new chapter iv sculpture - shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/121050/12/12... ·...
TRANSCRIPT
CHAPTER IV
SCULPTURE
Gautam Buddha's teachings were focussed on 'four noble
truths' and 'eightfold path'. Buddha was against rites and
rituals performed by the Brahmins. He was very much against
the idol worship.^ He asked his followers to respect the
sangha and to follow the Vinaya rules. During the life time
of the Master there was no cult object of worship among the
Buddhists. The Buddhists respected Sangha, Dharma and the
Master. When the Buddha was on his death bed, Anand asked
the Master; 'who will now guide the monk's community'? The
Buddha replied that now onwards his words should be their
guide."
During the life time of the Buddha idol worship was
strictly prohibited. After the death of the Master his
mortal remains were kept in the stupa and thus it became the
first object of worship to the Buddhist community. In the
beginning the stupa was worshipped becuase it contained the
relics of their Master. But later on the stupa became the
symbol of dharma and the essence of Buddhism. Though many
changes took place in Buddhism for many centuries but''stupa
never lost its importance. The stupa remained the central
object of worship amongst the monks and the monasteries
irrespective of their affiliation to a particular sect of
Buddhism.
During the Mauryan and the Suftga periods the Buddha's
presence was marked by some of the symbols like royal
umbrella, railed bodhi tree and an empty space kept in place
157
of the Master.'^ But around the first century AD the Buddhist a
images (first Bodhisttva, then Buddha) appeared at Gandhara
and Mathura almost simultaneously.
Before the first century AD, the Bhagavata movement
had started around the Mathura region. The members of this
cult had developed the images of their gods, and they were
directly visualising the images they were going to worship.
It seems very likely that with the spread of the Bhagavata
cult, the Buddhists could not long remain unaffected. They
felt a need of a visual human symbol to whom they could pay
homage and religious worship. The urge of the people to see
the Buddha in concrete shape could no longer be satisfied
with the mere sight of symbols but soon they wanted to
visualise the Master with thirty-two major and eighty minor
radiant signs.^
There was not only external pressure on the Buddhists
due to the spread of Bhakti movement but there were internal
pressures due to the new philosophical changes which occurred
in Buddhism. An impetus for the production of a human images
of Buddha was also due to the emergence and development of
Mahayana with its changed philosophical conceptions. The
newly developed Mahayana school based its arguments on the
prajnaparamita literature, states that phenomenal world,
nirvana and enlightment are all empty in a relative sense. *
The illusary historical Buddha, who though bodhi entered
nirvana yet until his parinirvana continued to have for the
eyes of world, may consequently be represented though alive
in the illusary world. Though this is a good philosophical
158
justification but it has little to do with real reasons for
the production of Buddha image.
About the beginning of the Christian era Buddhist
community, laity and monks felt the need of an
anthropomorphic representation of their lord for adoration
and worship. There already had existed a cult of tree-
spirits, water-spirits and other local divinities. The force
of traditional prohibition was very strong as Buddha himself
was against worship of idols and one could not dare to
transgress it.' It required a high personality like kings or
the entire Buddhist community.
The first anthropomorphic image of Buddha belongs to
the period of Kaniska. It can be presumed that it was due to
the order or the' initiation of Kaniska that first Buddhist
image appeared. It was all done with precautions because
they first produced the image of Bodhisattva instead of the
Buddha image so that there may be a least violation of
faith.^
The image of divinities and human beings existed
already in the third and second century BC and it is also
possible that precious metal or impermanent material figures
had been made at a earlier date.^
When an artist or group of artists first asked to
produce the images of Buddha and Bodhisattva, it was
necessary to draw upon the traditional material available
locally for the formation of an image. In or around Mathura,
greatest number of the earliest Buddha images have been
found, and the second region is Gandhara. Mathura was the
159
eastern province of the Kusana empire. The Mathura stone
workers drew upon two sources. First, the experience of
making images of super-human figures, gods and royal heroes;
second, indications given by literary traditions regarding
Sakyamuni's characteristics.-^® The artists at Gandhara
produced a Buddha image emphasizing on reality. It is said
that the art of Gandhara had hellenistic influence.
Who produced the Buddha image first; Mathura artists
or the Gandharan artists? From the European standpoint the
idea of making Buddhist image to Indian mind is foreiga Greek
or Eurasian craftsmen created first image of Buddha on the
foundation of Hellenistic Apollo to Indian patrons.^^ Hair
style of Gandhara corresponds to Greek divinities and this is
themain argument maintained by Foucher.-"-"
The study and analysis of any art should be done
after general understanding of the internal development of
the art.^"^ The Gandhara Buddha have the following
characteristics. The throne generally has a lotus on it and
the figure is short and stocky. The hair are generally thick
and undulating arranged in waves gathered at the top of the
knot. The turban is represented in typical Kusana type. The
eyes are open. [/r;?a between the eye brows, often bearing
moustaches, ear lobes extended, heavy drapery with thick
folds covering both shoulders, monastic cloak touching near
feet. while sitting, feet covered, hands are in ahhaya,
dbyana and dharmacakrapravartana mudras.^^
The Mathura Buddha has been shown sitting on
simhasana, supported by lions. The hair style is different.
160
Either head is shaven like a monk or spiral protuberance,
which is a lock of hair or top knot of a special shape and
not an usnisa, while in later periods head and hair are
covered with small short curls and this type later became
almost a universal rule. The halo is also absent at Mathura
but later it became Indianized. The trunk of the body is
like a lion.^^
The religious ferment and need of the image of Buddha
was quite prevalent at Mathura as has been discussed above
whereas it was absent at Gandhara. Mathura and Gandhara were
both included in the empire of Kaniska. The images of Buddha
were almost produced simultaneously at both the places. The
Mathura artists first produced the image of Buddha with
Indian elements. Thus, the first Buddhist image was produced
due to the religious ferments and need to visualise Buddha by
the Buddhists of the region and it cannot be accepted that
the Buddha image was the result of the vague caprice of an
unknown artist in Gandhara school and is of foreign origin.
So first image was produced at Mathura and there was a large
demand of images throughout the empire of Kaniska and artists
were few. We can definitely say that practically every
element essential to the iconography of Buddhas and
Bodhisattva figures appear in early Indian art before the
Buddha figure of Mathura and Gandhara is known.-^^
In the early stages Buddha image served two purposes,
first to express a stereotyped and rather static conception
of Buddhahood in transcendent scene, and secondly, to
illustrate the events in actual life of Sakyamuni on earth.
161
Up to the enlightenment, Sakyamani is never depicted
in scenes. He was depicted by empty space or symbols. Since
Sakyamuni is considered as Buddha, he possessed no physical
form in which he might be suitably portrayed. Thus early
Buddhist art insists firmly upon the ineffable and
indescribable state of Buddhahood.^'
The Gandharan art was realistic. It introduced
realism into the Buddhist art while Hellenistic influence was
the motivating force. In many figures we can witness
delebrate Indianisation of Hellenistic suggestions.
In the beginning there was a great demand of Buddha
images, whereas the artists were limited. The stone statues
need a longer period to complete the image. So Gandharan
artists gave impetus to the easily worked materials like
stucco and terracotta.^° The statues with these materials
can be prepared easily with locally available material but
are perishable. Many heads of such materials has been found.
Stucco and clay statues became popular as they were assembled
with cheap material. In the Western, Himalayan region most of
the statues of several Buddhist gods and goddesses are made
of clay.
The artists who produced the first Buddhist images
were very much aware of the stories in the texts and depicted
the images accordingly. In early iconographic
experimentation, no distinction was made between Sakyamuni as
Bodhisattva and as Buddha. But later on a clear difference
was marked. Buddhas normally or strictly are represented
162
with the monastic robe only. The Buddha figures (except
cosmological) do not wear crowns, whereas Bodhisattavas wear
secular or royal costumes. They have attributes in left or
right hands i.e.. Vajrapani has a Vaj'ra, Avolokitesvara a
padma and Maitreya normally holds an amrtakalasa. The
Bodhisattvas can also be recognised on the basis of the head
dress i.e. Avalokitesvara has Amitabha in the crown and stupa
in the case of Maitreya.^^
THE EVOLUTION OF THE PANTHEON
With the emergence of Mahayana doctrine many changes toolt
place in the sahgha. Sakyamuni was not considered the first
and the only Buddha but plurality of Buddhas was recognised.
In the series of Buddhas, Sakyamuni was considered the
seventh one and still there is eighth to come who would be
Maitreya. So past, present and future Buddhas are all
imagined."® Before the production of the first Buddhist
image the first seven Buddhas were represented by symbols,
like the row of seven sacred trees, or by a row of seven
stup as.
There are many Buddhist texts which present us the
lists of various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. These literary
works not only preserve various divinities of the Buddhist
pantheon but also preserve their iconographic details to a
very precise order. These include Sadhanamala,
N ispannayogavali, Manjusrimulakalpa, Sadharmapundarika,
Sarvatathagatatattva-sangraha and the Vaipulya sutras.
163
The Sadhanamala is one of the most valuable for
Buddhist iconography. It is a product of a period when
Buddhism was about to be destroyed in Bengal due to the
invasion of Ghorian Turks. It comprises of 312 sadbanas and
contains description of numerous Buddhist deities. Another
work, supplying iconographic material, is Nispannayogavali of
Mahapandita Abhyakaragupta of Vikramsila monastery (1084-
1130). This work is remarkable for the richness of
information and brevity. It contains twenty six mandalas in
twenty six chapters. All the mandalas describe innumerable
deities of the Vajrayana Buddhism. Many of the deities
described accurately here are not found anywhere in the
tantric Buddhist literature. Besides these two works there
are many other published and unpublished works like
Dharmakosa samgraha, Heruka Tantra, Hevajra Tantra,
Chandamaha^rosana Tantra, Vaj'ra Varahi Tantra, Guhyasamaja
Tantra and Advayavajra Sangraha.
In the transformation of the ideology of Mahayana
into Vajrayana, a lot of changes and many innovations of
revolutionary character were introduced into Buddhism. The
idea of sunyata was transformed into the idea of vajra. It
introduced the theory of five T^athagatas as embodiment of
five skandhas or cosmic elements and also formulated the
theory of kulas or families of the cosmological Buddhas, from
which deities emerge according to need. It introduced PrajrTa
worship. The mantras, mudras, mandalas and mystic
realisation come due to it. One of the chief topic dealt
within Vajrayana is the deity. These deities are a product of
164
psychic exercises of most subtle character, and are
visualised by the worshiper in the course of intense
meditation. "^^
After the emergence of Vajrayana the chief Buddhist
god Vajrasattva or Vajradhara was imagined. he is the sixth
Tathagata Buddha and Adi-Buddha. This lord supreme or
Vajradhara possesses the five kinds of knowledge like five
types of attributes of the lord. From these five types of
attributes proceeed five kinds of meditation and from five
kinds of meditation emanate five BuddhaS. These five Buddhas
seems to have evolved in later Buddhism with some influence
from the Saiikhya philosophy.^
The Saddharmapundrika, The Lotus of the Good Law is
one of the early Mah'ayana Sutras to have been preached by
Saky^age. In this text the resplendent Lord Sakyamuni is
mentioned by the name of Vairocana, who just means
Resplendent. The Sarvatathagatatattva-sahgraha is also one
of the first text where Vairocana appears and represents
himself as unity of all Buddhas. We find statues of
Vairocana in many monasteries under study.
The Bodhisattva Maajusri also appears in Saddharma-
pundrika, who is fully conversant with the teaching of
Buddha. In Manjusrimulakalpa , he is represented as is
Pancasikha Manjughosa. He is associated with the preaching
of Buddha first as his lieutinent and later as Bodhisattva of
wisdom.
The two other Bodhisattvas which rise to prominence
in Manjusrimulakalpa are Avalolitesvara and Vijrapani, where
165
they appear to the right and left of Sakyamuni.
Avolokitesvara holds in his hand lotus and became associated
with the lineage of the 'lotus family'. Vajrapani holding
vajra in his hand became associated with the lineage of
vajra. The central lineage was simply known as that of
Tathagata. Originally, there were three families. These were
purifying three evils namely desire, wrath and stupidity. But
these were extended to five with the addition of malignity
and envy. It is interesting to notice that how original
threefold pattern typifying three evils changed to
fivehold."*^ These three Bodhisattvas are represented at
various places in Lahaul-Spiti and Kinnaur.
