nigeria chapter 8. 8 | 2 copyright © cengage learning. all rights reserved. the nigerian nation at...

Nigeria

Chapter 8

8 | 2Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

The Nigerian Nation at a Glance


The Making of the Modern Nigerian State (1 of 2)


The Making of the Modern Nigerian State (2 of 2)


Politics in Action (1 of 2)

• First turnover of power between civilian presidents after elections April 2007– Obasanjo attempted to extend office beyond constitutional two term limits by

provoking crisis through blatant electoral fraud• Public remained calm, forcing Obasanjo to hand over power

• Two trends in current Nigerian political development– Democratization has not produced good governance

• Shift from authoritarian to competitive oligarchy– Oil-rich elite fight to expand power– Public frustrated with pace of change and leaders thus demanding share of wealth and

say in political decisions

– Challenge to manage contentious ethnic and religious diversity in condition of scarcity and weak institutions• Poverty and corruption despite oil revenues• Struggle between authoritarian and democratic governance• Struggle to create nation-state out of social incoherence• Low levels of popular legitimacy and accountability

• Nigeria is unfinished state – unstable and uncertain


Politics in Action (2 of 2)


Nigeria (1 of 2)


Nigeria (2 of 2)


Geographic Setting

• Most populous nation in Africa• Center of regional trading with military strength• Oil producing• British colony from 1914 to 1960

– Boundaries reflect extent of British influence rather than borders of precolonial societies• Forced union of African cultures

• Ethnic map has six zones– Northwest: largest ethnic group, predominately Muslim– Northeast: minority region, predominately Muslim– Middle Belt: both Muslim and Christian minorities– Southwest: second largest ethnic group, Muslim, Christian, Yoruba– Southeast: third largest ethnic group, primarily Christian– South: minority region


Critical Junctures

• Nigeria’s recent history influenced by:– Precolonial period– British colonial changes– Post-colonial alternation of military and civilian rule– Corruption and economic collapse


The Precolonial Period (800-1900) (1 of 3)

• Open terrain and need for irrigation in north encouraged growth of centralized states– Trade across Sahara Desert brought material benefits,

education, Islam

• Sokoto Caliphate– Islamic empire established through jihad– Unified groups with Islam and common language

• Southern savanna politics along kinship lines– Westerners saw as “stateless” or acephalous societies– Lacked complex political hierarchies so escaped upheaval and

retained autonomy under colonialism

• Southern Nigeria had empires, kingdoms, trading city-states, and acephalous societies



• Several precolonial societies may have led to participatory politics if not interrupted by colonialism– Governance involved principles of accountability and

representation– Islamic communities had highly structured political

society• Hierarchical leadership• Emir owed allegiance to sultan• Sultan obliged to observe Islamic principles


Colonial Rule and Its Impact (1860-1945)

• British colonization for trade, extraction of natural resources, exploitation of labor

• Left political and economic systems that impacted development and governance– British policy of indirect rule over centralized monarchies

• Allowed traditional structures to remain

– In other areas either the authority of the traditional chief was strengthened or a warrant chief was appointed• Weakened existing accountability and participation

– Played ethnic and social divisions to prevent resistance– British established democratic foundation

• Formal institution but authoritarian culture• Strengthened collective identity by fostering political competition


Divisive Identities: Ethnic Politics Under Colonialism (1945-1960) (1 of 2)

• Leaders of the anticolonial movement learned from the experience under British rule– State was exploitative instrument– State control was opportunity to pursue personal and group

interests

• As British exit from Nigeria negotiated, unity among leaders evaporated and intergroup political competition increased– Ethnicity used to mobilize support

• Three largest groups dominate political process • Result of British use of politics• Ethnic based associations initially nonpolitical

• British divided Nigeria into federation of three regions with elected governments in 1954– One major ethnic group dominated each region


Divisive Identities: Ethnic Politics Under Colonialism (1945-1960) (2 of 2)


The First Republic (1960-1966)

• Nigeria granted independence 1960– Adopted British Westminster model at federal and regional levels

• Prime minister chosen by majority party or coalition

– Northerners dominated federal government as a result of population• Policy of “northernization” to redistribute resources to their benefit caused

conflict

• Internal conflict in Action Group led to political crisis in Western regional assembly – Western region divided diluting Yoruba political power– Violence escalated as corruption ensured Northern People’s Congress

victory

• Prime minister and president (symbolic position) from different parties– Each asked military for support if conflict


