New Zealand Best Practice Guidelines for

Free Range Pork Production

© Crown Copyright – Ministry for Primary Industries, 2012

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Foreword

A key strategy for NZPork is to provide farmers with the information and tools to

ensure the high welfare and environmental sustainability of pigs and pig farms. This is

continuing focus of the industry to meet consumer and stakeholder expectations.

In response to increased demand for free range products a number of farmers, both

existing and new, are moving to free range farming systems to provide the consumer

choice in the retail market. However it is not simple to build a financially and

environmentally sustainable free range business.

The aim of this project was to firstly, clear define what constitutes “free range” pig

farming, secondly provide resource material to support free range pork production,

and thirdly provide the basis for a production standard or supply specification for free

range pork.

Specific issues that were addressed included

Farm practices to provide optimum welfare in using various housing types

Farming in varied climatic conditions

Correct nutrition of pigs at all stages of their growth

Challenges in changing to free range production

Sustainable nutrient and environment management.

This publication provides an excellent introduction and grounding in these issues and

I commend it to all farmers considering a move to free range pig farming.

I would like to acknowledge the contribution of all those who contributed to

compilation of this material – the farmers, Massey University staff, veterinarians,

Dave Porter of Harmony Foods, and welfare auditors.

My thanks to the MAF Sustainable Farming Fund for their support and funding of the

Best Practice Free Range Pork Production project.

Owen Symmans

Chief Executive Officer

New Zealand Pork

May 2012

Table of Contents

1. Introduction 1

2. Free Range Farming 3

2.1 Definitions 3

2.2 Breeds for free range production 5

2.3 Stocking rates 7

2.4 Housing 9

2.5 Feed 20

2.6 Grazing 20

2.7 Ingredients used 25

2.8 Management techniques 28

2.9 Condition scoring 30

2.10 Water 32

2.11 Husbandry procedures 34

2.12 Fencing 36

2.13 Health 39

2.14 Vermin control 40

2.15 Bio-security 40

2.16 Site selection 41

2.17 Climate 45

2.18 Stockmanship 45

2.19 Transport 47

2.20 Management aspects 47

2.21 Basic record keeping 49

2.22 Legislation 51

2.23 Resource Management Consent 51

2.24 PigCare Audit 52

Glossary of terms 53

Appendix 1 Animals Status Declaration for Pigs 57

Appendix 2: Examples of Record Sheets 57

1

1. Introduction

Within New Zealand and globally there has been increasing consumer demand for

animals to be bred and allowed to live in free-range conditions. In response to this

demand a number of pork famers, both existing and new, are moving to free-range

farming systems. Suitable conditions in some parts of the country mean that, New

Zealand has a long history in running sows outdoors with estimates of approximately 30%

of the sow population housed on outdoor facilities (New Zealand Pork 2008), free range

across all aspects of production is still relatively a small industry within NZ

(compromising of 1% of pigs farmed (New Zealand Pork 2008)).

There is a public perception that animal welfare is improved within free-range systems

and therefore it is seen as the preferred method of animal husbandry. However, in order

for these systems to live up to these perceptions, given the variations of the climate, as

well as challenges of management control and bio-security, farmers need to exercise

exceptional stockmanship and environmental stewardship in all types of conditions.

A summary to the main points for free range pork production would be:-

Benefits

Fewer manure handling issues.

Capital outlay is lower if you have the land available.

Maintaining, conditioning and adding nutrients to the soil.

A flexible system that can be altered to suit requirements and conditions.

Some aspects of animal welfare can be managed.

Can lease suitable land.

Can suit more „robust‟ genotype.

Ability to grow and feed root crops.

Market advantage in being able to differentiate free range pork.

Challenges

Hard to manage individual pigs and control stock.

Generally restricted to light free-draining land.

Mud can be a problem in winter

Sunburn can affect white skinned breeds of pigs.

Birds and vermin can be a problem.

Acquiring competent staff because stockmanship level has to be high.

Access to a good source of straw or other bedding material.

Work must occur in all types of weather.

Higher feed intake.

Production problems more apparent, with increased risk of summer infertility in

the sow herd.

More risk of internal and external parasites

Currently information on free-range farming of pork is limited and there is uncertainty

around what management techniques can be used for product to be marketed as „free-

range‟. This guideline aims to reduce the uncertainty by examining free-range farming

practices both in New Zealand and overseas and make recommendations for the New

Zealand environment and production systems. This will help farmers to make the right

decisions when entering free-range farming, and to ensure free-range pig meat is

produced using environmentally, economically and welfare sustainable farming practices.

2

Specific issues that need to be addressed include systems for optimum animal welfare

depending upon varying climatic conditions and soil types, challenges of moving to free

range production, housing, nutrition, health, nutrient and environmental management.

This practice guide is intended to be read in conjunction with the „Animal Welfare (pigs)

Code of welfare 2010 – A code of Welfare Issued under the Animal Welfare Act 1999’ and

any other best management guidelines from NZ Pork such as „EnviroPork Pork Industry

Guide to Manage Environmental Effects 2005’.

All documents can be obtained through contacting New Zealand Pork on 0800 697 675 or

though the New Zealand Pork website www.nzpork.co.nz.

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2. Free Range Farming

2.1 Definitions

The primary purposes of this document are to establish a definition of free range

production and provide some guidelines around managing free range pigs.

New Zealand Pork uses the following definition for free range pork production methods

within New Zealand. Other definitions can apply to outdoor breeding herds.

Free-range

Free range means pigs can run around outside for their entire life. Like

sheep and beef cattle, the sow, weaners, and grower pigs will live in open

spaces. Shelter must be provided and all pigs must be able to move in and

out of the shelter, and move freely around the paddocks.

The base premise of this document is that in order to be defined as free range, all sows

and their progeny are kept outside in paddocks for their entire productive lives. They have

access to straw or wooden floored huts/ sheds for shelter. Farrowing sows are supplied

with an individual hut/space for raising their litter until weaning. From weaning, the

growing pigs, having been born outdoors are raised outdoors in paddocks. Within each

paddock there is a straw or wooden floored hut/accommodation or shed for warmth and

shelter. Shade is provided and wallows are available to keep pigs cool in summer.

Feeding areas and water are provided in each paddock.

This document covers aspects of production to meet the welfare needs of pigs which

includes the UK Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC) assumption that welfare of an

animal includes its physical and mental state. The FAWC consider that good animal

welfare implies both fitness and a sense of well-being. Any animal kept by man, must at

least, be protected from unnecessary suffering.

As a component of this, FAWC requires that an animal's welfare, whether on farm, in

transit, at market or at a place of slaughter should be considered in terms of 'five

freedoms'. These freedoms define ideal states rather than standards for acceptable welfare.

They form a logical and comprehensive framework for analysis of welfare within any

system together with the steps and compromises necessary to safeguard and improve

welfare within the proper constraints of an effective livestock industry.

2.1.1 The Five Freedoms:

1. Freedom from Hunger and Thirst - by ready access to fresh water and a

diet to maintain full health and vigour.

2. Freedom from Discomfort - by providing an appropriate environment

including shelter and a comfortable resting area.

3. Freedom from Pain, Injury or Disease - by prevention or rapid diagnosis

and treatment.

4. Freedom to Express Normal Behaviour - by providing sufficient space,

proper facilities and company of the animal's own kind.

5. Freedom from Fear and Distress - by ensuring conditions and treatment

which avoid mental suffering.

4

FAWC states that stockmanship is the key to welfare. Stockmanship, plus the training and

supervision necessary to achieve required standards, are key factors in the handling and

care of livestock. A management system may be acceptable in principle but without

competent, diligent stockmanship, the welfare of animals cannot be adequately

safeguarded. They lay great stress on the need for better awareness of welfare needs, for

better training and supervision.

It should also be noted that free range farming is not a new method of producing pigs, in

the early 1900‟s pig farmers saw limitations to their free range systems and began to

move animals indoors. The following is an excerpt from 1924 Pig Breeders Annual as to

the „defects of the open air system‟. The issues identified in the excerpt below are still

current today and management and mitigation strategies need to be developed to address

them.

1. ‘Pigs rooting: hard to get a balance between a permanent ring that stops rooting

without interfering with eating or being injurious to the pig. Unless pigs always

have rings in their noses the destruction they will cause in wet weather will be

very great.

2. Moving, catching, sorting pigs: Hard to deal with individual pigs for weighing,

culling, sale, removal of poor doers, attention to sick pigs, mating and this has to

take place in all weather. Locking pigs in huts at night, the use of purpose built

trailers and trays assist greatly.

3. Weighing pigs: problem of transport to a fixed weigh station.

4. Strawing and cleaning up: heavy consumption of straw and the increased

necessity in wet cold weather. This has become less onerous as production

systems have become more mechanised.

5. Utilisation of manure: With the huts and feeders in a permanent site, the manure

will be distributed as far away as possible from these sites. Moving of huts and

feeders lessens the effects and as well as lessening the effects of ‘poaching’ of the

ground around huts and feeders.

6. Water supply and troughs: cost of laying permanent water supply and troughs or

carting water in frosty conditions. Recent use of alkathene pipe and fittings make

water reticulation simpler. However the issue of devising a cheap trough that pigs

can‟t lie in or upset but can easily and quickly be cleaned remains.

7. Feed and other carting: The distance feed has to be carted can be considerable.

This does depend on the layouts, service raceways and roads.

8. Serving Sows: the ability to accurately control the moving and mating of sows

and gilts. This has been offset by the use of specialised mating areas.

9. Destruction of pasture by ‘poaching’ the ground in wet weather: Unless there is

the ability to shut pigs inside for days at a time there is no solution to the

problem. It can be helped by constantly moving troughs and huts but at the

expense of labour.

10. Waste of feed by wind, vermin etc.: Hard to eliminate without restriction of feed.

11. Pigs lying outside their huts: They can lie outside in summer or soon after mixing

groups of sows, but the problem occurs with damp cold spells which may mean a

check in the growth or more serious consequences.

12. Feeding pigs under severe conditions: Cold, wind, rain and snow are all

difficulties under which pigs when feeding do not look happy.

13. General supervision and control: Considerable time is spent travelling and adds

to the difficulty of proper supervision and control.’

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2.2 Breeds for free range production

Traditionally outdoor production has opted for more „robust‟ coloured breeds of pigs,

however recently white breeds; usually the F1 hybrid of Large White and Landrace have

been used, with a terminal meat line boar to produce a suitable market pig in terms of

growth rates and back fat. It should be emphasised that for the modern genotypes to

perform to their potential, feeding nutritional balanced diets at recommended levels is

essential. Because the modern genotypes have been bred with low back fat, correct

nutrition and housing is critical. Whichever breed is used; good stockmanship and a good

understanding of the physical characteristics and behavioral needs of pigs, in addition to

supplying suitable housing at all stages, and ensuring pigs are well fed and provided with

shelter and shade, lessens the need for the hardier breeds.

2.2.1 Physical features:

The following is a brief summary of the physical features of pigs;

1. Body size: For their body size, pigs are heavy and strong, have a thick

muscular neck, but are nimble and fast on their feet, have small hooves, the

body is „square on all 4‟s‟ and they have a low centre of gravity. Pigs have

been selectively bred for lean meat production over the last few decades and

as a consequence modern genotypes have lower levels of body fat.

2. Hearing. Pigs have a good sense of hearing and hear sounds at higher

frequencies. They have a wide vocal range including squeals, grunts and

barks.