Five cosmological Buddhas represent five kinds of
knowledge, they are presiding deities over the five elements.
From these originate five families and from these families
emerge numerous deities."^
The Sarvatathagatatattva-sahgraha, is one of the
valuable books on the tantras. It represents the visual
dharma as a mandala. It has been divided into four samayas. ^
Abhi-samaya, 2. vajra-samaya, 3. dharma-samaya and 4. karma-
samya. Each samaya has six mandalas. The vajradhatu
mahamandala is the basic mandala. This mandala serves as the
prototype to the rest of the mandalas. In the main mandala
Vairocana is in the centre and other four Buddhas are the
presiding deities of four directiions. Each Buddha of four
directions has a set of four Bodhisattvas. The act of worship
is symbolysed by eight goodesses of offerings who likewise
may be associated two by two with the four directional
166
Buddhas. Each family and Buddha of direction has fierce
divinity. Finally each of the family of four directions is
represented vocally by spell. So the number of divinities
comes out to be thirty-seven. ° The clay sculptures at the
'Du-khan of Tabo represent the mandala of Vairocana based on
the same text.
Due to the doctrinal changes the feminine partners
were also introduced into the Buddhist pantheon. Locana
belongs to the Aksobhaya's family so its colour is blue.
Hamaki belongs to^the Ratnasambhava's family and its colour
is yellow. Panduravasini belongs to the Amitabha's lotus
family so its colour is red and TSra belongs to
Amoghasiddhi's family so its colour is green. But Tara has
got its own cult and it has twenty-one forms presented in
many colours.
The role of feminine partners is different in
Buddhist tantras as compared to the Hindu tantras. In Hindu
tantras the female partner is sakti or energy. Whereas in the
Buddhist tantras the male partner represents the energy
elements.
The Buddhist deities are portrayed in dual aspects
one in placid and the other in wrathful. Buddhists have
many fierce divinities like, Bhairva, Samvara, Heruka, and
Hayagriva, etc. Tibetans believed in many fierced deities.
They believe that these are the defenders of the doctrine,
and the nature of their duty makes them fierce.
Many Hindu gods were also taken into Buddhism but
they were given either inferior status or the rank of the
167
defenders of the doctrine. Tibetans incorporated many deities
which were considered as heretical and were forcibly
converted into the doctrine including many Bon divinities. So
the pantheon thus evolved is a complex one. °
The Tibetan Buddhist pantheon thus evolved can
broadly be classified into the following groups.
A Buddha Emanations closely associated with
S§.k.yamuni:
i. In earlier tradition only Sakyamuni was portrayed but in
later period seven Buddhas, some times twenty-fou^r, sometimes
one thousand or even infinite in number;
ii. Buddhas of past, present and future, Dipankara,
Sakyamuni and Maitreya;
iii. With Sakyamuni a set of eight usnisas are also
represented;
iv. Another set which is closely associated with
Sakyamuni is the set of eight Buddhas of medicine;
(B) Cosmological or celestial Buddhas; five Tathagates;
(C) Celestial Bodhisattvas; Maitreya, AvolokitesVara in
many forms, Vajrapani and Manjusri;
(D) Goddesses of the Buddha rank: Prad^^aparamita",
Saviouress Tara who has twenty-one forms and four goddesses
associated with cosmic Buddhas;
(E) Tutelary divinities: KSlacakra, Guhyasamaja,
Cakrasamvara, Hevajra and Mahamaya;
(F) Lamas who are considered as Buddhas and Bodhisattvas:
Padmasambhava, eighty-four Mahasiddhas, Tsonkha-pa, etc;
168
— ' — _
(G) Major defenders: Varjabhairava, Hayagriva, Sridevi
and Dharmaraja;
(H> Lesser Defenders: four Lokapalas;
(I) Eight planets and many more local gods and defenders
of the doctrine, which previously belonged to the Bon, the
pre-Buddhist religion of Tibet.
BUDDHIST SCULPTURE: MATERIAL AMD TECHNIQUE
In the region under study clay, metal wood, stone and
marble statues has been found preserved in the
monasteries. Before studying and analysing sculpture,
iconography and their style we shall briefly discuss the
technique of making statues.
Clay Statues
A clay statue is made by using seven different materials like
Sula (a componant part of armature), astabandha (a kind of
glue), rajju (rope), mrta (clay). sarkar-kalka (limestone
paste), pata (cloth) and varna (colour). The human body is 9Q
believed to be made up of seven parts: asthi (bones), medas
(fat), sira (arteries and veins), mamsa (flesh and muscles),
sonita (blood), tvak (skin) and jiva (life).
The clay used for making the image consists of three
types: Jahgla (arid) anupa (damp) and misra (mixed). The
clay of all the three types is used. Preparation of clay
involves twelve steps. "^ When clay and other materials are
ready the armature of human body is prepared with seasoned
189
wooden bars using specified measurements and shapes. The
texts provide us the proportionate measurements of. the each
part of the body. After fixing the sula panj'ar (skelton), a
kind of glue or varnish (astabandha) is applied to it before
tieing it with ropes. The rice or locally available straw is
also tied to the various parts of the skelton in order to
give appropriate anatomical details to the skeleton. The
already prepared clay is applied to the various parts of the
body. The large sized statues cannot be fashioned by using
the entire clay at once, if they are meant for the permanent
purposes. In order to cast such images one has to wait until
the earlier clay layer is dried before applying the another
one. The entire clay is applied in this manner in different
layers till true anatomical details of the body are not
gained. But the heads of the images are either moulded
separately or along with the body. After the completion of
the application of the clay few coats of finest clay and
limestone pastes are applied to it. But it is again
necessary, for every succeeding layer is applied after the
previous layer is dried up completly. The coats of the
limestone paste helps in repairing the cracks that had
already developed and to prevent the appearance of new one.
The succeeding layers of this paste should contain less
amount of gum. After above process ten days rest is given to
the image and ground is prepared for colouring so as colours
could give sufficient shine to the image. The last step is
colouring.
170
01
The broken statues at Gumrang in Lahaul are very
useful to study the technique used for the clay sculptures in
the region. The lotus seats for the statues, which are fixed
on the walls at Tabo are made up of very strong locally
available grass, called sipgya. The statues are fixed on the
walls with the help of two or three pegs at the shoulder, hip
and the lotus seat levels.
No stucco statue has been found in the region under
study. A few scholars, ' however have used the term 'stucco'
for the Western Himalayan clay sculptures. It seems that the
'stucco would not be an appropriate term to be used for the
clay sculptures of the Western Himalayan Buddhist
monasteries. Strictly, stucco is the substance obtained by
mixing quick lime and sand. These two ingredients are found
to have been used in various proportions but for more
strength 1:3 or 4 is the best ratio. Both these ingredients
are mixed by adding appropriate amount of water and then it
is kneaded properly with different techniques. Thus obtained
mixture is heaped and covered with some cover to retain the
moisture.
Metal Statues
Metallic sculptures are also the speciality of
Buddhists and Brahmanical temples. Many patrons were
responsible for the production of the metallic statues of
Chamba, Kulu, Simla and Kinnaur districts. The statues are
superb and artistically elegant. Many of these statues bear
171
dedicatory inscriptions along its base. ^ Such statues
served tripple purpose for the donors: 1. support for
meditations, 2. accrues merit for the donors and 3. merit
generally to sentient beings. Copper, bronze, brass and
silver are used to cast such sculptures. The majority of the
metallic statues are hollow with a modelled clay core, while
smaller statues are usually solid.
Metallic sculptures or art works were commissioned by
monks and their associate craftsmen. The first step in
producing such a statue is usually to model a clay core. The
next step is to form the wax model over the clay. Then metal
replaces the wax. This method is known as the lost wax
casting process. There is another process which is more
recent called sand casting process.
In the lost wax casting process, an iron armature of
the desired statue is formed. On the armature clay model
code is formed. On the clay core layers of wax are laid
which are to be displaced by the metal. Wax layers are again
covered by the outer layers of clay mould. After drying it
in the sun it is heated to melt the wax, which is replaced by
the desired metal. In sand casting process a mixture of sand
and molasses is heated to make sand sticker. After heating
mixture is kneaded. Fine clay and molasses are again added
to this mixture and again kneaded. This mixture is used to
make the impression of wax model.
172
Wooden Statues
The viood is quite scarce in the region but we have found
wooden statues in various monasteries. The wooden statues
preserved in the monasteries of Tsarang and Ropa are
important from iconographic and stylistic point of view. At
Pooh there are two human size wooden statues. The wood
selected for carving the statues should be seasoned and free
from insects. The wood of deodar (cedar) and walnut had been
the first choice of the craftsmen.- The statues are carved in
the wood with the help of small iron tools with great care.
Certain statues have been polychromed.
Stone Statues
Only few stone sculptures have been found preserved in the
Western Himalayan monasteries. The stone statue of
Manjughosa at Tabo is one of the beautiful examples of the
stone statues found in the region. The good quality sandstone
required for the stone statues is not easily available in the
area under study. So the use of stone for making sculptures
is very limited. But the stone bases of some pillars in some
chaples at Tabo are beautifully chiselled by the stone
carvers.
Marble Statues
A few marble statues have been found housed in the
monasteries of the region. Apart from the famous
Avalokitesvara head from Guru Ghantal monastery and
Avalokitesvara statue from Triloknath in Lahaul, places such
173
as Somang and Chitkul have housed marble statues. The marble
is not found in Himachal Pradesh so the nearest source
possibly was Rajasthan. The statues of marble seem to have
been sculptured outside Himachal Pradesh.
After discussing the varieties and methods of
sculptural productions we would like to analyse individual
sculptural collections in each Iha-khan surveyed in this
study. The monastic establishments are arranged valley wise
and chronologically, however there are some later monasteries
which possess metal sculptures of the earlier periods,
whereas the sculptures of later period are fairly common in
all the monasteries. The collection of each monastery where
there are more than one variety of sculpture, is arranged in
the following manner: clay, metal, wood, stone and marble.
(A) MONASTERIES OF THE SPITI AND PIH VALLE^iS
Tabo Monastery
Clay sculpture
There are forty-three clay sculptures in the gTsug-
lag - khan and a huge statue of Maitreya in the Byams- pa'i
Iha-khan. The clay sculptures in the gTsug- lag khan can be
divided into three groups: (i) three sculptures in the sGo-
khah, (ii) thirty-five in the 'Du-khan, and (iii) five clay
sculptures in the Dri-gtsan-khari.
Three clay sculptures are presently found in the
ante-chamber (Skt. mukha-mandapa, Tib. sGo-khan) of
gTsug-lag-khart at Tabo. Two are the guardian dieties placed
on the either side of the door leading to the assembly hall.
174
They stand on mud platform and are cantilevered into the
walls with the help of wooden studs. On the left side is
blue-coloured Vajrapani (ht. 168 cm). Whereas the deities on ft
the right side seems to have been remade (ht. 154 cm). A
clay statue of Ganesa has been placed near the pedestal of
Vajrapani. Its height is c.67 cm. The earlier photograph of
the sanctum taken by A.H. Francke in 1909 shows that Ganesa
was placed near the four-bodied statue of Vairocana in the
'Du-khan.
The assembly hall of the gTsug-lag-khan has a set of
thirty-three clay sculptures. The principal deity of this
set is four-bodied Sarvavid Vairocana (rNam-par snan-mdzad)
on the floor of the hall at the western €nd facing all the
four directions in bodhyahgi mudra (PI. IX). The rest of the
thirty two statues are cantilevered on the walls with the
help of wooden sstuds. Six deities have been cantilevered in
the east wall (three on either side of the entrance), ten
each on the north and south walls, four on the west wall (two
on either side) and one each on the two terminuses of the
west wall on the way to the garbhagrha. These statues are
painted in different colours, and shown in different moods.
Eight of them are offering goddesses and four are guardian
deities, one each on the either side of the door in the east
wall and one each on the terminus in the west wall. Out of
the ten statues each on the north and south walls two each
are cosmic Buddhas. These are a bit of larger size than the
rest of the statues. Rest sixteen statues, eight each on the
north and south walls are Bodhisattvas.
