscypek – smoked sheep’s cheese, etc.),• organizing of demonstrations, conferences on regional cuisine.

Regional specificity is expressed mainly in the food, their nomenclature, preparation methods and rituals associated with their consumption, generally of similar materials. Regional cuisines are often considered a touristic attraction and consumed more occa-sionally and usually seen as very refined and unhealthy. In Polish society persist stereo-types of poor, greasy and sugary regional cuisine. Some of the regional cuisines, however, are worth popularizing not only because of its originality, but also health benefits. Such kitchen is the kitchen of our Podhale highlanders, whose values derive from the histori-cally developed customs and traditions based mainly on natural features.

3. Features of the Podhale cuisine

Podhale was formerly one of the poorer regions of the country, which was reflected in the local cuisine. Location of the region in the highest Polish mountains and the climate more severe than in the lowlands also did not affect favorably. Highlands tradi-tional dishes come from the harsh climate and geographical conditions, which was not conducive to agriculture in these areas, as well as the severe financial situation of Highlanders [Wiaderek 2005]. The diversity of natural resources contributed to the diversity of dietary habits.

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Podhale cuisine is not a luxury, but enraptures with its simplicity and unique flavor. The main dishes included everything that poor highland farm produced and not handled for sale. The specificity of food in the region occurs in each of the food groups such as dairy products and eggs, cereal and grain, potatoes, vegetables and fruits, fish, and meat. Highlanders also have their eating habits both holidays and related to other important events during the year. Specific is also a traditional menu.

Podhale cuisine has many health benefits, which is an additional advantage of its use in tourism. Podhale products and dishes, simple and unsophisticated, sometimes shocking with juxtaposition of raw materials, have one the most important feature – they are delicious, and smell familiar. The use of native traditions, ancestral customs and historical recipes from the past showing our preferences and our lives can be a recipe for success in the tourist development of the region, a treasure in economic terms, but also and most importantly in the socio-cultural terms.

It is said that the highland dishes are as highlander character – crisp and sharp. Regional Tatra cuisine was formed in harsh climatic and material conditions of Podhale inhabitants. The basis were grule (boiled potatoes) and bryjki (noodles) [Wiaderek 2005]. Other products used every day are barley, oat and corn flour. The dairy was used mainly whey, buttermilk and żętyca (sheep milk whey). As omasta (fat) fused lard, cracklings sometimes linseed oil were used. Sour and sweet milk were only on special occasions. Of vegetables – mainly cabbage was served. Bread was not baked at home, and a meat diet was based on sheep meat.

Highlander cuisine is becoming increasingly popular and fashionable. To the extent that regional cuisine from the Tatra Mountains can be tasted across the whole country. It is worth to try oscypek sheep cheese, bundz, żętyca, hałuski, kwaśnica, moskole, lamb, trout, and all sorts of liquors.

4. Podhale cuisine specialities

4.1. Products from sheep’s milk

It is hard to imagine a highland cuisine without products made from sheep’s milk. It is necessary to try oscypek, bundz and bryndza with a unique flavor. All of these cheeses, with a unique taste, can be eaten raw or used as an addition to salads and other sophis-ticated dishes. Oscypek, which in the past was used as a means of payment, is now one of the most important tourist products praising the region outside the country.

4.1.1. Oscypek

Podhale is the kingdom of oscypek, there is probably nothing more characteristic of the Highlanders and more Polish product. This hard, smoked cheese is prepared of salted sheep’s milk, what gives it a peculiar flavor and makes a regional delicacy, especially for Podhale. It is produced normally in the form of small, spindle-shaped blocks of a typical mountain decorating of the edges, impressed in the wooden split forms. It has a unique flavor and shape that allows recognizing it without hesitation. Sheep cheese is one of perennial regional products, its history dates back more than five hundred years.

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It came to Podhale with Wallachian shepherds, wandering through the Carpathians, in the late fifteenth century.

Traditionally, the production of oscypek was done by chief shepherd (baca) on the pastures high located in the mountains – hale. After milked sheep milk is poured by the linen cloth (to strain, for example, a blade of grass) to the wooden puciera. Then, the klog is added (dried and powdered rennet), so milk curd arises to be squeezed and formed. During stamping cheese is dipped in hot water. After forming, the cheese is soaked in brine broth overnight, which removes the excess of water, wherein the bath also has bactericidal properties. After being soaked, the cheese is matured on the top shelf in the hut. Traditionally, in the shepherd huts the fire was fueled with pine or spruce wood. Cheeses during maturation were cured in the smoke [Gasik 2005b]. When the sheep were going out for redyk (herding the sheep up to mountain pastures) the amount of milk provided by sheep of each owner was metered. This action was repeated after their return from hale. On this basis the amount of oscypek that should be given to the owners of herds and to the shepherds, who pastured the sheep during the summer, was determined. Oscypek therefore was also used for settlements between gazda (the sheep owner) and baca (chief shepherd) and also between baca and shep-herds (juhas).

The process of its making is passed down from generation to generation. Oscypek should have a straw color, compact structure, salty taste and shape of the spindle. It can be eaten raw or broiled in the oven or grilled on a pan. In whatever form it tastes delicious.

On 28 September 2005 oscypek was included in the list of traditional products, of Małopolska region for Dairy Products, and in 2007 the product is put on the EU list of regional products.

4.1.2. Bryndza from Podhale

Bryndza – soft rennet cheese made from sheep’s milk, one of the most famous Tatra cheeses. Name of bryndza, comes from the Romanian language is Brinza and is derived from the Wallachian shepherds pasturing their sheep in upland meadows. Its produc-tion has been associated with the wanderings of the Wallachian tribes that arrived in Poland along the arc of the Carpathians. Production of bryndza in the early stages is the same as the production of oscypki. The resulting bundz is crushed and allowed to heat for about 2 weeks (to mature by the enzymes secreted by the mold Oidium lactis). Bryndza is tangy, salty flavor, sometimes slightly spicy or sour. Its color is white, creamy white, sometimes with a touch of celadon.

A very significant impact on the final quality of sheep’s milk used for its produc-tion has specific vegetation of Tatras and Podhale, which the sheep eat during grazing. Many species of plants, which are in undergrowth of the meadows, pastures and moun-tain pastures occurs only in Podhale. Areas where production of Podhale bryndza is performed are some of the cleanest regions not only in Poland but also in Europe.

Currently, the dairy industry, also produce bryndza varieties with mixtures of cow’s milk and sheep’s milk, with flavorings, etc. Bryndza contains about 45% fat, 50% water

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and 2–3% salt [Gasik 2004]. The content of cow’s milk may not exceed 40% of the total quantity of milk used in the production of Podhale bryndza.

Podhale bryndza on 28 September 2005 was admitted to the Małopolska traditional products in the category Dairy Products and in 2007 was admitted to the EU regional products, and thus became officially protected and proprietary product of the region.

4.1.3. Bundz

Bundz is a cheese from sheep’s milk – a kind of cottage cheese [Krämer 2007]. Bundz production process in the first stage is the same as the production of oscypki. Pured to puciera milk is being coagulated klag. The resulting cheese curds are then blanched for a few minutes at about 70° C. Cheese is then drained, on the canvas in the form of large lumps. Bundz is subject of dripping of whey for 24 hours in a sling hanging on a peg. After 24 hours, it is removed from scarves and put on the shelf for a prelimi-nary ripen within 1–2 weeks, where every few days is reversed. At this time bundz becomes covered with smear substance as follows lactic fermentation, propionic acid, lactic mold growth on the surface, which is purified. The taste of the cheese is bland, slightly sweet, and only after several days, after undergoing fermentation, becomes a kind of sour, slightly sharp, pleasant taste. The interior creates a lot of round holes, and the top becomes a hard, thin crust. Bundz is shaped like a loaf of white or white celadon color.

The taste qualities of bundz are not fixed. Bundz is the best tasting after spring graz-ing of sheep. Bundz produced in May even has its usual name – May bundz [Zieja 2001]. Until the night of St. John (24 June) is traditionally considered a delicacy. Fresh bundz has compact, smooth texture and a delicate, clearly sweet flavor [Mamoń 2011]. Flavor bundz attractiveness of the later months significantly reduces.

On 10 October 2005 bundz was inscribed on the list of traditional products of Małopolska region for Dairy Products.

4.1.4. Gazda (farmer) cheese – gołka (pucok, kara)

Characteristic feature of gazda cheese is that in its entirety is produced from cow’s milk, what gives it delicate flavor. Cheeses from cow’s milk were given different names. They were kłodki, klocki, gołki, pucoki or gazda cheese. Cheese is named after the appearance of the finished product: golka – kłotek is smoked cheese. Cheese from cow’s milk was produced first for use at home. In time, they became more and more popular. Sheep are milked only a few months a year, so the cheese was produced also from cow’s milk. Cow’s milk had to be utilized, and the best way was to rework it into cheese, which by smoking can be stored for long periods and did not lose its flavor. Gazda cheeses were prepared for weddings, other family celebrations, as well as on church fairs.

Cow’s milk cheeses are made from heated milk seasoned with rennet. Gołki are produced preferably in puciera wooden smoked in smokehouse. The milk for cheese must be heated well, should have a temperature of 36–37 degrees. Cheese must be well knead and bathed in hot water, and finally formed the shape. The cheese has a cylindri-cal shape, decorated with convex and concave patterns, with a slightly yellowish color.

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The product has been included in the list of traditional products of Małopolska on 7 October 2008 in the category Dairy Products.

4.1.5. Redykołka

Redykołka is obtained from the remaining of cheese prepared for oscypek production [Tumidajska 2010]. The name redykołki means every gift made of cheese, which is brought during the autumn when the sheep come back from hale (redyk), so both oscy-pek brought as a gift, and above all, little heart or parzenica. The remnants of cheese that are not enough to make an oscypek, are manufactured in figures – animals, or figures in a heart-shaped, imprinted in special molds, and salted. It is interesting that the cheese figurines are manufactured, sold and given in pairs. Sheep cheeses also meet a role in rituals, such as doves and cocks of cheese decorate wedding twigs, or they are attached to the top of the harvest festival rim. In the past they were done in each farm which raised the sheep, intending them as gifts for friends, especially for children. Redykołki have a smooth, elastic skin with elastic flesh. The taste is spicy, slightly salty, smoky scent, the color of light cream. The product has been included in the list of traditional products of Małopolska on 10 October 2005 in the category Dairy Products.

4.1.6. Żentyca (żętyca)

Żętyca, a beverage obtained by production of oscypki and bundz [Hare, 2008] from sheep’s milk. It is next to the whey (with which is often confused) the residue after treatment of milk with rennet, which cuts down most proteins – in that way bundz is created. It is drunk mainly in the hale, very chilled and fresh (sweet) or sour after a few days. For not accustomed to it people can cause a laxative effect (like whey or buttermilk). The taste of żętyca is sweet and slightly acidic with a white or light cream color. Water content in żętyca is from 60% to 70%, content of salt to 0,5%, content of fat: – sheep żentyca from 3% to 4% – sheep and cow żentyca from 2% to 3%.

In the nineteenth century, it was used as a means of treating respiratory tract, espe-cially tuberculosis [Serwatowski, 2011] (no confirmation of medicinal properties). It was drank hot, boiled with thick cheese skin.

On 28 September 2005 żętyca was added to the Ministerial List of Traditional Products Małopolska for Dairy Products.

4.2. Famous highlander soups

Podhale cuisine is famous for its traditional soups: kwaśnica, bryjki and czośnianki. The greatest delicacy is obviously kwaśnica (sour soup).

4.2.1. Kwaśnica – Highlander’s cabbage

Kwaśnica [Kuchta et al. 2010] is a traditional highland cuisine soup, obtained from sauerkraut and meat, usually served with potatoes or bread, and reminds famous Polish kapuśniak. Good kwaśnica must be very acidic, because cabbage acid, according to the hyrax, absorbs fat from meat [Wiaderek 2005]. In the highland cuisine it is unac-

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ceptable to add carrots or other vegetables, because then we obtain kapusniak, which has nothing in common with kwaśnica. On Christmas Eve, kwaśnica is cooked in broth with fish heads. Very sour taste is a good dish, and fish heads give it a unique Christmas flavor. In terms of taste it reminds the Hungarian holaszla, which may be evidence of the influence of the Hungarian cuisine on Żywiec cuisine.

On 22 March 2013 Highlander’s cabbage was added to the list of traditional prod-ucts of Małopolska region in the category of ready meals and dishes.

4.2.2. Bryjka

Bryjka [Kuchta et al. 2010] is a mealy dish of the regional Podhale cuisine. It was in the nineteenth century main mealy Highlanders dish. To prepare the basic version flour was boiled in salted water. After about half an hour of cooking when bryjka thicken it was put out to a bowl, rubbing it over the entire surface rubbing it on the whole surface and added available fat: pork fat, linseed oil, lard – seldom butter. Sometimes buttermilk or even milk whey is added during.

4.2.3. Czośnianka

Czośnianka – soup prepared with potatoes (grule), garlic, onion and fresh or dried mint [Zając 2008]. Cooked and drained potatoes are flooded with boiling water again; the chopped garlic, onion and mint are added. It can be lightly salted to taste. On the plate fused bacon is added. This dish is now replaced by a light broth boiled with garlic and served with potatoes and toast.

4.3. Potato dishes

Bread in Podhale was not baked at home. It was bought on the market day in Nowy Targ. Bread was replaced in the interwar period by moskole – cakes baked on a baking sheet until the late 60th of the last century.

4.3.1. Moskole

Moskole is a regional dish in Podhale restaurants. This dish appeared in Podhale during the World War I, along with Russian prisoners, who, in a primitive way baked them on a baking sheet (hence it derives its name). The basic components of moskole are cooked and mashed potatoes, water, flour, salt, sometimes an egg. Kneaded dough is formed into pies with a diameter of about 6–10 cm and a thickness of 1–3 cm. There are also versions of moskole entirely made of potatoes or only potato flour called Spisz moskole which were also prepared of a corn flour .

On 25 August 2011 moskole were inscribed on the list of traditional products of Małopolska region in the category of ready meals and dishes.

4.3.2. Hałuski dumplings

Hałuski are potato dumplings made from grated potatoes, flour and salt. Potatoes grated on a grater are combined with starch. A little flour is added then to thicken

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enough mass. Fingers kneaded small portions are thrown into boiling water, and when they will surface, they are drained and served with warm milk, cheese or topped with accessible, hot fat. The original version of portioning dumplings was scooping (the dialect scykanie) with the spoon of the layer prepared on the plate. On the Christmas table hałuski are served with dried plums, sweet, late supper at the end of the supper [Gasik 2005a]. Now this recipe is almost completely forgotten and dumplings boiled in so called Slovak variant – haluški with boiled potatoes and larger quantities of flour and eggs. Slovaks consider haluški a national dish, which is not entirely true, as in the Tyrol similar dumplings are called spätzle, or slightly larger Italian dumplings with similar recipe named the gnocchi.

On 22 March 2013 hałuski dumplings are added to the list of traditional products of Małopolska in the category Ready meals and dishes.

4.3.3. Tarcioki

Potatoes for years have been an important component of the diet of the inhabitants of Podhale, as they were one of the few crops, which gave yields in poorly fertile land. Well-known tarcioki noodles also known as kluski scykane or bukty were prepared of them in Podhale. Frequently they were made during the potatoes excavations in autumn, and in the spring when cutting potatoes for planting. Preparation of tarcioki begins with potatoes peeling grating, and draining the mass of potato starch. Flour, raw egg, salt and juice from grating are added to the grated potatoes; next all the ingredients are mixed. After obtaining elastic dough, small, oblong dumplings are hand-formed, and then thrown into boiling, salted water. After cooking tarcioki are usually topped up to the taste with greaves of lard. Currently on the menu of every highland inn tarcioki occupy eminent place and enjoy an excellent guests’ reputation.

On 22 March 2013 tarcioki have been added to the list of traditional products in the category of ready meals and dishes.

4.4. Meat dishes

Although the mountain rivers are the cradle of trout, Danube salmon, pike, grayling, fish were very rare eaten by the Highlanders. Fish began to appear on the highland tables only between World War I and World War II, and their presence at the holiday table is the effect of ceper (people from lowlands) menu.

The base of highland meat diet is obviously sheep meat. The tradition of sheep farming in Podhale lasts for hundreds of years, as evidenced by records the privileges of the local rural investment at least from the late sixteenth century, allowing their citizens to “free grazing sheep in the mountains”. Today’s farms are established on the basis of race, “Polish mountain sheep” and “cakiel”, are traditionally carried out in a manner unchanged for centuries. Sheep farming is carried out in small herds on pastures that are not fertilized, and a large effect on the taste of lamb meat is the Podhale specific highland mountain flora unparalleled outside.

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4.4.1. Podhale lamb

Lamb – an important ingredient in the highland cuisine is a sheep meat, most often occurs in the form of roasted lamb, sheep chops or a perfect leg of mutton [Czerwińska 2008]. The best is the meat of young lambs fed with mother’s milk – it is very tasty and easy to work with, without specific smell of meat from adult animals, not liked by some consumers. Contrary to what it may seem, sheep meat, especially lamb meat was never eaten every day. Cuisine products from sheep’s milk, or moskaliki and żentyca are much more likely to appear in the highland kitchen.

Podhale lamb has been added to the list of traditional products of Małopolska on 26 June 2008 in the category of meat products.

4.5. The famous highland tinctures

Traditional Podhale cuisine is famous for many tinctures. When the bonfire or in the long winter evenings, there is no better drink than the Highlander Tea, seasoned with spirit and raspberry juice. Highlanders pantries in hale hide many secrets. Mulled wine is a obligatory drink served in highland pubs, taverns or in huts in the cool autumn evenings. It has to warm up, so highlanders who wander in winter in the Tatra and the Karkonosze Mountains warm up the drink that prevents colds, and also significantly improves mood. The tradition of drinking mulled wine and beer with dried fruit, honey and spices appeared in the Noble Republic of Poland at the end of the sixteenth century and was recommended to warm up and to strengthen the body.

4.5.1. The Highlander Tea

The Highlander Tea is laced with alcohol and juice most of the Tatra raspberries, because they are after all the best under the sun. According to the traditional recipe is made the in the following proportions: 1/3 strong, hot, sweetened tea, 1/3 of raspberry juice and 1/3 of spirits or possibly vodka. How the Highlanders say “It heats as hell and even protects against flu!”

4.5.2. Honey Liqueur

Mountaineers make honeydew, as the name suggests with honey, according to the oldest recipes that are handed down from generations. Ingredients for honey liqueur: one liter of spirits, a glass of real honey. Boil in half a glass of water 6 cloves, half cinna-mon stick, a piece of ginger and a quarter of nutmeg. Spices are boiled in half a cup of water for about 15 minutes over low heat. Strain the brew and combine with alcohol and honey. Leave in a dark bottle for a few days.

4.5.3. Tincture of blackthorn

Blackthorn tincture is prepared from the following ingredients: 1 kg of blackthorn fruits, 1 liter of spirits 45%, 2 cups of sugar, zest of 1 lemon, 5 cloves. Blackthorn must be rinsed, put into a bottle, add sugar, lemon zest and cloves, next add vodka. Place

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in a sunny spot for six weeks. Every few days shake the bottle. After this time, pour liqueur, filter, pour it into bottles. Let stand for at least 6 weeks.

5. Conclusion

Currently knowledge of Polish producers on regional and traditional agri-food prod-ucts is nevertheless negligible. There is also no consistent reporting feature that allows showing such products before the eyes of buyers and promoting them accordingly. These products should never become a mass product. Due to its unique character, should be niche products – known and desired by gourmets, willing to pay appro-priate prices for special offer. Otherwise, they will lose the emotional qualities, and may also lose the unique taste, vanishing in the mass of food products available in the market. To construct market for such products in our country, it is necessary to create specialized wholesalers, stalls, shops (including mobile) and restoring (not elimina-tion) bazaars. To disseminate the products (and food) regional and traditional, both among potential “hosts” of tourists in rural areas as well as potential consumers of these products and dishes, an extensive promotional program is needed (even during the touristic and agrotouristic fairs). The production and consumption of regional and traditional products in order to really deliver significant gains their producers, they must be “promoted” in social awareness in the country and in the regions. If visitors will know what there is regarded as traditional regional products, regional specialties – they will claim them. Although this can not be overstated in promoting gastronomy in rural tourism and agrotourism – may be in so modest use of products and regional cuisine lays the fear of acceptance of these products by tourists, and perhaps too little knowledge, inadequate common among those preparing and serving meals to tourists. It is also necessary in the interests of the culinary heritage, to make a fashion statement on the products and regional cuisines.

References

Czerwińska D. 2008. Jagnię nie tylko pieczone, Przeg. Gastronom., 12, 1–10.Gasik D. 2004. Polskie szlaki kulinarne, Wyższa Szkoła Turystyki i Hotelarstwa w Gdańsku,

Roczn. Dydakt., 9,172–187.Gasik D. 2005a. Nim zabłyśnie pierwsza gwiazdka, Przeg. Gastronom., 12, 4–5.Gasik D. 2005b. Polskie kuchnie regionalne, Wyższa Szkoła Turystyki i Hotelarstwa w Gdańsku,

Roczn. Dydakt., 10, 114–135.Kamińska I. 2009. Rozwój systemu ochrony produktów regionalnych i tradycyjnych, Wiedza

Jak., 2, 14, 8–11.Krämer M. 2007. Zakopane, Multico Oficyna Wydawnicza, Warszawa, 1–26.Kuchta J., Kopkáš J., Jagła M. 2010. Podróż kulinarna z Nowego Targu do Kieżmarku. Meandry

smaków pogranicza polsko-słowackiego, Burmistrz Miasta Nowy Targ, Nowy Targ, 22–95.Mamoń A. 2004. Górski specjał, Przeg. Gastronom., 5, 26–27.Serwatowski W. 2011. Kapłony i pulardy – radykałki i żętyca, Przeg. Gastronom., 10–11, 36–37.

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Sieczko A. 2007a. Edukacyjny charakter polskich kuchni regionalnych. [In:] J. Sikora (ed.), Tu-rystyka wiejska a edukacja – różne poziomy, różne wymiary, Wydawnictwo Akademii Rolni- czej im. A. Cieszkowskiego w Poznaniu, Poznań, 1–300.

Sieczko A. 2007b. Produkty i potrawy tradycyjne i regionalne jako czynnik rozszerzający ofertę gospodarstw agroturystycznych. [In:] I. Sikorska-Wolak (ed.), Turystyka w rozwoju ob-szarów wiejskich, Wydawnictwo SGGW, Warszawa, 286–297.

Ustawa z dnia 17 grudnia 2004 r. o rejestracji i ochronie nazw i oznaczeń produktów rolnych i środków spożywczych oraz o produktach tradycyjnych (Dz. U. Nr 10, poz. 68).

Tumidajska S. 2010. Pasterstwo w Brennej. [In:] J. Michałek (ed.), Owce w Beskidach, czyli Owca plus po góralsku, Śląskie – Pozytywna Energia, Istebna, 45–69.

Wiaderek T. 2005. Grule, kapusta i owcze mleko, Nowości Gastronom., 8, 24–25. Zając E. 2008. Podhale, Biul. Koła Dialektol., 2, 2–5.Zieja T. 2001. Smaki na góralską nutę, Przeg. Gastronom., 9, 24–26.

Prof. dr hab. inż. Ewa CieślikUniwersytet Rolniczy w Krakowie Katedra Technologii Gastronomicznej i Konsumpcji30–149 Kraków, ul. Balicka 122e-mail: [email protected]

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GLL

M. Czekaj, J. Żmija

COMMON AGRICULTURAL POLICY TOWARDS THE DEVELOPMENT OF MOUNTAIN AREAS

Marta Czekaj, Janusz Żmija

Summary

Mountain areas due to their specific character should be managed in that way, which deliv-ers people from rural areas appropriate income, what enable preserving and maintaining social tradition, unique features of environment and cultural landscapes. Mountain areas and every activity connected with them are part of national heritage. Maintain sustainable development of mountain areas requires continue of agricultural produc-tion and assuring appropriate economic conditions. Hence dwellers of mountain areas should have opportunity to earn in nonagricultural sources. Development of mountain areas connected only with agricultural production would lead to the impoverishment of the local population. Hence to counteract this process, it is necessary to as-sure direct payments for farmers, and at the same time expand nonagricultural function of this region. It is necessary to enrich rural areas in the mountains by creating a diversity of natural and cultural landscape. And although may it be a conflict between the objectives of conservation and agricultural activity, it seems that they could be overcome against the benefits which such cooperation can bring people in mountain areas.