3. Body cover. Pigs do not have a coat of fur or wool to keep warm, but have

thick strong skin and bristly hair. This is important in their need for shelter

and housing and to maintain good body condition to keep warm. For

thermoregulation pigs will huddle, lie together and shiver if they are cold or

if too hot they will spread out, avoid contact, wet themselves and wallow.

4. Smell. They have a well-developed sense of smell and a strong insensitive

snout which is used to find food.

5. Digestive system: Pigs are omnivorous meaning they can eat a wide range of

feeds. They have a single stomach.

6. Jaws and teeth. Pigs have a strong jaw and bite. They have incisor teeth at

the front for cutting, canine teeth (tusks) for ripping and defence, and molars

for chewing.

7. Sight. Pigs have eyes at side of head and have 300 degree vision but only a

narrow field of binocular vision straight ahead. They cannot judge distance

well from the side or behind and therefore tend to move away if they see a

person or something they are not familiar with. Landrace and large eared pig

breeds find it more difficult to see, being harder to move and inadvertently

brush against electric fence wires.

2.2.2 Behaviour Characteristics

The following is a brief summary of the behavioural features of pigs:

1. Pigs are very exploratory. This is mainly directed at investigating objects

on the ground with their snout. This involves smelling, nibbling and rooting.

This activity is directed at new objects, playthings, feeders and drinkers.

While their nature is curious, pigs are also very cautious. This is observed

when moving them to a new area, they will explore as they go. They move

better from dark to light areas, they baulk at shadows, bright light and drains

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and other obstacles in raceways. Pigs tend to follow the leader, don‟t like

moving on their own and if separated want to get back to the group. They do

have a strong “flight” reaction and this can be observed if they get a sudden

fright. They are very agile and can turn quickly and often want to return to

where they have just left. Other behaviours that assist in moving pigs is that

they look in the direction they are about to move and walk up ramps more

readily than down.

2. Social behaviour. Pigs are social animals and like being around other pigs.

They have a very strong social hierarchy and this is determined by size, sex,

and territory. Aggressive encounters or fighting occurs on mixing, to

maintain status or when resources are limited. Extreme forms of aggression

include tail biting and ear chewing which appears to be an emotional problem

precipitated by social, nutritional or environmental deficiencies.

3. Feeding behaviour: Mature stocks are prone to obesity if ample food is

available to them. Younger pigs prefer to eat in a number of small „sessions‟

6-12 times /day. They do get used to feeding routines. In groups there is

strong competition at feed time and this competition will increase if feed is

short.

4. Eliminatory behaviour: Pigs are clean and will normally dung away from

defined eating and sleeping areas. If they are dirty there is a problem with

pen design, ventilation, stocking rate, or temperature.

5. Activity: Pigs are diurnal in nature being most active during daylight hours.

Under farm conditions being well fed, housed and healthy pigs spend 80% of

their time resting, 10-12% eating and the balance in exploration and

eliminatory activity. However activity patterns change at oestrus and at

farrowing.

6. Oestrus behaviour: Unmated females will come into oestrus every 3 weeks

until they are mated and conceive. Their behaviour changes in that they

become restless- , are off their feed, will actively seek out a boar, allow

herself to be mounted, or will actively „ride‟ other sows.

7. Farrowing behaviour: When sows prepare for farrowing they will isolate

themselves from a group, find a place on their own and may go through a

restless „nest building‟ phase prior to quieting down and farrowing. Sows are

very good mothers and have a strong maternal instinct to protect their piglets.

Normally quiet sows can become very aggressive towards stock people at

farrowing and without confinement this behaviour is more of a risk with free

range production. Sows react violently towards intruders, especially if piglets

begin to squeal. Therefore personnel handling sows need to be aware of the

risks.

8. Boars: Mature boars are unpredictable in their responses and in their

interaction with other pigs and with people. This occurs with movement,

changes in routines and especially in the presence of other boars. Signs of

aggression include pawing the ground, hair on shoulder standing up,

„strutting sideways‟, chomping jaws and foaming at the mouth. If unfamiliar

boars mix the will fight aggressively by slashing at the head and shoulders of

the opponent to establish dominance. Their size, agility when aroused,

strength and „offensive weapons‟ allow them the potential to inflict serious

damage on other pigs and on people. Even a „friendly‟ swipe by young boars

will cause serious injury to stock people. The use of stock boards when

handling boars and regular de-tusking is recommended. Mature boars

outdoors need to be at least a paddock apart.

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2.3 Stocking rates

Stocking rates

The stocking density of a paddock will vary depending upon the characteristics of

the soil, ground cover; slope, use of nose rings, vehicular access, rainfall and

climate as well as frequency of rotation or resting of the site and as a result site

selection will dictate appropriate stocking density for any particular property.

2.3.1 General information

Breeding stock

In New Zealand common practice for outdoor sows moving 4 week old weaners off site is

a stocking rate of 12-18 sows/ha.

Photo 1: Dry sow paddock maintaining a good ground cover

In 1994 the Animal Welfare Advisory Committee in New Zealand recommended stocking

rates of 9-14 lactating sows per hectare and 12-24 dry sows per ha (Animal Welfare

Advisory Committee 1994). Gregory (1999) suggests that soil pugging can generally be

avoided with a stocking density of 12 sows per ha in a New Zealand based study. A

similar rate was proposed by Basset-Mens et al (2007) who noted 10 sows/ha would

protect the paddock from bare patches.

Maximum recommended stocking densities for sows globally range between 20 and 33

dry sows per ha and 9-14 lactating sows with piglets per ha. Most recommend that the

ground is rested or spelled after a period of use, however this rotation period can vary,

with recommendations ranging from 4 months to 2 years of use. The UK Pork

8

Provenance Code of Practice Standards for the Labeling of Pork and Pork Products allows

a maximum of 30 adult animals/ha.

Photo 2: Paddock showing excessive pugging due to a combination of high rainfall, unsuitable

soils, overstocking and un-rung pigs

Growing Stock

For growing animals there is less information available and it is more varied. Stocking

rate is dependent on the finishing weights of the pigs, with the space allowances

increasing as pig sale weights increase. The UK Pork Provenance Code of Practice

Standards for the labeling of pork and pork products allow 12m2 paddock space per pig

where the accommodation is moved to new paddocks after each batch. Where this does

not happen the total area must be at least 40m2 per pig (250/ha). Additionally the

standards permit reduction of the total area immediately after weaning for the purpose of

training pigs and this shall be for no longer that 3 weeks. It is permitted to move finished

pigs into other accommodation for sorting for no longer than 48 hours prior to dispatch to

market.

Photo 3 and Photo 4: Free-range growing pigs on maintaining good groundcover

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Zihlmann et al. (1997) recommended 66-50 fattening pigs per ha per rotation in a plot

was a sustainable stocking rate for a free-range Swiss farm. Australian recommendations

are substantially lower with Kruger (2010) providing the following summary of

recommended stocking rates based on Standard Pig Units (SPU) where a unit is

equivalent to a 45kg liveweight pig.

Table 1 – A comparison of suggested stocking rates in Australia (source Kruger

2010)

Standard Pig

Units

Model welfare

code – pigs 1

@32 SPU/ Ha

APL outdoor

manual 2

@ 16 SPU/ha

Kruger Draft

principles 3

@ 10 SPU/ha

SPU Pigs/ha Pigs/ha Pigs/ha

Lac sow + litter 3.5 9 5 3

Dry Sow 1.6 20 10-12 6

Finisher 1.6 20 10 6

Weaner to finisher 1.0 32 16 10

Grower 1.0 32 16 10

Weaner 0.5 64 32 20

1PISC (2008) Model Code of Practice of the welfare of Animals – Pigs Third edition PISC report No92 CSIRO 2McGugan, S and Fahy, T (year unknown) An introductory manual for outdoor pig production Australian Pork 3Kruger, I (2010) Draft for Discussions – Planning and Environmental management Practices for Outdoor Piggeries Version

Given the above variation on allowable space per pig, there are a number of factors to

consider on the individual site. These include rainfall, soil type, topography, crops and

cropping rotation, requirement to maintain pasture cover, size of pigs at market weight,

nose ringing, type of fencing, paddock layout and feeding stations.

Further to this soil nutrients can be unevenly distributed and tend to be concentrated

around sheds, feeding areas and wallows. Cropping regimes and rotation with pigs is a

good way of „harvesting‟ these nutrients as well as providing paddocks a break from pigs.

2.4 Housing

The availability and nature of housing for free-range pigs will vary greatly. The number

and size of huts used vary, depending if the sheds are in a fixed permanent site or mobile,

as can the materials used in their construction. The materials can range from plywood or

corrugated iron huts, canvas roofed „tents‟, straw shelters and utility and other sheds

available. Construction materials can vary from timber, plywood, moulded polyethylene

plastic, steel and concrete tilt panels with consideration given to standard sheet sizes of

plywood and corrugated iron in construction. All these materials have their advantages

and disadvantages. For example corrugated iron provides solid weather proof roof and

walls but can get very hot in the sun and care needs to be taken to avoid sharp ends and

sharp projections when corrugated iron is damaged or not fixed securely to the wall. All

housing is designed to house pigs in groups so care will be needed to ensure correct lying

space. Housing must be constructed in a manner to avoid sharp projections. Huts with

floors need to be able to be moved regularly to prevent rats forming warrens in an

inaccessible location.

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Shelter for Pigs Outdoors

(Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010 Minimum Standard 5 )

Pigs must be provided with dry and draught-free but adequately ventilated shelter.

Pigs must be provided with the means to minimise the effects of adverse weather,

including the effects of heat and cold stress.

Example indicators for Minimum Standard – Shelter for pigs housed outdoors

Arks or huts are insulated sufficiently to minimise internal temperature variation.

Accommodation is designed to cope with the most demanding weather conditions

expected, especially protection from wind and driving rain, sun and overheating.

Ventilation is managed to avoid excess heat in summer and cold in winter.

Bedding material is provided to assist pigs to maintain body temperature in cold

weather.

Should be designed so pigs are readily observed

Pigs have different requirements depending upon their stage of life and specific

requirements are discussed in more detail below. The primary purpose of sheds and

shelters is to keep pigs warm and dry, they can however tolerate cold much more readily

than heat. Growing and breeding stock show heat stress from ambient temperatures of 260

C, so provision of shade and wallows is vital in summer.

Consideration needs to be given to the ability to move huts periodically because they can

pug badly around entrance ways and if they don‟t have inbuilt floors they can „hollow

out‟ inside and get wet or damp in adverse weather. However the following standards

remain constant for all pigs and should be maintained as minimum housing requirements.

Minimum Housing Requirements

All free-range pigs require free access to housing (sheds or huts) to provide

shelter where they can all lie at once and move freely in and out of without

obstruction.

Free range pigs can be temporarily housed indoors to receive veterinary treatment,

in the case of an emergency or if required or directed by relevant authorities (for

example in the case of an exotic disease outbreak). It is also permitted to move

finished pigs into huts/tents/barns or other accommodation for 48hrs for sorting

prior to dispatch to market. Sows may farrow in doors in an open pen with access

to a paddock. Newly born pigs may be confined to the pen or farrowing hut by a

fender.

During adverse weather conditions pigs may be confined on a „standoff‟ area for

48 hours.

Accommodation must be designed, constructed and managed in a manner that

protects pigs from adverse weather, injuries or harm. E.g. insulation of huts to

reduce internal temperature variations, the ability to allow ventilation in hot

weather and hut entrance ways oriented away from prevailing weather especially

wind.

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Bedding is required in all huts and outdoor housing to provide for warmth and

comfort. Periodic burning of „spent‟ bedding will reduce flea build up.