175
P I . I X C l a y - f - v ta tue of
V a i r - o c:: TI n r: , g "1" ir, u g - 1 i i g - 1 - : h a n , T a b D
y-' .1 ™ A '- ;::! j r s d h'U [::- a ^
o T s u q - i a g - k hian ^ T a b o
The scheme of the clay statues of Tabo's gTsug-lag-
khan correspond to the deities mentioned in Vajradhatu
mahamandala of Sarvatathagatatattvasangraha. Instead of
thirty seven deities of the mandala at Tabo we find the set
of only thirty-three deities. The missing deities are the
four main goddesses associated with Vairocana (i.e.
Sattvavajri, Ratnavajri, Dharmavajrl and Karmavajri). A few
scholars have argued that these statues are re-made on the
model of the originals, " and the statues of the four
goddesses could not be adjusted, and thus the number is
reduced to thirty-three. This hypothetical argument does not
sound well because of the technical reasons for readjusting
all these clay statues on the walls. Another argument put
forward by scholars that the garbhagrha was a later addition
and in order to add an opening in the west wall was created
and the four statues could not be adjusted and they were
removed from the mandala . Such an argument is also equally
misleading. " ^ The only possibility is that either four
goddesses were represented by symbols or small statues placed
on the four corners of the pedestal of the Vairocana.
The Vairocana (ht.l25 cm.), who is the presiding
deity in this mandala has been shown in sitting position on
the lotus pedestal in four bodies facing the four directions.
The height of the lotus throne is 138 cm.
The four family heads of the Vajradhatu mandala along
with their families are: Aksobhya, Ratnasambhava,
Lokesvararaja (Amitabha) and Amoghasiddhi. Two each have been
176
shown on the western and northern walls. The pattern of the
crown and aura of these four Tathagatas is also different
from the other deities. In the halo of the four family heads
first there is colour band of three strings then a band of
pearls and after it a row of vajras and two flames emanate
from each vajra.
The two guardians of the directions have been
cantilevered at the both sides of the entrance door to the
assembly hall (Vajrahkusa on the southern side and Vajravesa
on the northern side) and rest two on the terminuses of west
wall of the hall (Vajrapasa on the southern side and
Vajrasphota on the northern side). The eight goddesses of
offerings have been cantilevered two each at the northern and
southern ends of the east and west walls (PI. X). The four
sets of sixteen Bodhisattvas are displayed, two on the each
side of the respective heads of the families.
The height and width of all the deities on the wall
starting from the left hand side of the door in the clockwise
direction is as follows:
TABLE 1
Data on c lay s c u l p t u r e s , gTsug-lag-khaii , Tabo.
Sr.No. name wall colour height width
1. Vajran ku^a east 2. Vajradhupa east 3. Vajralasya east 4. Vajrasattva south 5. Vajraraja south 6. Aksobhya south 7. Vajraraga south 8. Vajrasadhu south 9. Vajraratna south 10. Vajratejah south 11. Ratnasambhava south
blue 112 cm 115 cm white 110 cm 63 cm white 105 cm 55 cm white 125 cm 62 cm
122 cm 67 cm 132 cm 74 cm 117 cm 61 cm 123 cm 64 cm 122 cm 62 cm 117 cm 56 cm 125 cm 70 cm
177
south 124 cm 66 cm south 120 cm 62 cm west 115 cm 61 cm west 110 cm 56 cm west 105 cm -
west 104 cm -
west 110 cm 62 cm west 116 cm 66 cm north 126 cm 64 cm north 130 cm 69 cm north 128 cm 64 cm north 120 cm 64 cm north 125 cm 69 cm north 118 cm 65 cm north 125 cm 65 cm north 135 cm 57 cm north 120 cm 70 cm east 130 cm 66 cm east 118 cm 62 cm east 118 cm 61 cm east 114 cm -
on the floor 125 cm -
12. Vajraketu 13. Vajrahasa 14. Vajramala 15. Vajrapuspa 16. Vajrapasa 17. Vajrasphota 18. Vajraloka 19. Vajragita 20. Vajradharma 21. VajratTksana 22. Lokes'vararSja 23. Vajrahetu 24. Vajrabh"3sa 25. Vajrakarma 26. Vajraraksa 27. Amoghasiddhi 28. Vajrayaksa 29. Vajrasandhi 30. Vajranrtya 31. Vajragandha 32. Vajrave^a 33. Vairocona
On the wooden altar are placed two statues of Rin-
chen bzafi po. They seem to have been placed in the monastery
after his death. Two standing statues of Akasagarbha and
Ksitigarbha are placed in front of the two guardian deities
at the terminus of the west wall of the raandapa. The height
of Akasagarbha without throne is 192 cm and the height of
throne is 29 cm the total height including throne is 221 cm.
The height of Ksitigarbha without throne is 206 cm. and that
of throne is 23 cm thus the total comes to 229 cm.
The sanctum of Tsug-lag-khah has Amifabha as the presiding
deity. He is shown sitting cross-legged in dhyanasana on a
throne supported by lions. The height of Amifabha is 156 cm
and the height of throne is 180 cm Amitabha is painted in its
usual red colour. Along the two walls of the sanctum are
standing Padmapani Avalokitesvara (ht. 214 cm) and
MahasthStoprapta (ht 213 cm). They belong to the family of
178
Amitabha.
Amitabha in the sanctum has been represented
according to the description given in the Sukhavativyuha-
sutra. However, a few scholars"^' have doubted this
identification for the reasons that Amitabha is usually shown
seated on peacocks, but in this case, he is represented as
the universal monarch, thus lions substituted for peacocks.
The presiding deity of the thirty-three deity
Vaj'radhatu-manc^ala, the four-bodied Vairocana has been
depicted in white colour facing four directions. Each body is
wearing a pointed crown. From the ends of the crown two
ribbons has been shown falling on the shoulders of the deity.
The deity has been shown wearing karnaphula, armlets, mekhla
and dhoti. The colour and pattern of the ornaments and
costumes varies slightly with each body. The gesture of the
hands of each body has also slight variations. Both the hands
are held near the chest. This seems to depict the bodhyangi-
mudra, "^^ the mudra of foremost knowledge.
The four Buddhas of the mandala, blue coloured
Aksobhya on the south wall has been shown in bhumisparsa-
mudra, yellow-coloured Ratnasambhava on the same wall has
been depicted in varada-mudra. The red-coloured Lokesvararaoa
is in dhyana-mudra and green coloured Amoghasiddhi in abhaya-
mudra have been studded in the north wall of the mantjapa.
The colour and pattern of the dhoti of each Buddha varies.
Below the seats of the Buddhas are shown their vehicles.
These are: white elephants in the case of Aksobhya, horse,
below Ratnasambhava, peacocks below Lokesvararaja and red-
179
coloured fabulous bird Garuda below the seat of Amoghasiddhi.
In the sanctum of the temple of Byams pa'i Iha-khafi a
huge statue of Maitreya almost touching the ceiling of the
chapel has been enshrined. The height of this statue is o.
550 cm. He is shown sitting in his traditional posture with
his two legs pendant resting on the lotus-cushion and his two
hands are in dharmacakrapravartana-mudra. The statue has
suffered some damage during the earthquake of 1975. The
statue has been re-touched several - times but we know from the
inscr;iption preserved in the dKyil-khan that the temple
dedicated to Maitreya (Byams-pa) was present from the very
beginning.
Stone sculpture
The statue of Manjughosa is the only stone sculpture
preserved in the monastery (though pillar-bases in the gTsug-
lag-khan, Byam-pa'i Iha-khan and the 'Brom-ston Iha-khafi
chuh-ba have the carvings of the elephants and lions). The
right arm of the statue of Manjughosa is broken and left is
holding a book at the chest. The deity is shown sitting
cross-legged on a stone throne. The statue has been placed in
the sanctum on a mud altar near the statue of Avalokite^vara
(PI. XI).
Lo-tsa-ba Iha-khah, Hako
Clay sculptures
At Hako we noticed clay sculptures in three temples.
The two temples are in the Lo-tsa-ba'i Iha-khah monastic
180
P I . XI A BtiiHif- s t , : v tu i? o-f F1 . X n
Fr:M..ir"-'f-ie icltM..I I a y sii. l.: i-y t u t? c:) f V a .i, i'- o r: a n a „ q S c? r" -- k h a
complex and the other is Padmasambhava temple. There are six
clay statues cantilevered on the walls of the Lo-tsa-ba'i
Iha-khan and few other on a platform erected on the floor of
the hall. The gTsug-lag-khan has nine statues.
Six clay statues are fixed on to the walls of Lo-tsli-
ba'i Iha-khah, however, for other are placed on a platform in
front of the sanctum, five clay statues have been fixed on
the western, northern and eastern walls of the sanctum. These
statues belong to the family of TathS'gatas or five Buddhas
representing Vairocana, Ratnasambhava, Amoghasiddhi, Amifabha
and Aksobhya. They are fixed on the walls roughly at the
height of 230 cm from the floor. The central statues is that
of Vairocana (rNam-par snah-mdzad) white in colour sitting
_ o n
c r o s s - l e g g e d (padmasana) and hands a r e in bodhyangi-mudra^
His v e h i c l e s , t h e p a i r of l i o n s i s s u r v i v i n g below h i s s e a t ,
w h e r e a s t h e v a h a n a s of t h e fou r o t h e r T a t h a g a t a s a r e l o s t .
The l o t u s t h r o n e of V a i r o c a n a i s 70 cm wide and h e i g h t of t h e
s t a t u e i s 123 cm. The d e i t y i s w e a r i n g a f i v e - p o i n t e d crown.
Our u n d e r s t a n d i n g of c l a y s c u l p t u r e s from Nako becomes
c l e a r e r from t h e f o l l o w i n g t a b l e :
TABLE 2
Da ta on c l a y s c u l p t u r e s in L o - t s a - b a ' i I h a - k h a n Nako, Kinnaur
Sr.No. name location wall mudra height width
1. Vairocana sanctum central bhodhyangi 123 cm 70 cm 2. Ratnasambhava -do- -do- varada 12SS cm 70 cm 3. Amitabha -do- -do- dhyana 120 cm 70 cm 4. Amoghasiddhi -do- le f t abhaya 108 cm 62 cm 5. Aksobhya -do- r ight bhumispar^a 120 cm 70 cm 6. Prajfiaparamita mandapa central vyakhyaha 114 cm 65 cm
lef t
181
The crown of Vairocana is different from the type of
crowns seen at Tabo's gTsug-lag-khan. ^ Above the head of the
Vairocana there is a beautiful Garuda and makara frame. This
decorative motif was quite popular among the artists in the
l/Jestern Himalaya. This motif seems to be the substitute for
the stylized lion-head (kirtti-makha) motif •'•, but has been
partly modified in Tibet according to their religious and
artistic traditions. This type of the decorative motif is
found in many temples which are dedicated to the Rin-chen
bsari-po. This particular motif has been used thrice at Naka.
To the right of Vairocana is Ratnasambhava (Rin-chen
'byun-ldan) and on the left Amitabha ('Od-dpag-med).
Ratnasambhava has been painted in yellow colour and his right
hand is in vai-ada-madra. Whereas Amitabha is shown in red
colour and hands in dhyana-madra. On the southern and
northern walls of the sanctum there are fixed Amoghasiddhi
(ht. 120 cm) and Aksobhya (ht. 120 cm). Amoghasiddhi is
painted in green colour and is shown in abhaya-madra.
Aksobhya has been painted in blue colour and his hands are in
bhumisparsa-mudra. Thus the five Tathagatas are cantilevered
on the walls of the sanctum which itself is a mandapa showing
the supreme pentads.
There is another statue on the western wall of the
mandapa of the same temple on the southern side. Its height
is 114 cm and width 65 cm. It is painted in yellow colour
and hands are in vyakhyana-mudra. This statue has been
erroneously identified as Ratnasambhava by A.H. Francke.^*^ It
represents Prajnaparamita. It has similar motif above its
182
head as of Vairocana. This statue resembles in styles that
of five Tathagatas and belongs to the same period.
We can see from the Table 2 that width of four
statues is 70 cm each, whereas that of Amoghasiddhi is 62 cm.
The height of three statues is 120 cm each whereas that of
Vairocana and Amoghasiddhi is 123 cm and 108 cm respectively.
The crowns of five statues of TathSgatas have triple crecent
and lotus seats have also single petals in contrast to that
of double at Tabo. The halo painted on the walls behind the
statues is also different as compared to Tabo. Thus we see
a major deviations between the styles of the statues of Hako
and Tabo. All temples which are popularly known as the Lo-
tsa-ba's Iha-khan were constructed after his death.