Civil War and Military Rule (1966-1979)

• Igbo officers seized power 1966– Highest ranking officer and coup leader became head of state

then killed – Gowon, a non-Igbo Middle Belt Christian became consensus

head of state– Ethnic violence prompted by killing of northern officials

• Predominately Igbo east attempted to secede to form Biafra– Remaining Nigeria under military-led government which defeated Biafra

after three years

• Gowon’s policy of national reconciliation supported by increasing oil revenues – Return to civilian rule postponed because military elite unwilling to

relinquish power and spoils– Overthrown by Muhammad who was assassinated – General Obasanjo ceded to elected civilian government 1979


The Second and Third Republics, and Predatory Military Rule (1979-1999)

• Second Republic government drawn largely from First Republic – Did little to build trust or stop corruption– National Party of Nigeria won electoral majority through fraud

and violence

• Military seized power under Buhari– Support lost due to economic downturn and refusal to return

to democracy

• General Babangida seized power– Announced transition to democracy but stalled to remain in power

• Annulled fair elections of 1993

– Pressured to resign but picked civilian successor

• Defense minister General Abacha seized power– Combined promise to restore democracy with repression– Announced transition to civilian rule but stalled– Died and successor transitioned to elected civilian government


The Fourth Republic (1999 to Present) (1 of 2)

• Obasanjo elected and re-elected president amid irregularities– Trusted by Northern political establishment– Perceived that ex-military could control military– Acted to reform state and economy– Political survival required protecting entrenched interests and politicians from

anti-corruption campaign

• Called National Political Reform Conference when faced with political turmoil and social conflict– Stated goal of reviewing constitution and government structure– Unstated goal of providing legitimacy– Efforts to change constitution to extend his term rejected

• Election fraud to spark state of emergency and extend Obassanjo’s term planned– Picked successor and had himself named “chairman for life” of People’s

Democratic Party – Elections condemned but no violence and Obassanjo forced to turn over

power to Yar’Adua


The Fourth Republic (1999 to Present) (2 of 2)

• Yar’Adua asserted independence– Reversed controversial Obassanjo decisions– Elections still in question and cost legitimacy– Focused on solidifying control of People’s Democratic

Party rather than campaign policy promises


Historical Junctures and Political Themes

• Federalism and democracy important strategies to achieve goal of unity– Legacy of colonial rule and military domination resulted in

unitary system with powerful central government and weak, economically insolvent states

• Military rule left overdeveloped executive, weak legislature and judiciary– Encouraged arbitrary exercise of authority, patronage politics– Weakens economy, prevents accountability, undermines

rule of law

• National Assembly, judiciary, state governments are now reducing powers of national executive– President remains dominant figure


Nigeria in the World of States

• Nigeria has military and economic power in West African region

• Nigeria is marginalized at global level• Economic and political potential yet poor

– Bad policies and management resulted in reliance on unpredictable oil revenues, external loans, aid

– Agricultural self-sufficiency has become dependence on imports– Manufacturing inefficient

• Nigerian economy dependent on oil– Little effective restructuring or diversification

• Deteriorating political institutions allow international drug trafficking and commercial fraud


Governing Nigeria’s Economy

• Oil dependence symptom of structural problems– Concept of state introduced to subordinate local economy to

European capitalism

• Nigerian colonial state interventionist– Principle British goals to control economy and flow resources

from colonies to metropole– Secondary goal to create economy hospitable to free markets

and private enterprise– Broad controls, diverse ownership positions

• Civilian and military rulers expanded interventionist state– Reversals started in 1980s but piecemeal– State remains largest source of economic activity– Poverty and unemployment unchanged or worse


Democratic Ideas Amid Colonialism and Military Rule (1 of 2)

• Colonialism introduced cultural dualism– Tradition of social accountability in precolonial society and emerging Western

ideas of individualism– Weakened indigenous democratic bases for accountability and responsibility

of rulers– British left parliamentary machinery and citizens socialized to be passive

subjects

• Individuals belong to two public realms– Communal: people identified by ethic or subethnic groups– Civic: universal citizenship– Because exploitative colonial state was in civic realm, Nigerians saw civic as

corrupt– Resulted in strong communal loyalties and amoral civic realm

• Democratic idea filtered through regional divisions– Indirect rule impacted north and south differently