To maintain health, regular movement of huts to dry sites on the paddock as well

as the regular rotation of paddocks is recommended. This will reduce muddy

patches in hollows around hut entrances, soil in huts being hollowed out, reduce

the problem of fleas and will allow for recovery of pasture cover or to be cropped.

Minimum lying area allowance recommendations per pig within shelter accommodation: (tents/huts)

Minimum Lying Growing animals

(Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010 Minimum Standard 6c )

The minimum lying space allowance for growing pigs must be in accordance with the

following formula as per

Area (m2) per pig = 0.03 x liveweight 0.67 (kg).

For example

Animal Group

By weight (kg)

Minimum lying requirements

(m2 / animal )

10kg pig 0.14m2

20kg pig 0.22m2

30kg pig 0.29m2

40kg pig 0.36m2

50kg pig 0.41m2

60kg pig 0.47m2

70kg pig 0.52m2

80kg pig 0.57m2

90kg pig 0.61m2

100kg pig 0.66m2

Farrowing Hut Recommended Practice

Within the farrowing paddock huts are provided for individual sows. A range of hut

designs, level of insulation and construction materials are in use, with a few examples

shown below. The huts/farrowing area, should be able to maintain a comfortable

temperature for sows at 20o C and piglets at over 30o C. This is aided greatly by the

provision of dry straw bedding for the piglets to provide warmth and protection. Provision

for ventilation in huts in summer is required to maintain a more comfortable environment

for sows. Overlaying is a major cause of piglet death and needs to be carefully managed

in free range systems by such things as confining the sows and piglets at farrowing and

for the first 3-4 days post farrowing to:

Provide heat and care for piglets. However sows must be able to have access to

paddocks.

Use systems such as fenders on the front of farrowing huts. The use of fenders or

stepped entrances mean that small piglets are less likely to get lost or chilled by

12

roaming outside the hut, or be adversely effected by conditions such as

hypothermia or sunburn.

In larger huts using „farrowing rails‟ around the perimeter can assist in reducing

overlaying if straw bedding is carefully managed to prevent straw „packing‟ and

trapping bedding under the rail, subsequently reducing the floor space available

and nullifying the benefit of the rails. The straw depth continually changes and

farrowing rails may not be at the right height.

Photo 5, 6, 7 and 8 above, show four different styles of free range farrowing accommodation.

Photo 9: Interior of farrowing hut showing a „farrowing rail‟ around the perimeter of the

interior and limited use of straw on floor of hut.

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2.4.1 Dry Sow Group Accommodation Recommended Practice

Dry sow housing is generally designed to accommodate groups of breeding animals.

These come in a variety of forms as shown in the illustrations below. Note trees for

shelter and the huts are facing away from the predominant wind direction,

Photo 10-15: Variations in dry sow housing designs

Note skids to facilitate easy movement

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Photo 16: Interior of a dry sow house with wooden floor

2.4.2 Weaner Accommodation

The younger the pig, the more vulnerable they are and the more critical are their

accommodation needs. They must be kept in a clean, warm, dry, draught free

environment subject to minimal variations in temperature. Straw based systems work

well.

Photos 17 and 18: Weaner Accommodation

Photos 16 and 17 demonstrate an example of suitable weaner accommodation: Photo 16

(left) shows separate straw bale draught free sleeping area, under a „kennel‟ roof for

newly weaned pigs. Also note ventilation flap at back and drinkers in left foreground.

Photo 17 (right) shows weaner pigs a few weeks later with the straw bale sleeping area

broken down but the „kennel‟ roof retained in the sleeping area.

Where possible pigs should be kept in stable groups of familiar animals though

out the growing period.

The use of moveable weaner „boxes‟ constructed of plywood is one approach to

provide quality accommodation. Weaner boxes are generally constructed with a

low roof and well insulated.

Ensure water supply is sited outside of the sleeping area to prevent flooding of the

bedding.

15

Photo 19: An example of a low roofed weaner box type accommodation suitable for weaners

2.4.3 Grower accommodation

As pigs grow, they become more tolerant of changes in the environment and

accommodation requirements are less rigorous. However it is essential they have a warm

dry, draught free sleeping area large enough to accommodate all the pigs in a paddock at

together.

Photo 20: Accommodation suitable for free range growers

Photo 21: Example of access for free range growing pigs to fodder beet crops from a shelter

A popular design is a „kennel‟ area constructed in a general purpose building. A false roof

or lid is positioned over the pigs sleeping area to create a warm, dry and draught free

environment.

2.4.4 Bedding

Bedding such as straw, sawdust or shredded paper must be provided to all animals housed

outside in sufficient quantities as to allow for nest building for sows and to provide

insulation for growing animals. Sows at farrowing may collect pasture grasses for nests.

Bedding needs to be topped up regularly and replaced between batches

Straw should be provided on an „as required‟ basis. Additional straw may be

required in the winter months, during wet or snowy conditions. Bedding needs to

be monitored to ensure it does not get too damp.

16

The use of a built in floor will lessen the use of straw bedding as well as making

the hut or shelter stronger.

Barley straw is preferred for bedding. Wheat straw is less absorbent, more

„prickly‟ and does not have the same „spring.‟ Less absorbent wheat straw can be

used as a base, with barley straw placed on top. Meadow hay has poor water

absorption, becomes mouldy very quickly and piglets are more likely to get

„tangled‟ in hay.

Correct dry storage of straw stacks is important to prevent mould and subsequent

mycotoxin development

Photo 22: Access to dry straw is essential for success in free range farrowing systems

2.4.5 Paddock Layout

A well thought out paddock layout helps improve efficiency within free-range systems,

allows easy transportation of feed, water reticulation, movement of stock as well as

saving time for the operators. The layout and dimensions of paddocks will vary

depending upon:

The general topography and hills/gullies/watercourses.

Shape of a site.

Trees and bush.

Mating system

The numbers of pigs and production system.

Waterways or old river bed contours.

The following photo (Photo 22) is an example of a commonly used radial design

technique for gestating sows. Within radial designs resources are held in a central zone

with the zone surrounded by paddocks as well as an access track. The central zone

provides access to all paddocks within a small area.

17

Photo 23: Radial design technique for gestating sows

Pigs can be set stocked or rotationally grazed with break fences. Spare paddocks must be

kept available for pasture recovery when necessary. Mating paddocks with boars or boar

packs are generally larger than those for pregnant sows because of the level of activity

that results in excessive paddock wear.

Shelter

The use of low hedges and shelter belts to protect from the prevailing wind is beneficial.

Strategically planted trees (in fence lines, paddock corners, riparian strips) can also

provide shade in the summer. Shade cloth can be used to provide shade in open

paddocks and are often mounted over the wallow.

Photo 24: Paddock fence showing pampas planted as low shelter for free range pigs.

18

Photo 25: Trimmed hedge providing shelter from prevailing wind and tree on fence

line provides suitable summer shade.

The type of free range layout employed will depend on soil type contour, climatic

conditions, availability of straw etc. Below are some sketches from the 1950‟s „Waikato

open air layout‟ where farrowing paddocks have one hut to service two paddocks, one

being used the other spelled or in crop (Figure 1). Adjacent to the farrowing paddocks are

finishing paddocks with a similar set up of one hut servicing two paddocks. To maintain

good ground cover and grass quality, excess grass can be controlled by sheep or mown.

Figure 1: Paddock layout for free range farrowing and finishing operations

19

To provide more control, better management of feeding and maintaining grass cover in

adverse weather the combination of fixed grower facilities and access to pasture may be

considered as per Figure 2 and Figure 3 below.

Figure 2: Fixed grower facilities and access to pasture

Figure 3: schematic drawings of fixed grower facilities (dimensions and stock movements)

20

Dry sows can be fed on good dairy type pasture/lucerne and crops/crop waste with

suitable cereal based dietary supplementation. Movable shelters or huts on skids will

facilitate the ability to shift sows to paddocks with suitable feed. Ensure provision of

drinking water. Electric fencing can be used to strip graze within a bigger paddock.

2.5 Feed

Nutrition

(Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010 Minimum Standard 2)

a) All pigs must receive adequate quantities of food and nutrients each day to enable

each pig to:

(i) maintain good health;

(ii) meet its physiological demands; and

(iii) avoid metabolic and nutritional disorders.

b) Feed must be provided in such a way as to prevent undue competition and injury.

c) When the body condition of any pig falls to 2 or below (on a scale of 1–5)

immediate remedial action must be taken to resolve the issue.

Feeding pigs can be summarised as per below;

Pigs are omnivorous and can eat and utilise a wide range of feed stuffs.

Their nutritional needs change as they grow- young pigs need palatable, digestible

more energy dense feeds while breeding stock can handle bulky more fibrous

material.

Pigs need to be supplied with balanced protein in their diets.

Growing pigs of improved genotype can be fed ad libitum to market weight with a

correctly balanced diet to produce an acceptable carcass.

By-products, root crops and human food waste can be fed to pigs but care is

needed to balance with protein and ensure the feed is suitably fortified with

vitamins and minerals.

Free range pigs will have access to pasture and depending on grass type and stage of

maturity, sows and older growing pigs may get a portion of their nutritional requirements

from grazing. For younger pigs pasture could be described as a „filler‟.

2.6 Grazing

The feed value of grass varies greatly based on sward type and stage of maturity. Pasture is

only digestible to pigs in its vegetative form; this is the green lush stage before the grass

starts to produce seed heads. Once seed heads are produced the fibre content increases and

digestibility is markedly reduced for pigs. Pigs tend to chew fibrous grass and then spit it

out, so gaining very little benefit from it. Grazing will require strict management over the

winter, to stop pugging and in spring when the majority of growth occurs, including

topping or grazing by sheep and cattle to keep the grass in its fresh vegetative form. The

dry matter content of good quality pasture would be 14% and on a dry matter basis the

protein level is 22% and digestible energy content 7.6Mj/kg. Break feeding of pasture and

crops with temporary fencing is possible, with crops such as lucerne, greenfeed oats, red

clover, and fodder beet. While pigs may be able to „maintain‟ themselves on good quality

21

pasture, this will be at the expense of growth and productivity. Because of the variable

nature of grass as a nutrient for pigs and amounts lost to bare patches and rooting, careful

balancing and supplementation of diets are required to ensure acceptable levels of growth

and productivity. The following pages will provide a background to nutrition and feeding

needs of pigs.

Photo 26: Sows being break fed on red clover

Nutrients required to generate growth and sustain life may be divided into 5 main groups.

The 5 key nutrients are:

Energy (carbohydrates, fats)

Proteins (amino acids)

Minerals (macro- and micro-minerals)

Vitamins (fat soluble and water soluble)

Water

2.6.1 Energy

Energy is used by the pig for maintenance of life and for production of new tissues.

Energy is used as „fuel‟ for body processes and any excess is stored as fat to be used in

times of feed shortages. Energy is primarily supplied by carbohydrate and fats but also by

the breakdown of proteins. In New Zealand energy is expressed in mega joules/kilogram

(MJ/kg) feed. Gross energy from different the sources:

Carbohydrate /starch 17.5 MJ GE /kg

Protein 23.6 MJ GE/kg

Fat/oil 39.3 MJ GE/kg

Energy losses occur during the body's digestive and metabolic processes, with only part

of the total energy from the feed available for body maintenance and productive functions

(Net Energy).

The energy content of feedstuffs is normally expressed as digestible energy. The

digestible energy (DE) content of a feedstuff is determined by subtracting the amount of

energy in the feed from the energy lost in the faeces.