In front of the sanctum on a platform there are few
small and larger clay statues. But these do not seem to
belong to the original foundation of the temple. From left
to right some of them can be identified as a Padmasambhava,
statue of a lama, two stupas, green Tara and Padmasambhava.
The chapel no. 3 is the gTsug-lag khan which has been
called Iha-khaft gon-ma by A.H. Francke but Tucci has used
gTsug-lag-khah. It has also nine statues cantilevered on the
central wall. The central figure is that of yellow TSra
(sGrol-gser) with the decorative frame of Garuda, makara and
elephants. Yellow Tara occupies the central position on the
wall. On the both sides of Tara are the statue of eight
medicine Buddhas (sMan-bla; Skt. Bhaisajyaguru) four on each
side of Tara. These medicine Buddhas are frequently
represented on the walls of the Western Himalayan temples.
183
The art and style of these statues is inferior as compared to
those in the Lo-tsa-ba'i Iha-khart's statues. There is much
possibility that these statues have been remade and
retouched. The traces of alteration and renovations are
clearly discernible. The precise identification of eight
medicine Buddhas is attempted Below:-
Four medicine Buddhas on the left side represent:
1. mTsan-legs-yons-grags-dpal
2. sGra-bdyans rgyal-po
3. mNon-mkhyen rgyal-po
4. Chos-sgrags rgyal-mtsho'i dbyans
On the right side are:-
1. Mya-nan med mchog-dpal
2. gSer-bzaii dri-med
3. sMan-gyi-bla vaidurya-'od
4. Sakya thub-pa
The identification offered earlier by Tucci does not
correspond with the one suggested by us. *
The depiction of central figure of Tara among the
medicine Buddhas is confusing. Tucci righty observed that
central figure of Tara would lead us to suppose series of
secondary divinities or subsidary manifestations of the
medicine Buddha's would seem to indicate Amitayus as the
central deity or Sakyamuni .'*
This small shrine now totally in a state of neglect,
enshrines a clay statue of Padmasambhava (called by the
locals as the Guru Rin-po-che). The clay statue and the
temple both need to be repaired immediately. Various murals
184
on the walls have suffered an irrepairable damage.
gSer-khah, Lha-Lung, Spiti
Clay sculpture
gSer-khan at Lha-lung preserves numerous clay
sculptures in the main temple as well as a later added bsTan-
'gyur room constructed in front of the main temple. The four
walls of the gSer-khan are dominated by the clay images fixed
to the walls with cantilevered timber studs. Here in this
temple three different mandalas are depicted on three
different walls. The central wall shows the mandala of
Sakyamuni surrounded by four other deities. Exact
identification of each deity around Sakyanmuni however
remains inconclusive but in the upper row there are two
goddesses at farther corners. Below SSkmuni are depicted
eight Buddhas. At the tomost section appear two seated
deities: Vajrasattva at the right side and Avalokitesvara on
the left in an architectural frame canopied by an aaalaka and
a kalasa. The different parts of these architectural frames
are decorated by wooden bobbins, which is one of the peculiar
feature of the Western Himalayan wooden architecture. The
one of the designs of these architectural frames around
Vajrasattva makes a half plan of a n'Sgara temple where as the
inner design of the other is finished like a trefoliated
gable.^^ Two small rectangular wooden frames on either side
of the each deity enshrines winged horses and two females.
Each deity of the mandala is encircled by a patralata.
185
The right hand side wall (south wall) shows the
mandala of Prajfiaparamita. The yellowish figure of
PraJ3."Sparainita is shown in vajraprayanka-mudra. Two hands
of the deity are in dharmacakra-mudrli. Her lotus throne is
supported by a pair of elephants. Four deities are arranged
on either side of PrajnapSramita. Out of them four are males
and four female. °
The largest number of sixteen deities arranged in two
rows are cantilevered on the north wall around the four-
headed statue of Vairocana (PI. XII). Immediately, on the
either side of the Vairocana appears Aksobhya and
Ratnasambhava on the left side and Amifabha and Amoghasiddhi
on right. The artist has succeeded in depicting four heads
of Vairocana on the wall. However, four bodies of Vairocana
shown in seated positions are represented in another temple
at Lha-lung and Tabo. Four heads, one above the other are
also depicted at Gumrang. But here four heads are shown in
four directions on the wall. The lotus throne is supported
by a bharaputra on his two hands and two lion statues are
shown on his either side. The Vairocana's eight hand shows
different mudras.' Here two hands, one raised at the level
of chest by pressing thumb with a finger whereas the another
hand's middle finger touches the thumb slightly below it. It
is not a b^odhyangl-mudra in strict sense. All sculptures
are beautifully adorned with jewellery and dhotis are
decorated with intricate design as seen in the sculpture of
the Vajradhatu mandala at Tabo. J *
186
The entrance wall has two Dharmapalas, Vajrapani in
the left side and Hayagriva on the right side. Vaorapani
stretches out his right arm but the vaj'ra is missing in it.
He has three eyes and his multipetai crown is beautifully
adorned. On his left side is 53 line Tibetan inscription.
The red statue of Hayagriva is easily identifiable by the
green horse head on the crown (PI. XIII). He wears a five
skull crown. They are depicted here as the protectors of the
monastery.
Dankhar Monastery, Spiti
Dankhar was the ancient capital of Spiti principality, is
situated on the left side of Spiti river on a strategic hill
top. The chapels are located on a sloping land one above the
other on both sides of the bridle path. Thre are six chapels
in the old complex. Of them five are located at a lower
place and the sixth is located at a higher place.
Monastery perhaps belongs to the post fifteenth
century. The five chapels of the complex are: 1. 'Du-khan,
2. mGon-khan, 3. Gyun-khan, 4. gzhim-chun chun-ba and 5.
gZhin-chuA. The sixth chapel is sNag chan. These chapels
have clay and metal statues. The clay statues are of Sakya
Pandita, Maitreya and Sakyamuni Buddha whereas metallic
statues include Sakyamuni, Vajradhara, Maitreya, rJe Rin-po-
che, Tson-kha-pa and Guru Rin-po-che (Padmasambhava).
There is another newly constructed monastery^" at
Dankhar on the opposite side of the complex across the
Nallah.
187
p \ . X i y X Pi SV.aridiiic.) v.: 1. ay ' - t a t u e o f HrT-c/aQr a v a ., gSt~'r-kh<.sn , l..ha--luipQ
P I . XI'v C i a y 5--tatLies o f AvaAok i tF?Bvar£i ^ B a k y a m u n i and Padmasai r ib f iava , Kur tgr i d q o n - p a , L a h a n i - S p i t i .
Ki Honastery
Ki is one of the important monasteries of dGe-lugs-pa sect in
the region on a old trade route. It is located on a
strategic height on a furrow of a hill. ^ This monastery
remained a centre of the political and military activities
during the hey days. Most of the statues in the main temple
at the top of the spur seem to be of very late period. The
monks did not allow us to examine the oldest chapel. Thus
the sculptural collection of Ki monastery remains yet to the
analysed.
The Kungri dgon-pa. Pin valley
The Pin valley is one of the most beautiful valleys of
Himachal Pradesh. Being devoid of vegetation, the valley's
beauty and grandeur are excellent. The Kungri dgon-pa
belongs to the rNin-ma-pa sect of Buddhism. This sect traces
its origin to the great Indian tantric master Padmasambhava,
as pointed out earlier in chapter II.
There are six huge clay sculptures, both in seated
and standing positions against the central wall of the
sanctum. Those on the left hand side can be identified from
left to right as four-armed white Avalokitesvara, Sakyamuni
and Padmasambhava (PI. XIV). This is a monastery dedicated
to the rNin-ma-pa sect but Padmasambhava, as usually appears
in the right hand side, a kind of arrangement seen at Namgya.
The five pointed crown of Avalokitesvara is quite
fascinating. Such types of crowns emerged during the
188
sixteenth-seventeenth century, highly influenced by the
Nepalese idioms. Sakyamuni holds his bowl in the lap. The
folds of the sanghati over the shoulders look quite
impressive. The statue of Padmasambhava is equally
impressive.
Three scultupres on the right hand side represent
Manjusri, Padmasambhava in yab-yum and Vajrasattva. The
crown of Manjus ri resembles that a Avalokitesvara and thus
must be of the same period. The central image is most
impressive. The local Buddhist community identifies it as the
Tantric form of Padmasambhava in yab-yum. This seems to be a
correct identification for the reasons that the male deity
holds a skull-staff in one of his hands. Vajrasattva is
shown seated on a raised lotus pedestal. He hods vajra in
his right hand against his chest, and a bell rested on the
left side. All clay, sculptures are impressive and can be
dated to the sixteenth-seventeenth century. There is a
definite influence of the Nepalese idiom on these sculptures.
Another chapel in this complex which has been built
about 50 years back houses statues of Sakyamuni,
Padmasambhava, Vajraplni and a small statue of Marijusri.
These statues have been made by the artists from Leo, Giu and
Sunam villages.^^ Statues are silver and gold plated.
rUih-na-pa Monasteries of Chango
There are at least four monasteries at Change. We could
record the sculptural wealth of only two monasteries.
Lhamo'i Lha-khan is situated in the centre of the village on
189
a huge boulder. This monastery houses three clay sculptures
of lamas or ordained monks. Each one is 72 cm high. There
is a small statue of stone in this monastery. This statue is
of Avalokite^vara.
Another monastery across the stream is situated on a
hillside. This monastery was damaged in the earthquake of
1975 and all the clay sculptures of the old monastery were
destroyed. The remains of the old monastery included the two
metal statues placed in front of the clay statue of
Padmasambhava. The monastery's other clay statues of
Sakyamuni, Padmasambhava and others are of recent origin.
Among the metal statues include those of TSra, Vajrapani and
Sa-chen Kun-dga' snih-po.
rNin-na-po nonastery of Leo
The rNin-ma-po monastery at Leo has in its collection clay
and metal sculptures (PI. XV>.
Clay Sculpture
Three main clay sculptures preserved in the monastery
are those of Padmasambhava, Sakyamuni and a Thousand - armed
Avalokitesvara. Sakyamuni is shown sitting on a lotus
throne, and painted in the yellow colour. He is wearing the
monastic robe. The left hand of the deity is in the lap
having a begging bowl, and right hand is in bhWmisparsa-mudra
(earth touching gesture). The statue of padmasambhava is
placed on the left side of Sakyamuni. He is holding a vajra
in his right hand and a bowl in the left. The most
interesting of all the clay statues is that of the standing
190
F" 1 . XV T h e r h-lin- ma p a m o n a s tc^r y ^ l . , eo , K i, r i n r-t i. 11"
Pi
Avalokitesvara, painted in white colour, having eleven heads
and one thousand arms, (sPyan-ras-gzigs Phyag-sTon). Out of
eleven heads four are painted in red colour, three in white,
three in green and one in blue colour. The folds of
Avalokitesvara's dhoti are quite fascinating and the folds
look like those seen on the lower garments of clay statues at
Tabo.
The outermost section of the aureole is decorated
with several symbols showing conch shell, rosettees and
leaves. The folds of the scarf on either side of the
shoulders remind us of similar designs seen in the wooden
sculptures of Tsarang. Could this be an art piece of the
twelfth-thirteenth century AD? The statue of Buddha
Sakyamuni and Padmsambhava are of recent period.
Metal sculpture
The monastery also preserves a few metallic
sculptures and a prayer wheel. The most prolific among the
metallic images include the brass statue of Padmaasmabhava.
On the copper sheet of prayer wheel there are beautiful
carvings. The figures and motifs carved on it makes it a
master piece. The delicate work shows the skill of
craftsmanship of the artist who had carved it. In the Sutlej
valley there are a few artists who are quite skilled in metal
and wood work. In a separate room has been kept a huge
prayer wheel showing beautiful images of gods and goddesses
of the Buddhist pantheon. A few of the deities are shown
dancing along with the musical instruments (PI. XVI).
191
Tengyud Monastery, Spiti
The Sa-skya-pa monastery is situated at the highest elevation
in the Spiti valley. There are two monasteries at Tengyud.
The new monastery is only about 20 years old. About 70 lamas
belonging to Sa-skya-pa sect are residing here. The daily
prayers are now being done in this complex. The old
monastery which faces south enshrines the clay statues of
Sakya-thub-pa and Hah'akala. All the three statues of
Mahakala have been covered with the clothes so their
iconographic features could not be studied thoroughly.