Keywords

Common Agricultural Policy • mountain regions

1. Introduction

The beginnings of the Common Agricultural Policy in Western European countries are dated for the early 50’s if the previous century. This is when, after years of wars and anxieties related also to food shortage, it has been assumed, that the common objective of the Agricultural Policy in the countries heavily damaged by the war, would be food production increase, which will allow the consumers to achieve food security, which is a constant supply for a reasonable price. However, the official starting date of the Common Agricultural Policy is 14 January 1962, and the assumption of the policy was to ensure profitability of the agricultural section in the European Union. The growers were offered various kinds of support, including production contributions and a guarantee of high selling prices. This support was also an encouragement for the farmers to increase the


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production amounts and to modernize the production process. They received finan-cial support for restructuration of their activity; they were also offered free trainings. People were encouraged to speed up social and generational changes in the country and to pass on the burden of running the farms to the young people by retiring earlier.

As the time passed and the formerly set objectives of the CAP were being realized, some of them were no longer applicable or were already accomplished. Presently, after more than 50 years of the CAP being in force, food security is still an important issue, but there are new objectives which are more relevant and adjusted to current condi-tions. They include such issues as diversified yet sustainable economic development of rural areas and meeting high standards related to environment protection and animals’ welfare. The CAP’s area of interest also included new problems, such as climate change or sustainable natural resource exploitation. For the consumers, used to the easy access to food, the product quality is becoming more and more important. The Common Agricultural Policy also evolves in this area, preparing the agricultural producers for high quality food production which will be easier to sell.

Change of Common Agricultural Policy objectives was accomplished through many reforms and thorough observations of the dynamically changing surround-ings. The first corrections of the objectives were made already in the 60’s, the so called Mansholt plan, which was aimed to improve agricultural structure by increasing the size of farms and liquidation of small, ineffective economically agricultural producers. The next agricultural reforms made by the EU supported innovations in agriculture and processing, however, they were focused mainly on producers, who had significant acreage and had a competitive innovation potential. The most important changes made by the CAP objective reform are shown in figure 1. Fundamentally, one can observe a tendency towards increase of production and its sustainability, while maintaining competitiveness of the activity.

Realization of the Common Agricultural Policy primary objective, which was ensuring food security, resulted in a shift of the area of interest of the EU member states from the agricultural aspects to other, which manifested in the expense structure of the EU budget. In the 70’s, the CAP expenses absorbed almost 70% of the EU budget, presently it is estimated to be less than 40%.

In recent years, the European Union has been working on many reforms in the frame-work of the Common Agricultural Policy, particularly focusing on the sustainable agri-cultural development, innovations, scientific research and dissemination of knowledge. The aspect of fairness of the support system for European farmers is very often touched. A lot of attention is devoted to transformations in small-scale farms with small area, as well as among the farms that which have to deal with difficult and mountainous condi-tions. Small-scale farms are very often criticized for economic ineffectiveness and low competitiveness, in many of the EU member states they make up a significant part of food producers. According to one of the definitions used in the EU, small-scale farms have area below 5 hectares. Eurostat Data [http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/eurostat/home/] for the year 2007 indicates that in that period there were 9.65 million of small-scale farms. It is worth noting, that the data obtained from the Central

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Statistical Office [www.stat.gov.pl] indicate, that in the year 2011 in Poland there were about 1550 thousand farms of average area of 9.76 hectares of arable lands, 57.73 of which used from 1 to 5 hectares of arable lands [Żmija and Czekaj 2012]. The smallest farms functioned mainly in the mountainous, southeastern parts of the country.

Source: Rytko 2012

Fig. 1. Evolution of Common Agricultural Policy

The main objective of this study was to investigate the opportunities that receive entities operating in mountainous areas, in terms of applying for funding from the Common Agricultural Policy. This article presents the experience of selected coun-tries of the European Union in the topic of supporting mountain areas, presented were problems in the development of these areas in Poland, followed by a review of the Common Agricultural Policy instruments used towards mountain areas in Poland.

2. Research materials and methods

The main source material used in the study was the data obtained from mass statistics and literature. This data regarded the European Union, Poland and voivodeships in which mountainous areas occur.

Initial years:• security of food supply, productivity improvement,• market stabilization, production support.

1992 reform:• overproduction reduction, income stabilization,• production support, enviroment.

2000 Agenda:• futher price reform, competitiveness,• rural development, enviroment.

2003 reform:• market orientation, rural development, CAP simplification,• cosistency of CAP with WTO.

2008 CAP check:• 2003 reform reinforcement,• new challenges.

Productivity

Competitiveness

Sustainability

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For the purposes of data processing and research material evaluation, we used such methods as: descriptive, comparative, tabular and graphical methods, SWOT analysis, causal method as well as deductive and inductive methods.

3. Common Agricultural Policy towards mountainous regions in selected EU member states

Almost until the half of the 1990’s, the Common Agricultural Policy in the EU member states was not ready to deal with the needs of different kinds of agricultural produc-ers, including those functioning in mountainous areas. On the other hand, the general assumptions regarding adjustments of production to the needs of the buyers and supporting the agricultural income did also apply to the farms functioning in moun-tainous areas. As time passed, the priorities changed, especially the ones regarding these areas. An increasing number of the EU member states began to incline towards the opinion, that keeping the arable lands in mountainous areas in use is more impor-tant, than their production function [Mountain Areas in Europe 2004].

Table 1. Criteria of designating mountainous areas in selected EU member states

Country Minimal elevation [m a.s.l.] Additional criteria

Austria 700 Elevation over 500 m if terrain inclination is > 20%

France 700600 (Vosges) Terrain inclination > 20% on at least 80% of its surface

Greece 800 Elevation over 600 m if terrain inclination is > 16%,Below 600 m if terrain inclination is

Portugal 700 (north of Tejo river)800 (south of Tejo river)

Terrain inclination > 25%

Germany 800 Elevation over 600 m if terrain inclination is > 18%

Spain 1000 Terrain inclination > 20%, elevation not lower than 400 m

Source: authors’ study based on Mountain Areas in EuropeAnalysis of mountain areas in EU member states, acceding and other European countries, page 150

The actions taken in selected EU member states indicate that the help for mountain-ous areas and the farms located there is particularly important, and this cannot be treated marginally. Moreover, the support for the producers in problematic areas is diverse, depending on the difficulties occurring in a given country, and individual countries developed their own ways for supporting agriculture in these areas. Mountainous areas have not been clearly defined for all of the EU member states. There are a few particular documents regulating the issues of mountainous areas. These are the European Council Regulation (WE) 1257/1999 and the European Council Directive (WE) 1698/2005, which indicate, that mountainous areas are “the areas, where due to disadvantageous

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climate conditions, resulting from the elevation, or due to slope inclination, the usage of arable lands is difficult. Mountainous areas therefore include areas north of the 62nd parallel and specified neighboring areas” [Czapiewski et al. 2008]. Such general defini-tion of mountainous areas allows to freely designating them in various countries. Table 1 presents general rules of classifying areas as mountainous, applied in selected EU member states.

Presently, the mountainous area development policies in EU member states differ. In Austria, Germany and Spain, it is targeted at a multisector, transversal develop-ment of these areas. In these countries, the agricultural function of mountain areas has decreased in favor of development of other branches (such as tourism), which allowed for a stronger support for infrastructure and environment. On the other hand, in France, Italy and Switzerland the mountain policy is designed to contribute to the overall development of these countries [Mountain Areas in Europe 2004].

In Germany, despite the pressure on development of economically effective, large-scale producers, the agriculture in mountain areas is strongly supported. In the 80s, higher grants were assigned to the farms located in areas of difficult conditions (which includes mountain areas), and the support was mainly for agricultural producers, and not for the development of the areas they function in. In the year 2000, in some of the federal states, higher subsidizations were assigned to the grasslands, where the slope inclination exceeded 35%, under condition, that the production would be extensive. Grants in Germany are also given to mountain and alpine grasslands as well as wet meadows.

In the years 2000 to 2006 France implemented the so called National Plan of Rural Development, in the framework of which almost 20% of the resources meant for rural areas were assigned for support of areas under disadvantageous conditions and ecologi-cal limitations. In the next financial period (2007 to 2013) France has been implement-ing the so called Development Program for Metropolitan France (with exclusion of Corsica), consisting of 4 axes. The second axis supports the producers in mountain areas (Action 211). Comparing the public support prepared within this program for various actions in each axis, it turns out that Action 211 consumes most of the public funds [Wieliczko 2007].

Spain also has a policy, developed especially for mountain areas. These areas are especially important, as 40% of Spain’s population lives there [Musiał 2007]. The first regulations regarding support for mountain areas in Spain, on the smallest subdivision level, appeared relatively early (e.g. 1983 in Catalonia). The next regulations in terms of support for mountain areas were prepared in Spain in the year 2002, during the International Year of the Mountains [Mountain Areas in Europe 2004]. As a part of the Common Agricultural Policy in Spain, the financial support (from the state funds) for rural development was increased, including compensatory payments for the areas, where disadvantageous usage conditions occur (such areas make up about 80% of the country’s area). Simultaneously, new requirements were made for the agricultural producers applying for support [Dybowski 2008].

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3. Development conditions for mountain areas in Poland

Mountain areas in Poland are almost wholly covered by different environment protec-tion regimes. They are characterized by low percentage of arable lands in the total are, nevertheless, agriculture plays an important role in keeping their environmental and cultural assets. Mountain areas make up about 5% of Poland’s area [http://ksow.pl].

In Poland, mountain areas were designated only in rural areas, characterized by difficulties in agricultural production, resulting from disadvantageous climate and terrain shape. In Polish legislature, it is assumed that mountain areas of disadvanta-geous areas include communes where more than half of arable lands is located over 500 m above sea level.

Mountain areas, aside from the agricultural function serve as forests and resorts. They also have recreational and hydrological functions. They are therefore extremely important not only for the regions they are located in, but also for the whole country.

In terms of agriculture, these areas are significantly behind the times when compared to other Polish regions. They are characterized by fragmentation of agricultural struc-ture, large workforce resources, small production capital and much lower production profitability, when compared to lowlands. This results from higher production costs in mountain areas (30 to 50% in plant production and 20 to 30% in animal produc-tion), caused by the higher machine exploitation costs, shorter time of their usage, and lower equipment efficiency in these areas [Żmija 1999]. Lower economic effectiveness of mountains farms is also a consequence of shorter growing season, low soil quality and its susceptibility to water and air erosion, as well as a high percentage of permanent non-arable lands in the total area of farms [Żmija and Czekaj 2013].

Mountain farms are agriculturally fragmented, which is reflected in the small arable land area attributable to a single mountain farm along with a significant number of agricultural lands. In voivodeships in which mountain areas occur, it is reflected in low average arable land area per one farm – e.g. in Małopolskie it equals 3.8 hectares, and in Podkarpackie 4.4 hectares [www.stat.gov.pl]. These limitations, together with high “frozen” workforce resources in these areas result in such low work efficiency. Therefore it seems, that it will not be harmless for the mountain agriculture, to move some of its workforce to other activities, and basing further development of mountain areas on agriculture can increase poverty among their population [Żmija 1999].

A significant difficulty in agricultural production in mountain areas is the natural environment protection regime, mentioned before. The common EU laws are in force here, along with additional local regulations [Kiełsznia 2010].

The discussed difficulties in agricultural activity in mountain areas imply for their inhabitants to search for different ways of making a living. It results in development of other, non agricultural functions of mountain areas. The unemployed seek employ-ment in services, crafts, or food processing. Often, they work outside of agriculture while continuing to work in agriculture. Small-scale service, processing and produc-tion facilities start to emerge providing employment for the people retreating from agricultural activity that do not want to migrate. Non-agricultural activity in mountain areas can take different forms, such as:

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• services, with use of own equipment that was left after cessation of own agricultural activity,

• services, providing care for children, the elderly and disabled,• wood processing,• aquaculture.

Mountain areas in Poland are perfect for tourism – the wealth of nature, landscapes, many easily accessible trails, proximity of state borders, all this results in a dynamic development of activities related to handling tourism in mountain areas.

4. Common Agricultural Policy in Polish mountain areas

Unfavorable conditions for agricultural production, which occur in mountain areas, can lead the farmers to cease their activity. Abandonment of land in turn has a nega-tive impact on the natural environment and vitality of mountain areas, but also on the whole country. Cessation of agricultural production can influence air pollution level, climate changes, soil degradation, water contamination, hydrological changes and environmental biodiversity [MacDonald et al. 2013]. This is why additional subsidiza-tions for farmers have been prepared, encouraging them to continue their activity. The subsidizations are aimed to compensate for the higher costs of production and for the income losses due to agricultural production limitations in a given area. Higher subsi-dizations for mountain farms sustain the agricultural production, maintain vitality and support sustainable development in mountain areas.

An important aim of supporting mountains areas is to decrease the depopulation of these areas. It is estimated, that the farms in the European Union provide employment for about 30 million people, the next 10 million is employed in the immediate vicin-ity of agriculture (e.g. cooperatives, suppliers, processing, distribution). It means, that employment of every sixth citizen of the EU is significantly dependent on agricultural production [www.copa-cogeca.be].

Properly prepared support programs are the most effective method of support-ing mountain areas. The programs available for mountain farm owners in Poland include: • Operation “Support for farming in mountain areas and other areas less favored”

(LFA).This support is diverse, as it distinguishes the following: mountains areas, lowland zones I and II, and areas where specific natural difficulties occur. The amount of support for each category is updated annually. In the year 2013 it equaled: 179 zloty per hectare in lowland zone I, 264 zloty per hectare in lowland zone II, 264 zloty per hectare in difficult areas and 320 zloty per hectare in mountain areas [www.arimr.gov.pl]. The amount of LFA support is also dependant on the farm’s acreage and it is not entitled for plots of more than 300 hectares which are wholly or partially outside the LFA areas.

The data published on the website of The Agency for Restructuring and Modernization of Agriculture indicate that the number of applications for LFA sup-

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port, including mountain areas (Table 2), This tendency does not result from lower interest in the program, but rather from the structural changes in agriculture.

• Agri-environmental Program was available for agricultural producers nationwide. However, due to the offered ways of support, this program was often used by moun-tain farmers (e.g. it offered support for extensive exploitation of grasslands, or for ecological farming). The funds from the “Agri-environmental Program” covered 3.756 billion PLN of obligations for the years 2007–2013 [www.arimr.gov.pl].

Table 2. Number of applications for support within Action “Support for farming in less-favored areas RDP 2007–2013”

AreaYear Year

2007 = 100%2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Poland 756 344 755 658 751 203 734 432 728 163 730 105 729 699 –3.5%

Małopolska 57 110 56 287 55 130 51 547 50 380 50 116 50 117 –12.2%

Podkarpacie 45 916 46 445 46 527 43 493 42 556 42 543 42 421 –7.6%

Silesia 20 085 20 713 20 422 19 490 19 041 19 004 18 982 –5.5%

Świętokrzyskie 40 850 40 346 39 522 37 312 36 197 36 102 35 829 –12.3%

Source: authors’ study based on the data obtained from The Agency for Restructuring and Moderni-zation of Agriculture

• Subsidization for sheep and cows, paid since the year 2010. This subsidization is available for producers, whose herd’s habitat is located in eligible voivodeships. Therefore, cow subsidization is available for producers having up to 10 milk cows which are at least 3 years old and whose herd habitat is in one of the following voivodeships: Małopolskie, Silesian, Świętokrzyskie, Subcarpathian or Lublin. Sheep subsidizations are available for farmers having at least 10 sheep, which are at least 1 year old, and whose herd habitat is located in one of the following voivode-ships: Małopolskie, Silesian, Świętokrzyskie, Subcarpathian or Lublin.

Support for dairy cows in 2010 and 2011 was the highest total amount transferred to the beneficiaries of the Lublin and Małopolskie voivodeships (Table 3), and for sheep for farmers who farm in the Małopolskie voivodeship. The support for sheep plays an important promotional role for mountain economy in Poland – it contributes to sus-taining traditional sheep cheese production registered as Protected Names of Origin. It is stressed, that recreating the state of breeding of sheep and other herbivorous ani-mals in mountain areas in Poland, even to the level required for sustainable produc-tion systems, will be time consuming and may require additional support for the in-volved producers. Support for cows allows to sustain dairy, beef and veal production in small-scale farms located in economically and environmentally sensitive areas.

• Action “Farm modernization” targeted at all agricultural producers in Poland is aimed to increase economic effectiveness by a better management of production factors, reaching for new technologies or diversification of agricultural activity.

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Maximal amount of support cannot exceed 300 000 zloty. These resources are given in the form of refunds for a part of eligible costs. The eligible costs have to be greater than 20 000 zloty, 40% of which is refunded. In case of mountain areas, the refunds cover 50% of eligible costs.

Table 3. The amount of the payments made for the special support of – Campaign 2010 and 2011

Voivodeships2010 Campaign 2011 Campaign

Cow subsidization

Sheep subsidization

Cow subsidization

Sheep subsidization

Dolnośląskie 6 582.17 696 220.57 4 519.79 718 431.63

Kujawsko-pomorskie 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Lubelskie 37 558 607.56 0.00 40 721 220.69 0.00

Lubuskie 346.43 0.00 0.00 0.00

Łódzkie 2 740.26 0.00 5 341.57 0.00

Małopolskie 25 966 008.06 3 414 793.47 29 113 306.50 3 841 441.21

Mazowieckie 28 005.40 0.00 45 867.65 0.00

Opolskie 3 117.87 126 668.36 4 108.90 148 482.68

Podkarpackie 19 289 811.89 1 028 141.46 21 132 079.98 1 069 264.29

Podlaskie 3 464.30 0.00 4 108.90 0.00

Pomorskie 1 039.29 0.00 410.89 0.00

Śląskie 8 727 596.33 517 804.58 9 634 192.32 561 566.85

Świętokrzyskie 19 343 959.18 0.00 21 362 756.77 0.00

Warmińsko-mazurskie 1 385.72 0.00 1 232.67 0.00

Wielkopolskie 692.86 0.00 3 287.12 0.00

Zachodniopomorskie 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Total 110 933 357.32 5 783 628.44 122 032 442.75 6 339 186.66

Source: authors’ study based on the data obtained from The Agency for Restructuring and Moderni-zation of Agriculture. Data acquired on 31 July 2013

Financial support for mountain areas is assigned also for non-agricultural activity or for their startup:• Action “Diversification towards non-agricultural activity”. The resources of this

program could be used for a business startup in the fields of: services for farms, forestry, society, wholesale and retail, craft or handicraft, tourism, recreation, sport, construction and infrastructure, transportation, utilities, processing of agricultural products or edible forest products, storage of goods, obtaining energy resources from biomass, accounting, counseling or IT. Amount of support for which the ben-eficiary could apply was no more than 500 000 zloty, and the refund level could not exceed 50% of investment expenses.

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• Action “Creation and development of microenterprises” aimed to help individuals running or starting-up a business in rural areas. The fields eligible for this support include: services for farms or forestry, social services, wholesale and retail, craft or handicraft, construction and infrastructure, tourism, sport, recreation, leisure, transportation, utilities, storage of goods, obtaining energy resources from biomass, except for substances covered by the 1st annex to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European union, accounting, counseling and IT.

• Action “Increasing the added value to agricultural and forestry production” target-ed at small and medium processing companies that employ less than 750 employees or whose annual income does not exceed 200 million euro. Such companies can ap-ply for partial refunds of modernization related costs, under the condition that the money will be spent on expenses related to food processing, storage or wholesale of agricultural products.

5. Opportunities and threats for development of mountain areas in Poland

Mountain areas are important not only for the country but internationally. Due to their functions they require special treatment. Development of mountain areas is deter-mined by internal economic conditions, which either stimulate it or limit it. In order to determine the strengths and weaknesses as well as opportunities and threats for moun-tain area development in Poland, a SWOT analysis was performed.

5.1. Strengths

• clean natural environment,• high touristic attractiveness of the area, preservation of most of the protected ob-

jects and perception of mountain areas as protected areas,• diverse landscape and natural environment features, • possibility of development of laborious production (e.g. berry plants, herb packag-

ing, diary processing), which on the one hand is highly profitable and on the other hand allows to manage excess workforce,

• financial support for agricultural producers in mountains areas,• high demographic potential,• farming traditions deeply rooted in the mentality of the mountain population, com-

mitment to the “patrimony”, resistance and reluctance to fallow the land, or to the abandonment of land,

• maintenance and development of livestock, especially dairy cattle and sheep,• advantageous location in the road network,• rich historic and cultural heritage, strong feeling of local identity.

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5.2. Weaknesses

• low integration of agriculture with its surroundings,• high fragmentation of farm structure,• disadvantageous land layout,• need to incur higher costs per unit of production compared to the lowlands,• small scale of production,• low income of mountainous areas residents, which preclude or discourage the

adoption of additional forms of activity,• lack of strong cooperation between farmers,• low education level and low professional qualifications of the rural population,• technical condition, poor capacity and quality of roads,• limited space for investments,• proximity of urbanized areas, which may negatively impact the unique character of

mountain areas,• lack of properly managed marketing actions.

5.3. Opportunities

• resources obtained from national support funds and EU funds, especially those as-signed for investments in the proximity of protected areas, meant to maintain the proper condition of protected objects,

• alternative possibilities of gaining agricultural income, e.g. development of agri-tourism,

• agricultural traditions, strong attachment to heritage, resistance and aversion to-wards abandoning of lands, all of these deeply rooted in the mentality of mountain population,

• formation of small food and agricultural processing facilities, including dairies, tan-neries and fruit and vegetable processing facilities, that are environment friendly, and whose products are characterized by special, high quality,

• further development of tourism,• technical infrastructure development.

5.4. Threats

• limitations related to natural conditions,• limitations for agricultural production, resulting from the law that is in force in

areas, where nature is under special protection,• outdated technical infrastructure of villages,

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• high unemployment level, among people whose education level is usually low,• limited options for alternative forms of activities.

6. Conclusions

Mountain areas, due to their characteristics should be managed in a way that would grant reasonable income for the local population, which will allow to maintain and develop traditions as well as to protect the natural environment and cultural landscape. It should be kept in mind that mountain areas and any activities related to their protec-tion are a part of national heritage protection policy.

Assuring a stable development for mountain areas requires the function of agri-cultural production, ensuring proper economic conditions for the population of rural areas, which is creating conditions that would enable them to earn reasonable income (both in agriculture and outside). The aforementioned aspects of agricultural activ-ity in mountain areas should be consistent with the natural environment protection demands, and this can be accomplished by raising social awareness of the importance of mountain areas.

Basing the mountain area development only on agriculture, under current condi-tions, would lead to pauperization of local population. In order to prevent this process it is necessary to provide direct support for agriculture in these areas and to develop their non-agricultural functions. It is also necessary to enrich the mountain rural areas by creating cultural and natural landscape diversity. Although some contradictions may occur between the objectives of protection of natural environment and the functioning of farms, it seems that they are possible to overcome, as this kind of cooperation may be very beneficial for the mountain population.

References

Czapiewski K., Niewęgłowska G., Stolbova M. 2008. Obszary o niekorzystnym gospodarowa-niu w rolnictwie. Stan obecny i wnioski na przyszłość. Wydawnictwo IERiGŻ, Warszawa.

Dybowski G. 2008. Doświadczenia Hiszpanii w realizacji narodowej strategii rolnej i wiejskiej w ramach WPR. [In:] G. Dybowski (ed.), Margines swobody dla strategii narodowych w ra-mach Wspólnej Polityki Rolnej. Doświadczenia wybranych krajów Unii Europejskiej. Wy-dawnictwo IERiGŻ, Warszawa.

