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Chapter 2 Guideposts 1-3

Psych 30

NWRC


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Gp1 What purposes do theories

serve, and what are the 2 basic

theoretical issues on which dev.Scientists differ?

A theory is a well-established principle

that has been developed to explain someaspect of the natural word. A theory

arises from repeated observation and

testing and incorporates facts, laws,

predictions, and tested hypotheses thatare widely accepted.


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serve?

A theory predicts events in general terms,while a hypothesis makes a specificprediction about a specified set of

circumstances.

A theory is has been extensively tested

and is generally accepted, while ahypothesis is a speculative guess that hasyet to be tested.


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serve, and what are the 2 basic

theoretical issues on which dev.Scientists differ?

A hypothesis is aspecific, testable

prediction about

what you expect to

happen in yourstudy or experiment


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Nature vs Nurture (Heredity vs

environment) pg. 23 Some scientists think that

people behave as they do

according to genetic

predispositions." This is known

as the "nature" theory ofhuman behavior. Other

scientists believe that people

think and behave in certain

ways because they are taughtto do so. This is known as the

"nurture" theory of human

behavior.


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Is development active or passive

pg. 23

Mechanistic model

(passive)- that people

passively react to

environmental influences-if we understand the

influences we will

understand the behaviour


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pg. 23

Organismic Model

(active) We cannot

necessarily predict

individuals responses totheir environment.

People make choices and

that are not always

predictable


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What are the 3 basic theoretical

issues on which developmental

scientists differ?

Nature vs Nurture (Heredity vsenvironment


Is development continuous or does it occurin stages?


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GP 2 What are the 5 theoretical

perspectives and what are some

theories representational of each

There are 6 major perspective covered in yourtext (see Table 2-1, page 24 for a summary),these include:

Psychoanalytical

Learning or behaviourism Humanistic

Cognitive or information-processing Contextual Evolutionary/sociobiological


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Psychoanalytic Perspective

The psychoanalytic approach focuses on

the importance of the unconscious mind

(not the conscious mind). In other words,

psychoanalytic perspective dictates thatbehavior is determined by your past

experiences that are left in the

unconscious mind (people are unaware ofthem). Page 25-28


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Freud's Id, Ego, &

Superego (pg 31)


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Freud's Id

The id is the only

component of

personality that is

present from birth. This

aspect of personality is

entirely unconscious

and includes of the

instinctive and primitivebehaviors.


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Freud's Id

The id is driven by the

pleasure principle, which

strives for immediate

gratification of all desires,

wants, and needs. If

these needs are not

satisfied immediately, the

result is a state anxiety ortension.


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Freud's EGO

The ego is the component ofpersonality that is responsiblefor dealing with reality.According to Freud, the ego

develops from the id andensures that the impulses ofthe id can be expressed in amanner acceptable in the realworld. The ego functions inboth the conscious,

preconscious, andunconscious mind.


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Freud's SUPER EGO

he superego is the aspect ofpersonality that holds all of ourinternalized moral standardsand ideals that we acquire

from both parents andsociety--our sense of right andwrong. The superego providesguidelines for making

judgments. According toFreud, the superego begins to

emerge at around age five.


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The Id the Ego and the SuperEgo


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Freud Psychosexual Stages

Oral, Anal, Latent Phallic,Genital

If you have had problemsduring any of the

psychosexual stages whichare not effectively resolved,then you will become fixatedat one of the earlier stagesand when under stress willregress more and more tocharacteristics of that stage.


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Oral Oral stage: Birth - 18 months

(approx.) Physical focus: mouth, lips tongue

(sucking). Sucking is the primarysource of pleasure for a newborn.Everything goes in the mouth. Sucking= food.

Psychological theme: dependency. Ababy is very dependent and can dolittle for itself. If babies needs properlyfulfilled can move onto the next stage.But if not fulfilled baby will bemistrustful or over-fulfilled baby will findit hard to cope with a world that doesnt

meet all of his/her demands.


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Oral

Oral stage: Birth - 18 months(approx.)

Adult character: highlydependent/highly independent.If baby becomes fixated at thisstage Freud felt that he or she

would grow to be an oralcharacter. Mostly these peopleare extremely dependent andpassive people who wanteverything done for them


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Anal Stage: 18 months - 3 years(approx.)