• South: burden and benefit of colonial occupation• North: little infrastructure; traditional administration


Democratic Ideas Amid Colonialism and Military Rule (2 of 2)

• Pattern of uneven development– South: basis of modern economy, democratic

institutions– North: largely agricultural and monarchical– Propelled Northern leaders to control federal

government to redistribute resources to north• Military rulers colluded with northern elite and manipulated

their fears

• Democratic idea strong – Diversity demands democracy’s negotiations and

protection of interests


Nigeria’s Fragile Collective Identity

• Divisions between north and south, ethnic groups– Manipulated by military governments and citizens– Exacerbated by clientelism, corruption, unstable

authoritarian governments• Clientelism: individuals or segments receive disproportionate

benefits from political patron– Patrons (“godfathers”) often linked by cultural ties which only

benefit elite– Undermines social trust, political stability– Reduces state to distribution

– Ethnicity is primary form of political identity but Idea of Nigeria exists• Personal and business connections across divisions


Implications for Comparative Politics

• Nigeria has human and material resources to overcome cycle of poverty and autocracy although it has not

• Oldest surviving federation in Africa and has maintained its unity

• Important case for the study of resource competition and corruption


Political Economy and Development

• Colonialism left interventionist state which continued postindependence– Stunted private sector– Encumbered industry and commerce

• Leaders grew more predatory in the 1980s and 1990s


State and Economy

• Nigerian state plays central role in extraction, deployment, allocation decisions– Direct ownership, regulation, administrative control– Any major economic activity involves the state– Most revenues channeled through government

• Leaders have discretion in spending rents

• Most Nigerians involved in informal sector– Petty trade and subsistence agriculture


Origins ofEconomic Decline (1 of 3)

• Nigerian economy focused on agricultural production during colonial and immediate postcolonial periods– Consumption and export– Nigeria self-sufficient in food production at independence

• Late 1960s emphasis shifted to nonfood export crops through large-scale enterprises– Small farms received little government support– Food production declined, food imports increased

• Nigerian agricultural sector undermined by Biafran War, severe drought and subsequent famine, development of petroleum industry


Origins of Economic Decline (2 of 3)

• 1970s oil boom allowed Nigeria to increase education, defense, infrastructure expenditures– Imports of capital and consumer goods increased– Budget deficit by 1978 caused borrowing and increased debt

• Increased oil wealth increased corruption– Nigeria forced to import refined petroleum

• Oil boom double edged sword – Generated large amounts of income– Source of external dependence

• Economy further weakened by ill-managed expansion, neglect of agricultural sector

• Nigeria unable to compensate for fall in oil prices in 1981 resulting in crisis


Origins of Economic Decline (3 of 3)


Structural Adjustment

• Babangida came to power in 1985– Increasing economic constraints, growing debt, balance of

payment difficulties, lack of fiscal discipline– Developed structural adjustment program (SAP) with support of

international financial institutions (IFIs)

• Oil revenues allowed state to increase involvement in direct production– Para-statals developed beginning in 1970s– State remains biggest employer and most important source of

revenue

• Privatization central to adjustment program– Intended to generate revenue, reduce state expenditures,

improve efficiency– Disappointing results


Economic Planning (1 of 4)

• National plans prepared by ministries of finance, economic development, planning– Not effective planning tool due to absence of effective database for

planning and lack of discipline in implementation• Tools and political will lacking

• Nigerian Economic Summit Group 1994– Revived dialogue between business and government on economic

direction

• Vision 2010 advocated reduction of government role in economy– Accepted by Obasanjo– Advice continues to influence National Assembly and Obassanjo

• Obasanjo renewed focus on economic reform and development 2003– Changes made but overshadowed by efforts to extend term



• Problems in economy must be overcome:– Low investment– Low capacity utilization– Dysfunctional power supply– Unreliable distribution– Corruption and overregulation

• Oil revenues increased in 2005 – Poverty has not significantly diminished– Sustainability of growth questioned– Some growth outside oil sector being seen

• Obasanjo paid off most of heavy foreign debt– Accomplished through persistent lobbying for debt relief and

economic reforms

• Yar’Adua pledged to continue reforms, reduce corruption


Social Welfare (1 of 2)