Kiełsznia M. 2010. Funkcjonowanie gospodarstw rolnych na obszarach chronionych w Pol-sce na przykładzie Kampinoskiego Parku Narodowego, Folia Pomer. Univ. Technol. Stetin. Oeconomica 277, 58.

MacDonald D., Crabtree J.R., Wiesinger G., Dax T., Stamouc N., Fleury P., Gutierrez Laz- pita J., Gibon A. 2013. Agricultural abandonment in mountain areas of Europe: Environ-mental consequences and policy response, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301479799903353 (accessed 11 July 2013).

Mountain Areas in Europe. 2004. Analysis of mountain areas in EU member states, accedin- gand other European countries, http://www.nordregio.se/en/Publications/Publications-2004 /Mountain-areas-in-Europe/ (accessed 10 July 2013).

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Musiał W. 2007. Wartość gospodarcza i przyrodnicza europejskich gór. Acta Sci. Pol., Ekonomia 6, 4, Wydawnictwo SGGW, Warszawa.

Rytko A. 2012. Wspólna Polityka Rolna i jej efekty po wdrożeniu reformy z 2003 roku. Zesz. Nauk. SGGW, Polit. Europ. Finanse Market., 8, 57, 520.

Wieliczko B. 2008. Doświadczenia Francji w realizacji narodowej strategii rolnej i wiejskiej w ramach WPR. [In:] G. Dybowski (ed.), Margines swobody dla strategii narodowych w ra-mach Wspólnej Polityki Rolnej. Doświadczenia wybranych krajów Unii Europejskiej. Wy-dawnictwo IERiGŻ, Warszawa.

www.arimr.gov.pl (accessed 17 July – 30 August 2013).www.copa-cogeca.be (accessed 16 July – 30 August 2013).www.epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/ (accessed 12 July – 30 August 2013).www.ksow.pl. (accessed 15 July – 30 August 2013).www.stat.gov.pl (accessed 12 July – 30 August 2013).Żmija J., Czekaj M. 2012. Wspólna polityka rolna a rozwój drobnych gospodarstw rolnych.

Zesz. Nauk. SGGW: Polit. Europ. Finanse Market., 8, 57, 520.Żmija J., Czekaj M. 2013. Wspólna Polityka Rolna wobec rolnictwa i wsi na obszarach górskich.

[In:] Nauki ekonomiczno-rolnicze w kontekście zmieniających się potrzeb gospodarki. Wy-dawnictwo SGGW, Warszawa, 160–161.

Żmija J. 1999. Przedsiębiorczość w agrobiznesie a rozwój obszarów wiejskich w Regionie Mało-polski. Wydawnictwo Czuwajmy, Kraków.

Dr inż. Marta CzekajUniwersytet Rolniczy w KrakowieKatedra Zarządzania i Marketingu w Agrobiznesie31–120 Kraków, Al. Mickiewicza 21email: [email protected]

Prof. dr hab. inż. Janusz ŻmijaUniwersytet Rolniczy w KrakowieKatedra Zarządzania i Marketingu w Agrobiznesie31–120 Kraków, Al. Mickiewicza 21e-mail: [email protected]

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! Geomatics 4 (2013).indd 34 2014-01-28 17:11:06

GLL

B. Godlewska-Dzioboń

CLIMATE POLICY OF THE EUROPEAN UNION AND POLISH LABOUR MARKET

Bianka Godlewska-Dzioboń

Summary

For many years the European Union has been taking ambitious actions as a part of climate policy and the related greenhouse gasses emission limitations, which are based on the will to become the world leader. These actions are also taken in Poland, as a part of restructuration of the main sectors of economy. Further transformation of Polish economy seems inevitable, especially tak-ing into account the outside conditions and the market economy tendencies. However it is im-portant for the transformations not to cause real threats for Polish economy, but to be used in a way that would create new opportunities and competitive advantages, as well as the increase effectiveness of management and work efficiency. The article aims to present costs related to giv-ing up on conventional energy and increasing the usage of renewable energy sources, and their impact on Polish job market.

Keywords

economic growth • the labor market • climate policy

1. Introduction

For some time the topics related to climate (low emissions) policy has been becom-ing ever more popular in discussions as well as in reports and scientific research. This trend of considerations has been largely caused by the strong promotion of environ-mental issues by the EU decision-makers. The EU climate strategy, planned up to the year 2050, is a long term project. It requires careful supervision and implementation of new solutions, resulting from the evolution of the approach to climate protection worldwide. Thanks to such strategy the pro-environmental plans and actions of the EU become clearer. They reveal themselves to be a strong lobbing for the ecological technological solutions, raising awareness of the EU member states’ populations about the net benefits from the low emissions innovations as well as financial support for investments consistent with the climate policy.

The global negotiations, currently in progress, on the future climate agreement are probably one of the most important multilateral agreements. They aim to find solutions to cope with one of the biggest long-term challenges, which is adjusting to the effects


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B. Godlewska-Dzioboń36

GLL No. 4 • 2013

of climate change and slowing down the process of global warming. The results of the talks in progress will have a great impact on the economic development of the EU member states in the coming decades [Gradziuk and Karaczun 2011].

This is why, in many European countries, discussions on this issue began in order to draw solid conclusions which will present the opportunities and threats related to the implementation of the EU climate policy. It is worth noting that these conclu-sions should be debated not only on the European level, but they should also take into account specific conditions in individual EU member states.

The energy sources used in the industry have an impact on the final result of the economy and the quality of its surroundings. Apart from the indisputable benefits, the activity of enterprises and consumers also generates various effects, which also often have a negative impact on the wellbeing and standard of life [Włodarczyk 2012]. The industrial development, especially the branches responsible for high emissions, as well the climate change, contribute to the decline of natural environment, which in turn impacts the economic growth [Rosiek 2012]. The increasing awareness of the problem of environment protection for achieving optimal economic effects makes this topic worthy of being connected to the functioning of the economy as a whole.

The EU actions which are a part of the climate policy are critical for Polish economy [Polityka klimatyczna Polski… 2003], due to economic, structural and social reasons. Adaptation of low emission economy and elimination of traditional fuels from the widely understood industry and production branches are the keys to a broad restruc-turation of economy. Partially giving up on conventional energy and increasing the contribution of renewable energy sources will result in significant changes on Polish job market. On the one hand, it can result in structural labor surplus and an increase of structural unemployment and the necessity to retrain the personnel, which will consume significant amounts of money. On the other hand, implementation of low emission strategy before the year 2050 will result in vacancies in the sector of low emis-sion technologies as well as in the cooperating branches. However, the economists and experts have not yet decided, if the net outcome of these changes will be positive, or negative, as many publications indicate so.

The article presents important issues related to the consequences of the EU climate policy for the economy and Polish job market.

2. The effects of the EU low emission Policy in the economy of the member states

The low emission policy, implemented by the European Union, aims to slow the climate change and to limit its negative impact on the natural environment, the society and the economy of the member states [Korab 2011]. Therefore, the primary strategic objective of the EU is to reconcile economic development, social cohesion and envi-ronment protection [Komunikat Komisji… 2009]. However, it seems that it will not happen without apparent social, structural and economic changes. There are at least six areas, in which the effects of the implemented low emission policy in the EU member

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CLIMATE POLICY OF THE EUROPEAN UNION AND POLISH LABOUR MARKET 37


states (Figure 1): competiveness of the economy, technological level, financing sources, economy structure, employment and social order.

The first area involves competiveness of the economy and is strictly related to a great risk of energy price increase, and also industrial production cost increase. Higher unity production costs may result in the necessity of increasing product and service prices, followed by a decrease of international competiveness which will result in losing markets.

The next area in which some aspects of the EU climate policy may be visible is technological level. Here, dramatic changes should be expected, which should lead to technological advancement of the economy. It may result especially from technologi-cal investments, aimed to increase energy production with use of renewable sources. Such changes are possible only if they will receive financial support at the initial stage for research purposes, in order to invent new low emission products and solutions and not just import them. A complementary element for the EU climate policy should be properly directed subsidizations for research and development, in order to create innovation(s) and highly-effective low emission technologies. Besides, an element worth mentioning are the funding cuts for investments in the sectors of economy which use materials and technologies not consistent with the new EU climate policy, e.g. coal and lignite mining. It can lead to technological decline in these sectors, which means that the released human and financial resources would have to be managed effectively.

Source: author’s study

Fig. 1. Areas of changes in the economy and the EU low emission policy

Areas of change within the low emission policy in the EU member states

Economy competitiveness

Technological level

Financing sources

Employment

Social order

Implementation of the low emission policy has to be followed by many new invest-ments. It will require concrete strategic and financial plans. Lack of capital for these purposes is a major concern in many EU member states, especially in Central and

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Eastern Europe. This is why this policy will require significant financial support as well as a search for funding sources both at the of investment in the low emission technolo-gies, but also at the stage of coping the with the effects of low emission production.

The aforementioned action indicate, that implementation of the EU climate policy forces to face very painful structural changes, which may be especially severe for many EU economies, including Polish. The structural changes will be very deep in the econo-mies, which are strongly dependent on traditional energy sources and high emission branches of industry. This may result in a decrease of production, most of all in chemi-cal industry, mining industry, heavy industry and transport. Especially in the Central and Eastern European countries it is hard to expect for this decrease of production to be compensated by an increase of production in the area of advanced, low emission technologies or solutions for producing “green energy”.

Structural changes have to determine deeper modifications in the employment area, where jobs in the high emission sectors will be lost. Significant changes in costs, prices and efficiency may have an impact on the income of households and the possi-bilities of job creation by enterprises. In the EU member states characterized by lower income, creating jobs in the field of low emission technologies may be problematic, as many of them (at least initially) will be imported by these countries. It seems, that new jobs in the low emission technology industry will be dependent on the funds that have been spent on research and development in this field, which takes not only significant amounts of money, but also time.

Structural changes and job market transformations are a good ground for protests and strikes, which disrupt the social order. The risk is even higher in the economies highly dependent on traditional energy sources and high emission technologies. The skepticism of business and scientific circles for the EU low emission policy, the lobbing of the hitherto energy providers as well as high emission industry may be an important obstacle, difficult to overcome and destructive in terms of social order. Ergo, an essential element for the implementation of low emission strategy should be a proper approach of the government policies of the EU member states, by creating a suitable institutional environment, favorable for the implementation of the EU policy. This system should on the one hand protect the energy consuming branches of industry from production slump, and on the other hand it should make it possible to use the reserves of emission and energy by companies or regions with their surplus.

3. Polish job market in light of the EU low emission policy implementation

Among the most important effects of the EU low emission policy on Polish economy are the job market changes. It reflects a very strong dependency of Polish job market on the enterprises operating in the high emission branches (of industry) as well as big problems Poland has with fulfilling the liabilities resulting from the aforemen-tioned policy. Unconditional and immediate implementation of all assumption of the EU climate policy may be very adverse for Polish job market. There is a risk of losing competiveness followed by moving the production of energy consuming industrial

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products, cement, or heavy chemistry, and in consequence jobs, to other countries, not obliged to reduce greenhouse gases emissions, characterized by lower labor costs.

Most of experts, businessmen and scientists predict that implementation of the low emission policy in Poland will result in disruptions in creating job demand. Some of the economists and politicians deem the EU climate policy and its disadvantageous effects to result in the biggest Poland – EU relations crisis since the accession. The climate package forces the energy consuming industry in Central and Eastern Europe to pay twice as much for its activity only because of the domination of traditional energy sources in these countries. Polish economy has the highest employment in the branches threatened with industry migrations, resulting from the CO 2 emission limits. According to the forecasts of Polish Chamber of Commerce and Ministry of Economy for the years 2014–2050, further CO2 emission limitations can lead to a loss of 350 thousand jobs and unemploy-ment rate increase by about 2 to 3 percentage points (Table 1). Disadvantageous changes can also occur in the activity rate (0.75 to 1.5 percentage point drop, or a decrease in the number of professionally active people by 150 to 250 thousand). This will result mainly from the employment uncertainty in the energy consuming branches of industry as well as in sectors dependent on traditional energy sources, which may encourage many work-ers to retire early, especially those in the preretirement period.

Table 1. Predicted quantitative changes in Polish job market in the years 2014–2050, resulting from the EU climate policy implementation

SpecificationPeriod

2014–2030 2031–2050 2014–2050

Employment decrease by 150 thousand people

decrease by 200 thousand people

decrease by 350 thousand people

Unemployment rate

increase by 0.5 to 1 percentage point

increase by 1.5 to 2 percentage points

increase by 2 to 3 percentage points

Professionally active

decrease by 100 to 150 thousand people



Professional activity rate

decrease by 0.5 to 1 percentage point

decrease by 0.25 to 0.5 percentage point

decrease by 0.75 to 1.5 percentage point

Source: authors’ study based on data predicted by National Chamber of Commerce, the Ministry of Economy and the Central Statistical Office in Warsaw

The general outcome of the climate policy may include two large structural changes (Figure 2):• job losses in the sectors based on traditional energy and high emission industry

(heavy industry, mining, traditional energy sector, cement factories, transport, chemical industry),

• job creation in new sectors based on renewable energy sources and branches of industry working on advanced technologies of obtaining renewable energy.

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These two processes will have opposite impact on the total employment and it seems that there is a prevailing view, that this processes will not be symmetric, but asymmet-ric. Instead, many jobs will be lost. The job creation will be additionally undermined, at least during first couple of years, by the necessity of import of technologies used in obtaining energy from renewable sources, due to insufficient funding of research in this area in Poland. Export of these technologies is also unlikely, as Polish technological progress is not leading when compared to other European countries.


Fig. 2. The EU low emission policy and employment changes

Total employment

Import of technologies for energy generationfrom renewable energy sources (RES)

Export of technologies for energy generationfrom RES

Job losses in the fields basedon traditional energy (TE)

Job creation in the fields basedon renewable energy sources (RES)

(–) (+)

(+)

(–)

Aside from the aforementioned, rather detrimental, changes on Polish job market, there will also be positive effects of the climate policy implementation, although it should be admitted, that these are rather poorly justified forecasts. According to the European Commission, the increased investment expenditures will result in employ-ment increase in individual EU member states. On the one hand, increased effective-ness and innovations should lower the unit labor costs, and in the long term lead to employment growth. On the other hand, the short term employment reduction, caused by the consequences of introduction of the Emissions Trading System is estimated to be only 0.3% compared to the year 2005 [Communication from the Commission… 2010]. Moreover, new job offers should emerge in the sectors related to widely understood renewable energy.

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4. Conclusions

The changes related to the EU climate policy will appear both on the level of individual EU member states’ economies and in selected sectors of these economies. Moreover the consequences of this policy will probably be visible outside the EU, in many regions worldwide. The climate policy carried out both globally and in the EU will have an increasing impact on the functioning of economy in individual countries.

The main strategic objective of the EU decision makers, related to creation of low emission economy, is increase of employment, efficiency and competiveness of Europe. In my opinion, the results of this policy will have a visible impact on national job markets. Implementation of the climate policy in the EU member states will require a kind of “structural transformation”, based on using new, low emission technologies and innovations and a new employment structure.

Summing up, it should be stressed, that the results of the implementation of the EU climate policy and assumption of reducing the emissions by 80% by the year 2025 will be followed by huge social and economic costs for Poland, in spite of unquestionable and important benefits. In my opinion, the net outcome of these costs and benefits is negative, which means that in case of Polish economy the climate policy is conditioned by high costs and risk. The efficiency calculus of this policy in Poland should take into account the following aspects:• the assumption, that the climate policy will increase competiveness of Polish econ-

omy may be missed, as the forecasts for the GDP growth by the year 2020 are not very optimistic; low economic growth can be a strong barrier for supporting the low emission investments, which in turn can petrify the traditional energy sources and the related sectors of economy,

• the next threat is unemployment growth, especially in sectors sensitive to carbon leakage [Żmijewski 2011], caused by industry emigration to countries not covered by the European limitations and a decrease of their significance in Polish economy that follows; such opinion results from the fact, that in spite of the attempts to in-crease employment in sector III in Poland, the economy is still based on sector II; also, the effects of carbon leakage should not be exaggerated, as according to many accepted research studies [World Bank 2011, Bukowski and Kowal 2010], the ac-complishment of emission targets in Polish economy may result unemployment in-crease by 1 to 2 percentage points, which in turn may result from lower employment in the branches, threatened by carbon leakage, by about 10 to 15%; it is also worth remembering that implementation of new climate policy in the EU will not help our environment, as the use of coal and lignite worldwide is expected to double; also, the forecasts of the European Commission regarding the greenhouse gases emis-sions for the year 2020 are not completely convincing, as EU 27 expects to reduce them by 20 to 30%, while other countries, such as USA estimate a reduction by 3 to 5%, Canada and Australia even expect an increase by 3 to 15% [Communication from the Commission… 2010]; therefore, it is worth stressing, that fighting climate change requires all the countries worldwide to engage, not just the EU,

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• introduction of new energy sources – based on low emission technologies – will be related to huge implementation costs; stopping to use of domestic raw materials and becoming dependent on other, may lead to loss of industrial competiveness of many European countries; it may have an impact on electricity prices, thus lowering the competiveness of domestic economies and leading to pauperization of societies,

• big doubts emerge, when it comes to the impact of climate policy on job markets, as there is no certainty whether new vacancies in the low emission technology sector will compensate for the losses caused by the job losses in the existing industry and plants dependent on traditional energy sources; the changes in the industry and technology have a significant impact on production processes, employee relations, job market as well as demand for new competencies and creation of new profes-sions; it is worth to ask an open question: will the new technologies and products, related to the environmental policies compensate for the decline in exports of prod-ucts of industrial branches, based on traditional energy sources?

• the positive effects of the climate policy implementation in Poland will depend on creating a proper institutional environment, which on the one hand would support environmental actions, but on the other hand will slow down the radical and violent changes in the existing structure of Polish economy; their purpose should especially involve enhancement of the role of education and knowledge transfer from research centers to enterprises, development of research infrastructure, improvement of the in-tellectual property protection system, innovational activity, changes in awareness and environmental activity of the society, creating legal and financial instruments contrib-uting to the change of traditional economy model to low emission economy model.

Summing up, it should be stated, that the current propositions of the European Commission in terms of long term climate and energy policy, which on the one hand do not take into account the characteristics of individual member states, treating the EU as a uniform system, and on the other hand do not include any mechanisms providing verification of actions in the aspect of achieving a positive results for climate protection in global scale, will have a negative impact on Polish economy. It should be also stated that the structural transformations of Polish economy towards the low emission model are inevitable, as since the beginning of transformations of the socio-political system this is the path it follows as a part of widely understood sustainable development. However, it is important for the effects of this climate policy not to create any real threats for Polish economy. Instead, they should be used for creation of new competitive opportunities and advantages, as well as increasing the effectiveness of management and work efficiency. In consequence, it should be expected, that due to Polish exposition to the risk of the macro-economic climate policy being higher than in Western Europe, the way of its implementa-tion is very important for the success of this process in our country Long term balance of the climate policy will depend most of all on its impact on the competiveness of economy, especially on advantage of the opportunities of increasing the efficiency of resource usage and maintaining the competitive production prices. The short term balance depends on the scale of investment program and the way of its funding. The declared objective

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of the EU climate policy is a positive influence on the economic development and job market in all of the member states. Therefore, accomplishment of this objective will not be possible without taking into account the economic characteristics of these countries in the cost and benefit division, related to the implementation of the low emission policy. This applies especially to Poland, whose economy and indirectly the labour market are dependent on traditional energy sources.

References

Bukowski M. 2012. Rzecz o “zagrożeniu problemem carbon leakage w Polsce”. Instytut Badań Strukturalnych, Warszawa.

Bukowski M., Kowal P. 2010. Large scale, multi-sector DSGE model as a climate policy asses-sment tool. Instytut Badań Strukturalnych, Warszawa, 3.

Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Analysis of options to move beyond 20% greenhouse gas emission reductions and assessing the risk of carbon leakage. Background information and analysis, European Commission, Brussels, SEC(2010) 650, 54–55.

Gradziuk A., Karaczun Z.M., Wyciszkiewicz E. 2011. Globalne negocjacje klimatyczne: intere-sy i wyzwania dla Polski i Unii Europejskiej, Raport Polskiego Instytutu Spraw Międzynaro-dowych i Koalicji Klimatycznej, Warszawa.

Komunikat Komisji do Rady, Parlamentu Europejskiego, Komitetu Ekonomiczno-Społecznego i Komitetu Regionów. KOM(2009) 400. Uwzględnianie kwestii zrównoważonego rozwoju w polityce UE w różnych dziedzinach: Przegląd strategii Unii Europejskiej na rzecz zrówno-ważonego rozwoju – rok 2009, Bruksela, 24 July.

Korab R. 2011. Wpływ wybranych aspektów polityki klimatycznej UE na pracę krajowego sys-temu elektroenergetycznego. Rynek Energii, 93, 2.

Polityka klimatyczna Polski. 2003. Strategie redukcji emisji gazów cieplarnianych w Polsce do roku 2020. Ministerstwo Środowiska, Warszawa, październik.

Rosiek J. 2012. Przeciwdziałanie negatywnym skutkom zmian klimatycznych we współczesnym świecie. [In:] K. Tarnawska (ed.), Ewolucja budżetu Unii Europejskiej w kontekście wyzwań klimatycznych polskich regionów. Difin, Warszawa.

Włodarczyk R.W. 2012. Polityka klimatyczna Unii Europejskiej i jej wpływ na gospodarki państw członkowskich. Przegląd badań Komisji Europejskiej. [In:] K. Tarnawska (ed.), Ewo-lucja budżetu Unii Europejskiej w kontekście wyzwań klimatycznych polskich regionów. Difin, Warszawa.

World Bank 2011. Transition to a low emissions economy in Poland. Washington DC.Żmijewski K. 2011. Zagrożenie problemem carbon leakage w Polsce. Instytut im. E. Kwiatkow-

skiego, Warszawa.

Mgr Bianka Godlewska-DziobońPodhalańska Państwowa Wyższa SzkołaZawodowa w Nowym Targu34–400 Nowy Targ, ul. Kokoszków 71e-mail: [email protected]

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ECONOMICAL AND NATURAL VALUE OF MOUNTAINS IN EUROPE

Wiesław Musiał

Summary

Despite its relatively small area European territory has many mountain ranges located in most of the countries. Land development in separate mountain ranges has a tendency to diversify. Not only is this phenomenon evident in regions with a great increase in agricultural, service sector, tourist and industrial functions, but also in regions which are agriculturally worthless and less economically valuable. Even though mountain areas in Europe are inhabited by more than 15% of population, the diversity of both particular countries and mountain ranges is large. Mountain areas, particularly in EU–15 countries, Switzerland and Norway, are as a rule poorly populated, while in Poland, Slovenia and Hungary these tendencies are disparate. Frequent phenomena facing mountain areas in Europe are an ageing of the local population and the rural depopula-tion. Mountains are of great significance for both the population and the diversity of continent’s fauna and flora, besides, the natural resources of mountains are described as “the undervalued ecological backbone of Europe”. The greatest value of mountains is attributed to their cultural diversity because mountainous areas are inhabited by numerous ethnic minorities differentiated by their culture, language, dialects and tradition. It should be noted that functions of mountains and their contribution to both the development and the living conditions of local population can be diversely classified. These functions, which include environmental, economical and socio-cultural ones, have been known for ages. They can also be divided into the green – connected with nature, the white – connected with health care, the blue – concerned with water and the yellow – concerned with life-span and economic development. Sustainability of strong demog-raphy units is the key precondition for the maintenance of natural and cultural richness, as well as for the economic significance of European mountains.