(B) MONASTERIES OF THE SUTLEJ VALLEY
The Lo-tsa-ba Iha-khan, Ropa
The architectural plan of this monastery clearly suggests
that his monastery was constructed during the life time of
Rin-chen bzah-po. It is one of the twenty-one establishments
mentioned in the biographies of Rin-chen bzaft-po. ^ Numerous
clay and wooden sculptures have been noticed by us in the
sanctum and mandapa of this monastery. • •
Clay sculpture
Eight clay sculptures belong to the temple proper
which are enshrined in the sanctum and the mandapa of the
temple. Those placed on the sanctum include Vairocana (ht.
145 cm) in dhySna-mudra. On his either side are Aksobhya (ht.
130 cm) and Amitabha (ht. 124 cm). On the right of Aksobhya
192
is Ratnasambhava (ht, 132 cm) and on the left of Amitabha is
Amoghasiddhi (ht. 132 cm). Two Bodhisattvas both in
lalitasana are shown on the lotus thrones at the entry point
to the sanctum. Vajrapani (ht. 155 cm) and Hayagriva (ht.
180 cm) are shown on the left and right side of the entrance.
The arrangement of the five Tathagatas corresponds to the one
shown at Tabo and Tsarang respectively but we do not find
depiction of their families. Two variations occur in the
iconography of Vairocana and Amoghasiddhi. Amoghasiddhi
(green in colour) is depicted here in bhumisparsa-madra
instead of abhaya-mudra and Vairocana has been depicted in
dhyana-mudra as shown in a mural painting in gSer-khan (north
wall) and dKyil-khah (western wall) at Tabo. Two clay
statues placed at the entrance of the Lo-tsa-ba'i Iha-khah at
Ropa possibly represent Maitreya and Manjusri.*^^
Five clay sculptures are placed on a altar in the
mandapa of the temple (PI. XVII ). Some of them are of later
period. they represent.
1. Buddha, 29 cm by 20 cm yellow in colour.
2. Vajrasattva, 35 cm by 23 cm white in colour.
3. Usnisavijaya, 51:5 cm by 30 cm yellow in colour (one
right arm broken).
4. Amitabha, 47 cm by 28 cm red in colour and
5. One small statue measuring 31.5 cm by 22 cm remains
unidentified.
A huge statue of Padmasambhava accompained by his two
wives is shown seated on a lotus throne at the mukha-mandapa
of the temple. This is one of the most impressive statues of
193
P^- X V I I C l a y a n d wooden s r u l p t u r e ^ on ciin a l t ^ i r , , L o - t s a * b a J i, i h a -1-; h a f), i-" ; (.5 p a ,, K i f i n c: (.\ r
F'l . X 'v 'J I I V a j ra^?.a t t v a , p o l y c |-jrofiie wood ^ Ropa
Padmasambhava seen by us in western Himalaya but it belongs
to a much later period.
Mooden statues
Five wooden statues (ht. 170 cm each) have been
noticed by us at Ropa. Two standing Bodhisattvas Padmapani
Avalokitesvara and Vajrasattva of polychrome wood are placed
on the lotus thrones on the left and right side of the
mandapa. Vajrasattva holds a vajra in right hand at the
chest and the left hand rests at the hip and holds a bell
(PI. XVIII>. He wears a long vanamala slung over his
shoulder. He is fully adorned with ear-rings, armlets and
wristlets. He wears a triple-pointed crown and Aksobhya is
also shown in his crown. On the opposite side appears
Padmapani Avalokitesvara, who holds the branch of a full
blossomed lotus flower which rests on his left foot. His
right hand is in varada-mudra. His triple pointed crown also
shows an e-ffigy of Buddha in the central part.
Four wooden statues are mixed up with the five clay
statues in the mandapa. They are also made up of polychrome
wood representing Vajadharma (a form of Avolokitesvara)
measuring 84 cm by 41.5 cm. He holds the lotus flower
against the chest in the right hand and with the left hand
touching the blossomed flower. According to SadhanamSlsr^ he
should ride on peacock but here he is shown on lotus flower.
The second statue is seated in the lalitasana with the left
leg pendant. He rides a peacock. The entire statue is
painted blue but a part of the stomach between the chest a.nd
194
mekhala is yellow. An exact identification of the statue
poses a problem. In the right.hand he holds a mala and with
the left which rests on the knee of the pendant leg, he holds
a noose (pasa) or snake, could this represent Vajrapani as a
spell deity, the protecter against snake bites.^ The third
statue is of Usnisavijaya. She is shown in standing position
with three heads and six arms. She holds a visvavaj'ra and an
arrow in the two upper arms whereas one of the lower right
hand is in varada-mudra. In left hands she holds a flower, a
pot and a bow. Five figures are carved on its pedestal. Two
figures are shown on its either side which may represent
Avalokitesvara and Vajrapani. The fourth statue is that of
Avalokitesvara seated on a raised cushion in latifasana. The
six armed statue is finest example of the wood carving
traditions of Western Himalaya. Similar statue of marble
has been noticed at Triloknath (Tunde). In one of the right
hands he has a mala and the other is in varada-mudra what he
holds in the third hand is not clear. He holds in the left
hands a lotus flower, snake and kalasa. All these attributes
are noticed at the Avalokitesvara image at Triloknatha. What
is interesting to note that the crisscross designs below its
cushion are also repeated below the seat of Vajrapani. The
effigy of Amitabha is clearly seen in the crown.
Dharmavajra, VajrapSni and Usnisavijaya have triple pointed
crowns. 'These wooden statues are of slightly later period
than the two discussed earlier. But their date cannot be
pushed to the twelfth century.
195
With the exception of a few clay sculptures,
Usnisavijaya, Sakyamani and Vajrasattva all clay and wooden
statues belong to the eleventh century artistic mileau. We do
not think that any one of them can be predated to the
foundation of the monastery.
The Rang-rig-rtse dgon-pa, Tsarang
The monastery as pointed out earlier was constructed by Rin-
chen bzan-po^^ sometimes in the first half of the eleventh
century.
The monastery has in its collection beautiful clay
and wooden sculptures and many of them belong to the
foundation of the monastery.
Clay sculptures
There are many clay sculptures studded on the four
walls of the sanctum. The central statue of Vairocana along
with kulas (families) of Aksobhya and Amitabha
(Lokesvararaja) are fully preserved. The families of
Amoghasiddhi (right wall) and Ratnasambhava (left wall) are
disturbed, possibly by an avalanche. Two clay goddesses
survive on the right and left walls. Actually there should
have been four goddesses of the inner circle of the
Vajradhatumandala. The scheme conceived at Tsarang is one
earlier used most efficiently at Tabo. It is not very clear
whether all the thirty-seven deities were depicted at Tsarang
but, what seems likely is that the five Tathagatas and their
196
TABLE 3
Measurement data of wooden sculptures, Rang-rig-rtse dgon-pa Tsarang.
sr.no. name
1. Dharmavajra
2. Maitreya 3. Mafiju^ri 4 . Vajrasattva 5. ^SQcyaitaini 6. Sakyamuni
height width colour material Remarks
87 cm 30 cm bluish Polychrome Stylized vajra wood
67 cm 31 cm brownish -do-86 cm 36 cm reddish -do-59.2 cm 31 cm red -do-52 cm 22 cm yellowish -do-71 cm 37.5 cm light blue -do-
Tara 58.5 cm 28 cm 8. Avalokitesvara 95 cm 40 cm light
whitish -do-
in one hand
-do-
U^isa blue begging bowl in both hands.
seat broken.
Dharmavajra
The blue-coloured Bodhisattva can be identified as
Dharmavajra because he holds a stylized vajra in his right
hand against the chest. The left hand rests on the thigh of
the left leg. He should normally carry the bell in it but it
is missing in this case. The flowing streamers remind us of
similar features noticed at Tabo.
Maitreya
The two-armed statue of Maitreya is seated on the
lotus throne. The lotus throne of five deities is almost
identical. The right hand of Maitreya is in abhaya-mvdr'a and
the left is in varada-mudra. The blooming plant tree is
carved on the left side on which rests a vase. A miniature
sfupa is shown on the centre of the crown. This seems to be
the statue of Maitreya.
198
TABLE 3
Measurement data of wooden sculptures, Rang-rig-rtse dgon-pa Tsarang.
sr.no. name
1. Dharmavajra
2. Maitreya 3. Manju^ri 4 . Vajrasattva 5. ^aQcyamuni 6. Sakyamuni
7. Tara
height width colour material Remarks
30 cm bluish Polychrome Stylized vajra wood in one hand
-do-
8l cm
6' cm 31 cm brownish -do-86 cm 38 cm reddish -do-551.2 cm 31 cm red -do-5 cm 22 cm yellowish -do-7;. cm 37.5 cm light blue -do-
55.5 cm 28 cm 8. Avalokitesvara 9$ cm 40 cm light -do-
whitish
U^nisa blue begging bowl in both hands.
seat broken.
Dharma vaj'ra
The blue-coloured Bodhisattva can be identified as
Dharmavajra because he holds a stylized vajra in his right
hand against the chest. The left hand rests on the thigh of
the left leg. He should normally carry the bell in it but it
is missing in this case. The flowing streamers remind us of
similar features noticed at Tabo.
Mai treya
The two-armed statue of Maitreya is seated on the
lotus throne. The lotus throne of five deities is almost
identical. The right hand of Maitreya is in abhaya-mudra and
the left is in varada-mudra. The blooming plant tree is
carved on the left side on which rests a vase. A miniature
stUpa is shown on the centre of the crown. This seems to be
the statue of Maitreya.
198
Manjusri
This is one of the finest example of wooden
craftsmanship. The deity is seated in the vajrapryankasana
with both hands in dhyana-madra. The seat is supported by
two lions and a bharaputra. His makara torana is unique and
capped by an "amalaka. He wears a necklace with a suspended
locket, ear-rings and a three-pointed crown. The seated
figure of Aksobhya in bhumisparsa-mudra appears is the crown.
This makes the identification possible that the deity
represents Manjusri.
Vajrasattva
A seated figure possibly represents Vajrasattva. One
of his hands holds the bell on the hip and the attribute in
the right hand is missing. He is dressed in the style as has
been ornamented in the statues of Maitreya and Manjusri. He
also wears yajnopavita like those of Dharmavajra and
Maitreya.
Sakyamuni
There are two statues of Buddha Sakyamuni, one in
cedar wood another in walnut. The larger (see Table 3) is
shown seated on the raised pedestal in vajraprayaiikasana.
His both hands are in dhyana-mudra and holding a begging
bowl. There is a distinct mark of urna on the forehead which
is missing in the smaller statue. The smaller statue is also
seated cross-legged with hands in dharmacakra-mudra. The
usnisa has been painted in blue colour.
199
Tara
This is a statue of a female deity whose
identification has been possible from the full-blossomed
lotus flower on the left side. She holds the stalk of the
flower in her left hand, and the right hand is broken. Of
particular interest is the ear-rosettee and a long mala
suspended down the breasts. Similar design has been noticed
earlier at Tabo.
Avalokitesvara
The statue of Avalokitesvara is having elongated ears
and wearing ear-rings. His eyes are half closed, shown in
meditation, and concentrating at the tip of the nose. His
hair are curled upwards and Amitabha in dhyana-mudra has been
shown seated on the forehead. Avalokitesvara is shown wearing
a beded necklace and a pendant at the centre of the and
mekhala. The deity is shown seated on a pedestal. His right
hand is in varada-mudra, whereas the left hand is placed on
the knee. A lone devotee in namaskara-mudra is shown on the
right side of the deity.
Metal statue
There are half dozen metal statues in the collection
of the monastery. The oldest statue is that of Byams-pa
(Maitreya) donated to the monastery by an unnamed donar.
Many silver statues were cast by an artist named Hira Bag of
Sunnam.
What is significant to note is that most of the
wooden statues are made of the deodar and walnut wood, both
200
are available locally. Artistically, all statues belong to
the eleventh century.
Mone Iha-khan, Kanru
The Mone-lha-khaii at Kamru enshrines over a dozen metal and
clay sculptures. Not many of them are of great age. This
temple came into prominence in June 1992, when several
bronzes were stolen from the temple, and subsequently
recovered by the police in September 1993. It is however not
known how many sculptures were stolen from the sanctum of the
temple but the police officials at RekongPeo informed us (we
greatfully acknowledge the help of A. P. Siddhiqui and his
junior colleagues at Rekong Peo) that three of them were
placed in a huge attache, including the famous
Avalokitesvara. Thus we are presenting a study of three
stolen sculptures along with a host of others which adorn the
sanctum of the temple.