• Social welfare has suffered with economic decline– Deterioration in quality and quantity of social services

since 1986– Reform programs emphasizing reduction of state

expenditures forced cutbacks

• Nigeria poorly meets basic needs, failed to develop national social security system– Gaps filled by family-based networks of mutual aid– Few Nigerians have access to formal sector jobs– Nigeria on verge of AIDS epidemic

• Efforts to combat left to nongovernmental organizations


Social Welfare (2 of 2)


• Central government controls resources and economic opportunities, thus focus for competition among ethnic, regional, religious, class groups– Partial explanation for failure of economic strategies

Society and Economy


Ethnic and Religious Cleavages

• Competition centered on access to national economic and political resources

• Religious cleavages also affect social and economic stability• Conflicts heightened by government ineptitude and growing

religious assertion– Christians perceived past governments as pro-Muslim jeopardizing

secular nature of state• Increased in 1999 with expansion of shari’a

– Muslims feared Christian Obasanjo would tilt balance of power and economics

– Decline of economy precipitated rise of fundamentalism

• Ethnic and religious movements have used renewed political freedoms to mobilize around interests and grievances– Many armed groups have formed, particularly in oil-producing regions

• Minority groups clash over land and rents


Gender Differences

• Land Use Act of 1978 – all land owned by government– Land tenure governed by patriarchal traditional

practice– Women dominate agricultural production but

prevented from owning land

• Women struggling to achieve access to state power– Women’s associations were elite, urban based

• Few with political orientation were tokens

– Organizations started earlier in south• Northern groups used Islam to support activities


Nigeria in the Global Economy

• Nigeria weak and dependent at international level– Reliant on developed industrial economies – Management, corruption, commodity markets have

undermined economic potential


Nigeria and the Regional Political Economy

• Nigeria aspires to be regional leader– Major actor in formation of Economic Community of

West African States (ECOWAS) 1975• Carried administrative and financial burden• Efforts to move to European Union style integration

– Largest contributor to West African peacekeeping force

• Largest economy in West Africa thus sometimes magnet for immigration – Recently experiencing emigration


Nigeria and the Political Economy of the West (1 of 2)

• Nigerian wealth perceived by elite as source of strength– When oil market fell oil dependence was seen as source of

weakness

• Nigeria forced to seek support from international financial institutions– Forced to accept direction from foreign agencies since

• Nigeria dependent on Western technology and expertise for oil exploration and extraction

• Oil can be important political resource– Prevent international sanctions– Temper reaction to human rights abuses

• Nigeria is influential member of Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

• West supportive of Nigerian leadership


Nigeria and the Political Economy of the West (2 of 2)

• Obasanjo instrumental in forming African Union– Modeled on European-style integration– Endorsed New Partnership for Africa’s Development

• Governments commit to good governance and economic reforms in exchange for access to Western markets and financial assistance– Hesitant to apply pressure for reforms


Governance and Policy-Making

• Obasanjo inherited government close to collapse and corrupt yet facing demands for rapid progress– Delivered economic reforms but became increasingly

corrupt and ambitious• Ambitions rejected by public

• Yar’Adua came to power without client network


The National Question and Constitutional Governance

• Basic political structures still being debated– Fluctuated between democracy and military

domination– Rejection of Obasanjo’s third term may indicate

growing respect for constitutional role

• Nine constitutions drafted since 1914– Five under colonial rule and four since– Military and civilian leaders often unwilling to observe

legal and constitutional constraints• Fragile institutions with personal and partisan considerations


Federalism and State Structure

• First Republic tried British parliamentary model– Prime minister chosen from legislature– Decentralized with power in three regions

• Second Republic used United States presidential model• Fourth Republic uses presidential model

– Strong executive constrained by checks and balances, bicameral legislature, independent judicial

• Federal structure with states able to enact laws– In reality states are dependent on federal

• Allows customary law courts to function alongside secular system• Military rule left authoritarian political culture

– Oil wealth centralizes economic and political control– Elite accommodation to moderate cultural pluralism– Demands for ethnic rotation of president built on “federal character”