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Energy must be provided in large amounts over that needed for maintenance to achieve

optimum growth and reproduction responses. The major source of dietary energy for the

growing pig is from the carbohydrate (i.e., starch) component of grains or their by-

products. Feedstuffs such as maize, and wheat contain high percentages of starch (>60%).

Cereal grains such as barley also contain starch as their predominant energy source, but

they also contain higher levels of the complex carbohydrates (e.g. fibre) that have a low

digestibility.

Fats provide the most concentrated source of dietary energy to the body. Dietary fat

provides 2.25 times more energy on a weight basis than does carbohydrate. The percent

fat (oil) in most cereal grains is substantially less than the carbohydrate component and

generally ranges from 1 to 4%. Dietary fats also contain the essential fatty acids that are

used for the synthesis of various hormones. The presence of fat in the intestinal tract is

essential for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.

2.6.2 Protein

Protein is required by pigs to develop new tissues and organs and is required in greater

levels in young pigs when they are fast growing. Proteins are large and complex

molecules made up of up to 24 simpler compounds called amino acids and can form many

thousands of combinations giving the complexity and variety of proteins such as muscle

tissue, milk proteins and hair. Protein supplied in the diet is broken down into its

constituent amino acids for restructuring in the body for growth or milk production. There

is a requirement level for each amino acid, and while some can be synthesised in the body

there are 10 which cannot and must be supplied in the diet. The level of the inclusion of

these essential amino acids in the diet is crucial to growth. They need to be supplied at

certain levels and in balance with each other. Most amino acids are supplied in reasonable

levels in practical cereal based diets in NZ. The first limiting amino acids are lysine,

tryptophan, methionine and possibly threonine. The balance of amino acids, total protein

level and energy levels are critical to maintain growth and performance in pigs. Lysine is

generally the first-limiting amino acid (i.e., the first amino acid to be deficient) in a cereal

based meal mixture. Therefore, pig diets are formulated to a specific lysine, rather than

protein level.

Table 2 – Suggested ideal pattern of amino acids in relation to lysine

Amino acid Relativity to lysine

Lysine

Histidine

Isoleucine

Leucine

Methionine + Cysteine

Phenylalanine + tyrosine

Threonine

Tryptophan

Valine

100

32

50-60

100

50-60

90-100

65-70

18-20

68-70

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2.6.3 Minerals

Minerals are deposited in bone structure and are required in the composition of some cells

and proteins. Macro minerals such as calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), and sodium (Na) are

required in larger amounts and are involved in the formation of bone (Ca & P) and in

blood and maintaining the ion balance in cell walls (Na). Iron (Fe) is essential for blood

production and preventing anemia. Trace elements are those required in minute amounts

and are involved in various cell and bodily functions associated with growth and

production. Correct balances are important to avoid deficiencies and toxicity as well as

antagonistic actions with other nutrients. Trace elements include copper, selenium,

magnesium, manganese, zinc, iodine, potassium, and cobalt.

2.6.4 Vitamins

Vitamins are an unrelated group of organic compounds that are essential to normal

growth and maintenance of life and are required in small amounts. Vitamins are identified

in two groups being fat and water soluble.

In purchased proprietary feed both the vitamin and mineral requirements for pig are

supplied by the addition of a vitamin mineral premix.

2.6.5 Nutrition needs to be balanced

If the nutrient requirements of the pig are not met then the pig will not be able to perform

to its growth potential. The following list shows what will happen depending on what

nutrients are deficient:

Energy - Less growth

Protein - Less lean muscle

- Greater fat/lean ratio

Minerals - Skeletal problems (deformed etc.)

- Less growth

Vitamins - Less growth

- Disease symptoms

If the nutrient requirements are exceeded over and above what the pig needs for normal

growth then the pig will show this excess in various ways:

Energy - Deposited as fat

Protein - Converted to energy (deposited as fat)

- Excreted (waste of protein)

Minerals - Skeletal imbalance

- Less growth

- Toxicity

Vitamins - Toxicity

- Excreted

Being monogastric animal‟s pigs‟ capacity to digest bulky, fibrous materials is quite

limited. The feed allowance required for free-range animals will vary dependent upon the

quality and quantity of forage available for the pigs within the paddock as well as the

climate conditions.

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All pigs require a diet that is balanced and includes protein, energy and minerals.

Recommended Practices

As a general rule the total feeding requirements of free range pigs can be 10-15% higher

than an indoor equivalent. This is due to the larger climatic variation, the level of exercise

undertaken as well as the risk of feed loss to pests such as birds or wastage when feeding

on to the ground in muddy, wet conditions. Where meal feeding is undertaken, most

operations will have an ad lib feeder in the pen for weaned and growing pigs. Guidelines

for actual intakes are shown below. Breeding stock will be fed to condition on set feeding

levels.

Table 3 – An approximate meal feeding scale using a cereal based balanced diet.

Class of pig Age (days) Liveweight

(kg)

Meal feeding

requirements (kg /

pig/day)

Weaners 25-35 7-12 0.25-0.5

Weaners 35-49 12-17 0.6

Weaners 49-63 17-25 1.0

Growers 63-84 25-40 1.3

Growers 84108 40-60 1.85

Growers 108-129 60-80 2.4

Finishers 129-149 80-90 2.8-3.0

Replacement gilts 2.5-3.5

Mating sows 3.5

Gestating sows 2.5-3.0

Boars 2.5-3.0

Lactating sow with

piglets

3.5 + 0.5 (per piglet)

The above feeding scale will allow 65 kg deadweight pigs to be produced in 140 days

from birth.

2.6.6 Effect of feed level on FCR.

The first call on nutrients is for maintenance i.e. to maintain body functions, movement,

and warmth. Any feed above maintenance is utilised for growth. The example in the table

below shows the effect of feed level of a balanced diet on feed conversion ratio (FCR) for

an 80 kg pig

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Table 4 – Effects of feed level on FCR for 80kg pigs

Feed

intake

(kg/day)

Energy

intake

(MJ DE)

Energy

above

maint.

(MJ DE)

Growth

rate

(g/day)

FCR

0.95 13.3 0 0 ∞

1.00 14 0.7 43 23.30

1.50 21 7.7 472 3.18

2.00 28 14.7 902 2.22

2.50 35 21.7 1331 1.88

3.00 42 28.7 1760 1.70

2.7 Ingredients used

The more common foodstuffs used in formulating meal diets for pigs have already been

mentioned in the section on nutrients. These foodstuffs are listed below under two

headings - energy sources and protein sources:

Energy food sources Protein food sources

Maize Meat & bone meal

Barley Dried blood meal

Wheat Soya meal

Fat Fish meal

Milk powder

Peas

Lupins

While these feed ingredients have been classed as either energy or protein sources they all

contribute both energy and protein to the pig's diet. Remember that 30% of protein in the

pig's diet comes from cereals as they comprise the major part of the pigs‟ diet. However,

cereals contain low levels of the three limiting amino acids, hence the necessity to include

concentrated proteins high in these amino acids in the pig's diet.

These feed ingredients are blended to meet the nutritional requirements of pigs as cheaply

as possible. Nutritionists can reach same specification by different combinations of

ingredients and this will depend on the price relativities the available ingredients.

Bran and pollard are also included in pig diets. They have high fibre content but can be

included in the diets of growers, finisher pigs and breeding stock. However, free range

pigs should have access to enough roughage if paddocks maintain grass cover.

Other foodstuffs that are fed to pigs are listed below:

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a) Whey, cheese and other milk by products

b) Bread, biscuits, and other human food sources

c) Root crops and crop residues

d) Pasture

e) Waste food - see regulations below

These foodstuffs are normally fed separately. Apart from milk based products they all

tend to be energy food sources and will require supplementation with protein feed sources

to ensure the pigs receive a balanced diet.

These alternative feeds can usually be purchased fairly cheaply and are used to replace

the more expensive cereal grain based feeds. However, it is important that the pigs‟

nutritional needs are adequately met, otherwise these 'apparently' low cost feed sources

may turn out to be more expensive in the long term due to depressed growth rates and

increased deaths. These alternative feeds are nearly all 'bulky', i.e. they have a low

nutrient density. This means that a large amount has to be fed to provide a relatively

small amount of nutrients and they are often not suitable for feeding young pigs. The

most common reason for this low density is either because the source has a high water

content, or because it contains a high proportion of indigestible material, namely fibre.

Bulky feeds should never be fed to lactating sows or young growing pigs. This is because

their gut capacity (i.e. how much food they can eat) is small in relation to their energy and

protein requirements.

For young pigs to grow to their potential they require nutrients in concentrated form, as

provided by cereal based meals. As pigs approach heavier weights (40kg liveweight

upwards) they are better able to handle bulk feeds. However, growth will still be

adversely affected by high levels of water or fibre intake. Low cost bulky feed sources

may lead to reduced feed costs, but only if they are properly balanced to meet the pig's

nutrient requirements. This will mean a fortified „balancer‟ feed to make up the nutrient

shortfalls of the alternative feed. The greatest success with such feeds occurs when they

are used to supplement meal feeding rather than the other way round.

2.7.1 Comparisons of crops to barley

The following provides comparisons of various crops and odd feedstuffs to 1kg barley meal

on a weight basis. Please note these comparisons are made on an energy basis only and most

crops and feed wastes are deficient in protein and require protein supplementation.

Potatoes (cooked) 4

Carrots 7 - 9

Fodder beet 5-6

Apples 10 - 14

Pumpkins 10 - 12

Bread 1.3

Cheese 1

Biscuits 0.8

Pasture 14%DM 14

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2.7.2 Limitations to inclusion levels of some common feed ingredients

Limitations of ingredients inclusion levels are caused by things like anti-nutritional

factors, bulkiness, low nutrient levels, imbalance of nutrients, physical make up and

palatability.

Table 5 – Limitations to inclusion levels of some common feed ingredients

Ingredient % upper level

in diet

Reason

Bloodmeal

Broll

Canola/Rapeseed

Fishmeal

Soya meal

Oils/fat

Triticale

Meat and bone meal

Peas

Cooked potatoes

Faba beans

Copra

Lupins

Bread

Cake waste

Biscuit meal

Molasses

Carrots

Potato crisps

Cabbage

Swedes

Brewers grains

Fodder beet

Cheddar cheese

Food waste

5

25 growers - 35 Dry sows

5 weaners -10 growers

2

Low for weaned pigs- 30

5-8

50% grain component

5 weaners-15 sows

50

50

10-20

50

15

30-40

30-40

30-40

5-7.5

5-20

15-25

2.5-15

15

5-20

30

15-40

No limit for dry sows if

nutritionally balanced

Palatability, Imbalance of

amino acids

High fibre

Anti-nutritional factors

Oil content and flavor on pork

Practical limitations of mixing

Anti-nutritional factors

High ash

Bulk and low protein

Anti-nutritional factors

Amino acid imbalance

Anti-nutritional factors

Low fibre , high salt, mouldy

Low in protein and fibre

High fat low fibre

High ash, laxative, low protein

Bulky

High salt, high fat, low fibre

Too bulky

Too bulky, low energy , low protein

Low energy ,high fibre

Low protein, bulky

Low in fibre, high fat

Variable product, low protein, high

salt

2.7.3 Food waste.

Food waste is the plate waste from hospitals, restaurants, cafes, and prisons. This product

is variable in nature and its feed value depends on the amount of fibrous material included

in the diet, for example cabbage leaves from a green grocer. Food waste is usually low in

protein, and may be high in salt.