Physical focus: anus (elimination).Until now the baby has had it pretty

easy. Now baby is supposed tocontrol bowels.

Psychological theme: self-control/obedience. These things arenot just related to toilet training but

also the baby must learn to controlurges and behaviours (terribletwos). What goes wrong here iseither parents being too controllingor not controlling enough


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Adult character: anally

retentive (rigid, overly

organized, subservient to

authority) vs. anally expulsive(little self-control,

disorganized, defiant, hostile).


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Phallic

Phallic Stage: 3.5 - 6 years (approx.)

Physical focus: penis. Freud believedthat boys and girls both focused on the

penis. Child becomes attached toopposite sex parent

Psychological theme: morality andsexuality identification and figuring outwhat it means to be a girl/boy.According to Freud boys experiencecastration anxiety and girls suffer penisenvy. During this time emotionalconflicts are resolved by eventually

identifying with the same sex parent


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Phallic

Adult character: promiscuous

and amoral/ asexual and

puritanical


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Latency ages 6- puberty A time of relative calm


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Genital stage: post puberty

Physical focus: genitals

Psychological theme: maturity

and creation and enhancementof life. So this is not just about

creating new life (reproduction)

but also about intellectual and

artistic creativity. The task is to

learn how to add something

constructive to life and society.


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Genital stage: post puberty

Adult character: The genital

character is not fixed at an

earlier stage. This is the personwho has worked it all out. This

person is psychologically well-

adjusted and balanced.

According to Freud to achievethis state you need to have a

balance of both love and work.


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ERIK ERIKSON Psychosocial

Development

See handout also stages are described on

page 32


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Learning- Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning:

is the process of reflex learninginvestigated by

Pavlovthrough which an unconditioned

stimulus (e.g. food) which produces anunconditioned response(salivation) is

presented together with a conditioned stimulus

(a bell), such that the salivation is eventually

produced on the presentation of the conditionedstimulus alone, thus becoming a conditioned

response.


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Learning- Classical Conditioning


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Operant Conditioning


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Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning isthe type of learning madefamous by Pavlov'sexperiments with dogs.

The gist of theexperiment is this: Pavlovpresented dogs with food,and measured theirsalivary response (how

much they drooled). Thenhe began ringing a belljust before presenting thefood.


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Classical Conditioning

At first, the dogs did not beginsalivating until the food waspresented. After a while,however, the dogs began tosalivate when the sound of the

bell was presented. Theylearned to associate the soundof the bell with thepresentation of the food. As faras their immediatephysiological responses were

concerned, the sound of thebell became equivalent to thepresentation of the food.


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Classical Conditioning in


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Everyday Life

The way that advertisers try to use

classical conditioning is to pair their

product with other positive stimuli, such as

sex, pleasant music, humour, andattractive colours. These positive stimuli

can be used in any number of

combinations or on their own.


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The approach is to link an

attractive US with a CS (theproduct being sold) so the

consumer will feel positively

toward the product just like

they do with the US.


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Classical Conditioning - Example

For Example - "fear of bridges" - fear of bridgescan develop from many different sources. Forexample, while a child rides in a car over adilapidated bridge, his father makes jokes about

the bridge collapsing and all of them falling intothe river below. The father finds this funny andso decides to do it whenever they cross thebridge. Years later, the child has grown up and

now is afraid to drive over any bridge. In thiscase, the fear of one bridge generalized to allbridges which now evoke fear.


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Classicalconditioning forms an association

between two stimuli. Operantconditioning

forms an association between a behavior anda consequence. (It is also called response-

stimulus or RS conditioning because it forms an

association between the animal's response

[behavior] and the stimulus that follows[consequence])


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There are four types of Operant

Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement,

Negative Reinforcement, Punishment,

and Extinction. Both Positive and

Negative Reinforcement strengthen

behavior while both Punishment andExtinction weaken behavior.


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Four Possible Consequences

There are four possible consequences to any

behaviour. They are: Something Good can start or be presented;

Something Good can end or be taken away;

Something Bad can start or be presented;Something Bad can end or be taken away.