• Supports ethnic representation and conflicts


Evolution of the Executive Function

• Second Republic replaced parliamentary with presidential system– Belief popularly elected president would be symbol of

national unity– Mitigate lack of party discipline in selection of

executive– System entrenched in Nigerian politics


The Executive Under Military Rule (1 of 2)

• Style of military heads of state varied– Gowon initially consensual but clung to power

• Authority declined as relied on small group of advisors

– Muhammand and Obasanjo used collegial institutions but executive control strengthened in practice

– Buhari stern authoritarian– Babangida personalized and repressive– Abacha harsh authoritarian– Abubakar relaxed political controls, instituted

democratization program– All talked of moving to democracy but only Obasanjo

and Abubakar yielded to elected government


The Executive Under Military Rule (2 of 2)

• Head of state under military administrations appointed most senior government positions– Legislature disbanded, thus decisions subject to council of

military officers• Rubber stamp for ruler

– Patron-client relationships flourished• Weakened structure of military into predatory apparatus

• Nigerians believe political and economic development hampered by military domination and misrule

• Obasanjo retired military who had held political offices, kept politically oriented– Redirected toward regional peacekeeping

• Military remains a threat


The Obasanjo Administration

• Initiatives in first six months to reform armed services, revitalize economy, improve governance– Clientelism and oil kickbacks resurfaced– First anticorruption committee had little impact but second had

impressive indictments

• Impediment to reform was ruling party– People’s Democratic Party run by elites who benefited economically from

earlier regimes– Delivered victory through fraud in 2003

• Undermined government’s legitimacy• Signaled acceptance to use any means to stay in power

– Obasanjo tried to control party

• Yar’Adua spent first year trying to regain control of party and build alliances

• Leaders must follow rules to prevent patronage, coercion, personal interest from driving policies


The Bureaucracy

• Colonial system relied on bureaucracy to govern• After independence bureaucracy became

rewards in patrimonial system– Growth not based on function and need– Appointments based on patronage, ethnic group,

religion

• Bureaucratic salaries roughly half government expenditures

• Some ministries have had successful reforms


Semi-Public Institutions

• Para-statals – state owned enterprises– Established to:

• Furnish public facilities at lower cost• Accelerate economic development by controlling economy• Sovereignty over national security related sectors

– Used to co-opt and organize business and societal interest to politically control economy and dispense largess• Privatizing is requirement of economic structural adjustment• Yar’Adua reversed sales of oil refineries to Obasanjo cronies


Other State Institutions

• Judiciary and subnational governments operate under strong central government with strong executive


The Judiciary

• Judiciary independent from executive existed in past– Military undermined autonomy and integrity of judiciary– Buhari, Babangida, Abacha issued repressive decrees

disallowing judicial review– Politicization demonstrated through 1993 case where the

Supreme Court put actions of military executive beyond judicial review

• Courts dominated through appointments and budgets• Competency undermined by bribery and declining

standards of training• Courts restoring independence and credibility since

return of civilian rule– Supreme Court ruling in support of democracy


State and Local Judiciaries

• State courts subordinate to Federal Court of Appeal and Supreme Court

• Parallel court system based on shari’a and customary laws– Application of shari’a source of debate

• Created new avenues for patronage as well as public action

• Courts of record based on common law and bound by decisions of Supreme Court


State and Local Government (1 of 3)

• State governments weak and dependent on federally controlled revenues– Oil revenues fostered competition for access to national patronage

• States receive lump sum based on oil revenues and percentage of oil income based on population

– State resource and tax base is weak• Must generate more revenue to increase efficiency and improve services• Nigerians unwilling to pay taxes

• Funds go directly to state governors, who use them to control state and local governments

• Return of democratic rule returned conflict between state and national government– Governors attempting to increase control over their resources

• Armed militias for security and repression


The Policy-Making Process

• Military rule created policy process based more in top-down directives than consultation, political debate, legislation

– Senior officers developed networks of supporters creating “loyalty pyramid”• Once in power they gained access to oil wealth, which they passed down to reward

support– Prebendalism

• Often reflect ethnic, religious affiliations

– Civilian politics reflects loyalty pyramids• Civilian politicians belonged to loyalty pyramid of military

• Under democracy legislatures, courts, state governments have begun to force the president to negotiate policies and work within constitutional framework

• Policymaking generally focuses on presidential initiative in proposing policies