Feeding Food Waste to Pigs

Feeding meat and food waste containing meat to pigs is a disease risk to New Zealand‟s

livestock industries. The Biosecurity (Meat and Food Waste for Pigs) Regulations 2005

28

were introduced to prevent the entry and control the spread of diseases like PRRS, swine

vesicular disease, classical swine fever and foot and mouth disease. Risks in feeding

waste food to pigs can be as simple as pigs getting access to lunch bar/restaurant waste

containing filled rolls with ham in them.

Biosecurity (Meat and Food Waste for Pigs) Regulations 2005

These regulations require that any food waste that contains meat, or has come into contact

with meat, must be „treated‟ before being fed to pigs. „Treated‟ is defined as heated to 100

degrees C for an hour. (A good rule of thumb is to boil for an hour.) The regulations state

that persons must not feed, or allow, cause or permit a pig to eat these products unless

treated. They also state that persons must not collect, distribute or trade these products if

they are for, or intended for feeding to pigs, unless they have been treated or will be

treated.

These regulations therefore place responsibility on all persons who are involved in the

supply of food waste to feed pigs, as well as the pork producer.

Note also that the scope of the regulations covers dead animals, and so pork producers

must prevent access of pigs to any animal carcasses at all times.

Under the Biosecurity Act 1993, individuals found feeding non-compliant food to pigs

can be fined a maximum of $5,000. Corporations in breach of these regulations face a

$15,000 fine.

2.8 Feed management techniques

Feed lost on pastures or muddy ground can be minimised by using a concrete feed

pad or trough, by floor feeding inside a shed or feeder in a shed.

Troughs on a solid pad allow for liquid feeding

Feeding systems for free range pigs kept within groups requires good

management to ensure all animals have access to sufficient quantities of feed.

Feed when distributed at a restricted rate should be spread over a large area so as

to enable all pigs to get their share and to minimise competition.

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Photos 27-31: Examples of free range feeding options

Feed: New-born Piglets

It is essential that new-born piglets receive an adequate supply of colostrum from the sow

or an appropriate colostrum substitute, as soon as possible after birth, and ideally within

24 hours, when their digestive tract is still able to absorb the proteins that give

immunological protection. Colostrum also provides a highly digestible source of energy.

Sows‟ milk contains a range of proteins and other substances that protect the piglets from

infections and digestive upsets. Continued access to sows‟ milk is therefore important for

the welfare of the piglets.

Piglets receiving inadequate milk from their sow should, if possible, be transferred

(fostered) to another appropriate lactating sow or may be hand-reared.

Feed: New-born Piglets

(Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010 Minimum Standard 3)

a) All piglets must receive colostrum or an appropriate substitute as soon as

possible after birth, and within 24 hours.

b) If piglets are not being fed adequately by the sow, they must be fostered, hand

reared or killed humanely.

c) Fostering must be carefully managed to ensure that the nurse sow accepts and is

able to feed all of the piglets.

Feed pad showing troughs and solid base Tube feeders automatically filled in rear of

shelter

Feed trough on concrete pad adjacent to

water trough

30

2.9 Condition scoring

Body condition scoring is a useful method of visually and manually assessing whether

animals are receiving adequate nutrition. Refer to the table below for a body condition

scoring scale in pigs. Note however that weight for age may be a more reliable indicator

than body condition score for young rapidly growing pigs, especially those that are

genetically bred for fast lean growth rates.

The Code of Welfare (Pigs) states that body weights or body condition scores are

monitored and maintained at level appropriate for the class of pig. Theses being:

- Breeding sows after weaning greater than 2 and preferably not less than 3

- Breeding sows at farrowing are not less than 3, and are preferably 3.5 - 4

- Growers, finishers, boars greater than 2 and preferably not less than 3

31

Figure 4: Body condition scoring (Sources: Code of Welfare (Pigs))

32

2.10 Water

Drinking Water Requirements

(Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010 Minimum Standard 4 )

a) An adequate daily supply of water that is palatable, not harmful to health and at a

temperature that does not inhibit drinking must be accessible to all pigs, at all

times.

Water is vital to productivity and good health.

Drinking water needs to be palatable, potable, continuously available and

accessible to all pigs kept in free-range environments.

Automatic water systems must be checked daily to ensure the above and not

leaking

Water is a vital nutrient and loss of body tissue water is much more critical than that of fat

and protein. Muscle tissue contains 78% water so that adequate supplies of water are

vital to the development of rapid growth, a good carcass and allowing a sow to milk well.

Water also softens and lubricates dry feeds and assists in the passage of feed through the

digestive system, it is also the medium by which nutrients are broken down and

transported to all tissues. Pigs usually consume 2 to 3kg of water for every kg of dry feed

consumed. If water is not readily accessible to the pig, if the pig is overcrowded, or if an

adequate number of drinkers are unavailable per pig, feed intake and subsequent daily

gains will be reduced.

Recommended practice

Water can be provided either through troughs, bowls or nipples connected to

posts. Sows do tend to wallow in troughs in hot weather and can be very

destructive so fittings and ball cocks need to be well protected. One trough may

be sufficient for two paddocks if divided by an electric wire (See photos below).

However, care should be taken to ensure that the location of the electric wire

allows for safe drinking area for pigs, especially those breeds with long floppy

ears.

In free-range environments water troughs needs to be regularly cleaned because

of contamination from feed and soil which can reduce water intake and any algal

growth can be dangerous to pigs. In cold conditions troughs should be checked

for ice buildup.

If nipples are used care should be taken to ensure that the drinking water is not hot

during summer months. Burying the supply pipe to a depth of at least 13cm below

the surface is sufficient to insulate the pipes. Leaving the line running

continuously will not allow temperature build up.

33

Photos 32-34: Examples of free range drinking options

A reliable source of clean water will need to be provided and how this is done will depend

on the farm infrastructure. Pumps, tanks, pipes, ball cocks and troughs or drinkers will

form the basis of the delivery system with gravity often used to distribute water to troughs

from header tanks. A 50mm mainline will follow the race system or around the perimeter

of the farm to provide a water source to each paddock.

Table 6 – Guide to daily water requirements for various classes of pigs at normal

ambient temperatures normal ambient temperatures

Class of Pig Daily Water Requirements

(litres)

Pigs up to 10kg 1.2 - 1.5

Pigs from 11 - 25kg 2.3 - 2.5

Pigs from 26 - 50kg 3.0 - 5.0

Pigs from 51 - 120 kg 6.0 - 8.0

Boars 5.0 - 10.0

Replacement gilts 5.0 - 8.0

Pregnant sow or gilt 5.0 - 10.0

Lactating sow 15.0 - 50.0

34

2.10.1 Wallows

Water is also required to help pigs cool. Pigs cannot sweat and when they are hot they

will pant to try to remove excess heat via evaporation from their lungs and increase water

consumption required for the panting fluid loss. They also cover themselves in in

anything that is wet, to facilitate evaporative cooling from the skin. Pigs use wallows in

hot weather to wet their skin and cool off via evaporative cooling. In addition wallows

provide a covering of mud which reduces the effect of sunburn in white skinned

genotypes.

Wallows can be constructed manually by digging a hole or the pigs will do it themselves

if there is a good water source. Draw off points from the main water line can be used to

create wallows in hot weather. Shade cloth can also be used over a wallow.

Within New Zealand it is not necessary to provide wallows all year round however

wallows should be considered in the dry sow paddocks from November to April. Wallows

are not generally recommended in farrowing and growing paddocks. The number of

wallows should be as limited i.e. one per paddock.

The location of these facilities should be considered to avoid leaching nutrients (i.e.

not on sandy soil types).

Alternative drippers and spays can be used under shade cloth to provide evaporative

cooling for pigs.

If a wallow becomes unhygienic i.e. starts to smell badly it should be replaced with

a fresh wallow.

2.11 Husbandry procedures

Husbandry procedures on animals need to be carefully consideration for welfare, the

health and safety of the stockperson (e.g. tusk trimming of boars) and environmental

impact. The following are recommendations for husbandry procedures for free-range

animals.

Elective Husbandry procedures

(Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010 Minimum Standard 16 )

a) Elective husbandry procedures must only be carried out where they are justifiable

to prevent undesirable consequences that could subsequently result in animal

suffering.

b) Tail docking of pigs over seven days of age or surgical castration at any age must

be carried out by a veterinarian.

c) Clipping or grinding of needle teeth must be carried out before five days of age.

d) If nose rings, clips or wires are used they must be placed through the cartilage at

the top of the snout or in the tissue separating the nostrils.

35

2.11.1 Nose rings

If nose rings, wire and clips are to be installed they must be placed through the cartilage

at the top of the snout or in the tissue separating nostrils. Wire and clips are less likely to

clog up with mud but will wear out more quickly.

In New Zealand approximately 90% of the outdoor sows have nose rings installed. Nose

rings make digging uncomfortable for the pigs and limit rooting behavior, although a rung

pig is still able to forage freely through leaf litter and surface vegetation. Nose rings

provide environmental benefits such as maintaining ground cover, reducing nutrient

runoff and leaching, as well as reducing fence breaking by sows. Service boars are not

rung, so the ring will not interfere with courtship behavior.

Photos 35: Grass cover that can be maintained with correct stocking rates and rung sows

Decisions on nose rings should be assessed on a case by case basis.

2.11.2 Tusk Trimming

Mature working boars should be de-tusked regularly for the protection of all people who

have contact with them. This means about every 6 months after the boar is 12 months of

age. All boars should be de-tusked prior to shipment to collection points, abattoirs or

auction marts. Only the two tusks in the bottom jaw need to be removed. These are the

teeth used by boars in fighting. They are kept sharp by rubbing against the blunt top tusks

and are used in an upwards and sideways ripping action.

The preferred method of removal is to saw off the teeth. This method avoids the

splintering, sharp residues and gum trauma associated with other methods of removal.

This is undertaken using dehorning wire by experienced staff.

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2.11.3 Mortalities

Stock persons will ensure that dead pigs are removed daily and disposed of using industry

best practice methods e.g. composting or in offal pits.

2.12 Fencing

Regional and District Council Regulations may have by-laws stipulating distances pigs

can be kept from boundaries and dwellings.

Fences need to be able to confine pigs. Fences need to be designed so that pigs are

discouraged from jumping over, digging under or crawling between the wires as well as

preventing stray animals and wild pigs from entering the paddocks. As a result the fences

of free-range pig paddocks typically consist of electric, netting, or plain wire fences, or a

combination of these materials.

Commercially farmed outdoor pigs are easy to control with electric fencing as they have

very little hair and wet noses. Pigs are intelligent animals, and quickly learn to respect and

avoid electric fences. On outdoor farms the containment of pigs requires a perimeter

fence of a conventional 8 wire post and batten fence or equivalent wire netting fencing on

the boundary. Attached 200-300mm inside this boundary fence there will be an electric

wire set on „outriggers‟. Internal subdivision for breeding stock requires 2 electric wires

set above the ground at 150-300mm and 400-550mm.

Rule of thumb: where one wire or tape is used, set the height at eye level of pigs to be

contained. While pigs have poor eyesight, they will baulk if they think a wire is present

once they have been conditioned to electricity. Top wire usually determined by the height

of the operator i.e. ability to step over the wire or the height of vehicles required to drive

over the fence. Best supports are reported to be half a fibreglass deer stake set up to 15m

apart on flat ground. Soft 1.2 mm wire is recommended because it stretches, easy to re-tie

if broken and won‟t „pop‟ posts out of the ground when a vehicle crosses the fence. An

issue with electric fences is if the power goes down, trees fall across them or in heavy

snowfalls, pigs can go across them (boars are worse). However pigs are respectful of

electric fences, even when they are not operating. For this reason it is recommended to

use wooden gates rather than electric wires as gates for ease of stock movement. Young

pigs are more likely to “bolt” under electric wires as they don‟t go through the formal

training sessions that breeding stock do.