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Applying these terms to the Four PossibleConsequences, you get:

Something Good can start or be presented, so behavior

increases = Positive Reinforcement (R+) Something Good can end or be taken away, so behavior

decreases = Negative Punishment (P-)

Something Bad can start or be presented, so behavior

decreases = Positive Punishment (P+) Something Bad can end or be taken away, so behaviorincreases = Negative Reinforcement (R-)


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An everyday illustration of operant conditioninginvolves training your dog to "shake" oncommand. Using the operant conditioningtechnique ofshaping, you speak the command

to "shake" (the discriminative stimulus) and thenwait until your dog moves one of his forepaws abit (operant response). Following this behavior,you give your dog a treat (positive reinforcer).After demanding ever closer approximations to

shaking your hand, your dog finally comes toperform the desired response to the verbalcommand "shake."
http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Faculty/wasserman/Glossary/Shaping.htmlhttp://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Faculty/wasserman/Glossary/Shaping.html


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Behavior modification is the application

of operant conditioning techniques to

modify behavior. It is being used to help

people with a wide variety of everydaybehavior problems, including obesity,

smoking, alcoholism, delinquency, and

aggression.


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One example of atherapeutic use ofbehavior modificationis the token economymethod.


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Classical Conditioning inEveryday Life

The way that advertisers try to use

classical conditioning is to pair their

product with other positive stimuli, such as

sex, pleasant music, humour, andattractive colours. These positive stimuli

can be used in any number of

combinations or on their own.


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The approach is to link an

attractive US with a CS (theproduct being sold) so the

consumer will feel positively

toward the product just like

they do with the US.


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Classical Conditioning - Example

For Example - "fear of bridges" - fear of bridgescan develop from many different sources. Forexample, while a child rides in a car over adilapidated bridge, his father makes jokes about

the bridge collapsing and all of them falling intothe river below. The father finds this funny andso decides to do it whenever they cross thebridge. Years later, the child has grown up and

now is afraid to drive over any bridge. In thiscase, the fear of one bridge generalized to allbridges which now evoke fear.


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Classicalconditioning forms an association

between two stimuli. Operantconditioning

forms an association between a behavior anda consequence. (It is also called response-

stimulus or RS conditioning because it forms an

association between the animal's response

[behavior] and the stimulus that follows[consequence])


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There are

four types of Operant Conditioning:

Positive Reinforcement, NegativeReinforcement, Punishment, and

Extinction. Both Positive and Negative

Reinforcement strengthen behavior whileboth Punishment and Extinction weaken

behavior.
http://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex.htmlhttp://www.mcli.dist.maricopa.edu/proj/nru/opcond_ex.html


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Four Possible Consequences

There are four possible consequences to any

behaviour. They are: Something Good can start or be presented;

Something Good can end or be taken away;

Something Bad can start or be presented;

Something Bad can end or be taken away.


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Applying these terms to the Four PossibleConsequences, you get:

Something Good can start or be presented, so behavior

increases = Positive Reinforcement (R+) Something Good can end or be taken away, so behavior

decreases = Negative Punishment (P-)

Something Bad can start or be presented, so behavior

decreases = Positive Punishment (P+) Something Bad can end or be taken away, so behaviorincreases = Negative Reinforcement (R-)


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An everyday illustration of operant conditioninginvolves training your dog to "shake" oncommand. Using the operant conditioningtechnique ofshaping, you speak the command

to "shake" (the discriminative stimulus) and thenwait until your dog moves one of his forepaws abit (operant response). Following this behavior,you give your dog a treat (positive reinforcer).After demanding ever closer approximations to

shaking your hand, your dog finally comes toperform the desired response to the verbalcommand "shake."
http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Faculty/wasserman/Glossary/Shaping.htmlhttp://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Faculty/wasserman/Glossary/Shaping.html


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Behavior modification is the application

of operant conditioning techniques to

modify behavior. It is being used to help

people with a wide variety of everydaybehavior problems, including obesity,

smoking, alcoholism, delinquency, and

aggression.


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One example of atherapeutic use ofbehavior modificationis the token economy

method.


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Maslow Hierarchy of Needs


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Bronfenbrenner-pg 34 (Contextual)

J Pi t


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Jean Piaget

Cognitive Stage Theory

The Sensorimotor Period (birth to 2 years)

During this time, Piaget said that a child's

cognitive system is limited to motor reflexes at

birth, but the child builds on these reflexes todevelop more sophisticated procedures. They

learn to generalize their activities to a wider

range of situations and coordinate them into

increasingly lengthy chains of behaviour.