– Reviewed by “Big Men” who have conflicting agendas, thus policies blocked or altered

– Reformist agenda stalled or ineffectual


Representation and Participation

• Nigerian legislatures commonly sidelined or subservient to executive

• Fraud, manipulation, military interference marked party and electoral systems

• Participation outside official structures– Unofficial methods of representation and participation

through institutions of civil society– Formal representation does not necessarily enhance

participation


The Legislature (1 of 2)

• Legislative structures and processes abused, neglected, suspended by executive– Never assumed full constitutional role

• Originally designed according to Westminster model– Elected lower house– Small upper house selected by executive

• Supreme Military Council initiated and passed decrees at will

• Bicameral legislature introduced 1979– Senate elected based on equal state representation– House elected on weighted state representation

• Since independence same party won executive and majority in National and state assemblies


The Legislature (2 of 2)

• Only control legislature has over funds is right to pass budget– Constitution gives legislature right to control funds but in

practice president controls• President receives oil first and refuses to put directly in Federation

Account that constitution obliges

– President pays little attention to budget

• National Assembly beginning to gain relevance– Began impeachment when president refused to follow

budget– Rejected Obasanjo’s constitutional amendments

• President retaliated by removing

• State legislatures also face imbalance of power


The Party System and Elections (1 of 3)

• Political parties were associated with ethnic groups– One party per dominant ethnic group– Fostered perception that politics was ethnically zero-sum,

encouraging fragmentation– First-past-post produced legislative majorities – More attentive to ethnic group than development of Nigeria

• Babangida issued decree establishing only two political parties– Social Democratic Party and National Republican Convention– State provided funds and platforms– Cut across cleavages

• Northern-based parties dominated first and second civilian rule


Old Roots and New Alignments: The PDP and the Other Parties of the Fourth Republic

• To prevent ethnic-based parties of First and Second Republics, a threshold requirement was established– Reduced number of parties and forced existing parties to broaden their

appeal

• Parties of Fourth Republic primarily alliances of convenience among Big Men– Sole purpose was to gain power– No ideological differences or policy platforms – Rely on elite-centered structures – Multiethnic

• Strong incentive to bridge differences within party• Foster a climate of compromise

– Lower ethnic tensions but greater elite corruption

• Political opposition that could counter elite corruption still not developed• Supreme Court overruled restrictions on registration increasing the

number of parties


Political Culture, Citizenship, and Identity

• Military rule left strong authoritarian influences in the political culture– Young politicians grew up during military rule– Democratic traditions in conflict with experiences of

military governance


Modernity Versus Traditionalism

• Interaction of Western elements with traditional practices created tension– Strong elements in communal societies that promoted

accountability weakened by Western orientation toward individual and urbanization

– Rival ethnic claims organized around narrow, exclusivist constituencies exist in modern state

• Exclusivist identities dominate Nigerian political culture and define citizenship– Identify with immediate ethnic, regional, religious group or

subgroup especially during crisis

• No belief that a common interest binds state and citizen


Religion

• Nigeria is evenly divided between Muslims and Christians– Consistently clashed over political issues– Application of shari’a a focal point for tensions

• Part of Muslim way of life• Christians see it as threat to secular society and their

place in it

• Religious versus national identity strong during economic hardship


The Press

• Nigerian press lively and irreverent– Efforts have been made to stifle its independence– Members sometimes seen as captive by ethnic and

regional constituencies• Weakened ability to resist attacks on rights and privileges

• Press concentrated in South but independent radio and television appearing around country

• Investigative journalists use internet to avoid censoring


Interests, Social Movements, and Protest

• Labor, student groups, women’s organizations have played major role in Nigerian politics– Also radical and populist organizations

• Business groups colluded with corrupt civilian and military regimes– Efforts to end this relationship

• Civil society groups flourishing with end of military rule


Labor

• Organized labor has challenged government– Military pressure limited independence and strength during

1980s and 1990s– State corporatism used to control and co-opt– Vulnerable to state and private employer retaliation– Ethnic, regional, religious divisions hampered solidarity

• Manipulated by state

• Government largest employer and arbiter of industrial relations between employer and employees

• Consolidation of constitutional rule provides unions protections to organize and act


The Business Community

• History of entrepreneurialism– Compromised by rent-seeking and appropriation of

state resources

• Members of business class seen as “pirate capitalists” due to corruption and collusion