Metal sculpture
This statue once adorned the left corner of the 400
cm by 281 cm sanctum. The same statue of Avalokitesvara was
seen in situ by Rahul Sankrityayana in 1948. This
magnificent statue (78 cm by 27.5 cm) is broken at the top of
the nimbus. The Bodhisattva wears a dhoti. An antelope's
skin is hanging along with the animal's head from the left
shoulder. Two left hands carry a book and a stem of a lotus.
Whereas the right upper hand holds an aksamala and the lower
hand is in varada-mudra. The deity is crowned with a triple
201
pointed tiara. This standing statue of Avalokitesvara is
slightly turned to the right. It has a frontal dimensions
and the deity is brought under the etched flamed backstep.
It carries an inscription in two lines. The inscription has
been translated by Thakur. It reads:
Successfully gained admiration or glorious invocation
the Chief Minister of sMer, brother Klu-mgon (Naganatha),
mother (and) son offered alms (food) for the merits of the
expired Chief Minister of sMer, Ses-can (Prajnavana) and
after offering prayers, set up the statues of Trigotranatha
(i.e., Manjusri, Avolokitesvara, and Vajrapani) for purifying
the mental and moral defilements of a departed soul and all
infinite sentient being.'
On the basis of its style and the palaeographic
features of the inscription it can safely be assigned to the
eleventh century. However, two other statues seem to have
been manufactured slightly later.
Sometimes there is a great confusion in identifying
the statues of Tara and Prajnapararaita, however, the later
goddess normally holds a book in one of her hands. The
copper statue of Tara (ht. 14.2 cm and width at the base of
the pedestal 10.6 cm) is shown in standing position the right
leg pendant with the foot supported by a lotus. She wears a
five pointed crown which is a characteristic of the medieval
iconography. Her right hand is in varada-mudrS and the left
hand in dharmacakra-mudra. The goddess is beautifully
ornamented with several ornaments. This seems to be the work
of fifteenth-sixteenth century.
202
Six-armed Mahakala
The six-armed Mahlikala's height is 12.7 cm and width
at the base of the pedestal is 9 cm. The iconographic
details of this statue have been worked out by the artists
exquisitely. His right hand holds drum, chopper and the
flaming jewel, whereas the left hands have elephants' tooth
trident, lance and the skull cup, filled with jewels. Its
crown share many features with that of Tara discussed above
and therefore it may have been manufactured also in the
fifteenth-sixteenth century.
Brass Avalokitesvara
The local artist has tried to make a copy of the
inscribed Avalokitesvara after 1948. Rahul Sankrityayana is
silent about it, thus it seems quite possible that the
present statue was installed after 1948. Its total height is
55.2 cm and width at the level of the inscribed pedestal is
16 cm. The inscription has been engraved in Takari script.
Three more inscribed statues in the collection of the
temple deserve notice. One of them looks like a dGe-lugs-pa
adherent. With his right hand he holds a book and left is in
vyakhyana- mudrS.. The second represents some lama with the
beginning of the inscription reading rgyal-ba (Victorious or
Jina). The last to our estimate, represents Vajrasattva
(rDo-rje sems-dpa) holding vajra and bell in two hands. It
seems to be a work of the eleventh or twelfth century AD.
The three artistic phases clearly distinguishable at
the Mone Iha-khan:- (i) eleventh-twelfth century, (ii)
203
fifteenth-sixteenth, and (iii) recent additions in the
present century. All periods of its artistic history are
important to know the artistic trends which influenced the
Kinnaur region in general and the Sangla valley in
particular.
Dungyur Iha-khan, Thangi
The Dungyur Iha-khaft which was re-constructed in 1989, stands
on the site where an earlier temple referred to in the
biography of Rin-chen bzah-po existed. ° The old name of
Thangi is Safis. The decoration of the temple was completed as
early as in 1992 AD. ^ The only remnant of the old temple in
Dungyur Iha-khah is a clay statue of Avalokites'vara (PI.
XIX). His right hand is in varda-mudra and left arm is
raised as he is holding a lotus flower. He wears a crown
which consists of a triple-crescent and triple-pointed, which
is a characteristics of Tabo sculpture. The design of
KarnaphUla and rosette reminds us the designs found in the
eleventh century from Spiti and Kinnaur. He wears a necklace
with a large pendent suspending down and also a large beaded
vanamSla which comes down below the knee. The statue has
been re-painted including his dhoti.
Also there is a clay statue of eleven-headed
Avalokitesvara possibly of later period. However the
villagers have installed a statue of Haitreya in 1989. On
the entrance wall there are statues of Vajrapani and
Hayagriva.
204
F' .1. . Xi:X Cl. ay f ^ t a t u e o f FI . XX
X AVa \ ok.11eE;Vt>i-fs , VI)ang i ^ K:inr")i\v.r i )r--,L:>cier-i F rvu 1 r't-1-'.r r. f i f Ava ] c:.k; i t . e s v a r a
( D i i a r m a v a j r.?.) . i.-0 t s a b a , .1 1 l i a - k h a n ,
P o o h .
Lo-tsa-ba'i Iha-khan, Pooh
This monastery has in its collection several sculptures of
clay, wood and stone.
Clay sculpture
This monastery has six clay sculptures. These
sculptures are placed on a platform on the floor of the
sanctum. The main statue is that of Sakyamuni, sitting
cross-legged, on a lotus seat. Below the lotus seat, two
white lions have also been engraved. SSkyamuni is painted in
-yellow colour. His left hand is placed in the lap on which a
begging bowl has been placed. The right hand is in
bhumisparsa-mudra. He is flanked by his two disciples,
Sariputra and Maudgalyayana. Both are standing (ht. 105 cm
each) and painted in red colour. The assembly hall of the
monastery seems to be of the later period but the sanctum
seems to be the original. So the above mentioned three
sculptures belong to the original period of foundation. It
is evident from the Koro stone inscription that king of Guge,
Ye-ses-'od sent his sons for the propagation of faith to this
region during his lifetime.°^ This monastery has three more
clay sculptures of later period which can be indentified as
Sakyamuni in bhumisparsa-mudra, Padmasambhava and Vajrapani.
Wooden sculpture
The monastery has three wooden sculptures in its
collection. Two life size standing statues are placed in the
sanctum in front of the principal deity, on the left and
right sides, like the sanctum of gTsug-lag-khan at Tabo. On
205
" X
the right side of the Sakyamuni is Padmapani Avalokitesvara
CDharmavajra) painted in white-colour holding a lotus flower
along with a stalk in the left hand (PI. XX). He is wearing
four garlands of beads and armlets. Another garland has been
shown hanging over the arms of the statue and almost touching
the feet. he is wearing a red coloured dhoti with
multicoloured border. Four Buddhas are depicted in his
crown. On the left side of Sakyamuni and in front of
Avalokitesvara there is a statue of Mahasthamaprapta. He is
painted in blue colour and wearing an antelope skin whose
tail is hanging between his legs. A wooden fragment of a
ruined doorframe showing a standing figure on the innerside
is also preserved in the monastery.
Stone sculptures
The monastery has two carved stone sculptures. One
is in the sanctum of the monastery whereas the other is
outside the monastery. A fine stone carving in the sanctum
is that of Padmasambhava shown sitting on a lotus throne,
the stone carving outside the monastic complex is that of the
three main Bodhisattvas— MaTiousri, Maitraya and Vaorapani^
protectors of the three worlds. They are also depicted at
Tabo.
Lha-khan chen-no, Ribba
As mentioned earlier in chapter III that this monastery is
dedicated to the goddess Tara. The monastery enshrines many
clay, metal and wood sculptures of earlier and later periods.
Several clay statues are cantilevered on the walls, some of
206
them are placed in an almirah and some on the raised platforn
in the sanctum.
Clay sculpture
On the walls of this monastery there are seven clay
statues. On the central wall, there are three statues. The
principal figure is placed in the window and the two other
are cantilevered in the wall with the help of wooden studs.
All these sculptures belong to the cycle of Tara. The colour
of central TS"ra is yellow (PI. XXI). Those on the left and
right side are white and green respectively. The left hand
of yellow Tara is in abhaya-mudra and the right hand is in
varada-mudra. She is shown seated with right leg pendant and
her foot rests on a specially designed lotus-asa/7a. She
wears a large ear pendants and a mala. Her crown is
fascinating. The artists have borrowed the triple-crescent
and triple-pointed designs from the sculptures of Tabo. The
facial expression is serene and eyes are half-closed. The
mudras of green and white Taras are almost identical. It
seems likely that the artists have used the same mould for
the crown and the ear-rosettees of the white Tara which he
used earlier for the principal image.
On the left wall are placed two clay statues,
MafTjusri and Hyagriva. Manjusri in a specially designed
place, holding sword in the right hand and book in the left
hand. HayagrTva stands on a wooden pedestal in his usual
mudra as seen also at Ropa, Tsarang and Chitkul respectively.
On the other side are placed high up on the wall Vajrasattva,
207
p \ - >' X \ C} i^ y ?r. t £i t u f?.? L. f P\ . XXII
y e A 1 (jw Tc\ t-a ^ R i b b a , K' i n v\ au r" El, e v e n - hpaden'i and o n e t h o u s a n d - a r m e d A Va I ak i ter-- va r- a „ i a s h i Qan t:), K: i n n a u r
Holding bell and Va.jra. however his colour is blue indicating
the colours of Vajradhara. Vajradhara 's mudrsT is
Vajrahunkara-mudra. holding Vajra and bell in crossed position
in fornt of the chest but this statue holds vajra and bell in
a style normally attributed to Vajrasattva. Towards the
entrance on the wall is shown VajrapSni in blue colour.
Some statues are also placed on the floor of the
sanctum. Soaie are of life-size while some are small in size.
The three life-size statues are of clay. They are placed in
sitting position. From left to right they represent
Sakyamuni, red in colour with hands in dhyana-mudr'a (with a
bowl placed on the hands in the lap). The second statue is
that of four-armed Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, whose
principal pair of hands is in namaskara-jnudra. The third
statue is of Padmasambhava. In front of these clay statues
there are three stupas. Six clay and metal statues of later
and recent periods have been placed on the table. Out of
these six are of clay and twenty metallic. The position,
location, name, colour, height and width of the statues
discussed above will become clearer from the following table
given below:
TABLE 4
Clay sculptures, Lha-khan chen-mo, Ribba
sr.no. name location colour position height width
1. Tara west wall yellow 136 cm 120 cm 56 cm
2. Tara -do- white 144.5 cm 90 cm 45 cm
3. Tara -do- green 118 cm 90 cm 47 cm
208
126 cm 90 cm 36 cm
145 cm - 82 cm
123 cm 105 cm 80 cm
118 cm 90 cm 36 cm
4. Manjusri south wall yellow
5. Hayagriva -do- red
6. Vajrasatta north wall blue
7. Vajrapini -do- blue
/fetal sculpture
Three metal sculptures deserve notice. All of them
are shown in bhumisparsa-mudra, eyes are closed and the
usnisa shown prominently. Their age cannot be determined in
the absence of any inscription.
Wooden sculpture
Two small wooden sculptures of Maitreya and Tsofi-kha-
pa are also noticed. They are sculptured by the local artists
and are of recent date.
Kha-che Iha-khan, Ranan
Clay sculpture
Kha-che Iha-khan at Kanam has in its collection a few
olay sculptures. This monastery was reconstructed about 84
years ago (c.1931-32). But statues preserved in the
monastery are new ones. However, we noticed some old wooden
stupas on the altar. In front of the right hand side wall, on
the floor there is a clay sculpture of Sakysamuni in a glass
case flanked by Sariputra on the right side and Maudgalyayana
on the left side.
209
In front of the central wall facing the door, there
are three clay sculptures. The sculptures are preserved in
the glass almirahs. These three sculptures are of Sakyamuni,
Tson-kha-pa and Avalokitesvara (sPyan-ras-gzigs). They are
displayed in their traditional colours and postures.
bKa'-'gyur 1ha-khan, Kanan
The bKa'-gyur Iha-khan is situated at the lower part of the
Kanam village. The rectangular .wood and stone masonry
structure is flat-roofed. It is a two-storyed structuKe.