Keywords

specificity of mountains • function of highlands • sustainable development

1. Introduction

Economy in mountain areas, showing a significant distinction and creating various difficulties of topographical, climatic and biotic nature, was a multifaceted issue, occur-ring since the dawn of the economy consciously pursued by man, including agriculture. Therefore, in the European economic space mountain areas were later overtaken by


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the human element. Mountain areas were less densely populated, and later developed, and often largely marginalized. Over the centuries, at different latitudes, management and development of European mountains showed large variations, however, for many centuries, the treatment of these areas as less valuable was evident. Also, during the conquest mountains were often treated as a prey achieved at great effort, but less valu-able, because of the sparse population and low potential for food production [Musiał 2008]. This was true for the Alps massif located centrally in Europe, and a little later developed Carpathians, mainly deserted Scandinavian Mountains, or some mountain areas recognized by the ancient ancestors as worthless, for example, the entire island of Crete. Mountains for centuries were borders (not entirely certain) between states, but it happened and that a state “sat” astride on the mountains (e.g. Austria). Although they had important and appreciated defense value, often were civilizational and economic periphery of countries, being a place of exile, the development of various types of trou-blemaking and lawlessness [Przyboś 1995]. Over time, their functions have expanded, which was connected with the development of the population of Europe, its growing civilization potential, and next felt the limitations of the available agricultural land. These processes happened at different times and different rates in different countries, and thus also in the mountain ranges. The scope and tempo of development, and there-fore the appropriation and exploitation of the mountains were determined by both latitude position and in even more their height. Significant, and at times even dominant influence on the economy in the mountains had their affiliation to a particular country, the level of civilization and economic development, as well as the prevailing political system.

Since the formation of the capitalist economy, market orientation dominance occurred in the spatial management, including land development of individual moun-tain ranges. The primacy of profit, efficiency, productivity, supported by the liberal economic doctrine, already formed during the Enlightenment, which was, among others a sign of progress and renewal against absolutism, caused a major impact on the development of production space. Also the neo-liberal doctrine currently dominant in the socio-economic life implies socio-economic development, including the industrial, development of services or agriculture, often ignoring the external costs of the process [Czyżewski and Stępień 2011]. At the same time all-powerful process of the economy globalization determines its opening, the cancellation of all barriers for the allocation of production factors, the same production and its distribution. Globalization causes also the increase of the pressure to achieve microeconomic efficiency, which raises new challenges in European countries and in their problem areas such as mountains [Kowalczyk 2007]. External effects of globalization, including those negative for both social and environmental situations, are transferred to the local level [Zegar 2012]. Intervention in many adverse or even negative instruments of globalization takes place in the European area through a variety of mechanisms for coordination at the supranational level especially in the European Union. They are based mainly on the development and implementation of a common structural policy and the Common Agricultural Policy. In the case of domination of free market economy the capital

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moves to countries and regions, and even sub-regions where organizing of production itself is cheaper and easier. To a large extent this applies to the location of the economy, especially the production in mountain areas, although some subregions in Switzerland, Austria and Italy may be an exception here, because there, also in the mountains, there are regions very well urbanized and highly industrialized.

Recently, for most mountain areas of the Europe, due to the long lasting deficit in the non-agricultural sectors of the economy, specific character and the weakness of agriculture indispensable and almost with no alternative becomes sustainable develop-ment [Czudec 2006, Dacko 2011]. This refers primarily to reduction of the pressure on the fragile environment and appreciation of its welfare and rarity The idea of diver-sified production space management especially in areas of high natural values is the answer to their remarkable values as well as the inadequacy and unreliability of market mechanisms in the domain of distribution of goods in areas with escalated problems. An important condition necessary for the sustainable development of mountain areas is the increase of public awareness in the economy of goods management, and recogni-tion of the uniqueness of their ecosystems. Full indexation of created in the mountains public goods including such non-market goods like the vitality of a village, culture and harmony of the landscape are also necessary. The challenges faced by the structural policy and the CAP (Common Agriculture Policy) for the entire EU including moun-tain areas are very large. However, they are often mutually exclusive with the liberal and commercial approach to the economy. The need for sustainable management of natural resources, provision of environmental and public goods, maintenance of biodiver-sity, or maintaining and creating of environmentally adapted economic development are often underestimated. These objectives are generally not be achieved without the formation of structural policy towards the mountains taking into account their natural, economic, social and cultural specific features [Kirner 2010].

This paper discusses the problem of economic and natural values of the European mountains. Consideration and evaluation of quantitative and statistical character were referred to the various European countries. Specific mountain ranges were not analyzed due to the lack of suitable data sources. Value of the mountains was evaluated by the functions they perform for the society, who live directly in mountains areas, or who indirectly uses the goods and services the mountains. These functions are presented from three perspectives, i.e. the so-called national-classic, as indicated by Euromont [Mountain study website 2004] and modern, adopted from the agricultural economics [Wilkin 2012]. Comprehensive analysis of natural value of the European mountains was treated as part of the economics of scarce resources, and thus sought marketable and valuable, and the natural goods that have eluded the assessment of economy, but also have underestimated, not valorised or deferred social and market values.

The essential issues of the development of European mountain areas were taken up, confronting the Polish perspective on the issues of sustainable development of moun-tain areas with the key problems of other countries and mountain ranges [Mountain Areas in Europe 2004b]. The study is based on the literature and is predominantly deductive analysis. The need of setting the economic development of the European

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mountains with their natural specific, including their valuable properties and natural resources was indicated.

2. The core values of the European mountains

Mountain areas cover about 24% of the land area and are inhabited by more than 12% of the population across the globe, and it is estimated that a further 14% of the population live in their immediate vicinity. Much larger share than in the quantita-tive participation of the inhabiting population have different forms of economic and strict environmental services provided by mountain areas [Mountain Areas in Europe 2004a]. The global importance of the mountains was confirmed in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, which adopted Agenda 21 documents. It includes an action plan signed by the representatives of states and governments of most countries in the world entitled: “Managing fragile ecosystems – the sustainable development of moun-tain areas”. In those documents, crucial for environmental globe issues, the problem of the mountains was presented, placing them next to such important and high-profile issues of the modern world as climate change, desertification of agricultural land and reducing of deforestation. It also highlighted the issue of insufficient knowledge of soci-eties, states, governments, and local governments on the importance of mountains and their specific relating to aspects of a natural, economic and cultural character [Czudec 2006]. This implies, among others inability to obtain complete and comparable data on the various mountain ranges, even within specific mountains, belonging to several countries. This also applies to European mountains, although the statistics are there more accessible, better developed, updated and compiled than, referring to the conti-nent of Asia and Africa.

Despite its small size compared with other continents, and its rather lowland char-acter, Europe has many mountain ranges located throughout most of the countries. However, about 74% of Europe lies at an altitude less than 300 m above sea level, 20% is at the altitude of 300–1000 m above sea level and only 6% of the continent lies at an altitude higher than 1000 m. In many European countries so called deficit in mountains can be seen, as they are at all devoid of mountains and even uplands, and they amount to 1–2%. In contrast, other countries have the kind of excess of mountains, which represents (or represented), for them, a big economic problem. In the north of the continent there are mountains in Iceland and Scandinavia. Southernmost mountains extend along the northern shores of the Mediterranean Sea from the Balearic Islands to Cyprus and to a large part of Turkey. In the western part of the continent mountains extend in: Portugal, Spain, the UK and Iceland. Ural mountain range is the furthest east of the European continent, and from the southeast the border is the Caucasus. The longest mountain ranges are located in Scandinavia and the second largest is located in the Urals, and the third in the Caucasus. In the central part of Europe, there extend the best-known and most frequently visited by tourists – Alps, located for the most part in France, Italy, Switzerland and Austria. In Europe, there are also many smaller mountain ranges such as the Carpathians, Pyrenees, the Apennines, as well as many lower and

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older mountains stretching from the Massif Central in France to the Sudetenland, and the Dinaric Alps and Vosges [Mountain Areas in Europe 2004b].

Extending from the Arctic to the Mediterranean area mountains in different parts of the continent, are characterized by different types of climate, from oceanic to conti-nental. An important natural factor for determining the local nature of individual mountain ranges and even the masses, is the microclimate, resulting from diverse geographical location, height and position relative to sea level, and also the physi-ographic formation of an area, its slope, sun exposure, etc. The microclimate is one of the determining factors of the great diversity of ecosystems, including the agrocenoses, historically shaped by agricultural use of the land. It also has an impact on the issues of population numbers, economic growth and the share of rural population and the attractiveness of the various mountain ranges, including predestination to develop their tourist infrastructure. European mountains are important for the abundance and diversity of flora and fauna of the continent, are referred to as „the ecologically under-estimated backbone of Europe’s” [Mountain study website 2004].

Source: author’s study based on Euromontana

Fig. 1. Key features of the mountains of Europe

Centersof biodiversity

Bankof valuable

ecosystemsWell-headof water

Mountains

Recreation and tourismcenters and spas

Centers of culturaland ethnic diversity

European mountains are important for nature conservation, acting as biodiversity centers [Bohn 1993]. Protection of the most important parts of the mountains is carried out through the creation of national parks, nature reserves and other formal and infor-mal types of protected areas. Two-thirds of European flora described botanically lives for the most part or entirely in mountain areas, that is why these areas are so impor-tant from the biodiversity point of view. [Mountain Areas in Europe 2004b]. Many

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European mountain ranges south of the Arctic, contain species that are relics from the most recent ice age, which was later replaced by the continental ice sheet. While the existence of many species of wild plants and animals depend on the occurrence of specific biophysical factors, some mountain ecosystems, especially meadows and pastures, are maintained by mowing and grazing, and even alternate ploughing. This agricultural activity – but rather extensive – is indispensable for the existence of these ecosystems, and the abandonment of agricultural use means a reduction in biodiversity [Klepacka-Kołodziej 2009]. Living in these environments (particularly in Central and Eastern Europe), some species of wild plants and animals are threatened by depopula-tion and changes in the use of land system (intensification), resulting from the dictates of the market economy. There are also the opposite phenomena, relating mainly to the fauna and with the rapid decline in animal populations in sub-regions where human pressure on the environment decreases. Eight of the 35 species of mammals, protected by the Habitats Directive, live mainly or exclusively in the mountains [The Biogeographical Regions… 2002].

Agricultural policy of different countries, as well as the Common Agricultural Policy, extending to mountain areas and relating to their specific, focuses specifically on agriculture and agricultural production. Agriculture, considered retrospectively, and contemporary constitutes an important part of spatial planning and economic development of mountain areas, and significantly affects their economic and cultural identity (Figure 1). Somewhat less attention is paid to economic policy issues in the areas abundance of water, which seems to have the most value in contemporary Europe scale. The water in the mountains, originating from increased here snow and rain fall (in relation to the plains precipitation here is even 10 times higher), powers and initi-ates streams and rivers. They provide water for agriculture, industry and the needs of towns. Mountain water is also a source of hydroelectric power for many parts of Europe. Hydro power plants constituting relatively inexpensive and well-developed system of gaining power in the Alps and the Scandinavian mountains, are usually also well developed in other mountain ranges. Despite the low cost of energy production, however, they carry many risks perceived contemporary, including changes in the ecosystems, in the landscape, the release of sediment, erosion of slopes, etc.

Development of land in different mountain ranges also shows a large variation due to the fact that these areas are regions, where there is a intensification of various func-tions, industrial, commercial, tourist and agricultural. With regard to the agricultural use of the land in areas across Europe there is significant landscape differentiation, which reflects the human interaction with the biophysical system. An example is found in Scandinavia, intensity of forests, well-developed animal husbandry and herding in the Alps and the Carpathians. Also, a large area of dry land Balkans is a place for graz-ing animals.

European ethnic and cultural diversity is also strongly associated with mountain areas. They are the home to many European ethnic minorities, currently appreciated for their cultural specificity, language, dialects and traditions. In many mountain ranges or sub regions this diversity is diluted and shallowed by the influence of civilization

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and culture coming from the outside, and by reducing the local population of people, especially the younger generation. Depopulation and migration of the younger genera-tion outside the mountain areas not only causes negative effects on the maintenance of the identity of the mountaineers, but also how their material culture develops e.g. crafts and building, how they utilize the land (and to what extent they use technolo-gies), which plants they grow at which intensity. This is important nowadays, due to the high weight and the use of institutional domestic and European solutions, relat-ing to originality and awareness of regional products created here, of importance to diversifying, improvement of the quality and flavor of food. Cultivated here varieties of plants and farmed animals, often local atrophy races, also have important economic significance, not only for farmers – producers and created short marketing chains, but also for the entire region, making them recognizable at the table. This leads to economic and cultural revival and enrichment of many previously economically recessive moun-tain areas. The right approach to the production and marketing of specific products “from the mountains” could be the key to the future of many mountain communities, where agricultural production and forestry remain important for the local economy [Mountain study website 2004].

Tourism and recreation are very important values of the European mountains. Many aspects of the above mentioned cultural heritage include high quality food and drinks with the features of originality, which are key attractions for people from grow-ing urban centers, sometimes even far from the mountains [Sprawozdanie… 2008]. Mountain areas represent places where you can escape, once literally, now more figu-ratively, because they give people the opportunity to experience a different world and also different lifestyles, different values and customs. They allow admiring the beauty of the landscape, in less altered and less polluted natural environment. For busy people, tired of civilization and urban noise, the mountains are often a place of rest and finding inspiration. They also provide the opportunity to participate in a wide range of sports – from very simple and popular (recreational skiing) to extreme sports, including those for which the conditions can be met only in the mountains [Chudy-Hyski and Żemła 2010]. The fundamental feature of the mountain sports, despite changes in fashion and trends in this field, is their considerable seasonality and usually a relatively short period in which they can be practiced. It is important for entrepreneurs and society that invest in this sector of the economy. The development of tourism in the mountains of Europe varies greatly and is in many respects. Even in a small part of a mountain range on the slopes or in the valleys, may be well-developed infrastructure for skiing or other sports may be well-developed, while the in adjacent areas, these facilities (and conditions) may not exist or may be quite different. Even in the Alps, the European mountain tour-ism center, visited annually by about 100 million of tourists only 10% of communes has a well-developed tourist infrastructure, and in 40% tourists appear occasionally [Eurostat databases… 2002].

For practicing mass tourism very important is recognizable and sustained for years landscape, which can ensure the co-existence of forests, grassland, and where there are favorable natural conditions also although rare – arable land. For these reasons, espe-

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cially in some parts of the Alps, the Apennines and Carpathians societies economically dependent on tourism, but also on agriculture, for a long time began to support the work of agri-environment character and on a larger scale, than due to the attractiveness of tourism and commercialism of particular village, but also for the neighboring areas [Bohn 1993].

Another, key feature of mountain areas, perceived and appreciated in the moun-tains of Europe, is their sensitivity to environmental changes. The diversity and severity of climate, climatic belts and shaped by them storey distribution of species of plants and animals are, means that even relatively small changes in climate can be very impor-tant for agriculture and forestry, and cause unpredictable consequences, economically negative [EU Agricultural Economic Brief… 2011]. Also, climatic phenomena, show-ing increase in mountain areas, such as increased rain and snow falls, long winters, sudden changes of weather, storms, floods, landslides, avalanches, etc. cause a variety of difficulties and risks to human settlements and economic infrastructure. Likelihood


Fig. 2. The main features of mountain lands – a classic shot

Ecological Economic Demographic and cultural

Protection of ecologicallyvaluable areas

Preventive and therapeutictourism and leisure

Overcoming the marginal areasby the “human element”

Hydrological

Environmentally sound useof natural resources Residential and social

Maintenance of reserve agriculturalproduction potential

Non-conventional energy production,including geothermal and hydro

Non-agricultural productionand services

Commercial agriculturaland forestry production

Agricultural productionof a social nature

Protection and shapingagricultural and forestry

production space and landscape

Production of organic farmingand integrated

A contribution to the socialand cultural life of the country

Protection and shapingof the cultural landscape

Prevention of regionalmarginalization of agriculture

as a profession

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of an increased frequency of extreme events related to weather also means the natural hazards, such as forest fires, including non grazed logs and halls, the burning of makia in the Mediterranean area. Sensitivity to changes in the environment, including climate in mountain areas can also have negative economic consequences. Climate changes caused by global phenomena or changes in local habitat caused by (e.g. deforestation of subregion by a hurricane) may cause lowering the touristic attractiveness (e.g. in the Slovak Tatra mountains), and reduction of snowfall can limit the length of the ski season (e.g. in the Bieszczady Mountains but also in the Italian Dolomites). This may lead to a general reduction in the attractiveness of tourism and recreation in mountains in favor of areas located below. In view of the difficult to create and rapid financing alternative solution, it can endanger the economic stability of mountain areas.

Functions, and thus the economic importance of the mountains can also be analyzed from the point of view of the diversity of services they render to society and the local community [Musiał 2008] (Figure 2).

There are three categories of mountains functions: ecological, economic, and demographic and cultural. Mountain areas space, as well as in other parts of Europe have different ways of developing. It is a popular place for cities and also quite large (Innsbruck, Grenada, Podgorica, Zakopane), however, rural, forest and agricultural areas here are in a definite advantage. Execution of economic functions refers to different types of human activity of a production and service character, commercial, non-commercial and social. The current needs of the local and the immigrant popula-tions are met here. In the mountains of Europe continue to be extracted various raw materials, even rocks, although limitations in this area are growing. Significant part and in some Scandinavian countries most of the energy is produced in hydroelectric, geothermal or wind power plants. Mountains, particularly in central Europe are large areas of forest production, with a wealth of flora and fauna are providers of various types of public goods. Where only edaphic and climate conditions permit they are locations for agricultural production, and especially the breeding and rearing of differ-ent species of animals known as herbivores. Often this is accompanied by the food processing and, generally better than in other non-mountain parts of the country, extensive gastronomy [Mountain Areas in Europe… 2004b]. Hotels, comprehensive travel services, especially related to winter sports are determining an economic value of mountains in particular the Alps, but also the Apennines, the Pyrenees, Carpathians, and even vestigial and low Świętokrzyskie Mountains. The functions European moun-tains are highly complex and ecologically diverse. They are mostly covered by various environment conservation regimes, including the highest safety requirements. This is due to the preciousness of natural resources, which are located in their area, including endemic plants and included in so-called Red List, and vertebrates and invertebrates found only in the mountains. Undeniably great values of the mountains are taken by them precipitations and water resources released. They are the resource that allows plant and animal life also in the surrounding valleys, basins, and also in the lowland parts of the country. They are also the basis for the economy especially agriculture. Mountains because of their topographical features are of great landscape and aesthetic

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value, particularly appreciated in these countries, which suffer the shortage or the lack of mountains. In order to protect the environment, but also because of the limited capacity of the organization there commercial agricultural production, they are also locations for organic and integrated farming.

There are also many the functions and values of the mountains, which can be described as the demographic and cultural ones. They are home and somehow the reign of the human element. People live in the mountains even very high, i.e. also in the crags, where the fauna and flora almost disappears or is very sparse. Local people of the mountains – highlanders, once lived in large isolation from the population of the natu-ral more convenient regions, shaped over the centuries a number of specific personal and social characteristics, even hard working, resourcefulness, ability to deal with the local community, giving priority to family values. Highlanders living in Europe prob-ably have best preserved and cherish the historically developed distinct cultural values including dialect, music and dancing, crafts, and building in the region. They preserved today often separate even an anachronistic system of values based on the excessive prominence and cultivation their own culture, traditions, respect of goods brought by the ancestors, or the cult of the earth.

Source: author’s study based on Wilkin 2012

Fig. 3. Economic and natural functions and values of mountains in Europe

• location of companies• rural tourism centers• attractive development areas• sustaining of rural economic specifics• multifunctional rural economic• production of energy from biomass• production of solar and wind energy

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•leisure and recreation centers

•spas location areas

•regions of original agricultural products production

•areas of herbs sourcing

• land resources management• maintenance of biodiversity• preservation of the cultural landscape• biomass production• production of valuable agricultural products

Valuesand functionsof mountains

Green functions

Yellow functions

Blue

func

tions

White functions

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These values still allow the sustaining in the mountains the agricultural use of land and a livestock production also in the low profitability and even the lack of profitability [Musiał and Wojewodzic 2011].

Another approach to the value and functioning of mountain areas can be indicated by their division into four categories defined by colors: green, yellow, blue and white (Figure 3). Such a classification of mountain refers mainly to their multifunctionality. Green functions are related to the management of natural resources, especially land resources. This is sustaining their special nature, including the protection of plants and wild animals. These functions can also include biomass production, which is used for livestock production, including wild animals and forest biomass. Yellow functions relate to maintaining consistency and viability of mountains, because then mountains increase their current use value and deferred time value. They are locations for busi-ness, area suitable for buildings and a generation site of solar and wind energy. Blue functions are associated with water and its resources management, protection of its quality, but also the prevention of floods. They also include food production in ponds and rivers and hydroelectric energy. Finally, the white features are important centers for relaxation, recreation and spas in the mountains. They are also regions producing highly regarded, original and healthy food, local products and herbs [Musiał 2008].

3. Problems of development of the European mountain areas

In Europe, more than 19% of the population lives in mountain areas, the diversity of individual countries in that respect is also large (Table 1). Leader in this field is Switzerland, in which 84.2% of the population lives in areas classified as mountains. In Slovenia, the ratio is 64.9%, and 63.4% of Norway. Almost half of the population in Greece, Austria and Slovakia (respectively 49.8, 49.6 and 48.6%) inhabits mountain areas. At the other end of such classification there are countries with a distinct shortage of mountains (and those in which there are no mountain areas at all), such as Belgium, where only 0.8% of the population lives in the mountains and subsequent Luxembourg 1.5% and Ireland 2.6%. Poland belongs to the group of European countries, where the shortage of mountains is expressed (if only referred to the European average), and mountains are home to only 5.8% of the population.

Considering the ranking of countries, defined based on the participation of moun-tain areas in the total area of the country, and similarly participation of the mountain and non-mountain population, clearly the elite of mountain countries (Table 1) is shap-ing. These include: Switzerland, Norway, Slovenia, Greece and Austria, closely followed by countries: Slovakia, Italy, Bulgaria and Spain.

Mountains are generally areas with poor demographic coverage. In all the countries of the old EU members (fifteen) and in Switzerland and Norway, the average popula-tion density in mountain areas is lower than in the lowlands.

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Table 1. The population living in mountain areas of Europe

Country Total population

The population living in mountain

areas

The part of the population living in mountain areas in the total population

Total 493 116 714 94 316 416 19.1

European Union 15 375 982 254 66 789 474 17.8

Austria 8 024 449 3 993 337 49.8

Belgium 10 263 414 83 256 0.8

Finland 5 194 902 624 184 12.0

France 59 921 649 8 577 499 14.3

Germany 81 944 737 8 254 700 10.1

Greece 10 817 789 5 365 931 49.6

Ireland 3 917 203 101 903 2.6

Italy 56 095 135 18 267 183 32.6

Luxembourg 439 539 6 787 1.5

Portugal 10 356 116 2 741 590 26.5

Spain 40 738 016 15 681 826 38.5

Sweden 8 901 038 615 343 6.9

Great Britain 58 051 191 2 475 935 4.3

Newly adopted countries and candidate countries 105 343 879 18 540 683 17.6

Bulgaria 7 973 671 3 637 787 45.6

Cyprus 690 253 98 995 14.3

Czech Republic 10 215 299 2 385 905 23.4

Estonia 1 439 200 – –

Hungary 10 246 939 709 239 6.9

Poland 38 632 453 2 255 261 5.8

Romania 22 236 918 5 535 706 24.9

Slovakia 5 401 316 2 624 492 48.6

Slovenia 1 992 035 1 293 298 64.9

Norway 4 503 436 2 854 051 63.4

Switzerland 7 287 145 6 132 208 84.2

Source: EUROSTAT NewCronos data 2000; NSO Malta, Including DOM. Values excluding DOM: Total population – 58255213, Mountain population – 7 633 595

In some countries, these differences are very large, eg in the UK and Switzerland – multiple. Relationships are quite different in the three new EU member states, such as Hungary, Poland and Slovenia, in which these relations are opposite, i.e. mountain areas are relatively more populated than the lowlands and on average the whole coun-

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try [Musiał 2010]. This reflects the relative economic and demographic attractiveness of the mountains in these countries, and for Hungary the state also results from the marginal area, to which concern the mountain statistics. Generally, the least popu-lated municipalities in Europe are located in the mountainous areas. Ranges with the lowest population density, i.e., less than 25 inhabitants per 1 km2 (or even less than 10 people), exist in the Nordic countries and in Scotland and Ireland, as well as the French Pyrenees. Other bands with a density significantly different from the national average of less than 50 persons · km–2 are located on the island of Corsica, in the French Alps, the Massif Central, in the Spanish Pyrenees and in many mountain ranges in Bulgaria and Greece. The reverse relationship, i.e. high volume of population figures above 125 persons · km–2 fall on most of the mountains of Germany, Basque Country, Catalonia, Sicily, the Swiss Jura and the Sudeten and Carpathian mountains located on the Polish area (west of the mountains) [Mountain study website 2004].