• Organized groups represent business class and promote economic development


Other Social Groups

• Student activism– Rise of “cults” since 1990s

• Members eventually join militias or become political thugs• Elites employ for power plays

– Religious movements offer alternative• Also vehicle for recruiting fundamentalists

• Economic hardship and military oppression increased number of nongovernmental organizations– Generally issue- and urban-based

• Civil society groups helping to consolidate democracy– Relationship with National Assembly and state legislature– Need to improve relationship with political parties


Nigerian Politics in Transition

• Nigerians prefer democracy to military rule– Frustration with pace of reform and corruption

• Nigerian politics must change to be stable and legitimate– Must change from domination by “Big Men” to

representative politics that addresses fundamental interests of public

– Must commit to political arrangements that accommodate diversity

– Must develop political process that crosses ethnic, regional, religious lines and addresses poverty and underdevelopment


Political Challenges and Changing Agendas (1 of 2)

• Transition to democratic rule between 1985 and 1999 inconclusive because directed from above– Military rulers promised democratic transition to stabilize and legitimize

their governments

• Abubakar returned to civilian rule only after ensuring military interests protected and patrimonialism reinforced

• Produced conflicted government

• Collective identities defined by religion or ethnicity more binding than national identity

• Parasitic economy source of instability• Decline in appeal of military rule

– Civilian political elites will determine political and economic change• Need balance between groups and adaptation of elites to norms and rules• Show willingness to use extra-systemic measures


Political Challenges and Changing Agendas (2 of 2)

• Nigeria must create viable, multiethnic opposition party willing to play by rules

– Would help to reduce corruption and engage public– Diluted by introduction by large number of new parties

• Coherent nation-state unfinished– Ethnic associations and militias now articulate ethnic-based grievances and

open potential for instability– Ethnicity cannot remain basis for political competition

• Power structures must further decentralize– Solve problems at local levels– Reduce destructive pressures on political competition– Enhance accountability of leaders

• Civil society groups to advocate interests– Alliances must be built with political parties

• Foreign pressure helps maintain focus on democracy and sustainable development

– Limited by addiction to oil


Nigerian Politics in Comparative Perspective

• Historical dynamic of ethnic conflict helps identify effective institutional mechanisms

• Necessary and sufficient conditions for economic development in oil-dependent state


A World of States

• Nigeria in two worlds of states: – Global political economy

• Entered in position of weakness and grown weaker• Economically vulnerable and corrupt

– Africa• Nigerian events will influence democracy, political stability,

economic renewal in other parts of Africa• International political and business focus elsewhere in Africa

– Potentially greater marginalization


Governing the Economy

• Political economy of underdevelopment– Nigeria failed to capitalize on its development

potential• Natural resources not enough to ensure economic

development and may actually discourage• Political and institutional development must come first

– Sustainable economic development requires sound economic policy


The Democratic Idea

• Authoritarian, single-party, and military rule in Africa resulted in political repression, human rights abuses, inequality, deteriorating governance, failed economies– Nigeria exemplifies authoritarian and unaccountable

governance


Collective Identities

• Dangers of communal competition in society with deep cultural division– Nigeria needs institutional reforms to reduce tensions

and minimize conflict

• Politics of cultural pluralism and sectional interests under political and economic insecurity– Nigeria’s federal character supports ethnic and

regional favoritism and patronage


Key Terms (1 of 13)

• Authoritarian: A system of rule in which power depends not on popular legitimacy, but on the coercive force of the political authorities. Hence, there are few personal and group freedoms. It is also characterized by near absolute power in the executive branch and few, if any, legislative and judicial controls.

• Legitimacy: A belief by powerful groups and the broad citizenry that a state exercises rightful authority. In the contemporary world, a state is said to possess legitimacy when it enjoys consent of the governed, which usually involves democratic procedures and the attempt to achieve a satisfactory level of development and equitable distribution of resources.


Key Terms (2 of 13)

• Accountability: A government’s responsibility to its population, usually by periodic popular elections and by parliament’s having the power to dismiss the government by passing a motion of no confidence. In a political system characterized by accountability, the major actions taken by government must be known and understood by the citizenry.

• Unfinished state: A state characterized by instabilities and uncertainties that may render it susceptible to collapse as a coherent entity.