Four chortens of different lamas were noticed by us in the
upper storey. Also we noticed two sculptures of stone and
clay. The clay sculpture can be identified that of Sadksari
Lokesvara making the namaskara-mudra yi\\M the two hands.
There is nothing spectacular about this sculpture. It belongs
to the medieval times.
La-tsa-ba Iha-khan, Kanan
Metal sculpture
The temple was completed only 17 years ago. The
metal statues in the temple are of very recent date. The
main deity is Maitreya having both legs pendant on the lotus
cushion. The other statues are those of Sakyamuni, Tshe-dpag
med and Tson-khan-pa. The brass statue of Tsoh-kha-pa
deserve notice. The lama of the monastery informed us that
the statue actually was manufactured at Gyabang in the Ropa
valley, but was lost thereafter and subsequently found on the
bank of river Sutlej near Spillo. The locals found it there
210
and installed in the temple of the Lo chen Rin-chen bzan-po.
Tson-khan-pa (65 cm by 44 cm) is shown seated in
vajraparyaAka-mudra. His both hands are in dbarmacakra-
mudra. The statue is little damaged at the back. His
monastric robe is beautifully decorated with scrolls and
flower rosettee. For showing his two symbols sword and a
book- two vertical metal stups are arranged along the left
and the right arms. The one on the right side is broken
however on the left shows a book on blossomed flower. The
most interesting part of the statue is its yellow hat. The
urna is shown prominently on the forehead. Lips, eye-lids
and eye-brows are painted. The face is almost round. This
seems to be the work of the fifteenth century AD.
The Avalokitesvara tenple, Tashigang
Clay sculpture
Two-storeyed monastery has two rooms. The room on
right hand side enshrined a huge statue of one-thousand armed
Avalokitesvara. This is one of the finest surviving statues
of one-thousand armed Avalokitesvara (PI. XXII). However, it
is not the grandeur of Avalokitesvara which brought every
year innumerable people from Lahaul-Spiti and Kinnaur to the
Tashigang dgon-pa but the much venerated statue of Mila ras-
pa fitted safely into the chest of SSkyamuni. Some pilgrims
at Tashigang informed us that in former days it was in the
open but people started plucking the hairs of the statue,"^
thus it has now been kept at a safer place, fully covered by
a glass. Two other statues of Mila ras-pa are in Gyabang
211
(Ropa valley) and Lahaul. Five other statues placed on the
altar are those of SS.kyainuni, Maitreya, Vajrasattva in yab-
yum and Guru Rin-po-che (Padmasambhava). All belong to the
seventeenth-eighteenth century.
Metal sculpture
The temple possessess an invaluable collection of
bronze and brass statues. Many of them belong to the
eleventh century, however some of them are of the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries. Four bronz^es (three of them are
inscribed) deserve a detailed study. Three of them can be
identified as Avalokitesvara (ht. 37.5 cm, width 9 cm),
Amitabha (ht. 31.5 cm, width 9.5 cm) and Gautama Buddha (ht.
30.8 cm, width 9.4 cm) (PI. XXIII). Fourth statue remains
unidentified but it belongs to the same group. The two-armed
image of Padmpani Avalokites'vara is the largest, his right
hand is in varada-mudra, whereas the left holds the stalk of
a fully blossomed lotus. An effigy of Amitabha Buddha is
distinctly represented in the crown. An inscription incised
on the central section of the rectangular pedestal reads Iha
na-ga-ra-dza (the Divine Na-ga-ra-dza). The same inscription
appears on the pedestal of the other two images.
Amitabha appears in a four-armed tantic manifestation
on a lotus throne. His two left hands hold the stem of a
flower and begging bowl ipStra) and the upper right hand
visva-vajra (staff) while lower is in the varada-mudra. His
vahana, peacock is also shown.
212
PI. X X I l i o e v e r . d i fnrjtal and B hone s c u \ p t u r e = i , T a s h i g a n g
P I . XXIV FoLif " h e t i d e d clii\y B t a t u e of V^ r i i r ocana , BLAnirangj, L.shau 1 Spi. t i •
The standing Buddha is in his most familiar posture,
holding the end of the transparent monastic robe with the
left hand, the right hand is in abhaya-mudra. All these
images were cast at the same time along with those found at
Chitkul. The divine Na-ga-ra-dza is the son of Ye-ses-'od,
who was actively engaged in the propagation of the religion
of the Buddha along with his father and a brother, in the
three ciNa'-ris, during the late tenth and early eleventh
centuries.
There is one copper statue in the sanctum. Its width
at the base is 16.2 cm and height from the pedestal to the
cap is 22.6 cm. This is the statue of some lama. Its oval-
shaped base has lotus flower design.
Another bronze statue of Sakyamuni belongs to the
later period. It is 14 cm wide at the base and its height
from base to the top knot is 23.5 cm. Sakyamuni is sitting
cross legged on a lotus seat. His right hand is in earth
touching posture, symbolysing the historic moment of
enlightenment of Sakyamuni. Ears of Sakyamuni are elongated.
Eyes are focussed at the tip of the nose. There is a mark of
urjja" between the eyebrows. The hair of the statue are shown
matted and there is a topknot of hair. The statue is wearing
a beautiful dhoti.
Wooden sculpture
There are two wooden panles on which are engraved the
Buddhist images. One of them shows the white Avalokitesvara
in the centre. On his either side are Manjusri and
213
Vajarapani, Immediately below the Avalokistesvara seat is
shown Vajradhara (blue in colour) holding his hands in
Vajrabumkara-mudra. On the top is shown Sakyamuni in
bhumisparsa-mudra. In the centre of the second panel appears
Padmasambhava alongwith his two wives. Around the central
figure of Padmasambhava are carved his eight manifestations.
All these statues have been carved with utmost care.
There is also another wooden statue which is 5 cm
wide and its height is 10.7 cm. This statue is broken and
cannot be identified conclusively.
Stone statue
An interesting stone statue of Manjusri is also
preserved in this monastery. Two-armed Manjusri is seated in
Vajraprayahka-mudra. His right hand holds a sword, with the
left he holds the stalk of the flower on which rests a book.
Triple pointed and triple crescent crown is most, interesting
from stylystic point of view. This style bears close
resemblance with the style practised by the artists at Tabo
in AD 996. The statue can safely be dated to the early
eleventh century AD.
The Sonang dgon-pa
There are many metal and wooden sculptures in the collection
of this monastery. All metallic sculptures are not very old
but added in the present century. But one piece of marble
Khar-sa-pani (Sk. Khasarpani) Avalokitesvara deserve notice.
The deity measuring 11.6 cm by 18.5 cm is four-armed.
An upper right hand is holding a rosary and the lower right
214
hand is broken. The upper left hand is holding a snake. The
snake is curling over the left shoulder and the head of the
snake is placed on the palm of the left hand. The other left
hand is holding a kalasa placed on the seat. Avalokitesvara
is wearing big ear rings, which are resting on the shoulders.
He is also wearing a necklace and a two-beaded garland which
is touching the seat. He is wearing armlets and waistlets.
The eyes of the deity are half open and focussed at the nose
tip. On the back of the statue is engraved khar-sa-pa-ni.
The principal figure preserved in the Donastery is
also of Avalokites'vara. He is eleven-headed. There are
several other clay statues: Avalokitesvara, Sakyamuni,
Vajradhara, Padmasambhava, and also many metal statues
offered to the monastery very recently.
The Chitkul dgon-pa, Kinnaur
The present structure of Chitkul monastery does not seem to
be very ancient but it possesses numerous clay and metal
sculptures. While documenting the art remains of this
monastery Sh.Dharmanand, the head of the monastery informed
us that monastery has the clay statues of five Pandava
brothers. After examining the entire collection, the
monastery has five Tathagates and two guardian deities as we
noticed earlier at Tabo, Ropa and Tsarang.
Clay sculpture
Five Tathagatas are shown seated on the raised
platform constructed in front of the central wall. From left
to right they represent. Amifabha, Vairocana, Aksobhya,
215
Ratnasambhava and Amoghasiddhi in red, white, blue, yellow
and green colours. Of particular significance among the clay
statues is the five diedem crown of the five Tath"&gatas with
a crescent design of the lowermost section. Three-beaded
tassels used for the first time at Tabo, have been retained,
which suspend down the forehead of each deity. A single mould
seems to have been used for fashioning them on the head. On
the left hand corner is shown an eleven-headed
Avalokitesvara. On the right hand side is shown Sakyamuni in
bhSmisparsa-mudra. All these clay statues may be 100 or 150
years old. However there are several ancient, and modern
metal sculptures in the monastery as discussed below.
Metal sculpture
A total number of 30 metal sculptures have been noticed by us
at Chitkul. Three of them are placed on an platform
constructed in front of Sakyamuni. The main statue of
Sakyamuni seems to be interesting but we could not see it
entirely. The head priest did not allow us to remove the
cloths. The facial expressions are impressive and Buddha's
urna and usnisa are prominently modelled. Immediately in
front of Buddha are Tson-kha-pa, Buddha and Vajradhara.
Among the group of forty sculptures placed on the
table on the right hand side, twenty-six are of copper, brass
and bronze. A group of four belongs to the eleventh century
AD, three of them are inscribed.
Sakyamuni Buddha (ht. 6.2 cm) is a beautiful example
of metal casting technique. His right hand is in abhaya-
216
mudra, whereas with the left he holds the corner of his
monastic robe. On the rear side appears an inscription in the
Sarada script. It reads: ye dharma hetu prabhaba hetum tesa
tathagato hayavodat tesama ca yo nirodho evam vadi
maiasramanah\ ] This is the famous pratitysmutapadagatha.
Similar extract also occurs at Tabo. Slightly smaller in size
but shown in the same posture, as has been depicted the
inscribed Buddha, is another statue of Sakyamuni (ht. 4 cm).
Two other inscribed Pancaraksa goddesses represent MahSmayuri
(ht. 19.5 cm) and Mahasitavati (ht. 18.8 cm). Both goddesses
are sitting in vajraprayanka-mudra. Both are inscribed. The
inscription reads: Iha na-ga-ra-dza 'the divine Na-ga-ra-
dza'. Na-ga-ra-dza was one of the sons of Ye-ses-'od who
lived in the late tenth and early eleventh century AD. His
name has been found on the wall inscriptions at Tabo and also
on the three Tashigang bronzes.
Majority of other bronzes are of the Buddha, all
shown in bhumisparsa-mudra, Avalokitesvara shown in
namaskara-mudra, and two of Vajradhara in vajrahamkara-mudra.
The age of these statues varies from late tenth to the recent
period. Many of them are sculpted very recently by the local
craftsmen.
Marble Statue
We noticed a small marble statue at Chitkul. He is
shown seated in latitasana. The identification of the statue
remains inconclusive.
A small statue of Tsori-kha pa in wood has been found
in the monastery.
217
Tokhto dgon-pa, Kinnaur
Clay sculpture
This monastery has several clay sculptures in its
possession but four of them are the important ones placed in
front of the central wall. They represent Maitreya,
Sakyamuni, Sadaksari Avalokitesvara and Padmasambhava. In
modern times Padmasambhava has been seen by us not only in
the monasteries associated with the rNin-ma-pa sect, but also
in the dGe-lugs-pa, bKa-rgyud-pa and the 'Brug-pa
monasteries. However, we could not trace his image in ""the Sa-
skya-pa monastery at Tengyud near Kaza. Maitreya is painted
in yellow colour and shown sitted in the pralambapada-mudrS.
His both hands are near the chest in dharmacakra - mudra.
Second statue is that of Sakyamuni. His face is painted in
yellow colour and rest of his body is painted in red colour.
He is sitting cross-legged with hands in dhyana-mudra-. A
blue-coloured begging bowl is placed on his hands. On his
left is a four-armed Avalokitesvara also sitting cross-
legged. His principal pair of hands are in namaskara •. mudra,
the other two holding a flower and a mala. The last statue
on the altar is that of Padmasambhava. There are over a
dozen of small clay sculptures placed in front of these main
statues. One of the finest sculptures is that of eleven-
headed, eight-armed standing statue of Avalokitesvara. All
the sculptures belong to late nineteenth century as an
inscription in the monastery informs us that it was built by
Tsho-ran bdas in the me-pho-byi (fire-male rat-year)
218
corresponding to 1876. The inscription records the names of
the painters who decorated the temple and made sculptures.