In some countries and mountain ranges can be observed an aging of the local popu-lation in relation to the population over 60 years, in which the share exceeds the average for the country and the lowlands. This phenomenon occurs clearly in Cyprus, where the national average is 14.7% of the population aged over 60 years and in the mountains the figure is 23.4%. A similar situation exists in Ireland and Greece, respectively, 15.0% to 18.4% and 21.9% to 24.0%. Completely different relationships are met in Austria and Slovakia, the percentage differences of percentages are negative for the population above 60 years of approximately 1% compared to the lowlands. In the mountains of Europe the phenomenon of demographic movements is also observed for years, includ-ing both depopulation, as well as a local or subregional thickening of the population (Figure 4). From 1991 to 2001 a significant or a large drop in population was recorded in mountains in Bulgaria, Finland, Norway, Portugal and Sweden. The greatest increase of the depopulation phenomenon was observed in the mountains of Corsica, Sicily and the central Apennines in Italy. Considering the rural areas as a whole, it should be noted, that almost in all the mountain countries of the Europe, mountain villages’ depopulation rate was higher than in the villages in general, although exceptions have been also observed here. These relate to England (Wales), and in Belgium, Greece and Switzerland, the level of depopulation in mountain villages was similar to lowland areas. The causes of the depopulation directly related to the negative natural growth of the population living in the mountains (more deaths than births) over the decades in the highest degree related to France – 10.2%, Norway – 10.8%, Italy – 13.7%, Greece – 15.0%. In Finland, Romania and Greece, mountain areas are „rejuvenating” since birth have been here up to 15% higher than deaths. The second reason for the decline of the population of mountain areas is the migration of their inhabitants, outside mountain areas, mainly to urban centers [Mountain Areas in Europe 2004b].

European mountain areas, in addition to the problems of the demographic nature are plagued by numerous economic problems mainly of a structural nature. Their intensity and specificity varies from country to country and mountain ranges as well as economic groupings. Due to the low competitiveness of agriculture conducted in the mountains and optional or mandatory obligation to extensive (or medium extensive)

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production, agriculture here is supported by specific support systems of an interven-tionist state. Support to agriculture in mountain areas in Europe is widespread and concerns in the first instance the EU and EFTA countries, but also beyond the European Economic Area, for example, Ukraine. This support has different nature and decid-edly different amount per unit of surface or holding. It includes within the EU varied in their level; mountain payments, so-called support associated with the production, promotion of investment in farms, entrepreneurship development, processing and commercialization of production, and support for rural development. It is solid or highly varied regionally within a country (e.g. France and Italy), and supporting funds are both community and national as well as [Musiał 2010].

Source: Mountain Areas in Europe 2004a. Nordregio

Fig. 4. The average population density in mountainous countries in Europe

It can be assumed that the territorial, spatial extent and size of the area that will be developed in the next few years for agriculture in the mountains depends largely on the community but also the regional (national) policy on agriculture in mountain areas. The European Union, which is the developer, promoter and organizer of the Common Agricultural Policy, to an increasing extent, creates the kind of dominating main struc-ture of the policy, and the member states form detailed legal and organizational solutions of its implementation. Taking into account the various specific problems of the country, including mountains as well as separate areas creating for them special, often based on the conditions of production, climatic, natural and cultural criteria for access [Zegar 2012].

Some countries, especially in Central and Eastern Europe clearly feel the problem of disagrarisation of mountain areas and the abandonment of land, especially grass-

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lands. A common phenomenon is the reduction or even abandonment of the so-called herbivorous livestock farming, what results in a lack of direct justification of supporting the agricultural use of the land. Further consequences of this situation reach beyond the sphere of production and economic and have their reference both to social issues and economic [Sprawozdanie… 2008]. Without economic and organizational support, of highlanders living in remote hamlets in small villages or in small mountain villages, the “descent” of highlanders from the mountains to urban and more populated areas will proceed. There they can count (or hope) on lighter and easier life. Ecological and environmental issues, boil down to the unwanted or unintended growth of bushes or to reforestation, decline in biodiversity, changes in the cultural landscape, and the rise of fire hazards. The change of the border between agricultural and forest land is proceed-ing, it is declining, which is not a new issue, but in Polish conditions under considera-tion since at least 50 years [Kruczała 1958]. With the reduction of the overall volume of agricultural production in many mountain ranges of Europe declines the possibility of local and regional products, and thus the construction of modern short supply chains and culinary attractiveness of the region.

Euromontana for almost 15 years has drawn attention to the eight problem areas that are considered a priority for the sustainable development of the mountains (Figure 5). These tasks can now be added to climate protection through the rational management of water and maintenance of vegetation cover, natural or agrocenosis [EU Agricultural Economic… 2011]. Important in the mountains especially in the event the use of natural resources such as acquisition of rocks and gravel, but also the so-called plow agrocenois is the prevention and active counteraction against the erosion, which is a threat to people, economic and nature.

Source: author’s study based on Mountain Areas in Europe 2004b

Fig. 5. Priority areas of activity and the development of mountains in Europe by Euromontana 2013

Priorityareas of activityin the mountains

of Europe

Sustainable tourismand leisure

The development of forestryand timber supply chains

Developmentof social services

Mobilityand infrastructure ICT

Environment friendlyenergy production

Territorial cohesion

Maintaining agricultureand rural development

Development of products ofmountain areas (food and non-food)

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Many of the actions that should be taken in the common European interest of sustainable development of mountain areas is essentially repeated for many years [Kruczała 1958].

It is a very important territorial cohesion, both in the sphere of economic exchange including tourism, but also in the sphere of science and joint projects and in culture (Figure 5). An important and difficult task, which seems to have been continued and operated as insufficient, especially in the poorer countries of the mountain is balanced communication. It should meet a set of features including modern movement of goods and people, but also save up and protect the environment. It may take place by the elimination of heavy transport with high emission by such transportation based on the use of electricity. Many of the priorities are the development of previously analyzed functions of mountain areas.

It is important that mountain areas of Europe should undertake various initiatives to modernize their social and economic structures. To drew good examples of develop-ment processes that have, or are still taking place in the more developed countries. Mountain countries should actively seek funds for growth and development, both at EU and national level. They should conduct joint investment, research and develop-ment projects. It seems that mountaineers are able to more quickly than other ethnic, national and social groups, put into practice ideas of broad international cooperation and solidarity of the European.

3. Recapitulation

The key importance of the European mountains includes both environmental and socio-economic issues. The mountains are appreciated centers of biodiversity, even though ecosystems of mountain environments are very sensitive to changes in the environ-ment. They are springfens clean water, which is used by human settlements, agriculture and industry. Inhabited mostly by local people because of the historically slowed diffu-sion of civilizations they are highly appreciated centers of cultural and ethnic diversity. Because of the landscape attractiveness, the climate and the nature specificity and natu-ral topography predestining practicing especially winter sports, they are the location areas of spas and tourism and recreation centers. European Mountains for years strug-gling with demographic problems are generally less populated areas. In the northern parts of Europe they are among the most sparsely populated areas. The largest increase of depopulation of the mountains includes: Corsica, Sicily and the Apennines, but also rural and mountainous areas of Bulgaria and Romania, Portugal, Sweden and Norway. In Finland, Romania and Greece mountain areas are rejuvenated, mainly due to posi-tive population growth. Maintaining a strong demographic tissue is essential condition to maintain initial adequacy of nature and the economic importance of the European mountains. Still very important for mountain areas is the agricultural and forestry production. It should take into account the natural specificity of the mountains, which preferring of the environmental value over the production and economy. Mountains play and should continue to play many well-known and highly regarded functions for

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society and local communities. They can be variously named and analyzed, a kind of mental shortcut and their colored descriptions are listed in the elaboration green, blue, white and yellow features. For the realization of these functions people living directly mountains, but also shaping and implementing policy for the mountains regional and national authorities, and European Union are responsible.

References

Bohn U., Natural vegetation of Europe and Turkey. 1993. Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Bonn.Caballero R., Riseth J.Å., Labba N., Tyran E., Musial W., Molik E., Boltshauser A., Hofstet-

ter P., Gueydon A., Roeder N., Hoffmann H., Moreira M.B., Coelho I.S., Brito O., Gil Á. 2007. Comparative typology in six European low-intensity systems of grassland manage-ment. Adv. Agron., 96, 351–420.

Chudy-Hyski D., Żemła M. (eds) 2010. Konsument na rynku turystycznym. Informacja tury-styczna w Europie. Górnośląska Wyższa Szkoła Handlowa, Katowice.

Czudec A. 2006. Teoretyczne aspekty rozwoju zrównoważonego. [In:] A. Czudec, B. Grzebyk, G. Ślusarz (eds), Odnawialne źródła energii jako element zrównoważonego rozwoju rolnic-twa i obszarów wiejskich. Uniwersytet Rzeszowski, Rzeszów, 8–20.

Czyżewski A., Stępień S. 2011. Wspólna polityka rolna UE a interesy polskiego rolnictwa. Eko-nomista, 1, 9–36.

Dacko M. 2011. Koncepcja zrównoważonego rozwoju w naukach ekonomicznych – inspiracje, ewolucja, perspektywy. [In:] A. Bołtromiuk, M. Kłodziński (eds), Natura 2000 jako czynnik zrównoważonego rozwoju obszarów wiejskich regionu Zielonych Płuc Polski. IRWiR PAN, Warszawa, 19–42.

EU Agricultural Economic Brief. 2011. What is a small farm? Brief No. 2. European Commis-sion – DG Agri Brussels.

Eurostat databases and data availability. 2002. Institut für Raumplanung, Universität Dortmund. Kirner L. 2010. Bergbauerbetriebe und Betriebe in benachteiligten Gebiet in Oberosterreich.

Endwihlung und oekonomische perspective. Bundesanstalt fur Agrarwirtschaft, Wien, 42–48.

Klepacka-Kołodziej D. 2009. Wspieranie obszarów wiejskich o niekorzystnych warunkach go-spodarowania w Polsce i w Unii Europejskiej. Problemy Rozwoju Wsi i Rolnictwa, IRWiR PAN, Warszawa.

Kowalczyk S. 2007. Globalizacja agrobiznesu i produkcja żywności. [In:] S. Kowalczyk (ed.). Bezpieczeństwo żywności w erze globalizacji. SGH, Warszawa, 47–58.

Kruczała J. 1958. Zagadnienia ekonomiki ziem górskich. Polska Akademia Nauk, Zesz. Probl. Post. Nauk Rol., 14.

Majewski K. 1965. Ekonomiczne aspekty związane z ustalaniem granicy rolno-leśnej na tere-nach górskich i podgórskich, Polska Akademia Nauk, Komitet Zagospodarowania Ziem Górskich, 9, Kraków.

Mountain areas in Europe. 2004a. Final Report. NORDREGIO European Commission contract, 67–92.

Mountain Areas in Europe. 2004b. Analysis of mountain areas in UE member states, acceding und other European countries, European Commission, Contract Nordregio.

Mountain study website – report Nordregio 2004.Musiał W. 2008. Ekonomiczne i społeczne problemy rozwoju obszarów wiejskich Karpat Pol-

skich. Problemy Rozwoju Wsi i Rolnictwa, IRWiR PAN, Warszawa, 19–26.

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Musiał W. 2010. Rozwój rolnictwa w górach z perspektywy prac Parlamentu Europejskiego. ACTA Oceconomia, 9, 3.

Musiał W., Wojewodzic T. 2011. Conditions and assessment of adequacy of supporting agricul-ture in polish Carpathian mountains. ACTA Oeconomia, 10, 4, Warszawa.

Przyboś K.W. 1995. Karpaty Polskie. Przyroda, człowiek i jego działalność, UJ Kraków.Sprawozdanie w sprawie sytuacji i perspektyw rolnictwa na obszarach górskich. 2008. Parlament

Europejski 2008/2066 (INI).The Biogeographical Regions Map of Europe, European Environment Agency. 2002. Wilkin J. 2012. Wielofunkcyjność rolnictwa – nowe ujęcie roli rolnictwa w gospodarce i spo-

łeczeństwie. [In:] J. Wilkin (ed.), Kierunki badań; podstawy metodologiczne i implikacje praktyczne. IRWiR PAN, Warszawa, 23.

Zegar J. 2012. Współczesne wyzwania rolnictwa. PWN, Warszawa.

Prof. dr hab. inż. Wiesław MusiałUniwersytet Rolniczy w KrakowieWydział Rolniczo-Ekonomiczny31–120 Kraków, al. Mickiewicza 21e-mail: [email protected]

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GLL

G. Olszyna, T. Rokita, A. Tytko, M. Wójcik

ROLE OF CABLE TRANSPORT IN THE MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE MOUNTAIN AREAS

Grzegorz Olszyna, Tomasz Rokita, Andrzej Tytko, Marian Wójcik

Summary

Cable transport has been used for a long time to move people in difficult terrain, mostly moun-tainous. Since the beginning of the 20th century, this means of transport is inextricably linked to mountain tourism, especially skiing. Cable cars and ski lifts have become the only means of transport for skiers in ski resorts. The article describes the development of cable transport in mountain areas and the benefits that followed. It also presents two examples of ski resorts, which had a significant contribution to development of tourism and skiing in mountain areas.

Keywords

cable ways • cable transport in the mountains • mountaneering

1. Introduction

Cable transport has been known since the ancient Times. However, its rapid develop-ment started in the beginning of the 20th century and it was related mostly to skiing.

Although skiing owed its development mostly to mountain-climbers who used skis during their winter expeditions, crowds of enthusiasts were growing each year. The number of people interested in this new form of recreation kept growing, and more skiers appeared on Polish slopes each year [Baran 1987].

An evident development of various forms of skiing occurred in the interwar period. This form of activity spread to all Polish mountains. Skiing started to become a popular sport. It simply became a new trend. A new era began, which lasts till present day, in which the ski tourism was dominated by downhill skiing, which enjoys to the fullest extent cable cars and ski lifts and specially prepared ski slopes.

Development of skiing was accompanied by an inflow of many technological inno-vations and development of infrastructure – cable cars and ski lifts, followed by lighting and snowmaking systems.

In the middle of 1960s, mass skiing began in Western Europe. Ski resorts appeared in the Alps along with a large number of ski slopes located close to each other, equipped


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with ski lifts and cable cars (mostly double-seat chairlifts). Classic gondola lifts, funicu-lars or bi-cable gondola lifts were not very popular, and usually were used to transport skiers to higher slopes [Rokita and Wójcik 2007]. Visitors of ski resorts experienced a higher level of comfort every year. Poland had to wait another thirty years or so for such conveniences.

2. Cable transport in Poland

In Poland the “cable transport era” began on February 26th 1936. On this day, the first cable car arrived at Myślenickie Turnie. First passengers got to Kasprowy Wierch on Sunday, 15 March 1936 [Rokita and Wójcik 2007]. Construction of the cableway in Zakopane took 227 days, which was a world record back then.

Before outbreak of the Second World War two funiculars were built: On Góra Parkowa in Krynica (opened on December 8th 1937) and on Gubałówka in Zakopane (opened on 20 December 1938, another record: only 167 days of construction) and two sledge lifts: in Kocioł Gąsienicowy and in Sławsk in Eastern Bieszczady.

In the late 1960s and early 1970s decisions were made to build new ski resorts. First were the so called miners’ ski resorts. They were equipped only with ski lifts, but they offered a quite interesting (for that time) diversity of slopes. The main achievements were the miners’ ski resorts in Szczyrk and on the slopes of Pilsko in Korbielów.

In the eighties first private ski lifts emerged. Some of them have kept operating till present day, and their technical condition is unfortunately poor.

Western Europe, in the same period, introduced ski slope maintenance devices, the snow groomers. New ski lift technologies were developed (e.g. detachable gondolas) faster, more comfortable and having greater capacity.

The political changes which started in the year 1989 and the reforms aiming to realignment the exchange rate of zloty and its exchangeability created the possibility for Poland to import necessary machinery and equipment for the ski slopes [Rokita and Wójcik 2005]. The existing ski slopes were reconstructed and new ski resorts were created. Some of the investors imported new devices; others bought used machinery, which went out of use in the Alps during modernizations. In the new ski resorts, snow-making equipment became essential.

Since the year 1990 the following ski resorts have developed (opening date in paren-theses): Palenica in Szczawnica (1991), Szrenica in Szklarska Poręba (after moderniza-tion in 1993), Szymoszkowa Zakopane (1994), Czarna Góra near Lądek Zdrój (1996), Jaworzyna Krynicka in Krynica Zdrój (1997), Wierchomla (1998), Kluszkowce near Czorsztyn (1998), Białka Tatrzańska (2001), Laskowa-Kamionna near Limanowa (2003), Harenda Zakopane (2003), Mosorny Groń in Zawoja (2003), Małe Ciche (2004), Kiczera in Puławy Górne (2004), Winterpol Zieleniec (2005), Chełm in Myślenice (2005), Jastrzębia Góra in Rytro (2005), Czarna Góra and Jurgów near Bukowina Tatrzańska (2006), Łysa Góra Limanowa (2007), Świeradów Zdrój (2008), Wisła Nowa Osada (2009), Rusiński Wierch in Bukowina Tatrzańska (2009), Magura Małastowska Małastów (2010), Mały Rachowiec Zwardoń (2012), Suche Poronin (2012), Złoty Groń

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ROLE OF CABLE TRANSPORT IN THE MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT... 65


in Istebna (2012). Apart from the aforementioned, other, previously operating ski resorts have expanded, such as Ski Resort Azoty and ski resort Słotwiny in Krynica Zdrój. The above list is of course incomplete. These are only examples of ski resorts.

Currently (October 2013) there are 94 cable car systems and a few hundred of ski lifts. Most of them are chairlifts, used to transport the skiers uphill. Below, Figures 1 to 4 show the statistics regarding various systems.

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Fig. 1. Number of ropeways built in Poland in subsequent years (since 1990)


Fig. 2. Ropeway types in Poland

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Figure 1 clearly indicates that construction of new cableways started after the year 1990 and a real investment boom started around the year 2000. Majority of cableways in Poland (Figure 2) are chairlifts (90%). It can be concluded, that the cableways are mainly for skiers.

Since the year 2000, up to a dozen cableways get built each year (Figure 3). It is worth mentioning, that the percentage of used (imported) cableways is decreasing. This shows strong improving of technical standards in our ski and tourist centers. The new systems are chairlifts with carriers for at least 4 passengers (Figure 4). Majority of double chairlifts are mostly old (from before 1990). As a part of customer care, the owners try introducing new solutions, tested in the Alps or Dolomites, such as detach-able carriers or windshields and heated seats for the chairs.


Fig. 3. Chairlifts built in Poland in subsequent years (since 2000)

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3. Influence of construction of cable transport infrastructure on the development of mountain areas

Investments in skiing and investments in cable transport that followed, had a huge impact on the development of mountains areas, which can be shown on two examples, presented below. The first example describes a large ski resort; the second describes a small one.

3.1. Example of a big ski resort

Białka Tatrzańska can undoubtedly be an example of success related to ski tourism. Individual ski lifts have been operating here since the seventies, but they did not play a significant role. A real “leap forward” was the foundation of Kotelnica Białczańska Ski Center Ltd. This center was launched and has been operating since 8 December 2001. Starting with one ski lift imported from Italy (already highly exploited) and two other ski lifts thanks to the investments that followed it became the largest ski resort in Poland, attracting thousands of skiers and providing jobs for hundreds of people. Below, subsequent stages of ski lift development and center expansion are presented.

2001

The triple chairlift with non-detachable chairs is opened. It has the length of 1380 m and elevation difference of 210 m, capacity of 1380 people · hour–1 and velocity of 2.2 m · s–1. This chairlift was previously used in Italy.

Additionally, two T-bar ski lifts were set up, each 690 m long with the elevation difference of 155 m, capacity of 2 × 1000 people · hour–1 and velocity of 3.2 m · s–1.

It was the first operating season Kotelnica Białczańska Ski Center and it came out to be very successful in terms of number of skiers who used this infrastructure.

2003

A chairlift with four passengers, non-detachable carriers was built. The chairlift is 800 m long and has the elevation difference of 170 m, capacity of 2000 people · hour–1 and maximal velocity of 2.6 m · s–1. It was new, produced by Doppelmayr, Austria (Figure 5).

2005

A chairlift with 6 passenger detachable carriers was constructed. It is 1350 m long and has the elevation difference of 200 m, capacity of 3000 people · hour–1 and maximum velocity of 5 m · s–1, This chairlift reduces the travel time to 4 minutes and 30 seconds. It was new, also produced by Doppelmayr, Austria.

2006

A platter lift was built. It has the length of 300 m, 60 m of elevation difference, and capacity of 800 people · hour–1 at the speed of 2.2 m · s–1. A professional snowpark was built nearby.

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Source: www.bialkatatrzanska.pl

Fig. 6. “Pasieka Express” chairlift in Kotelnica ski resort

Photo by Olszyna

Fig. 5. Chairlift Kotelnica II in ON Kotelnica

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2007

A chairlift with four passenger non-detachable carriers was built. It has the length of 540 m, the elevation difference of 150 m, and the capacity of 2300 people · hour–1. It was a new chairlift, also produced by Doppelmayr, Austria.

2011

In this year, new areas were opened for skiing, and a chairlift with 6 passenger detach-able carriers was built, equipped with windshields and heated seats. It is 1090 m long with the elevation difference of 175 m, the capacity of 3000 people · hour–1 and travel time of 4 minutes at the maximum speed of 5 m · s–1. This time, it was manufactured by Leitner, Italy (Figure 6).

By 2015

It is planned to continue to expand the Kotelnica Ski Center by launching 2 new six passenger ski lifts with detachable carriers along with new slopes. Figure 7 presents the map of slopes in Kotelnica Białczańska.

It is worth mentioning, that although Kotelnica is the largest ski center in Białka Tatrzańska, it is not the only one. Other ski centers include most of all Kaniówka and Bania, neighboring with Kotelnica.

In the year 2012 Kaniówka Ski Center was modernized. Currently it has a 4 passen-ger chairlift (made by LEITNER), which is equipped with the KID-STOP® system, to ensure the safety of children. It is 450 m long and the elevation difference is 90 m. It has the capacity of about 2200 people · hour–1. The travel time is 3 minutes at the velocity of 2.3 m · s–1.

Moreover, Kaniówka has 3 T-bar lifts whose summed capacity is about 2500 people · hour–1 and a ski tow for the youngest skiers, 65 m long with the elevation difference of 5 m.

Bania Ski Center is located in the immediate vicinity of Kotelnica Ski Center. It is equipped with:• 3 ski lifts for children and beginners,• skiing kindergarten and a winter carousel for kids,• a 4 passenger chairlift with non-detachable carriers, built in 2006 (made by

Doppelmayr),• snowtubing lift and track.

The impact of the ski centers described above on the development of the towns or the region is reflected by the number of guesthouses or retail and service points. During the last five years, only in Białka, over a dozen of large objects were built, such as guesthouses, hotels, ski rentals. At the end of 2012 a 4 star hotel was built, providing the tourists with a very high standard of service. The population of Białka Tatrzańska is about 2000 people, and it is estimated, that it offers more than 10 000 beds for tourists and skiers. Expansion of ski resorts is followed by an increased number of jobs, which is very important for the region.