Key Terms (3 of 13)

• Jihad: Literally “struggle.” Although often used to mean armed struggle against unbelievers, it can also mean spiritual struggle for more self-improvement.

• Acephalous societies: Literally “headless” societies. A number of traditional Nigerian societies, such as the Igbo in the precolonial period, lacked executive rulership as we have come to conceive of it. Instead, the villages and clans were governed by committee or consensus.

• Emir: Traditional Islamic ruler. The emir presides over an “emirate,” or kingdom, in northern Nigeria.


Key Terms (4 of 13)

• Indirect rule: A term used to describe the British style of colonialism in Nigeria and India in which local traditional rulers and political structures were used to help support the colonial governing structure.

• Warrant chiefs: Employed by the British colonial regime in Nigeria. A system in which “chiefs” were selected by the British to oversee certain legal matters and assist the colonial enterprise in governance and law enforcement in local areas.

• Interventionist: An interventionist state acts vigorously to shape the performance of major sectors of the economy.


Key Terms (5 of 13)

• Clientelism: An informal aspect of policy-making in which a powerful patron (for example, a traditional local boss, government agency, or dominant party) offers resources such as land, contracts, protection, or jobs in return for the support and services (such as labor or votes) of lower-status and less powerful clients; corruption, preferential treatment, and inequality are characteristic of clientelist politics.

• Autocracy: A government in which one or a few rulers has absolute power, thus, a dictatorship. Similar to authoritarianism.


Key Terms (6 of13)

• Rents: Above-market returns to a factor of production. Pursuit of economic rents (or “rent-seeking”) is profit seeking that takes the form of nonproductive economic activity.

• Structural adjustment program (SAP): Medium-term (generally three to five years) programs (which include both action plans and disbursement of funds) established by the World Bank intended to alter and reform the economic structures of highly indebted Third World countries as a condition for receiving international loans. SAPs often involve the necessity for privatization, trade liberalization, and fiscal restraint.


Key Terms (7 of 13)

• International financial institutions (IFIs): Generally refers to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the World Bank) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), but can also include other international lending institutions.

• Balance of payments: An indicator of international flow of funds that shows the excess or deficit in total payments of all kinds between or among countries. Included in the calculation are exports and imports, grants, and international debt payments.


Key Terms (8 of 13)

• Privatization: The sale of state-owned enterprises to private companies or investors. Those who support the policy claim that private ownership is superior to government ownership because for-profit entities promote greater efficiency. Privatization is a common central component of structural adjustment programs to curtail the losses associated with these enterprises and generate state revenue when they are sold.


Key Terms (9 of 13)

• Economic Community of West African Studies (ECOWAS): The organization established in 1975 among the sixteen governments in West Africa. Its goals are to strengthen and broaden the economies in the region through the removal of trade barriers among its members (such as import quotas and domestic content laws), freedom of movement for citizens, and monetary cooperation.

• Para-statals: State-owned, or at least state-controlled, corporations, created to undertake a broad range of activities, from control and marketing of agricultural production to provision of banking services, operating airlines, and other transportation facilities and public utilities.


Key Terms (10 of 13)

• Shari’a: Islamic law derived mostly from the Qur’an and the examples set by the Prophet Muhammad.

• Prebendalism: Patterns of political behavior that rest on the justification that official state offices should be competed for and then utilized for the personal benefit of officeholders as well as of their support group or clients. Thus, prebendal politics is sustained by the existence of patron-client networks.



• Civil society: Refers to the space occupied by voluntary associations outside the state, for example, professional associations (lawyers, doctors, teachers), trade unions, student and women’s groups, religious bodies, and other voluntary association groups. The term is similar to society, although civil society implies a degree of organization absent from the more inclusive term society.



• State corporatism: A political system in which the state requires all members of a particular economic sector to join an officially designated interest group. Such interest groups thus attain public status, and they participate in national policymaking. The result is that the state has great control over the groups, and groups have great control over their members.



• Patrimonialism: A system of governance in which a single ruler treats the state as personal property (patrimony). Appointments to public office are made on the basis of unswerving loyalty to the ruler. In turn, state officials exercise wide authority in other domains, such as the economy, often for their personal benefit and that of the ruler, to the detriment of the general population.

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