Jean Piaget


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Jean Piaget


PreOperational Thought (2 to 6 or 7 years)

At this age, according to Piaget, children acquire

representational skills in the areas mental

imagery, and especially language. They are veryself-oriented, and have an egocentric view; that

is, preoperational children can use these

representational skills only to view the world

from their own perspective.

Jean Piaget


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Jean Piaget


Concrete Operations (6/7 to 11/12)

As opposed to Preoperational children, childrenin the concrete operations stage are able to takeanother's point of view and take into accountmore than one perspective simultaneously. Theycan also represent transformations as well asstatic situations. Although they can understandconcrete problems, Piaget would argue that they

cannot yet perform on abstract problems, andthat they do not consider all of the logicallypossible outcomes.

Jean Piaget


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Jean Piaget


Formal Operations (11/12 to adult)

Children who attain the formal operation stageare capable of thinking logically andabstractly. They can also reasontheoretically. Piaget considered this theultimate stage of development, and stated thatalthough the children would still have to revisetheir knowledge base, their way of thinking was

as powerful as it would get The end.


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How do developmental scientists study

people and what are some advantages

and disadvantages of each research

method?

The scientific method is also the model of choicewhen studying developmental processes.

To review, the scientific method is a system of

inquiry that uses very conservative rules and

deliberate procedures to collect, analyze, and

disseminate data.



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p y

people and what are some advantages and

disadvantages of each research method?

The scientific method isalso the model of choicewhen studyingdevelopmental

processes. To review, the scientific

method is a system ofinquiry that uses veryconservative rules and

deliberate procedures tocollect, analyze, anddisseminate data.



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p y

people and what are some advantages and

disadvantages of each research method?

The main steps involved in carrying out thescientific method are:

Identifying a problem and developing a theory

Forming a specific hypothesis about yourvariables

Collecting data

Analyzing data to seek support for your

hypothesis Reporting your findings to others, so they can be

checked and confirmed if necessary.


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Random Sampling

Random sampling isthe purest form ofprobability sampling.Each member of the

population has anequal and knownchance of beingselected.


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Random Sampling

Simple random samplingisthe basic sampling techniquewhere we select a group ofsubjects (a sample) for studyfrom a larger group (apopulation). Each individual is

chosen entirely by chance andeach member of the populationhas an equal chance of beingincluded in the sample. Everypossible sample of a givensize has the same chance of

selection.


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Random Sampling

Publishedinformation fromMars Inc States that

plain m&m s are

30% brown

20% red 20% yellow

10% orange

10% blue 10% green


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Random Sampling

Therefore anyrandom sample youtest shouldconceivably have

the same results

Research Designs see table 2 4


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Research Designs see table 2-4

pg 41

Within the bounds of the scientific

method, developmental psychologists can

utilize a variety of research designs. The

most common include: Experimental Design

Correlational Design

Observational and/or Ethnographic Designs

Case Study Designs


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Designs see table 2-5 pg 47

Longitudinal Designs Longitudinal designs collect data (usually only one or a

few characteristics) on the same people over anextended period of time.

For example, let's say your class in grade 1 was given an

IQ test. If you and all your classmates were again testedfor IQ in grade 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 and so on, this would beconsidered a longitudinal design.

The data gathered from longitudinal studies areinvaluable as they assess developmental changes that

occur over time as a result of aging. They also avoidsome of the confounding cohort effects observed in otherdevelopmental designs.


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Cross-Sectional Study

In cross-sectional studies, different cohorts areassessed at the same time on one or a fewcharacteristics.

For example, all the grade 1s, 2s, 3s, 4s, etc.from a school district are given personality testsat the same time and developmental changes inpersonality are derived by looking at changesbetween the different groups.

Cross-sectional designs are good at showingsimilarities and differences among different agegroups of people, are fast, easy and inexpensiveto run, and don't have the problem of attrition andrepeated testing.


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Cross-Sectional Study

These studieshowever do not reallyestablish true age-

related changes sincethe background orcohort experiences ofthe groups may bevery different and

individual differencesover time are nottaken into account.


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Cross-Sequential pg.

Cross-Sequential

This is a very powerful

method that combinesthe methods of

longitudinal and cross-

sectional designs.

GP4 What ethical problems may


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GP4. What ethical problems may

arise in research on human beings

and how can they best beresolved?

Right to informed consent

Right to Self-Esteem

Right to Privacy and Confidentiality

(discuss each)

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