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It is also worth mentioning, that the members of the local communities, who work in the ski centers, constantly increase their qualifications as a result of working with advanced technology (ski lifts, snowmaking devices, snow groomers, etc.).

Still, actions are being taken in order to stimulate ski resorts before and after the winter season. They regard, among others, building summer objects such as thermal pools or adapting the ski lifts to transport e.g. bicycles and other vehicles, which can be used for downhill riding [Rokita 2013, Jiricka 2013].

The attractiveness of Białka Tatrzańska and Bukowina Tatrzańska has significantly increased after the thermal pools in water parks were opened.

Source: www.bialkatatrzanska.pl

Fig. 7. Kotelnica Białczańska ski trail map

3.2. Small ski resort

Puławy Górne is a village located in Podkarpackie voivodeship, in the district of Krosno, municipality of Rymanów on Wisłok river, and in the nearby valley of a small creek. Before the year 2004 it was known to few tourists from as a quiet place for agritourism and walks in Beskid Niski. In 2002 the Beskid Tourist Association “Przełom Wisłoka” was founded by the member of the local community. The association’s purpose was to draw a larger number of tourists into this beautiful Polish region also in winter. An idea of creating a ski resort was born.

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Source: www.kiczerapulawy.pl

Fig. 9. The ski slope in Puławy Górne

Source: www.kiczerapuławy.pl

Fig. 8. An overview of “Kiczera SKI” in Puławy

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Firstly, a ski lift was built. To lower the costs, a used, double chairlift with non-detachable carriers was imported from Alps. After necessary modernization performed under supervision of the Faculty of Cable Transport of AGH University of Science and Technology in Krakow, it was set up in Puławy Górne during winter season 2004/2005. This ski lift is called “Kiczera” and it can transport 1200 people · hour–1. Travel time is 5 minutes and 40 seconds.

The ski center Kiczera Ski in Puławy Górne is located in the eastern part of Beskid Niski, at the foot of Bukowica mountain range (Figure 8). The ski slope is located on Kiczera mountain, which is 640 m high (Figure 9). There are three downhill trails and one ski-touring trail. There is also a snow park and two platter lifts, one of them for beginners, the so called Baby-lift. Figure 10 presents a scheme of “Kiczera SKI” ski center in Puławy.

After the dusk, artificial lighting makes it possible to continue skiing. The trails are equipped with snowmaking machines. Next to the slope one can find: a ski rental, restaurant, skiing school, free parking lot. In the village and its neighborhood there are some tourist farms and private rooms offering accommodations.

Source: www.kiczerapuławy.pl

Fig. 10. Scheme of “Kiczera SKI” ski center in Puławy

ski touring route

” ”Salamanderfarm tourism

SNOWPARK

Amadeus” ”Restaurant

bike route– downhill

4. Conclusion

• Investments in cable transport in mountains areas result in economic stimulation of these areas. The examples of mountain towns, which invested in ski lifts, presented in the article clearly show a rapid increase of standard of living of the local commu-nity by providing money for further investments and creating jobs.

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• Currently, the operating basis for tourism and ski resorts is the winter season. The actions taken in favor of so called summer investments will undoubtedly allow to increase the attractiveness of mountain towns in the summer.

• Examples of summer stimulation of mountain towns are the municipalities in Tirol, where the tourist traffic is more evenly distributed between summer and winter.

• Downhill skiing during last four decades was the main factor that contributed to development of cableways, as well as the development and stimulation of mountain towns that followed.

References

Baran M. 1987. Koleje linowe, wyciągi narciarskie, nartostrady: Beskid Śląski, Żywiecki i Mały. Wydawnictwo PTTK „Kraj”.

Doppelmayr A. 2003. Warunki projektowania napowietrznych kolei linowych. Study of the Po-lish edition by T. Rokita and M. Wójcik, Kraków.

Jiricka A., Probstl U. 2013. Pistenskitourengeher – eine neue touristische Zielgruppe. Int. Seil-bahn-Rundschau, 1, 50–52.

Jiricka A., Probstl U. 2013. Mountainbiking und Seilbanen. Int. Seilbahn-Rundschau, 3, 64–65.Rokita T., Wójcik M. 2005. Zakres prac przy przygotowaniu kolei wcześniej eksploatowanych do

ponownej zabudowy w Polsce. Zesz. Nauk.-Tech. AGH WIMiR KTL; 34, 37–43.Rokita T., Wójcik M. 2007. Kolejką na górę. Sportplus, 1, 122–124.Rokita T., Wójcik M. 2007. Modernizacja napowietrznej kolei linowej “Kasprowy Wierch”

w Zakopanem. Transp. Miejski Regional., 12, 26–30.Rokita T. 2013. Problem transportu rowerów kolejami liniowymi. Transp. Miejski Regional., 4,

12–17.

Prof. dr hab. inż. Andrzej TytkoAGH Akademia Górniczo-HutniczaWydział Inżynierii Mechanicznej i RobotykiKatedra Transportu Linowego30–059 Kraków, al. Mickiewicza 30e-mail: [email protected]

Dr hab. inż. Marian Wójcik, prof. AGHAGH Akademia Górniczo-HutniczaWydział Inżynierii Mechanicznej i RobotykiKatedra Transportu Linowego30–059 Kraków, al. Mickiewicza 30e-mail: [email protected]

Dr inż. Tomasz RokitaAGH Akademia Górniczo-HutniczaWydział Inżynierii Mechanicznej i Robotyki Katedra Transportu Linowego30–059 Kraków, al. Mickiewicza 30e-mail: [email protected]

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Mgr inż. Grzegorz OlszynaAGH Akademia Górniczo-HutniczaWydział Inżynierii Mechanicznej i RobotykiKatedra Transportu Linowego30–059 Kraków, al. Mickiewicza 30e-mail: [email protected]

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GLL

A. Rudnicki, A. Tułecki

NARROW-GAUGE RAILWAY BETWEEN KROŚCIENKO, SZCZAWNICA, PIWNICZNA, STARA LUBOVLA AS AN INSTRUMENT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND INTEGRATION FOR TOURIST MUNICIPALITIES IN POLAND AND SLOVAKIA

Andrzej Rudnicki, Adam Tułecki

Summary

The paper describes the project of European initiative EUREKA “Ecological mountain railway as an element of the sustainable development of a tourist region in Poland” joining the spas of Piwniczna with Szczawnica. After presentation of the project scope and the partners, the municipalities which serves and links planned narrow-gauge railway have been characterized. Reflection of an idea for the railway in the existing strategic and planning documents has been identified. Functions of the railway and its situational and altitude alignment of its route are specified. The vehicles of the railway and the rules and examples for creating of schedules are generally characterized. The rules for construction of prognostic passenger flows by rail are de-scribed and selected results are quoted. The conclusions from the analysis of the environmental impact of the railway and the result of financial and economic analysis are presented. List of the expected main effects of the project and its potential impact on the development of transport technology is given. An idea of enlargement the territorial scope of the narrow-gauge railway project with proposal for its internationalization is presented. This includes extension of the route from the Szczawnica spa to the Krościenko spa and the branch route from the Obidza pass to the Stara Lubovna town in Slovakia. For this purpose an initiative will be taken to apply a research project of the European Union.

Keywords

local public transport • narrow-gauge railway • functional and spatial integration • tourism • spa municipalities

1. General project information

This paper briefly presents the project E!2652 RAIL MOUNT “Ecological mountain railway as an element of sustainable development of tourist region in Poland” which concerns narrow gauge railway connecting Piwniczna with Szczawnica, which was elaborated in the years 2001–2003 as a part of the EUROTOURISM program of the


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A. Rudnicki, A. Tułecki 76

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European Initiative EUREKA [Ecological mountain railway… 2003]. This program is a form of strategic activity, aiming to implement new technologies for maintaining the importance and further development of the touristic and recreational industry, as well as for life improvement of the EU citizens.

The project partners were:• Cracow University of Technology (Institute of Rail Vehicles, Institute of Road and

Railway Engineering, Institute of Landscape Architecture),• Jagiellonian University (Institute of Public Affairs, Department of Management in

Tourism),• the city and municipality of Piwniczna Zdrój,• the city of Szczawnica,• Stadler Bussnang AG (Switzerland),• Thyssen Krupp AG (France).

A. Tułecki from the Institute of Rail Vehicles was the project manager.In the year 2000 an agreement has been made between the municipality of Piwniczna-

Zdrój and the city of Szczawnica, in order to define the cooperation in preparing the ground for realization of the project: “Touristic railway Piwniczna-Szczawnica”.

The scope of the project was divided into six work packages: 1. Regional development strategy against the macroregional (voivodeship) develop-

ment.2. Location and environment.3. Technical study of the project, taking into account the line infrastructure, means of

transport, technical facilities and control systems, along with traffic organization and management.

4. Analytical works, covering transport analysis, investment cost and operating costs analyses along with human resources analysis.

5. Shaping of touristic product.6. Analysis of financing and economic effectiveness evaluation of the project.

2. Characteristics of localities planned to be serviced by the railway

A chance for realization of the concept of railway between Piwniczna and Szczawnica arises from the attractiveness of both places, which attract significant tourism, spa, summer resorts and ski activities, so – to visualize it – they will be characterized in this regard.

Piwniczna Zdrój is an urban and rural commune, located in the district of Nowy Sącz by Poprad River in the Poprad Landscape Park between the mountain ranges of Radziejowa and Jaworzyna Krynicka in Beskid Sądecki, near the Slovakian Border.

The city is crossed by the national road no. 87, leading to Slovakia, district road no. 971 leading to Krynica-Zdrój and a railroad line that has been in use since 1876. Many small-scale production plants are located in Piwniczna.

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NARROW-GAUGE RAILWAY BETWEEN KROŚCIENKO, SZCZAWNICA... 77


Due to its location on the historic trade route from Krakow to Hungary, Piwniczna received city rights already in 1348. At the end of the 19th century first mineral springs were discovered in Piwniczna, which, along with later boreholes, cure the diseases of the diges-tive and respiratory systems (in the year 1967 the municipality became a health resort). The city neighbors with numerous other Poprad health resorts (including Kokuszka, Głębokie, Młodów, Wierchomla, Łomnica and Zubrzyk, all within the municipality).

Piwniczna, aside from its health resort functions became a large summer resort and a place for summer camps, as well as one of the biggest winter sports resorts in Poland. Currently, there are 16 ski lifts in the municipality (10 in Wierchomla, 3 in Sucha Dolina and Kosarzyska, 3 in Kokuszka) servicing numerous slopes. Other tourist attractions in Piwniczna include boat and canoe trips as well as rafting on Poprad river. Piwniczna is a hub for many trails leading to both parts of Beskid Sądecki; it also has horse and bicycle trails (including downhill) and an extensive resort park on Kiciarz. Every year Piwniczna-Zdrój hosts a few cultural festivals, including performances of artistic groups. The new offer of Piwniczna includes religious tourism [Ministerstwo Gospodarki… 2003], with pilgrim routes leading to Putnicke Mesto in Slovakia, and from Sucha Dolina via Eliaszówka to Litmanowa.

Szczawnica is located in the district of Nowy Targ by Grajcarek stream and Dunajec river, on the southwestern outskirts of Beskid Sądecki (mountain range of Radziejowa) and in the foothills of Pieniny (especially mountain range of Małe Pieniny), and on the south it borders with Slovakia. Szczawnica is a popular health and tourist resort, characterized by a mild climate. It is one of the oldest Polish health resorts with at least 200 years of tradition and two resort parks. 12 sources of mineral water were discov-ered within the boundaries of Szczawnica, mostly used in curing the diseases of air-passages. Szczawnica became a town in the year 1962. In 2008 the status of Szczawnica was changed from an urban municipality to an urban-rural municipality, after the housing estates of Jaworki, Szlachtowa, Biała Woda and Czarna Woda were detached from the city as separate villages (or parts of villages).

Szczawnica offers good conditions for sports, such as: canoeing, biking, hang glid-ing and paragliding, hiking and winter sports such as skiing and snowboarding.

Main tourist attractions of Szczawnica include: a raftsmen pier where the Dunajec raft trip ends, kayak slalom track, horse and bike trails (also leading to Slovakia), moun-tain trails to the mountain range of Radziejowa and Pieniny (also leading to Dunajec River Gorge, Homole ravine and Biała Woda ravine), a ski lift on Palenica (a ski slope with FIS homologation, a half-pipe and mountain coaster), paragliding training oppor-tunities and fishing areas. Szczawnica also hosts music and folklore festivals (with local group performing) and museum education meetings. The recently renovated Guest Station will soon become an important cultural center.

Selected statistical data regarding the characterized municipalities are presented in Table 1.

The total number of nights is greater than in position 7, as the statistics do not include individual accommodation objects (e.g. in Szczawnica private guesthouses offer about 1400 beds).

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GLL No. 4 • 2013

Table 1. Statistical data for the municipalities of Piwniczna and Szczawnica

ID Municipality characteristics Piwniczna Szczawnica

1 Population (thousands), including city

10.7 6.0

7.46.0

2 Area [km2], including city

126 38

8833

3 Forest cover [%] 63 67

4

Budget (millions zloty): – incomes, – expenses, including investments

37.040.312.1

31.232.215.8

5 EU financial support (millions zloty) 7.1 11.3

6 Number of places in mass accommodation objects,including health resort objects*

1414 200

28321087

7 Number of nights in mass accommodation objects (thousands), including health resort objects*

160 57

338 196

Source: Urząd Statystyczny w Krakowie 2013 and www.stat.gov.pl

* The data in positions 6 and 7 was recorded in 2012, the rest in 2011

3. The concept of Piwniczna – Szczawnica railway in strategic and planning documents

The region al documents do not explicitly mention the railway from Piwniczna to Szczawnica (probably due to its local character), however, there are references to this kind of transport solution. The “Spatial management plan of Małopolska Voivodeship” from the year 2003, which is currently in force, in point 6.6.5. entitled “Passenger tran-sit – regional public transport” contains the following statements:

“Multiple actions are assumed in order to improve the regional public transport, among others by railway transport – intensification of regional and local railway traffic by integration and by participation of various railway companies supported financially by local authorities, as well as by railbus service”. Figure 1 presents the location of Piwniczna – Szczawnica railway in the target transportation network model included in the “Spatial management plan of Małopolska Voivodeship” [Uchwała nr XV/174/03].

In the year 2011 the “Development Strategy of Małopolska Region for 2011–2020” was adopted [Uchwała nr XII/183/11], whose key actions include “Supporting condi-tions for the ecological transport development” and “The actions carried out in the field of transport should be aimed at creating a coherent and balance transport system, having a value of user-friendliness, while also creating conditions favourable for devel-opment processes and contributing to reducing the negative impact on the environ-ment”. Moreover, the inclusion of the actions in favor of sport and touristic infrastruc-ture development in Beskidy in the Strategy creates an opportunity of receiving EU financial support for the purpose of railway construction.

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In the enacted local development plan of Szczawnica within the area and the mining area “Szczawnica” in Chapter 5 “Communication”, in section 10 there is a following text: “Hereby the route of the proposed Mountain Ground Tourist Train Piwniczna Zdroj – Szczawnica is determined from the eastern boundary of the development plan to the existing cable car to Palenica – on the south side of the proposed KDZ decom-pressive road in its dividing lines, and then to the final stop ́ B´ KK1 under the slopes of Huliny, along existing walking – cycling path to Leśnica. Detailed setting of the course will come out from the railway construction project”. The Szczawnica City Council declares the compliance with the arrangements of the draft plan “Study of conditions and directions of Szczawnica spatial management”.

However, in the arrangements of the text of Municipal Local Zoning Plan for Piwniczna – Spa in 2006 [Uchwała nr XLIII/332/06], for the structural unit “City” as well as in the update of the 2009 [Uchwała nr XXXIII/225/09] there are no records of the railway Piwniczna – Szczawnica. Also, in the strategy of socio-economic develop-ment of Municipal Piwniczna – Spa for 2008–2015 [Uchwała nr XIX/111/08] there is no mention about it.

However, local government plans expressed in the list of the most important investments to support the development of the tourism economy by 2015 and cited in [Ministerstwo Gospodarki... 2003] in the scope of infrastructure include the railway Piwniczna Zdroj – Szczawnica.

Source: Uchwała nr XV/174/03

Fig. 1. Piwniczna – Szczawnica railway (shown as the green line) in the model of an integrated transport network presented in the “Spatial management plan of Małopolska Voivodeship”

HighwaysExpress roadsMain roadsRailways

Airports (main)Airports (regional)

Trans-european transportcorridors (planned)

Districts’ seats

Voivodeships’ borders

Districts’ borders

Border crossings

Trans-european transportcorridors (existing)

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4. Functions of the railway

The planned railway will be able to perform various, numerous communication, devel-opment and integration functions, including: 1. Increasing the touristic attractiveness of the region. 2. Providing an insight into the mountain landscape. 3. Allowing the disabled to access the mountains. 4. Shaping ecological communicational behaviors. 5. Shortening the communicational connection between Piwniczna and Szczawnica.

The straight-line distance between these two cities is 17 km, while currently, the shortest driving route, via Stary Sącz is 60 km long, so the elongation factor equals 3.5. Kosarzyska on the outskirts of Piwniczna and Jaworki on the outskirts of Szczawnica lie only 8 km apart, but the shortest driving route is 70 km long, ergo the elongation factor equals 8.8!

6. Connecting the main tourist attractions in Szczawnica: • raftsmen pier on Dunajec, • mouth of Dunajec River Gorge (Pieniny road, Słowacja, Sokolica),• city center (health resort, Palenica ski lift station), • Jaworki (Homole ravine, Biała Woda ravine, music club Muzyczna Owczarnia).

7. Connecting the main tourist attractions in Piwniczna: • city center and main health resort objects,• ski lift complex in Sucha Dolina, • Kosarzyska (recreational objects).

8. Allowing a direct access to mountains areas – Obidza pass and the mountain trail hub in the mountain range of Radziejowa.

9. Better accessibility of a pilgrimage place near Eljaszówka, in Slovakia (3 km from Obidza); currently a 47 km drive away from Szczawnica.

10. Other local connections related to work and other social and living purposes of the locals and the tourists.

11. Integration of the health resort functions: possibility to access and use complemen-tary therapies in health resorts (such as equine therapy) and in special cultural ser-vices (e.g. international musical workshops) as well as touristic services (e.g. water park, horse tourism).

12. Integration of the transport system realized by regional connections, including the planned high speed railway: Krakow – Podłęże – Piekiełko – Nowy Sącz – Piwniczna (the PKP stop will be joined with the narrow gauge railroad stop)

13. Integration of the railroad with the local infrastructure, including:• bus station in Szczawnica,• parking lots (Szczawnica by Dunajec river, Kosarzyska, Sucha Dolina),• bike router (leading to Slovakia), • chairlifts (Palenica, Jaworki, Sucha Dolina),

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• planned elevator connecting the PKP (Polish National Railway) stop with the market square in Piwniczna.

14. Relieving traffic congestion, especially between Szczawnica and Jaworki (dense lo-cal traffic, narrow roads in densely built-up areas).

15. Parking space deficit mitigation in centers of cities and resorts, by ski lifts and in the proximity of national parks.

16. Contributing to the creation of the new center in Szczawnica and spatial order.

5. Situational and elevation shaping of the route

The main factors determining the route of the railway were: the hydrographic network, terrain shape, buildings, roads and reserve areas designated in local spatial manage-ment plans for roads. Figure 2 presents the approximate route and Figure 3 presents its simplified longitudinal section.

In Piwniczna, the route originates from the track system of the railroad stop Piwniczna Zdrój along the railroad line running in southwest direction, towards the place where Czercz creek joins Poprad River. Then, the route runs west, along Czercz creek and Szczawnicka Street in the settlement of Kosarzyska. In the parking area, the route climbs to the mountain ridge, near Sucha Dolina settlement hotel, leaving the ski lifts on the left. Next, it follows the high voltage lines steeply uphill towards Obidza settlement and the Slovakian border, reaching the Obidza pass and then the trail hub on the southern mountain ridge of Wielki Rogacz. The route runs westwards, and then southwards, on the hogback separating the Czarna Woda creek valley and Rogacz creek valley, and then to the west. Then, it descents via Rusinowski Wierch to the Biała Woda creek valley, to Jaworki, passing through the center of the village. Next, the route runs along Grajcarek creek, leaving the mouth of Homole gorge on the left. Then, the route runs along Szlachtowska Street (on some parts of the course – with minor devia-tions from the street) leaving the village of Szlachtowa on the right. Before entering Szczawnica, the route diverts into a corridor reserved for the bypass of Szczawnica. The route follows this corridor (which orographically runs on the left side of Grajcarek creek), at the feet of Jarmuta and Palenica to the Palenica chairlift station. Passing to the right side of Grajcarek creek, the railway composes itself into the recently built promenade, which runs along the creek. The project assumptions of this promenade [Pracownia Badawczo-Projektowa… 2007] provide spatial and technical conditions for the future narrow gauge railway along Grajcarek. The route ends at the parking lot by the raftsmen pier, near the place where Grajcarek creek joins Dunajec River.

The route is endangered by many geomorphologic hazards, i.e. landslides (7 places), areas predisposed for landslides (4 places), coastal erosion (14 places), steep slopes (4 places), wetlands (5 places).

Selected railroad route parameters:• route length – 23 km (elongation coefficient 1.2),• rack equipped tracks – three sections, total length of 5 km,

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GLL No. 4 • 2013

Source: Assessment of building… 2001, Ekologiczna kolejka górska… 2003

Fig. 2. The approximate route of narrow gauge railway Piwniczna-Szczawnica


Fig. 3. The western and middle part of the simplified longitudinal profile of the railroad

Altit

ude

[m a

.s.l.

]

Slopes in pro mille for the longitudinal cross section

Distances in kilometres

p.p. 250 m a.s.l.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

1000.0

750.0

500.0

16‰ 31‰ 76‰ 10‰ 176‰ 8‰ 25‰ 210‰ 12‰168‰

Szczawnica 480 m a.s.l.

Obidza 960 m a.s.l.

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• track gauge – 1000 mm (or 1435 mm),• trackway width – 5 m (with ditches on both sides), 3 m (in street section),• maximum slope for longitudinal cross section: 21% on rack equipped sections, 5%

in the remaining parts,• number of: stops – 18; passing loops – 3,• platform dimensions: length – 30 m, width – 3 m.

Finally, it is worth mentioning that the first tourist trail in Beskid Sądecki was marked already in the year 1906, between Piwniczna and Szczawnica. In the second half of the 1960s, the concept of finishing the so-called Carpathian Road, including the Piwniczna-Szczawnica section, was taken up. However, due to the potential natural hazards, it was abandoned in the following years.

6. Characteristics of the railway as a means of transport

The basic parameters of the vehicles:• drive: combustion engine, preferably natural gas powered; traction power: 500 kW,• operating speed: maximum 60 km · h–1, up to 20 km · h–1 uphill,• dimensions: length ∼16 m, width ∼2.40 m,• low floor height: 0.30–0.35 m above the rail head, • vehicle capacity: 35 seated, 35 standing,• panoramic windows for maximum field of view (Figure 4).


Fig. 4. Train visualization

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6. Traffic forecasts

The traffic forecasts aimed to estimate the number of potential passengers, taking into account the location of origins and destinations of journeys as well as seasonal differences (summer, winter, weekend, working day) and time of day. The estimation of passenger flow was preceded with an analysis of traffic growth indicators for roads, PKP railway, tourist trails (walking, biking and skiing), as well as a survey of tour-ists and inhabitants. The forecasts were also based on the development strategies of the involved municipalities, the region and the whole country, taking into account the border traffic with Slovakia and the expected socio-economic development indicators. The simulation calculations of the passenger flow for the Szczawnica-Piwniczna rail-way were performed according to the following procedure:• the density of potential road traffic in the analyzed area was determined using

Vomberg’s method, properly calibrated in order to adjust it to the Polish conditions,• the division of transit tasks (which is the distribution of journeys among the consid-

ered means of transport) was performed using logit model, time of journey being the dominant influence factor,

• proportions in the traffic between particular months were assumed based on the statistical data regarding the use of accommodation resources, with a correction in winter months due to winter sport activity in the analyzed area,

• the daily journey distribution was assumed based on own traffic measurements in two scopes: Szczawnica – Jaworki and Piwniczna – Kosarzyska, both during winter and summer,

• during the estimation of passenger flow more distant in time it was assumed that the traffic will increase by 2.5% annually in the years 2007–2017 and 1.5% in the years 2017–2027 and that the annual and daily tourist traffic distribution will not change with respect to the present state.