Training is required when first introducing pigs to electric fences. This is normally

undertaken when breeding stock arrive on site and are contained in the training facility

during their quarantine/acclimatisation period of 4-6weeks. This involves perimeter fence

either conventional or netting with internal hot wires of the same sort they will have in the

paddocks

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Photo 36: Training pigs to respect the electric fence. The “hot” wire is visible inside conventional

netting fence

Photo 37: Grass growing along fence lines.

An electric fencing system will require:

An energizer (follow suppliers/manufactures recommendations as to the rating

required). This will be determined, the length of fence, number of joins, by

vegetation on the fence line and type of wire or tape used.

Corner posts and either post with insulators or fibreglass stakes set at 10-15m

intervals depending on ground conditions, and wire or tape.

Gates or visible electric coils or tapes different from wire fence so pigs can see

the gate has been opened.

With electric wires close to the ground always ensure vegetation on the fence wire is kept

to a minimum. This can be done by moving or spraying under the fence line. However

leave grass cover in gateways so pigs don‟t shy away when moving. Where piglets and

weaners are kept, wires will need to be spaced closer together and lower to the ground

than adult pigs alone.

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Wire Spacing Guide

Most outdoor pig herds are kept in paddocks which have two wires for divisions

3 wire fence55cm height

3 wire fence40cm height

2 wire fence40cm height

25cm

15cm

15cm

10cm

15cm

15cm

20cm

20cm

. Figure 5: Recommended wire spacing for free range pigs

Photo 38: Wire netting fence approximately 1m high suitable for growers and breeding

stock. Newly weaned pigs can get trapped.

Photo 39: Example of conveyor belting fence

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Sections of used conveyor belting make an excellent, robust, pig proof barrier

especially when you are trying to contain small pigs in a confined area and for

lining timber walls of huts.

Photo 40 and 41: Examples of electric tape for break feeding, in this case sows on fodder

beet

One strand of electric tape is suitable for tempory fencing when break feeding crops for

sows

2.13 Health

Stock persons should be trained in recognition of injured or sick animals. A normal pig is

alert, active, curious, vocal, has a keen appetite, has fine hair, clean skin of good colour

with a “bloom”, clear bright eyes, moist nose and warm ears. The tail is curly and the pig

will move freely. The mucous membranes of the eye and mouth are pink. The

temperature of a healthy pig is between 38.5º C and 39.3ºC.

An unhealthy pig will lack some or all of these characteristics. It often has a poor appetite

or off feed, reluctant to move/stand and lethargic or recumbent, dull eyes, dry nose, cold

ears and the tail is straight. The mucous membranes may be pale yellow or red, it has dull

skin and hair, hairy, blotchy or discoloured skin, sunken flanks, protruding backbone,

abnormal dung either loose, or hard, erratic breathing, shivering, rapid weight loss,

coughing, swollen joints, and discharges. The behavior may change and it may separate

itself from the group.

Management of Health and Injury

(Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010 Minimum Standard 18 )

a) The owner or person in charge must check pigs at least once each day for signs of

ill-health or injury and must undertake timely preventative or remedial action as

appropriate.

b) Those responsible for the care of pigs must be competent at recognising the signs

of good health, ill health, or injury and must consult a veterinarian as appropriate.

c) Medication must only be used in accordance with registration conditions, and the

manufacturer‟s instructions or professional advice.

d) Piglets must receive sufficient iron to prevent anaemia.

e) Contaminated bedding, faeces and urine must not accumulate to the extent that

they pose a threat to the health and welfare of pigs.

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Husbandry factors to maintain high health.

The main factor to preserve high health is biosecurity, with the objective to keep disease

out of the pig herd . This is very important with introducing new stock. Only buy and

source stock from an equivalent or higher health farm. Other factors include feeding

nutritionally balanced diets at recommended levels, clean water, warm, dry, draught free

housing, maintain good hygiene in housing and feeders, ensure all piglets receive

adequate colostrum, spelling between batches, don‟t run pigs on paddocks that have had

piggery manure applied as a fertilizer, vaccinate against specific disease, treat for external

and internal parasites, minimise stress and control rodents/flies.

Vaccination in breeding stock is routinely used to control the diseases leptospirosis,

erysipelas, porcine parvovirus and E.coli. Contact your veterinarian for advice and

administration schedules.

2.14 Vermin control

Best management practices should be developed to minimise pests such as rodents, cats

and birds on farms. These include the following; all feed should be stored and fed to in a

manner that does not encourage vermin. This includes rodent and bird proof storage and

minimal wastage at feeding time. Where required, vermin controls such as baiting stations

away from pigs (i.e. located around the perimeter of straw stacks and feed storage areas)

should be implemented. Where baiting is undertaken, bait stations will be regularly

monitored and baits replaced if required. Cats living in straw stacks/sheds can lead to flea

and ringworm infestations. Cats can also prey on newly born piglets.

2.15 Bio-security

Biosecurity practices are an important component of pig farming as adequate

implementation of controls will reduce the risk of disease agents being introduced to a

farm and spread across a site. However aerosol spread of disease is more difficult to

control with free range pigs.

Biosecurity for free range production systems needs to focus on the control of feedstuffs,

water and pasture contamination, wildlife and human visitors. Other factors such as

transportation, fomites (clothing and cleaning equipment etc.), sources of breeding stock

and source of straw also need to be considered.

In free range systems there is a less ability to protect pigs‟ from wildlife vectors and from

exposure to soil. Adequate controls need to be put in place to protect the farmed pigs from

feral pig populations as well as cats and stray dogs.

Bio-security Controls

Quarantine/acclimatisation of new animals

Any replacement pigs coming on to the premises should come from known safe

sources and should be quarantined, or at least physically separated from your own

pigs, for at least a month, preferably six weeks which will also acclimatise them to

the bugs on your farm

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Vehicles Procedures should be put in place for vehicles that enter and leave the premises. Of

particular concerns are vehicles that may visit a number of pig farms such as feed

trucks and trucks carrying pigs to abattoirs. You should also take precautions such

as building a separate pig-loading bay.

Notices Provide large notices which have contact phone numbers so visitors can contact

farm staff without the need to enter the farm.

Gates and perimeter fences Gates should be placed at the entrance to a property which requires visitors to stop

and read entry conditions prior to progressing on to the farm. It is important to

maintain a secure perimeter fence to keep out feral pigs, especially boars who

travel long distances to mate with commercial sows in outdoor herds.

Protective clothing for visitors Reduce visitors to a minimum and make any that have to enter your pig building

change into clothes and boots that are kept on the farm. You might also insist that

visitors stay away from other pigs for a period of time before visiting. A minimum

period would be one night. A rule of thumb is that 80% of “bugs” are on boots or

vehicles, 15% on clothes and 5% on hands/hair/face.

2.16 Site selection

This should be the main consideration in deciding whether an area of land is suitable for

free range pigs. The location of a free-range piggery should take into account a wide

range of considerations. Sites need to match the requirements of the animals as well as the

environmental and social considerations that come with the establishment of a pig farm.

Consideration of natural hazards such as flooding as well as surrounding land uses should

all be considered when selecting a site for free-range production. The ideal site should

have plenty of shade in the summer and shelter from high winds throughout the year.

A general guide to site selection is as follows;

2.16.1 Soil Type

A variety of soil types can be used for free-range pigs production. However the following

should be considered;

Heavy soils with high clay content which are poorly drained should be avoided

particularly in high rainfall environments. In wet conditions if the soil becomes

pugged on a site the area should be rested through rotation of paddocks or through

reducing stocking density.

Light soils while well drained can be prone to erosion if the ground cover cannot be

maintained. Resting through rotation of paddocks or through reducing stocking

density may also be required.

Consideration should also be given to avoid soils with sharp stones that can cause

foot damage.

Free-range pork farms are best suited to soil conditions which can be cropped to

remove the buildup of nutrients within the soil base by integration with an arable

break. Pigs fit in very well in arable farming, utilising the grass leys which provide

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clean fresh ground for sows. The likely crop to follow pigs would be wheat which

could take the full advantage of the improved fertility of the soil.

Pigs must not be raised on land that is contaminated with toxins, chemical residues, toxic

plants or disease causing organisms at levels known to cause harm. The Ministry for the

Environment‟s Hazardous Activities Industries List (HAIL) for activities that can

cause contamination should be investigated along with the location of agricultural

contaminants such as old sheep dips when choosing a site.

2.16.2 Topography

Gently sloping land is the most suited to for free range pork production.

On flat land care should be taken to avoid dips and hollows in the paddocks to site

hut/housing because they can flood in heavy rain.

Steeper land should be avoided for farrowing huts as straw and piglets will tend to

gravitate downhill. Farrowing on a slope can also result in instability for the sow

within the huts and which may lead to the crushing of young.

2.16.3 Nutrient management

Legislation

In NZ, nutrient management and leaching rates is largely managed by regional councils

and farming may require resource consent. However in 2010 the government introduced a

National Policy Statement for Freshwater, this document requires regional councils to set

catchment load limits for all contaminates including nitrogen (N) and Phosphorous (P),

which places greater controls on land uses within catchments. Limits are required to be

set by the year 2030 and consultation with your regional council will be required prior to

the establishment of any new facility or changes to existing stocking rates.

Nutrient Hotspots

Within outdoor or free range facilities N and P is not distributed evenly throughout a

paddock with hotspots generally occurring around feeding sites and within wallowing

areas. Careful management of these areas is required. Studies demonstrate that excreted

nutrient distribution near each feeding, water, wallow and shelter areas is 3-8 times higher

than within outer pen area.

Recommended nutrient management techniques

Nutrient management plans are often a requirement of regional councils and should

be developed so producers can make informed decisions on stock rotation of

pasture.

Where possible shelters and feeding locations should be regularly moved

throughout the paddocks to avoid a buildup of nitrogen in specific locations.

Paddocks should be regularly rested from pig production. Nutrient build up within

paddocks can be utilised through crop production and helps to avoid leaching. A

nutrient budget should be considered to determine nitrogen input by the pigs and the

ability for cropping or pastures to utilize the nutrients (N and P).

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The working of soil during times of crop cultivation can be undertaken to

incorporate nitrogen more evenly throughout the soil profile. This is particularly

relevant in areas of high nitrogen buildup such as wallows and feed areas i.e.

wallows are pushed in with soils and soil is worked up to promote a mixing of

nutrients.

On lighter soils nose ringing may be used to reduce soil rooting activities which can

contribute to soil loss and nutrient leeching.

Strategies to minimise soil erosion and controls on surface water runoff need to be

considered i.e. as the use of contour banks or planting riparian vegetation to control

water movement.

Feed storage areas if left exposed to the elements also have the potential to leach

nutrients and where possible should be covered or leachate controlled.

2.16.4 Riparian management

Pigs should not have access to water courses on the property and in some regions

such as the Canterbury region access is prohibited by legislation. Stock within

waterways causes issues of erosion as well as nutrient management issues.

Riparian Management

All water courses should be fenced where access to stock is foreseeable.

2.16.5 Climate Change

Within New Zealand pig farms, a large proportion of greenhouse gas emissions

(approx. 70% of the pork industry emission profile) comes from the storage of

manure, particularly in anaerobic conditions such as lagoons. In free-range farming

system manure is deposited directly to pastures bypassing storage requirements and

therefore free-range farming practices are likely to result in a reduction of emissions

compared with pig farms that store manure. As a result it is predicted that the

emission profile of free range farms will be low. However free-range farms will be

more susceptible to any increase in extreme weather events (heat waves, storms, and

snow falls etc.) which are predicted to increase as a result of climate change. Free-

range farmers will need to develop good stockmanship practices and follow best

management systems to ensure the welfare of their animals and to adapt to these

changing conditions.

2.16.6 Maintain ground cover

It is important to keep good pasture cover throughout the year. This is sometimes required

as a resource consent condition. Sows can quickly root up a paddock if they are not rung

through the nose. Sows should have rings inserted in their nose to assist in the

maintenance of grass cover where that is required as a consent condition. Self-piercing,

self-locking pig rings are now available. Where crops are being utilised i.e. self-fed, bare

areas are allowable prior to re-grassing or sowing a new crop.

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The destruction of ground cover can reduce the aesthetics of the site as well as

contributing to odours, dust and reduces the animal‟s welfare in heavy (muddy)

conditions. A well-established ground cover can protect the soil from pugging when wet

but can also provide benefits to the animals such as cooling of the pigs during summer.

Ground cover needs to be well established before pigs are introduced to a site. To

prevent soil erosion in exposed areas, it is preferable to rest any affected paddocks

before the ground cover is reduced to less than 40%.

Paddocks should not be restocked until the affected paddock has sufficient growth

ground cover.

Australian research has identified that N and P build up in the soils of rotational

piggeries is not high except for where pigs are stock on the same area for more

than 2 years. Pigs should be regularly rotated onto clean sites at least every 2

years with a break of approximately 2 years prior to restocking.

As far as practicable keep heavy vehicles off paddocks.

As outlined above the use of nose rings can reduce digging however other management

strategies to reduce destruction of ground cover include a combination of the following:

A low stocking density.

Rotating pigs between different pens to ensure ground cover has time to recover.

Adequate levels of a balanced feed to meet nutritional requirements and satiety.

Providing additional forage or high fiber foods (this practice is only likely to slow

down pasture destruction extending the length of time before rotation would be

required).

Photo 42: Example of paddocks that have been mown to stop seeding and to maintain

good cover

2.16.7 Services

Having electricity nearby could be an advantage, but this is not essential. It is essential

to have a good clean water supply close at hand and good all-weather roading.

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2.17 Climate

Many areas in New Zealand are not be suitable for free range pig farming. Heavy rain,

winds and extreme temperatures can affect the welfare, production and environmental

impacts of free-range production. The following are considerations for the ideal climatic

conditions for pigs. It should be noted that pigs can be produced outside these conditions

with consideration of the appropriate animal welfare and environmental management

provisions.

2.17.1 Rainfall

Rainfall that can be tolerated by free-range pig production is dependent upon the drainage

characteristic of the site. However as a guide average annual rainfall of less than 750-

800mm is preferred.

2.17.2 Temperature

Ideally a mean summer temperature of less than 28oC and a mean minimum winter

temperature of above 3oC. is recommended. Frost prone areas should be avoided as

chilling of new born piglets and the freezing of water lines can cause major problems.

2.17.3 Wind

Small pigs are sensitive to windy conditions and draught free shelter needs to be

provided. The risk of chilling is increased when temperatures are low and wind-chill

factors are high and therefore the orientation of huts with consideration of air flows from

prevailing breezes should be undertaken.

2.18 Stockmanship

Good stockmanship is an essential component of ensuring animals welfare in all

production systems however it is vital in ensuring animal welfare, environmental

stewardship and also stockman safety within free-range systems. Free-range farming

requires a greater number of staff than intensive farming as pigs are exposed to all the

elements and need constant care and attention.

Training of stockman is required to ensure that the competent in their required tasks

including:

Knowledge of the 5 freedoms

Handling of pigs (see figure 6 for handling piglets)

Inspection of pigs, facilities and shed environment

The identification of normal and abnormal pig behavior and deviations in

production targets

Care and treatment of injured or distressed animals

Humane destruction

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Stockmanship

(Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010 Minimum Standard 1 )

Pigs must be cared for by a sufficient number of personnel, who collectively

possess the ability, knowledge and competence necessary to maintain the

health and welfare of the animals in accordance with this code.

Minimisation of undue stress and the avoidance of injury are key considerations

whenever pigs are being restrained or handled.

Handling

(Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010 Minimum Standard 13 )

a) Pigs must be handled at all times in such a way as to minimise the risk of pain,

injury or distress to the animals.

b) Pigs, including piglets, must not be picked up or suspended by one front leg, ears

or tail.

c) Handling facilities must be available to deal with all pigs and piglets undergoing

routine procedures and for animals that are sick and requiring treatment.

d) Stress of handling must be minimised by appropriate design of the facilities,

especially entrances and raceways.

Figure 6: Handle piglets gently by picking up by hind leg

Site managers need to ensure all pigs are inspected at least once per day with inspections

increased during extreme weather events or during farrowing and lactation.

There are circumstances when pigs with injury or disease will need to be euthanized on

farm for humane reasons or in an emergency. It is an offence, under the Act, to kill an

animal in such a manner that the animal suffers unreasonable or unnecessary pain or

distress. This means that the method of killing should cause immediate loss of

consciousness which persists until the animal is dead. The welfare code requires that pigs

are stunned and exsanguinated. It is also important that the animal be handled quietly

beforehand to ensure it is not unnecessarily distressed or alarm.

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2.18.1 Moving Pigs

Patience, care, good stock handling and well-designed facilities will ensure that any

distress when moving pigs is minimised.

Moving animals

(Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010 Minimum Standard 14 )

a) Only the minimal force required must be used when moving pigs.

b) Pigs must not be prodded in sensitive areas, including the eyes, nose, anus, vulva

or testicles.

c) Electric prodders and whipping must not be used.

2.19 Transport

Transporting pigs can present problems, particularly if they are not accustomed to being

herded. Patience is essential, and the proper design of yards, loading ramps and other

associated services is needed to facilitate loading with minimum distress and bruising.

Please refer to NZPork information document „Fit for Transport‟ on the NZPork website

for further information.

Pre-transport Selection

(Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010 Minimum Standard 17 )

a) Pigs must be inspected prior to transport to ensure all are fit to be transported.

b) All pigs must be able to stand and bear weight on all four limbs and be fit enough

to withstand the journey without suffering unreasonable or unnecessary pain or

distress.

c) Sows likely to give birth during the journey must not be selected for transport.

2.20 Management aspects

2.20.1 Mating management

Unmated sows will exhibit oestrus (heat) every three weeks and once mated, sows will be

pregnant for 115 days. Sows normally come into oestrus five days post weaning and will

exhibit oestrus for 48-60 hours. During this time they are receptive to the male and with

natural mating systems the sow will be mated a number of times over this period. The

date of mating should be recorded to determine return to service and farrowing dates. At

weaning outdoor sows can be handled in a number of ways, depending on the farm setup.

These include:

Sows are weaned as a group into a „mating‟ paddock for a week. During this

period sows (4-5 days post weaning) are moved to a mating area for oestrus

detection and subsequent mating or artificial insemination and then returned to the

mating paddock. Hand mating (supervised) is preferable to running boars with

sows to achieve quality matings, spread boar workload and to accurately

48

determine farrowing times. Hand mating can ensure boars get no more than 6

matings per week.

Alternatively the group has a boar or „boar pack‟ introduced for that week to

naturally mate the sows. These paddocks will need to be larger than normal dry

sow areas because of the damage done to soil and pasture from courtship activity.

Boars may be rotated.

2.20.2 Post mating

The sows can stay in a static group where the group of sows they are mated with

stay as separate stable group through gestation. A „catch‟ boar, to mate sows that

return to oestrus may be run in the groups.

Alternatively the gestation sows may be run in larger groups, in this situation the

newly mated sows are introduced post mating to the group, at the same time

another group that are due to farrow are removed. „Catch‟ boars can be run in the

group.

Sows compete strongly for feed and eat at different rates, particularly dry feed. It is

important to provide enough trough/feeder space to ensure timid sows get their share and

not loose body condition. Sows in groups should be regularly checked for body condition

and if poor remedial action taken.

2.20.3 Farrowing management.

Sows are transferred to the farrowing area about a week before they are due to farrow. If

the due farrowing date is unknown sows getting close to farrowing can be identified as

being very „full‟ and her udder will be developed or „bagged up‟. How the sows are

managed in the farrowing paddocks will depend on the size of the herd. Gilts are

normally housed individually in small paddocks to prevent „doubling up‟ in huts at

farrowing. Sows that farrow at the same time can be run in small groups of up to 10-12

dependant on the size of feeder. Bringing the sows into the farrowing paddocks a week

prior to farrowing, allows the sows to sort out which hut they want and to enable them to

make „nests‟. Clean straw is provided in each hut. The amount of straw to use is more of

an art than science with the requirement to provide a warm bed off the ground or floor for

piglets, but not enough to tangle and trap them, to be subsequently overlain by the sow.

2.20.4 Weaning

Piglets are separated from the sow from about 25 days of age and moved to a weaner area

which provides a clean, warm, dry, draught free environment and fed a good quality,

readily digested diet containing a proportion of milk products. Straw bedding is useful for

newly weaned pigs as are low „kennel‟ roof, to contain heat. The size of hut or shed is

dependent on the numbers or batches weaned. Newly weaned pigs may need to be closely

confined to their sleeping area for a few days post weaning and have a ready source of

water.

Weaning

(Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010 Minimum Standard 15)

Weaning must be managed in a way that avoids undue stress on the sow and piglets and

minimises negative impacts on their health and welfare.

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2.21 Basic record keeping

The prime objective of recording is to maintain a regular throughput of pigs and as a

consequence income. Basic records makes it possible to control and monitor production

and reproduction activities and to identify the results both technical and financial.

2.21.1 Identification Systems

A means of animal identification is an essential part of any record-keeping system. The

most common identification systems are ear notching, tattooing and ear tagging. Other

identification systems include- naming, colour differences, ear shapes, however this is

only applicable for small number of sows.

Being able to identify the pigs is essential if records are to be kept and for managing the

pigs accordingly therefore as a minimum all breeding stock will need to be identified.

Growing pigs can be age marked soon after birth with the week number they were born.

This allows age at sale to be easily determined.

2.21.2 What does record keeping involve?

Good record keeping means noting down all important details and events, in a simple and

clear manner. It can also be used to provide and record information for future activities.

There are commercially available computer recording packages such as EliteHerd for

larger scale operations. For smaller herds to keep records, use a notebook or exercise

book. Dedicate a few pages for each sow, and a few pages for what you buy and what you

sell. Other information should also be marked on a calendar (sow calendar) and use a

breeding table to determine the expected farrowing date, so that any necessary

preparation can start well in advance (for example preparing the farrowing pen for the

sow)

Records will help when comparing the production or growth of different animals. Records

will indeed make it easier for you to carry out day to day activities on and for the pigs.

When pigs are sick you will need to identify them, you may note down the symptoms, the

treatment, and whether the pig recovered or not and is a requirement for the Animal status

declaration at point of sale.

Records also help you to keep track of expenses and incomes from sales. This information

will tell you whether you are running a profitable business or not.

Basic Records

Basic records kept should include the following;

Litter records

Numbers born and birth weight (1.5.kg is good)

Numbers weaned and weaning weight

Sow record

Date of farrowing, weaning date, mating date, numbers of piglets weaned. From

this the numbers of litters and weaners per sow per year can be calculated.

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Marketing

- Numbers of pigs sold, age and weight

Feed Conversion rate

- can be determined if an all meal feeding situation is practiced.