As in Poland there are no methods of forecasting recreational traffic in public trans-port that would be useful for the purposes of the project, the calculation procedure was authors’ suggestion.

Figure 5 presents exemplary passenger flows for the railway (for one of the time horizons) for the sections of Szczawnica – Jaworki and Jaworki – Obidza pass.

7. Timetable

The rules of timetable elaboration were based on the following assumptions:• The train capacity is 70 or 140 (for two railbuses) people. In order to provide the

highest comfort for the passengers, the tendency is to provide seating places for as many passengers as possible, which results in oversupply of places.

• The shortest possible interval between departures is 20 minutes (a shorter interval is not possible due to the placement of passing loops and the necessity of keeping a time buffer in order to keep the desired punctuality level).

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Table 2. An exemplary timetable for the Piwniczna – Szczawnica railway

Summer Trains with the capacity of 140 people:– during the heaviest traffic (i.e. between 8 am and 8 pm) every 20 minutes,– in the remaining hours (6 am to 8 am and 8 pm to 10 pm) every 30 minutes.

Winter

During the peak hours (9 am to 4 pm) trains with the capacity of 140 people depart every 20 minutes.During medium traffic (8 am to 9 am and 4 pm to 7 pm) trains with the capacity of 70 people (single railbus) depart every 20 minutes.During the lowest traffic (6 am to 8 am and 7 pm to 10 pm) trains with the capacity of 70 people depart every 30 minutes.

Outside the tourist season A train with the capacity of 70 people departs every 30 minutes.

8. Environmental impact

The ecological and environmental impact of the planned project was subject to research.The analysis covered the influence and the possible effects of the project on such

elements of the environment as: groundwater, surface waters, earth surface, landscape, people’s health, animals and plants, taking into account their correlations. Special attention was paid to the evaluation of the route and its functioning in the aspect of landslides and other geomorphological hazards as well as securing the conditions for natural environment protection.


Fig. 5. The prognosed passenger flows for two sections of the tourist railway, for the year 2027

Passengers flow in the sectionSzczawnica – Jaworki

Passengers flow in the sectionJaworki – Obidza

I III IIIII IIIIV IVV VVI VIVII VIIVIII VIIIIX IXX XXI XIXII XII

Months Months

4000 4000

3500 3500

3000 3000

2500 2500

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000

500 500

0 0

Tourists

Residents

• The longest interval can be 30 minutes (a longer interval could lead to perception of the railway as unreliable means of transport).

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Because the analyzed area is an important part of nature in European scale, the consequences of the investment were not only considered on the local scale but also with respect to European structures EKONET and NATURA 2000. The analysis included the effects on the hitherto spatial management of the terrain and for provided to management in the arrangements in force, of local development plans made for municipalities Piwniczna and Szczawnica and Protection Plan Guidelines prepared for the Poprad Landscape Park.

Conclusions resulting from the environmental impact prognosis:• the Piwniczna-Szczawnica railway impacts the natural environment to different de-

grees on particular route sections,• the railway impacts the environment the least in the sections passing through ur-

banized areas of Piwniczna and Szczawnica, where it is significantly transformed anthropogenically,

• a positive aspect of the railway in this area is the possibility to limit the communi-cational inconveniences (air and noise pollution), as it is a much more ecological alternative for a car between Piwniczna and Kosarzyska as well as Szczawnica and Jaworki,

• in the section from Obidza to Jaworki, the railway enters and open natural space, which may lead to weakening the structures important for the functioning of na-ture, as well as individual elements of the biotic environment that make up these structures,

• in wildlife areas, the train passes areas with high landscape exposure. The general rule for the railway composition into the landscape should be keeping the invest-ment elements below the horizon line and limiting the number of capacity objects in this area,

• in order to limit the negative impact on the biotic environment, the suggested so-lution is to limit the investment program in the wildlife zone as much as possible, while investing more in the areas transformed anthropogenically and neighboring with areas designated for investments (in current local development plans and stud-ies of conditions and directions of spatial development).

The Workshop For All Beings took a very critical stand against the construction of railroad [Pracownia na rzecz Wszystkich Istot… 2008], arguing that such investment will destroy wildlife refuges, including protected and endangered species.

9. The result of financial and economic analysis

The financial and economic analysis was preceded with an estimation of investment and operational costs as well as prognosed incomes. Using the approved schedule of spending the investment resources (for preparation of investment, infrastructure, rolling stock and facilities) a financial evaluation of the project was performed. Then, assuming specified levels of the so called external transport costs, an economic evalua-

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tion of the project was performed. The estimation of the basic financial and economic indexes of the project was supplemented with a sensitivity and risk analysis, taking into account the costs of acquiring and servicing the capital.

Construction of the tourist railway Piwniczna – Szczawnica is an infrastructure Project, characterized by big capital and long period of return on investment. The analysis assumes that the investment costs will be partially covered by a commercial investor, and the remaining part will come from non-repayable aid funds (European Union, budget). The cost of the whole investment is estimated to equal 172 million zloty, including line infrastructure (along with engineering objects) – 20 million zloty, and means of transport (8 carriages) – 32 million zloty.

Under such assumptions the investment is effective: annual incomes exceed operat-ing costs and the period of return on investment is 25 years (which is a good result for infrastructure investments).

10. Expected effects of the project

The purposefulness of the investment was supported by studies related to socio-economic processes in the region and the state of transportation technology and tour-ism development. The basic effects of the project include:• a complex analysis of the factors determining the construction of mountain railroad

as a touristic product,• evaluation of the effect of the investment on the sustainable development of the

region and reception sites,• development of models for analyses and prognoses of transportation needs,• innovational technical solutions in transportation, facilities, control systems and

infrastructure,• base of the knowledge in the field of the regional railroad transportation regarding

the service of traffic which results from the health resort and touristic functions of the place as well as internal migrations,

• proving the positive role and attractiveness of the transport connection in the inte-gration of the health and recreation resorts.Expected technical development involves:

• line infrastructure being built in mountains conditions,• railroad means of transport fulfilling high ecological requirements,• transport process logistics, platforms connecting road and railroad transport

(standard gauge, 1435 mm tracks) with mountain railroad,• transport system management,• integrated passenger service system.

The project bases on the European experiences regarding construction and opera-tion of mountains railroads (mainly Switzerland).

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GLL No. 4 • 2013

11. The concept of extending the territorial range of the railroad project and a proposition of its internationalization

With respect to the aforementioned concept covered by EUREKA project, it is suggested to expand it by extending the line from Szczawnica to Krościenko (by 5 km) and adding a section leading to Slovakia from the Obidza pass via Litmanowa to Lubowla (Figure 6). It will allow connection of areas attractive for tourists and spa visitors as well as pilgrims.

Krościenko is located at the outlet of Krośniczanka creek to Dunajec, along the vojvodship road 969 leading from Nowy Sącz to Nowy Targ, along a medieval commu-nicational tract. It is a health and recreation resort having the population of 3.5 thousand people and offering over 40 thousand beds annually. Krościenko is a very important starting point for hiking trips to Pieniny, Gorce and the mountain range of Radziejowa of Beskid Sądecki. It hosts many recreational and folklore events. The municipality of Krościenko has very good microclimatic conditions. The historic market square is surrounded by four houses, more than hudred years old and a gothic-baroque church from the 14th century. Krościenko is also an ending point of Dunajec raft trip. The incomes and expenses of the municipality of Krościenko are about 18 million zloty in the plan for the year 2013.

The development strategy for the municipality of Krościenko for the years 2008–2020 [Strategia Rozwoju… 2008], apart from the basic priority No 1 “The development of tourism among others through the development of tourist facilities and cultivating regional traditions” took priority No. 5 relating to the improvement of transport infra-structure through the implementation of the operational object I.5 “Improving transport accessibility of areas and facilities for tourist movement, including the construction and upgrading of roads, bicycle paths and parking areas, cooperation in the modernization of district and provincial road networks to ensure availability to areas of tourist activity in communes and the organization of public and mixed transport systems” and the operational objective II.2 “Improving standards of public transport by supporting all efforts leading to increase number of courses in public communications, improve the status and image of the stops and creating new lines, including tourist connections for increasing the availability of community and the comfort of the residents and visitors”.

Ergo, the construction of the railroad, although not mentioned in any of the strategic and planning documents, fits the development priorities and operational objectives of the municipality. Especially by taking over a part of the people travelling by cars, it will contribute to decreasing the traffic congestion between Krościenko and Szczawnica, as well as making public transportation in this direction more attractive.

The Slovak part of the railroad route begins at Obidza pass (938 m a.s.l.) and then descents to the creek of Wielki Lipnik, and after 4 kilometers it reaches a stop next to the sanctuary – a place of pilgrimage located on Zvir clearing. Then, after 6.5 km the route reaches Litmanowa, bypassing the village on the east.

Then the route of the railway runs along the road leading through the valley of Litmanowski Stream and further – along the Mały Lipnik creek, by the outskirts of the village Jarabina (11.5 km) to the train station Lubowla (15 km) entering the station northern track. In the vicinity of the railway station there is the bus station.

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The railway would make accessible by the way one of the most frequented places of pilgrimage in Slovakia (Litmanova became famous after 1990 of the revelations and the Greek Catholic center of Marian devotion) and natural attractions: Litmanowskie Skałki, reserve of Litmanowski Potok valley, Jarabiński gorge, as well as the ski area on the slopes of Litmanova. However, the main attraction of the railway would be monu-ments of Ľubovňa.

Ľubovňa (Slovak Stará Ľubovňa) lies in a valley at an altitude of 550 m above sea level at the foot of Spiska Magura. It is a seat of the district and has about 16 thousands inhabitants and has an area of 31 km². By Ľubovňa run roads: no. 77 from Bardejov to Poprad and no. 68 from Presov to the border crossing Mniszek – Piwniczna. There is a railway line from Poprad to Nowy Sacz through the border crossing Pławiec – Muszyna. The revised budget for the year 2013 of the revenue expenditure is about 9.6 million Euro [Kontrola plnenia… 2013].

The most important monuments of the city are: • well-preserved Ľubovňa castle built in the late fourteenth century,• open-air museum of folk architecture with objects transferred from various places

in the north-east Spiš,• the Gothic church of the thirteenth century, rebuilt in the seventeenth century in

the Baroque style, and in the nineteenth century in the classical style,• medieval town square with Renaissance and neoclassical town houses.


Fig. 6. The route of the railway according to the idea of extending its territorial scope

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GLL No. 4 • 2013

Extension of the concept of the railway of Slovak part enriches to the significant extent the features mentioned in point 3 of the integration of border areas, providing scenic attractions on the Slovak side, a place of pilgrimage in Litmanowa and monu-ments of Ľubovňa.

12. Planned activities for the research project of the European Union for the renovation and expansion of the railway design

The concept of territorial extension of the railway design and the inclusion of the area in Slovakia requires a work-study phase of the project before investing. The work will include actualization of the route, verification of transport needs and capital expendi-tures and the evaluation of the effectiveness and the development of financial engineer-ing project. Developed in the new version of the feasibility study will give an answer to the desirability of the investment phase of the project.

In recent months, the Cracow University of Technology began to develop the work undertaken to prepare a memorandum on the project of mountain railway construc-tion and the Research Task Force was appointed by the Vice-Rector (December 2012). Catalog of projects for the coming period is including:1. The creation of an international consortium to implement the new concept of the

project under the European Initiative EUREKA with the participation of Polish local governments (Piwniczna, Szczawnica, Krościenko) and Slovakia (Stara Ľubovňa), Cracow University of Technology, University of Zilina, ThyssenKrupp AG, Stadler Bussang AG (Newag SA Nowy Sącz) with the signing of letters of intent.

2. Elaboration of the Eureka Project Form Document being the basis for confering the status of international project.

3. Elaboration of the application to the National Research and Development Centre NCBiR concerning financing of the project.

4. Introduction of the project into the spatial land management plans, development strategy, territorial and regional contracts.

5. Initial assumptions of financial engineering, and taking steps to attract investors and business partners for the project.

6. Promotion of the project, organization of conferences, meetings, publication of re-sults of the project.

7. Preliminary works on the preparation of the investment phase of the project.

References

Assessment of building an ecological mountain railway as an element of steady development of a tourist region in Poland. 2001. EUREKA PROJECT FORM, Project E!2652 RAIL MOUNT, European Innovation Inside, Brussels.

Ekologiczna kolejka górska elementem zrównoważonego rozwoju regionu turystycznego w Pol-sce. 2003. Europejska Inicjatywa EUREKA, Projekt E!2652 RAIL-MOUNT. Raport końco-wy. Kraków.

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Kontrola plnenia programového rozpočtu mesta za I. polrok 2013. 2013. Mesto Stará L’ubovňa; http://www.staralubovna.sk/resources/File/kontrola_plnenia_rozpoctu_mesta_sl_k_30_6_ 2013.pdf.

Korzeniak G. (ed.) 1998. Prognozowanie skutków przyrodniczych planów zagospodarowania przestrzennego: poradnik metodyczny. IGPiK, Oddział Kraków.

Liro A. (ed). 1995. Koncepcja krajowej sieci ekologicznej ECONET – POLSKA. Fundacja IUCN POLAND, Warszawa.

Ministerstwo Gospodarki, Pracy i Polityki Społecznej. 2003. Perły Doliny Popradu – Strategia rozwoju zintegrowanego produktu turystycznego 6 gmin: Krynica Zdrój, Łabowa, Muszyna, Piwniczna Zdrój, Rytro, Stary Sącz. Polska Agencja Rozwoju Turystyki.

Pracownia Badawczo-Projektowa Systemów Transportu TRANS-PLAN. 2007. Koncepcja za-gospodarowania obszaru przy dolnej stacji kolei linowej na Palenicę i promenady wzdłuż poto0ku Grajcarek w Szczawnicy wraz ze “Studium wykonalności”. Kraków.

Pracownia na rzecz Wszystkich Istot – działania. 2008. Kolej terenowa Piwniczna – Szczawnica; http://pracownia.org.pl/kolej-terenowa-Piwniczna-Szczawnica.

Strategia Rozwoju Gminy Krościenko nad Dunajcem na lata 2008–2020. 2008. Kraków, http://www.kroscienko-nad-dunajcem.pl/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/Strategia.pdf.

Uchwała nr XII/183/11 Sejmiku Województwa Małopolskiego z dnia 26 września 2011 r. w spra-wie Strategii rozwoju województwa małopolskiego na lata 2011–2020.

Uchwała nr XV/174/03 Sejmiku Województwa Małopolskiego z dnia 22 grudnia 2003 r. w spra-wie Planu Zagospodarowania Przestrzennego Województwa Małopolskiego.

Uchwała nr XVII/100/2004 Rady Miasta Szczawnica z dnia 26 lipca 2004 r. w sprawie Miejsco-wego planu zagospodarowania przestrzennego miasta Szczawnica w obrębie obszaru i tere-nu górniczego “Szczawnica I” z poszerzeniem o przyległe tereny zainwestowania.

Uchwała nr XIX/111/08 Rady Miasta i Gminy Piwniczna Zdrój z dnia 27 marca 2008 r. w spra-wie Strategii rozwoju społeczno-gospodarczego Miasta i Gminy Piwniczna Zdrój na lata 2008–2015.

Uchwała nr XXXIII/225/09 Rady Miasta i Gminy Piwniczna Zdrój z dnia 20 marca 2009 r. w sprawie zmiany miejscowego planu zagospodarowania przestrzennego miasta i gminy Piwniczna Zdrój, jednostka strukturalna „A.I” – Miasto.

Uchwała nr XLIII/332/06 Rady Miasta i Gminy Piwniczna Zdrój z dnia 28 lipca 2006 r. w spra-wie Miejscowego planu zagospodarowania przestrzennego Miasta i Gminy Piwniczna Zdrój, jednostka strukturalna “A.I” – Miasto.

Urząd Statystyczny w Krakowie. 2013. Turystyka w województwie małopolskim w 2012 r.Urząd Statystyczny w Krakowie. 2012. Statystyczne Vademecum Samorządowca.

Prof. dr hab. inż. Andrzej Rudnicki Politechnika KrakowskaInstytut Inżynierii Drogowej i Kolejowej 31–155 Kraków, ul. Warszawska 24 e-mail: [email protected]

Dr inż. Adam TułeckiPolitechnika KrakowskaInstytut Pojazdów Szynowych31–864 Kraków, al. Jana Pawła II 37e-mail: [email protected]

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GLL

J. Sas

NATURAL GAS AS TRANSPORTATION FUEL – AN OFFER FOR MOUNTAINOUS RESORTS

Jan Sas

Summary

In this article the current state of development of the market of the CNG vehicles was described. Then, the economic and ecological aspects of using this fuel and the factors of its safe exploita-tion were characterized. Based on that, in the article were presented the current propositions of activities of the European Union administrative organs, which propagate using these alternative fuels for vehicles, including the natural gas. Finally, the attention was paid to possibilities of using the natural gas as a fuel in vehicles used in mountain and spa resorts.

Keywords

CNG • fumes emission • natural gas • NGV • natural gas vehicles • ecological vehicles

1. Introduction

Natural gas has been used as car fuel since the third decade of the previous century. For this purpose natural gas can be used either in liquefied form (LNG) or in compressed form (CNG). In recent years, according to international standards, such gas is compressed to the pressure of 200–250 bars and then injected into the vehicle’s tank. Vehicles powered by natural gas differ from the gasoline powered vehicles. They are equipped with a tank for compressed natural gas, an additional system supplying gas from the tank to the engine, and additional control systems. Modern vehicles powered by natural gas are in most cases bi-fuel vehicles (gasoline + natural gas). Buses are an exception from this trend, as they are powered by natural gas only. It should be noted that all the components of CNG and LNG systems are characterized by a high degree of safety.

Because of its properties and the way it is stored inside of a vehicle this fuel is consid-ered to be safer than other, traditional vehicle fuels. Recently, many technical solutions have appeared, which allow using natural gas in diesel engines. Using natural gas as vehicle fuel is beneficial both ecologically and economically, which explains a dynamic increase of its use in many countries.


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2. NGV in the world – current status

The ecological benefits of using natural gas as vehicle fuel (lower CO2 and CO emis-sions, lower noise pollution and almost complete elimination of PM10 particulate matter when compared to traditional fuels), the energy security improvement as a result of fuel diversification and also the economic aspects have contributed to the NGV number increase being higher than new vehicle number increase in general.

Presently there are over 16 million NGVs in use [WorldWide NGVs & Refuelling Stations… 2013] over 1 million in Europe. The numbers related to NGVs and CNG stations are presented in Table 1 and in Figures 1 and 2.

Table 1. NGVs and CNG stations in selected countries

CountryNGVs [thousands] CNG stations

2001 2012 2012

Pakistan 210 3100 3330

Iran 0.8 2900 1943

Argentina 756 2123 1916

Brazil 285 1719 1790

Indie 25 1500 724

China 36 1200 2500

Italy 328 747 903

Ukraine n.d. 388 324

Germany 7 95 904

Russia 21 86 251

Bulgaria 0.1 61 103

Sweden 2 42 183

Poland 0.1 2,2 28

The world 1 793 16 216 21 027

Source: author’s study based on WorldWide NGVs & Refuelling Stations

In this aspect, Poland definitely stands out from the leading countries. The percent-age of NGVs worldwide is more than 1.5%, in Europe 0.5%, while in Poland it is only 0.01%, which is 50 times less than the European average value.

The numbers of NGVs in Poland in the years 2004–2012 and the locations of CNG stations are presented in Figures 3 and 4.

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NATURAL GAS AS TRANSPORTATION FUEL – AN OFFER FOR MOUNTAINOUS... 95


Source: author’s study based on Worldwide NGVs & Refuelling Stations

Fig. 1. Number of NGVs worldwide from 2001 to 2012

Source: author’s study on Worldwide NGVs & Refuelling Stations 2013

Fig. 2. Countries with the largest number of NGVs

4000

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2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012Years

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stan Iran

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2012 200531002900

1719

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2123

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416260

382

97222

948

1439

22

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Fig. 3. Number of NGVs in Poland


Fig. 4. Public CNG stations

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2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012Years

0 50 100 km

0 50 100 mi

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3. Ecology, economy, safety

Using natural gas instead of traditional fuels (gasoline, diesel) is cost-effective.In modern vehicles CNG consumption, calculated in m3 is about 10% lower than gaso-line consumption in liters. However, when compared to diesel, CNG consumption is about 15 to 20% higher, but its price is significantly lower. In Poland the price of CNG is about 55% the price of diesel. Such proportions allow saving a significant amount of money when using natural gas instead of gasoline or diesel.

On the other hand, NGVs are slightly more expensive than gasoline powered vehicles (by about 10%). However, these costs pay off after driving 20 000 to 30 000 kilometers for passenger cars, 30 000 to 40 000 kilometers for minibuses, and for city buses after 3 to 4 years. Credible fuel consuption data (diesel and CNG) for comparable city buses used on the same routes, in the same time are provided by PKM Gdynia [Gałkiewicz 2013] (Figures 5 and 6).

Source: Gałkiewicz 2013

Fig. 5. Average fuel consumption for diesel [liters] and CNG [m3] for 100 km in city buses, in the period of 09.2007–09.2012

45.00

50.00

55.00

60.00

65.00

70.00

80.00

40.00

75.00

Sept 2007 Sept 2008 Sept 2009 Sept 2010 Sept 2011 Sept 2012

ON CNG

In the studied period the unit fuel savings in PKM Gdynia were equal 67.79 zloty for 100 km (costs of diesel/100 km – 193.01 zloty, costs of CNG/100 km – 123.22 zloty). Fuel savings were therefore equal 36.15%, which for 12 CNG buses gives 3 916 000 zloty of fuel savings.

Similar calculations can be made for other types of vehicles.For the inhabitants of big cities, and, most of all, resorts, the ecological effects of

CNG application will be very important. Such solution results in very positive changes,

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whose scale depends on fuel type and modernity of gasoline or diesel engines. It can be assumed, that using natural gas instead of traditional fuels will result in:• 99% decrease of particulate matter (PM10) emissions (compared to diesel),• 50–80% decrease in NOx emissions,• about 20% decrease in CO2 emissions,• 60–80% decrease in CO emissions,• 4–7% dB decrease in noise pollution.

Source: Gałkiewicz 2013

Fig. 6. Average cost of a 100 km drive of city buses in the period of 09.2007–09.2012

The ecological benefits resulting from using natural gas as propulsion fuel are one of the main reasons for the EU institutions to promote natural gas as a very prospective alternative fuel.

Contrary to the popular opinion, natural gas is a safe fuel, as proved in the engine fuel comparison (Table 2). Natural gas has a low density (0.716 kg ∙ m–3) thanks to which it escapes very easily, which is very important in case of a leak in the gas tank. Natural gas is not toxic.

Safety requirements regarding natural gas application as vehicle fuel are deter-mined in Rules No 110 [Regulamin nr 110… 2011] and technical standards for stations [ST-IGG–1601:2012a] and CNG refueling devices [ST-IGG–1601:2012b].