Deaths

- Numbers and age

The main objective of any production system is to maintain a regular throughput or

“pigflow”. Records will assist the farmer in maintaining a steady flow of pigs through the

enterprise and in identification of problem areas in the production programme.

For example the “flow” and numbers on hand of a 50 sow herd weaning pigs at 5 weeks,

and marketing progeny at 20 weeks of age would be as follows.

Table 7 – Example of „pigflow‟ for a 50 sow herd

Parameters

Animal numbers

Number of sows 50

Number of sows farrowing per week 2

Number of piglets born alive per week 20-25

Pre weaning mortality % 15

Numbers pigs weaned per week 17-21

Numbers of lactating sows on hand 10

Numbers of sows weaned per week 2

Numbers of sows mated/week 2+

Numbers of piglets on hand 95-115

Weaner mortality % 2

Number of weaners on hand 5-10weeks 93-113

Grower mortality % 2

Numbers of growers on hand 10-20 weeks 182-220

Numbers of pigs sold/week 18-22

Numbers of boars on hand 2

Sow replacement rate 40

Numbers of replacement gilts on hand 3-4

Considerations to be made while designing a record keeping system

The records should be as simple as possible.

Records should be kept in a place where they are readily accessible.

Transferring of information from one record sheet to another should be

minimized.

The information that should be included in the records varies with the type

of operation being run. A pig operation that is engaged in a breeding stock

programme will require more detailed records and more individual pig

records than will a commercial operation.

Individual records are of value in culling non-productive breeding stock and

in selecting replacement animals. Information needs to be accurate.

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A record sheet summarizing important aspects of herd production on weekly or monthly

basis should be kept. The operator can compare these records which are a good measure

of production efficiency with previous figures as well as with production goals they have

set for their production system.

Examples of record sheets are provided in Appendix 3.

2.22 Legislation

There is an extensive range of legation that needs to be considered for free range pig

production these include but may not be limited to the following

Resource Management Act - local councils (city, regional and district) have

rules about where pigs can be raised and resource management requirements.

Contact your council for details.

Animal Welfare Act - Owners or the person in charge of an animal are required

to ensure that the physical, health, and behavioural needs of animals are met and

that pain and distress of ill or injured animals is alleviated. The standards of care

for pigs are described in the Animal Welfare (Pigs) Code of Welfare 2010, which

can be downloaded from NZPork www.nzpork.co.nz.or Ministry for Primary

Industries www.biosecurity.govt.nz/animal-welfare.

Feeding waste food -the Biosecurity Act requires that any feed containing pork

or pork products (e.g. ham, bacon) or that has come in contact with these products

(sandwiches, pies) must be heated at 100C for 1 hour before it can be fed to pigs.

Read here for details.

Protecting New Zealand - To help protect our disease free status the Biosecurity

Act requires that any suspected exotic diseases or pests are notified to your vet or

to Biosecurity NZ on 0800 80 99 66.

The Animal Products Act 1999 part 6 regulates who can kill and process an

animal. Under the Animal Products Act, the Animal Status Declaration (ASD) for

Pigs MUST be completed and signed for all consignments of pigs sent for

processing, to sale yards or sent from one property to another The ASD forms can

be down loaded from the NZPork website www.nzpork.co.nz. See Appendix 2

for further details. The requirements for transport are described in the Animal

Welfare (Transport within New Zealand) Code of Welfare 2011 available from

Ministry for Primary Industries www.biosecurity.govt.nz/animal-welfare.

The Agricultural and Veterinary Medicines Act regulates what treatments you

can give your pigs, you will need to consult with NZFSA or your veterinarian.

2.23 Resource Management Consent

Regional Councils have differing requirements with regard to permission to farm pigs.

Enquiries should be made before any investment in outdoor pig production is made.

Rural zone land usually does not require resource management consent for running sows

outdoors, but any buildings, such as for weaners, growers or feed supplies will be subject to

regulation.

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2.24 PigCare Audit

PigCare is the New Zealand pork industry's welfare accreditation programme. It is

independently administered by AsureQuality. The audit underpins NZ Pork's 100% NZ

Pork, Bacon, and Ham labeling. Only products from PigCare accredited farms can carry

the labels.

NZPork developed the PigCare audit from the on-farm welfare validation tool developed

by Massey University. The tool was developed with the support of MAF and in

conjunction with veterinarians and the RNZSPCA.

The audit documents can be downloaded from the link: www.nzpork.co.nz.

2.25 PigCheck – Abattoir monitoring

PigCheck is a pig health monitoring service covering approximately 80% of the national

pig kill. The service operates at seven processing sites throughout the country and is

administered by AsureQuality staff that work at each of the slaughter premises. The Pig

Check programme collects disease data from inspection of every carcass that goes

through the plants. While MAF and the NZ Food Safety Authority remain responsible for

inspecting carcasses to provide consumer assurances around meat quality and hygiene,

PigCheck is designed to collect information about diseases that directly impact the

profitability of the farm. Each carcass and viscera are inspected for the presence of more

than twenty different disease lesions. This information is summarized and sent back to the

farmer; the farmer‟s veterinarian can also be set up to receive the data directly from

AsureQuality to help improve on-going herd health programmes. Information on diseases

and conditions such as worms, mange, pneumonia, erysipelas, and leptospirosis are

monitored.

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Glossary of terms

Source: Animal Welfare (pigs) Code of welfare 2010

Act The Animal Welfare Act 1999.

adult A pig more than 9 months old.

adverse weather Weather conditions that may pose harm or risk to the animals,

including excessive heat and cold.

animal As defined in the Act:

“(a) Means any live member of the animal kingdom that is –

(i) A mammal; or

(ii) A bird; or

(iii) A reptile; or

(iv) An amphibian; or

(v) A fish (bony or cartilaginous); or

(vi) Any octopus, squid, crab, lobster, or crayfish (including

freshwater crayfish); or

(vii) Any other member of the animal kingdom which is declared

from time to time by the Governor-General, by Order in Council,

to be an animal for the purposes of the Act; and

(b) Includes any mammalian foetus, or any avian or reptilian

prehatched young, that is in the last half of its period of gestation

or development; and

(c) Includes any marsupial pouch young; but

(d) Does not include –

(i) A human being; or

(ii) Except as provided in paragraph above, any animal in the

prenatal, pre-hatched, larval, or other such developmental stage.”

ark A weatherproof, moveable structure for housing sows and/or

piglets in outdoor production systems.

available technology National Animal Welfare Advisory Council (NAWAC) takes to

mean technologies which are used practically to care for and

manage animals, for example, existing chemicals, drugs,

instruments, devices and facilities.

boar An uncastrated male pig over 9 months of age.

body condition score A five-category scoring system used to classify the condition of

pigs, based on the amount of fat and/or muscle covering they

have.

colostrum Milk secreted by the sow for the first few days after farrowing,

characterised by high protein and antibody content.

corneal reflex Involuntary closing of eyelids in response to stimulation of the

cornea (surface of eyeball) by touch.

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crate Crates are independent pieces of equipment designed for

confining pigs for a number of husbandry functions, including

weighing, handling for veterinary interventions, farrowing and

assisting with other reproductive processes.

creep area A separate area within a farrowing facility where piglets are

protected from crushing or overlying by the sow, and which is

usually heated to help piglets maintain their body temperature, at

the same time as maintaining the comfort of the sow.

deep litter system A type of group housing system in which pigs are kept on a deep

layer of bedding material, usually straw or sawdust.

dry sow A non-lactating sow.

elective husbandry procedures

A non-essential procedure that may be done to aid management of

pigs.

Farrowing Giving birth to piglets.

farrowing pen An enclosure for confining individual sows and their litters during

and after farrowing. Such pens contain a separate creep area.

feeder Equipment from which feed is dispensed.

feeding station an enclosure used in group housing systems, which animals enter

into one at a time to be fed.

fender Fenders are partitions that are fixed onto the front of the

farrowing hut, which allows the sow unrestricted access to the

farrowing hut and paddock, but restricts young piglets to the

farrowing hut and fender area.

finisher Pigs that are generally above 70 kg liveweight, until they are sold

or retained for breeding. The same meaning applies for pigs

referred to as “finishing”.

foster A management practice whereby a piglet is moved soon after

farrowing, so that it is fed by a sow that is not its mother.

gilt A young female pig, selected for reproductive purposes, before

she has had a litter of piglets.

good practice NAWAC takes to mean a standard of care that has a general level

of acceptance among knowledgeable practitioners and experts in

the field; is based on good sense and sound judgement; is practical

and thorough; has robust experiential or scientific foundations;

and prevents unreasonable or unnecessary harm to, or promotes

the interests of, the animals to which it is applied. Good practice

also takes account of the evolution of attitudes about animals and

their care.

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grower Pigs generally with liveweights between 30 and 70 kg. The same

meaning can apply for pigs referred to as “growing”

growing pigs Weaners, growers and finishers.

husbandry Care and management practices in pig keeping.

hut See definition for “ark”.

lactating sow A sow that has given birth, and is producing milk to feed her

piglets.

lux An international measure of light intensity (not to be confused

with watts).

mated gilt A young female pig that has been mated, but has not had a first

litter.

mating stall An enclosure in which gilts and sows are kept individually for the

purpose of mating.

minimum standards Minimum standards provide the details of specific actions people

need to take in order to meet the obligations in the Act. They are

identified in the text by a heading, and generally use the word

“must” or similar. They are highlighted in boxes within the text.

needle teeth Any small sharp teeth in piglets, but principally the canine teeth.

nurse sow A sow that is used to suckle piglets that are not her own.

owner As defined in the Act: “in relation to an animal, includes the

parent or guardian of a person under the age of 16 years who –

(a) Owns the animal; and

(b) Is a member of the parent‟s or guardian‟s household living

with and dependent on the parent or guardian.”

pen An enclosure for confining pigs in which they can turn around.

Pens may be used for housing pigs in groups, housing boars

individually, management purposes such as mating or farrowing,

or for confining pigs individually.

person in charge As defined in the Act: “in relation to an animal, includes a person

who has an animal in that person‟s possession or custody, or under

that person‟s care, control, or supervision.”

piglet A pig up to the time it is weaned from the sow.

recommended best practice

NAWAC takes to mean the best practice agreed at a particular

time, following consideration of scientific information,

accumulated experience and public submissions on this code. It is

usually a higher standard of practice than the minimum standard,

except where the minimum standard is best practice. It is a

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practice that can be varied as new information comes to light.

Recommendations for best practice will be particularly

appropriate where it is desirable to promote or encourage better

care for animals than is provided as a minimum standard.

Recommended best practices are identified in the text by a

heading, and generally use the word “should”.

reproductive cycle The period from mating to the following mating, which in the

context of this code is defined as 150 days.

rooting A behaviour of pigs whereby they use their nose to dig in the

ground or in any available material.

scientific knowledge NAWAC takes to mean knowledge within animal-based scientific

disciplines, especially those that deal with nutritional,

environmental, health, behavioural and cognitive/neural functions,

which are relevant to understanding the physical, health and

behavioural needs of animals. Such knowledge is not haphazard or

anecdotal; it is generated by rigorous and systematic application of

the scientific method, and the results are objectively and critically

reviewed before acceptance.

sow An adult female pig that has had one or more litters.

stereotypic behaviour A repeated, relatively invariant sequence of movements that have

no obvious goal or function.

tethering A method of restraining pigs whereby a neck or girth collar is

attached to a short length of chain, which is in turn fixed to the

floor or the front of a pen.

weaner A pig after it has been weaned from the sow up until

approximately 30kg in liveweight.

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Appendix 1 Animals Status Declaration for Pigs

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Appendix 2: Examples of Record Sheets

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