130.00

180.00

230.00

280.00

330.00

80.00

Sept 2007 Sept 2008 Sept 2009 Sept 2010 Sept 2011 Sept 2012

ON CNG

Zlot

y

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Table 2. Comparison of engine fuel properties

Property Natural gas LPG Gasoline Diesel

Ignition temperature [°C] 630÷650 500 550÷600 320÷360

Flammability limits [% of fuel volume in the air] 5÷15 1.8÷9.0 1.4÷7.6 0.6÷5.0

Source: author’s study based on Molenda and Steczko 2000

4. EU policy regarding natural gas as an alternative fuel in transportation

The latest EU document regarding the European alternative fuels strategy [Komunikat Komisji… 2013] indicates, that fuel diversification is vital. Europe is too much oil dependent. According to data from the year 2010, 94% of energy used for transporta-tion purposes was obtained from oil, and 84% of the oil used in Europe was imported [Komunikat Komisji... 2013]. Therefore, it is necessary to search for solutions, which will decrease Europe’s oil-based fuel dependency.

Using petroleum fuels is also related to a significant emission of harmful fumes, including CO2, which is related to climate warming. Therefore, the EU proposes to use alternative fuels. The full set of alternative fuels, presented in the document [Komunikat Komisji... 2013] includes: LPG, natural gas, liquid biofuels, hydrogen and electricity.

The present state of applicability of the aforementioned fuels is very diverse in different EU countries. E.g. Poland is the leading country when it comes to the number of LPG powered vehicles, while the leading European country in terms of the number of compressed natural gas (CNG) powered vehicles is Italy.

The diversity of legal regulations and technical requirements for installing such fuel systems in particular EU states, also when it comes to the fuel-related infrastructure, results from the lack of a common strategy and policy on the EU level.

This is about to change, as a result of implementation of the new European Parliament and Council directive, whose proposals has been submitted by the European Commission at the beginning of this year [Komunikat Komisji... 2013].

Analysis of these documents concludes unequivocally, that in the following years natural gas has the biggest chances of development. The least prospective fuel is hydro-gen, as its mass application requires new technical solutions in terms of storage, and most of all a cost-efficient method of production.

Electricity is a “clean” energy at the moment of use, but the environmental conse-quences of its application depend on the way it is obtained. The capacity of the batteries used in electric vehicles is still too low to meet the expectations, and the vehicles are much more expensive when compared to similar vehicles powered by traditional fuels or natural gas.

Biofuels, due to the production costs, are not going to play a significant role in the future. Environmentally, LPG does not give as positive results as the rest of the alterna-tive fuels. Besides, this fuel is obtained from crude oil processing. Considering all of

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the above, everything seems to indicate, that in the near future, in the EU, a dynamic growth of natural gas application in transportation will occur.

The aforementioned directive [Komunikat Komisji... 2013] implicates the necessity to build infrastructure for natural gas refueling stations in Poland. To meet the require-ments of the directive, at least seven LNG stations should be built along the roads of TEN-T network, and about 70 CNG stations should be operating (while 24 operate at the moment). According to the directive, this should be accomplished by the year 2020.

5. An offer for spas and resorts

Clean air in resorts is the object of constant concern of local governments in such places. While it was managed to decrease harmful industrial and communal air pollu-tion in Poland, the car fumes emissions constantly grow along with the increase of the number of cars.

This applies not only to Poland, but also to most of the European countries. This is why it is especially important to use solutions, which will reduce these emissions. The actions taken by the EU institutions (even in the form of prepared and referred to in this study [Komunikat Komisji... 2013, Wniosek Dyrektywy… 2013] unequivo-cally indicate that alternative fuels will be promoted in the EU countries. From all the considered alternatives, the solutions using the natural gas as fuel for vehicles are fully implemented worldwide. There is also a wide range of NGVs to choose from.

Application of natural gas fuel (CNG or LNG) is environmentally friendly and cost-efficient as evidenced by the example of the city buses. In Poland however, this fuel is still not very popular and it is high time to change it. Currently, natural gas is delivered by trains to, among others, Krynica, Zakopane, Muszyna, Iwonicz, Rymanów and Horyniec. Therefore, there are no technical obstacles to deliver the gas in the form of LNG to e.g. Szczawnica, Piwniczna, Wysowa or Ustrzyki and thus provide a possibil-ity to refuel vehicles with a much more ecological fuel, instead of the presently used petroleum fuels.

Application of natural gas also allows using biomethane, which can be mixed with natural gas. Such fuel can be used in buses operating in the resorts, as well as minibuses and passenger cars – including taxis and waste disposal service vehicles. There is no reason for the local fleets of vehicles not to have their own refueling devices (VRAs), without the need to build big CNG refueling stations. Whether or not the number of NGVs in resorts will increase, will depend not only on the government decisions (e.g. excise policy for natural gas fuel and NGVs) but also on the decisions of the local governments. Locally, restricted traffic zones can be established in terms of fumes and noise emissions. NGVs or hydrogen and electric cars could be released from the tax, due to their lower environmental impact. Tenders for transportation services could also use criteria regarding the air and noise pollution.

Hopefully, the popularization of natural gas usage, especially in resorts will be supported by the EU fund division criteria for the years 2014–2021.

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References

Gałkiewicz K. 2013. Doświadczenia PKM w Gdyni z eksploatacji autobusów napędzanych CNG. Ograniczenia i bariery. Materiały z konferencji „Metan dla motoryzacji”, GasShow, Warszawa.

Molenda J., Steczko K. 2000. Ochrona środowiska w gazownictwie i wykorzystaniu gazu. Wy-dawnictwo Naukowo-Techniczne, Warszawa.

Komunikat Komisji do Parlamentu Europejskiego, Rady, Europejskiego Komitetu Ekonomicz-no-Społecznego i Komitetu Regionów „Czysta energia dla transportu: europejska strategia w zakresie paliw alternatywnych” (SWD (2013) 4 final).

Regulamin Nr 110 Europejskiej Komisji Gospodarczej ONZ (EKG/ONZ). Jednolite przepisy dotyczące homologacji. (Dziennik Urzędowy Komisji Europejskiej L. 120 z dn. 7.05.2011).

ST-IGG–1601:2012. Projektowanie, budowa i użytkowanie stacji CNG. Wymagania i zalece-nia ST-IGG–1602:2012. Urządzenia do tankowania pojazdów zasilanych sprężonym gazem ziemnym CNG do ciśnień tankowania poniżej 20 MPa.

Wniosek Dyrektywy Parlamentu Europejskiego i Rady w sprawie rozmieszczenia infrastruktury paliw alternatywnych [SWD (2013) 5 final; SWD (2013) 6 final].

Worldwide NGV Statistics. 2013. http://www.ngvaeurope.eu/worldwide-ngv-statistics (Worl-dwide NGVs & Refuelling Stations, Author: Jaime del Alamo, accessed: 12.07.2013).

Dr inż. Jan SasAkademia Górniczo-Hutnicza w Krakowie, Wydział Zarządzania, Katedra Zarządzania w Energetyce30–067 Kraków, ul. Gramatyka 10e-mail: [email protected]

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A. Tajduś, K. Tajduś

THE USE OF TUNNELS TO DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT IN MOUNTAIN AREAS

Antoni Tajduś, Krzysztof Tajduś

Summary

The article presents several possibilities of using tunnels to solve traffic problems in the area of the Polish mountains. So far, in contrast to other countries in Europe and the World in Poland this kind of solution are benefited reluctantly. However, in the longer term, tunnels construction in conjunction with flyovers are cheaper solutions, safer and considerably reduce the negative impact of transport on the environment. The situation is beginning to change and recently in Poland increases interest in the underground construction, particularly tunnels in mountainous areas are observed. This paper describes the newly built tunnel in Laliki and planned to build tunnels in the area of Lubień, Poronin, Krynica-Zdrój, Jordanów and Węgierska Górka.

Keywords

tunnels • mountain areas

1. Use of tunnels in road transport worldwide

There are hundreds of kilometers of tunnels being built annually all over the word. Both rich and poor countries found, that tunnel construction is profitable. We have learned to build tunnels in various natural conditions: in the mountains, underwater, in loose soil and solid rock. The time has come for Poland to use this modern solution on a greater scale, especially in mountain areas. Nowadays, Italy is the absolute leader in the number and lengths of road tunnels, next comes Switzerland and then Japan and Austria. In these countries, a significant area is taken by mountains. Table 1 presents data from 10 years ago regarding the road tunnels in the leading countries [Klepsatel et al. 2003].

In Poland, as well as in Slovakia and Czech Republic the number of road tunnels is not tremendous. At the moment Poland has 2 tunnels: one in Warsaw, which is a part of Wisłostrada and the recently built tunnel in Laliki. The total length of these tunnels is 1.5 km. Slovakia has only 4 tunnels, one of which is about 5 km long, but in the near future it is planned to build 21 tunnels, whose total length will be 37 km. Likewise, Czech Republic has only a few tunnels, 4.7 km long in total, most of which


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are parts of bypasses of big cities, but in the near future it is planned to build 28 tunnels, 34 km long in total. Hence, in the coming years Poland and its southern neighbours will face construction of roads with tunnels and viaducts in order to meet the 21st century road standards. Similarly it is in case of railway tunnels. Japan is an absolute leader in this area, as due to the mountainous characteristics of most of its area and high speed of trains, railway tunnels are unavoidable. The data regarding railway tunnels longer than 2 km and their total lengths are presented in Table 2. Poland, Slovakia and Czech Republic have less than 20 tunnels each (most of them shorter than 1 km).

Table 1. Number and lengths of road tunnels longer than 500 m in selected countries

No. CountryTotal for tunnels

longer than 500 m Longer than 1 km Longer than 2 km

number length [km] number length [km] number length [km]

1 Italy 780 881.3 404 613.7 147 266.4

2 Switzerland 222 370.3 129 306.7 57 205.0

3 Japan 161 379.3 113 369.2 92 338.7

4 Austria 151 294.0 89 250.8 48 179.6

5 Spain 131 163.3 80 128.4 29 97.9

Source: Klepsatel et al. 2003

Table 2. Number and lengths of railway tunnels longer than 2 km in selected countries worldwide

No. CountryLonger than 2 km Longer than 5 km Longer than 10 km

number length [km] number length [km] number length [km]

1 Japan 240 1173.0 75 670.8 18 300.1

2 Italy 125 705.9 50 473.2 17 241.4

3 Switzerland 41 305.6 17 231.4 9 173.0

4 Spain 36 116.1 9 53.2

5 France 34 196.4 10 120.9 2 64.0

Source: Klepsatel et al. 2003

2. Tunnels in Poland

In Poland there are currently over a dozen tunnels, most of which are railway tunnels in mountain areas. The tunnels are located on the following routes: Kłodzko – Wałbrzych (under Mały Kozioł, 1601 m long, under Sajdak between Głuszyca and Jedlina and under Świerkowa Kopa, 1560 m long, built around 1910, under Świerkowa Kopa, 1171 m long; between Gorzyniec and Szklarska Poręba Dolna; 3 tunnels on line Jelenia Góra – Lwówek Śląski; between Wojanów and Trzcińsko; under Kowary pass; near Unisław Śląski; Kulin Kłodzki (approximately 500 m) and one more Kłodzko – Kudowa Zdrój;

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Bardo; Długopole Zdrój; Bielsko-Biała; tunnel (double); Kamionka Wielka; Żegiestów; Łupków; tunnel narrow-gauge on line Przeworsk – Dynów.

In recent years, the benefits of road tunnels are becoming even more visible, which results in new design and construction projects. Quite recently, “Emilia” tunnel in Laliki near Zwardoń in Beskid Żywiecki was opened. In near future, along with the construc-tion of new highways it will be necessary to build a series of tunnels, e.g. on the route from Krakow to Zakopane, near Krynica, in Beskid Śląski. Why did tunnel construction branch develop so slowly in Poland? There could be two reasons: the unreasonable belief that tunnel construction is very expensive (even when it is, no one takes into considera-tion the long lasting benefits of this solution), and the fact that tunnel construction has been developing based on the mining industry. Our designers and engineers nonrelated to mining have had no experience with underground tunnel construction. Here are a few examples of tunnels and chambers constructed by mining-related companies:• underground workings of hydro power plants “Porąbka-Żar” (1969–1977), “Młoty”

(1971–1981), “Czorsztyn-Niedzica” (1977–1986),• hydrotechnic tunnels in Tresna (1961–1964), Dobczyce (1985–1986) and two adits

in Świnna Poręba (1988–1994),• over a dozen underground workings and tunnels abroad were made by Polish

companies related to mining construction – mainly Construction and Mining Companies, e.g.: underground workings of hydro power plants Markersbach (1973–1975) and Goldisthal (1975–1976) in Germany,

• underground workings of Messochora hydro power plant (1994–1997) in Greece,• Ankaray railway tunnel (1993–1999) in Turkey,• tunnel on route from Iijet-Ramdan to Djamel (1984–1988) in Algeria,• road tunnels in Izmit (1988–1991) and Nur-dagi (1992–1994) in Turkey,• Tsing Yi (1993–1995) in Hong-Kong,• Har Gilo Long Tunnel (1993–1994) in Israel,• road tunel in Montenegro (1991),• 3 tunnels on Canary Islands,• underground garages in Berlin, Frankfurt, Palma de Mallorca, etc.,• construction of Warsaw Metro Line 1.

3. Why should we build underground objects, including tunnels

According to common perception as well as some surface construction specialists, tunnel construction can be justified only by extreme topographical and technical condi-tions, due to incomparably higher construction costs when compared to construction of surface objects. This applies especially to comparison of road section with a road tunnel. However, these comparisons (unfortunately) do not include the following costs [Tajduś et al. 2012]:

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• costs related to purchase of land (in case of a tunnel there is no need for land pur-chase and owner’s consent, especially when tunnel construction is based on mining and geological law),

• costs related to moving the infrastructure (e.g. pipelines, cables, high voltage lines etc.),

• road maintenance costs, especially during winter,• costs of proofing against avalanches and falling rocks,• costs of construction of a much longer road, which can be significantly shortened

thanks to the tunnel,• environmental costs, which are very difficult to estimate; vehicles travelling on

a level road (in a tunnel) use much less energy than vehicles in mountainous ter-rain; when climbing a hill, vehicles use a lot of energy which is not recuperated in the downhill drive, but quite the contrary: even more energy is consumed by brak-ing; this results in a lot environmental pollution; building a tunnel saves tons of fuel and reduces negative environmental impact,

• in open air there is no possibility to capture and utilize exhaust fumes, while in a tunnel such possibility exists.

Also, safety factors are often forgotten as a reason for tunnel construction. For example, the decision to build Seikan tunnel (in very difficult hydrological and geologi-cal conditions) was made after the Tsugaru straights tragedy, when a typhoon caused two ferries to sink, killing 1400 people. Also, the need to improve communication, tending mainly to reduce travel time between world regions is the main factor of tunnel construction development.

4. Selected mountain tunnels in Poland, under construction and planned

This section presents a list of possible road tunnel locations in Beskidy and Sub-Tatra area, which should be built in the nearest years in order to improve road communica-tion.

4.1. Tunnels in Beskid Żywiecki

Recently, on S–69 expressway, leading to Polish-Slovakian border in Zwardoń, “Emilia” tunnel (Figure 1) was dug in Laliki [Majcherczyk et al. 2009]. The tunnel was named “Emilia” in memory of mother of Pope John Paul II. This 678 m long tunnel was opened in March 2010 and has the latest fire safety and surveillance systems. Most of the tunnel was dug underground using mining techniques and technologies; the rest of the tunnel was made using opencast method. This is a two-way traffic tunnel, oval shaped, with maximum height of 6.55 m and width of 11.2 m. In the nearest future two other tunnels are planned to be built in Beskid Żywiecki, in the district of Węgierska Górka. One of them is 1000 m long, the other 600 m long.

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Photo by Napieraj

Fig. 1. The south end of the tunnel in Laliki

4.2. Road S7 tunnel: Lubień – Rabka

Currently there are 2 one way, 3 lane tunnels planned under Luboń mountain, 2.1 km each, as a part of S7 expressway Lubień – Rabka section (Figure 2). They will be oval shaped, dug using New Austrian Tunneling Method mining method. The cost is 1.3 milli-ard zloty. One kilometer of the tunnel is about four times more expensive than in case of the remaining sections of the road from Lubień to Chabówka, but it will shorten the travel time (no traffic jams), significantly reduce maintenance and road usage costs, espe-cially in winter conditions, the costs of construction of a much longer road (compared to tunnel length), vehicle energy consumption costs (lower fuel consumption, and reduce the environment pollution). The profits resulting from the tunnel construction are hard to estimate, but in case of such a busy road as this one, connecting Kraków with Zakopane, they are likely to reach over a dozen million zloty each year. And the tunnel is built to last about 100 years, so the construction costs will be returned in a few decades, and then bring profits.

4.3. S7 tunnel in Poronin

The construction of road S7 planned by GDDKiA in Poronin has led to very emotional reactions among the local community, as the project involves construction of an over

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a dozen meters high viaduct with junctions connecting it with towns and villages. It was assumed that this dual-carriageway road will handle the traffic of 17 thousand vehicles per day. The protests of the local communities were caused by: the necessity to demol-ish houses inhabited by mountaineers for generations, taking over a very big land area, worries that the attractiveness of this beautiful touristic resort will decrease (the viaduct and acoustic screens dominating the landscape), the expected increased pollution (large number of cars in poorly ventilated valley). They demanded to redesign the communica-tion system in Poronin, so that it composes itself into the space, and interferes with the environment and buildings as little as possible. It should allow keeping the touristic and resort characteristics of the villages in the municipality of Poronin.

Source: Nawrat et al. 2012

Fig. 2. A scheme of the S7 expressway Lubień – Rabka tunnel

A new concept emerged, developed by architect Andrzej Chowaniec-Rybka in cooper-ation with professor Antoni Tajduś, to build a 700 m long tunnel using opencast method, which would contain a collision-free road to Zakopane and railroad tracks (Figure 3), and to recreate the existing road network on the surface adding two traffic circles at the

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intersections with roads leading to Bukowina and Ząb. Above the tunnel a creek would flow. Such solutions are nothing innovative. There are tunnels built under much bigger rivers (“Poroniec” creek is about 0.5 m deep and over a dozen meters wide) as well as laid on sea bottoms. The project designed by architect Andrzej Chowaniec does not require demolitions and tall viaducts. From the local community’s point of view, this project is much better. Of course, other solutions are also possible, but each of them should include a tunnel or tunnels (e.g. for people or animals).

Source: archive of Chowaniec-Rybka

Fig. 3. A scheme of communication solution with use of a tunnel

4.4. Tunnels in the vicinity of Krynica Zdrój

Currently Krynica is undergoing preparations for construction of a bypass with two or three tunnels. This is an initial stage – concept development. We suggest the following solution: going from Nowy Sącz, the first tunnel would begin before Krzyżówka hill, and would end in Słotwiny (ca. 3.5 km), the next tunnel would run from Słotwiny to the foot of Jaworzyna mountain (ca. 2.6 km). The third tunnel would begin at the foot of Jaworzyna and end near the village of Jastrzębik. It is possible to resign from the construction of the third tunnel and use the road leading to the south of Krynica. This solution would definitely decrease the traffic in Krynica-Zdrój itself, and therefore decrease the environment pollution and make it easier to get to Krynica-Zdrój and Jaworzyna in the winter, as well as simplify the journey towards Slovakian border.

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4.5. Other tunnel constructions planned in Polish mountains

For some time, a concept of constructing an about 50 km long railway line Krakow – Podłęże-Piekiełko (near Tymbark) has been under consideration. Construction of this railway line would significantly shorten the travel time in the direction to Nowy Sącz and Krynica-Zdrój, as well as Rabka and Zakopane. After modernization of railway line Tymbark – Limanowa-Nowy Sącz, the travel time from Krakow to Nowy Sącz would take a little more than an hour. The initial study indicates, that the route Kraków – Podłęże-Piekiełko would require construction of 9 to 11 tunnels.

Source: Tajduś and Cała 2010

Fig. 4. Jordanów tunnel concept

Recently an initial feasibility study was performer for the tunnel in Jordanów [Tajduś and Cała 2010]. Tunnel construction under the city of Jordanów is necessary, as the city is crossed by an important communication route, National Road 28, connecting Zator with the eastern state border in Medyka (Figure 4). Road traffic density is very high. After the tunnel construction, the traffic in the city will decrease, the traffic safety will increase, and the state of the city environment will improve, thanks to a decrease of exhaust fumes and noise. Also, due to its picturesque location in the foothill climate, Jordanów is a holiday and tourist resort and a good starting point for hiking trips (e.g.

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Luboń Wielki or Babia Góra). Based on the initial analyses it seems, that the tunnel should lead from the northwest to the southeast, under the market square of Jordanów, beginning near Strącze creek and ending by Malejówka river, so that it connects two valleys, going under elevated terrain. The tunnel length would be 680 m, the overbur-den over the tunnel being 30 to 40 m, and the tunnel inclination of 4°. Due to a big elevation difference between the ends of the tunnel, the concept also covers construc-tion of a steel viaduct on reinforced concrete support, which would provide a gentle descent into the valley.

The tunnel can be dug through Carpathian Flysch using mining methods (e.g. NATM) [Tajduś et al. 2012]. Instead of a two-way traffic tunnel, for safety reasons, it is better to build two one-way traffic tunnels, with an option for designation of two lanes. The tunnels would be shaped in an ellipse, with the width of 12 to 13 m and the height of about 9 to 10 m. An exemplary section of one of the tunnels is presented in Figure 5.

Source: Tajduś and Cała 2010

Fig. 5. Example section of the tunnel without air duct

12.83 m

9.54

m

0.55

m

5. Conclusion

The article presents a few possible applications of tunnels for solving communica-tions problems in Polish mountains areas. Unlike other countries worldwide, Poland was reluctant in using this solution. While in the long run, tunnel solutions, properly combined with viaducts, are cheaper and safer solutions, at the same time reducing the negative impact of transport on the environment. We are happy to notice a growing interest in underground constructions (including tunnels) in Poland.

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References

Czaja P., Tajduś A. 2004. Światowe doświadczenia w budowie tuneli w skałach zwięzłych. Bu-downictwo tunelowe w Karpatach i jego ekologiczne uwarunkowania. Uczelniane Wydaw-nictwa Naukowo-Dydaktyczne AGH, Kraków, 75–89.

Klepsatel F., Kusy P., Marik L. 2003. Vystavba tunelu ve skalnich horninach. Jaga, Bratysława.Majcherczyk T., Niedbalski Z. Małkowski P. 2009. Analiza warunków geotechnicznych w oto-

czeniu tunelu drogowego w Lalikach. Górnictwo Geoinż., AGH, Kraków, 239–256.Nawrat S., Napieraj S.P., Czaja P., Kamiński P. 2012. Wentylacja i bezpieczeństwo tunelu (w ra-

mach projektu pt. “Budowa drogi ekspresowej S7 Kraków – Rabka Zdrój na odcinku Lubień – Rabka Zdrój oraz budowa nowego odcinka drogi nr 47 klasy GP na odcinku Rabka Zdrój – Chabówka wykonywanego dla GDDKiA przez konsorcjum firm Voessing-Vepro”), mate-riały niepublikowane. Fundacja Nauka i Tradycje Górnicze, Kraków.

Tajduś A., Cała M. 2010. Opinia techniczna o możliwości wykonania tunelu w Jordanowie, od-cinek drogi krajowej relacji Zator – Medyka, praca niepublikowana, AGH Kraków.

Tajduś A., Cała M., Tajduś K. 2012. Geomechanika w budownictwie podziemnym. Projektowa-nie i budowa tuneli. AGH, Kraków.

Wichur A., Frydrych K., Kosmalski M., Lepich J., Tokarz A., Wojtusiak A., Żyliński R. 2004. Ocena możliwości budowy tuneli metodą górniczą. Budownictwo tunelowe w Karpatach i jego ekologiczne uwarunkowania. AGH, Kraków, 121–125.

Prof. dr hab. inż. Antoni TajduśAkademia Górniczo-HutniczaWydział Górnictwa i GeoinżynieriiKatedra Geomechaniki, Budownictwa i Geotechniki 30–059 Kraków, al. Mickiewicza 30e-mail: [email protected]

Dr inż. Krzysztof TajduśInstytut Mechaniki Górotworu PAN30–059 Kraków, ul. Reymonta 27e-mail: [email protected]

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