Metal sculptures
Among the interesting metal sculptures, we noticed a /_
brass statue of Sakyamuni seated on the lotus pedestal. He
is shown in bhumisparsa-mudra with a circular halo around
him. Several animals are engraved on the halo. The M-type
design below his lotus asana, remind us of similar designs
shown on the mural paintings of Tabo dated sixteenth
seventeenl h and eighteenth centuries. There are also two
later statues of Sakyamuni in the collection of the
monastery.
The Nasgya dgon-pa, Kinnaur
The 'Brug-pa monastery is situated in the centre of the
village. There are only three, clay sculptures, which are
placed in front of the central wall on a 90 cm wide platform.
The central statue (ht. 153 cm, width 130 cm) is that
of Sakyamuni shown seated in bhumisparsa-mudra. On his right
side is a four-armed white Avalokitesvara (ht.l32 cm), his
two hands are in namaskara-mudra. He wears a five-jewelled
crown which emerged in medieval times, i.e. fifteenth-
sixteenth century A.D. This form of Avalokitesvara is much
popular in Kinnaur.
On the left side of Sakyamuni is placed Padmasambhava
(ht. 135 cm). There is a huge collection of ancient
manuscript in the monastery including the copies of an
illustrated Durgatiparisodhanatejoraja, Astasahasrika
219
Prajnaparamita and AryaMahasannipataratna-ketudharni
mahayanasUtra.
(C) MOHASTERIES OF THE LAHAUL VALLEY
Zholing dgon-pa
The ruined temple of Zholing is situated on the left bank of
Bhaga river, is now a heap of ruins. " There are traces of
the ruined wooden stupas against the western, northern and
southern walls of the monastery. But two wooden statues from
this monastery has been preserved one each in British Museum,
London, and Bhuri Singh Museum Chamba. The Amitabha Buddha
is preserved in British Museum,London.
AmifSibha is shown seated in vajraprayankasana. Both
hands are in dhyana-mudra. He has a serene facial
expression. He wears a monastic robe showing V-shaped
designs on the chest. For how many years it remained
neglected in the ruined temple is clear from several pin
holes in the body of the statue. He wears karnapHula, and a
flower rosettee, is shown above his ear. These features
associate this statue with those of Tabo group of sculptures.
The design of his crown is quite similar with the wooden
sculptures of Tsarang."^
The stock register of Bhuri Singh Museum records that
they secured this statue of Sakyamuni from Lahaul. Whether
this statue belongs to the temple of Zholing is not certain.
The Sakyamuni is also shown in the same posture as Amitlibha
but his right arm is broken whereas left arm rests on the
crossed legs. Two female figures are carved on either side.
220
What is important to note that the Bodhi tree with branches
turned downwards have been shown above his head. A figure in
namaskara-mudra is shown in the same manner as shown at the
pedestal of an Avalokitesvara image from Tsarang. This statue
seems to be of eleventh or twelfth century AD.
The Vairocana tenple, Gunrang, Lahaul
The monastery houses fourteen clay sculptures, one wooden
prayer wheel and eight stupas. Iheve is an altar in the
entire central wall on which eleven clay sculptures are
placed and three are placed below it on the floor and a
platform. There is another altar in front of the right side
wall on which eight stupas have been placed (hts. 70 cm, 60
cm, 58 cm, 60 cm, 60 cm, 50 cm, 56 cm and 55 cm). At the
left hand corner of the central wall and in front of the
altar there is a small wooden prayer wheel.
The statues preserved in the monastery are in a very
bad state of preservation. Many cracks have developed in
them. Many of their parts and attributes held by them are
broken and their colour had also disappeared. The state of
utter neglect poses a great problem for their identification.
Most of them are shown wearing triple-pointed crowns also
found at Ropa and Pooh. They are also shown wearing various
ornaments. Twelve of these statues can be classified into
following groups.
1. four-headed Vairocana (PI. XXIV),
2. three celestial Buddhas,
3. four goddesses.
221
4 . one Buddha SsTkyainuni and
5. a torso of an image.
At present we have four female deities on the upper
altar and one on the ground. What was the original position
of these statues cannot be stated with certainity. The
construction of an altar along the entire rear wall makes us
to presume that certain number of these statues were placed
on it, otherwise the purpose of the altar along the central
wall becomes meaningless. So it is possible that five
celestial Buddhas and four main goddesses associated with
them might have been placed on the wall.
These broken statues provide a good material for the
techniques of the clay sculptures. These statues can be
dated to the end of the eleventh or the beginning of the
twelfth century AD. We can notice from their study that a
wooden armature of specific design and size was prepared. To
this armature locally available straw and hair are tied with
the help of the strings and covered with the layers of clay.
Guru Ghantal Monastery, Lahaul
Several clay sculptures have been noticed in the sanctum of
Guru Ghantal monastery. They include from left to right
elevan-headed Avalokitesvara, Padmasambhava Zhabs-druh nag-
dbari rNamgyal and bKra-sis gdam-'phel. The prominent place
is given to Zhabs druii riag-dbaii rNamgyail, who unified Bhutan
in the seventeenth century. The most interesting sculpture
on the left of the bKra-sis gdam-'phel is of six-armed
Avalokitesvara, an exact copy of marble statue of
222
Trilokanath. He holds a pot, snake and lotus stalk in the
left hands whereas the two right upper hands are broken and
third is in varada-mudra. Amitabha appears above his crown.
Some of the clay, metal and wooden statues has been
brought down to Tupchiling dgon-pa. Two wooden statues
deserve notice.
Shashur dgon-pa, Lahaul
The Shashur dgon-pa has in its collection a total number of
thirty-seven sculptures. Thirty-one sculptures in the
sanctum of the ground floor, three in the sanctum of first
floor, and three in the sanctum of top floor. The dgon-pa
was founded in last decade of the sixteenth century by the
lama Deba rgya-mtsho of Zangskar, who had come to propagate
'Brug-pa sect of Buddhism in Lahaul.
Clay sculpture
Majority of the metal sculptures are of very recent
origin, however, some clay sculptures belong to the period of
the foundation of the monastery. In the ground floor, just
in front of the central wall facing the door there are
thirty-one sculptures. The principal figure is that of
Sakyamuni who is shown in yellow colour with elongated ears.
Among other statues preserved in this floor include that of
De-ba rgya-mtsho, the founder of the monastery and Zon-'khul
lama both from Ladakh.
In the first floor, there are three clay sculptures
of Sakyamuni, Padmasambhava and some unidentified lama. The
sanctum of the top floor is adorned by three sculptures. The
223
central statue of Vajradhara is flanked by Sri Cakrasamvara
(bde-mchog 'khor-lo sdom-pa) and Samvara (bde-mchog yab-yum-
pa). The yellow coloured Vajradhara is shown seated
crosslegged and hands are crossed at the chest holding
vajras. The five petalled crown of the deity is interesting.
Such crowns are influenced by the Hepalese art and such a
style was in vogue in Ladakh from the fifteenth century
onwards. Sixteen pothis are arranged on the wooden racks
around him. On the left side of Vajradhara is Sri
Cakrasamvara shown in the standing position holding his
counterpart with his two hands (PI. XXV). The principal pair
of hands is crossed at the back of the female partner and
other hands are holding his traditional attributes. He is
shown standing on two human figures and is wearing a crown of
white skulls and long mala of skulls. The female partner is
also wearing garland of skulls. He is surrounded by a toraija
with foliated designs. On the right side of Vajradhara is
shown another coloured sculpture of the same deity in
different form. The figure of Samvara is red, while and his
counterpart is of the" whitish complexion. Samvara is two-
armed, crossed at the back of the female counterpart. The
scarfs of the both deities are fluttering in the air. Over
the five-skull crown of Samvara is shown crescent which makes
his identification as Samvara confirmed. All these
sculptures, to our estimate, belong to the seventeenth
century AD. The craftsmen who fashioned these sculptures
seem to be well familiar with the Nepali and Ladakhi art
styles.
224
P I , XXV Sr i t : a k r i H B a f i i v a r a , Sha^•;-^"tl.^^ d g o n - p i s , S h s s h u r
'Grag-rgyas chos-glin dgon-pa, Kardang
The 'Brug-pa (a sub-sect of the bKa'-brgyud-pa) monastery at
Kardang was rebuilt in 1912 by a local lama named Norbu born
in AD 1881, when old monastery was almost in a state of
collapse. The monastery is one of the best preserved
monasteries in the region. In front of the central wall,
facing the door, there is a platform on which twelve (small
and large) clay sculptures and two stUpas are placed in two
rows. The frontal rot* has eight statues. Green Tara,
Avalokitesvara and Sakyarouni Buddha are clearly identifiable.
Whereas on elevfen-headed and one thousand-armed
Avalokitesvara, a gelong. Guru Rin-po-che and Sakyamuni in
the second row.
On the first floor there are also three clay sculptures.
They are of Padmasambhava, yellow coloured Vajradhara (?) and
Norbu Rin po-che, who founded this temple in 1912. The top
floor of the monastery has a statue of Sakyamuni in
bhumisparsa-mudra.
We have noticed only three small metallic sculptures
on the first floor of the monastery. These are of Sakyamuni,
Tara and Vajrasttva. We could notice a few metallic
sculptures preserved in the monasteries of Lahaul. All the
sculptures in the monastery belong to the beginning of the
present century.
225
Zhabs-rje Iha-khan, Kardang
No prominent clay or metal sculpture has ben noticed by us at
Zhabs-rje Iha-khan, Kardang. There is a huge boulder in the
sanctum with the knee mark of rGod-tshan-pa (1189-1258 AD),
who visited Lahaul is confirmed from his biography. The
central statue is of Sakyamuni flanked by eight other
statues. Recently, the villagers have found a stone
sculpture while digging in the agricultural field. It
measures 35 cm by 26 cm. The deity is shown seated in the
latita-asana the right leg slightly pendant. The facial
details are not clear. The exact identification remains
unconclusive. The position of his legs indicates that the
deity may represent Avalokitesvara.
Three huge Bodhisattvas are carved in the rock at the
site. They represent Padmpani Avalokitesvara (ht. 173 cm),
Maitreya (ht. 185 cm) and Vajrap'ani (ht. 170 cm). These
carvings are of pre-Rin-chen bsan-po period.
226
HOTES
1. Idol worship is now very much accepted in the Buddhist realm.
2. P. V. Bapal ed., 2500 Years of Buddhism, p. 25 S. Dutt., Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India, rpt., Delhi, 1988, p. 54.
3. Such symbols can be seen in numerous pillars and decorative panels from the Asokan to the Kusana period.
4. A. K. Coomaraswamy, The Origin of Buddha Image^ New Delhi, 2nd edn., 1980, p. 11.
5. V.S. Agarwala, Indian ^rt,,Varanasi, 1965, p. 232.
6. D. L. Sneligrove, The Image of Buddha, New Delhi, 1978, p. 74.
7. Ibid., p. 48.
8. V.S. Agarwala, op. cit., p. 237.
9. A. K. Commaraswamy, op. cit., p. 15.
10. D.L. Sneligrove, op. cit., p. 48.
11. A.K. Commaraswamy, op. cit., p. 1.
12. D.L. Sneligrove, op. cit., p. 61.
13. A.K. Commaraswamy, op. cit., p. 2.
14. Ibid., pp. 20-3. The statues of Buddhas preserved in the National Museum at Delhi clearly show these features.
15. Ibid., pp. 20-3. These features can be seen in the statue preserved in the Museum at Mathura.
16. Ibid., p. 27.
17. D.L.Sneligrove, op. cit., p. 22.
18. D.L.Sneligrove, Buddhist Himalaya, Oxford, 1957, p. 61.
19. A.K.Coomaraswamy, op. cit., p. 4.
20. These Buddhas have been found painted on the walls of rJe-bla-ma Iha-khan at Tabo.
227
21. B.Bhattacharyya, Indian Buddhist Iconography, Calcutta, 1958, p. 17.
22. Shashi Bhusan Dasgupta, An Introduction to Tantric Buddhism, Berkeley, 1974, p. 85.
23. D.L.Snellgrove, op. cit., p. 85.
24. S.B.Dasgupta, op. cit., p. 84.
25. Lokesh Chandra, ed., Sarvatathagatatattvasahgraha, New Delhi, 1987, pp. 6-7. Lokesh Chandra in The Temples of Western Tibet and their Artistic Symbolism (Indo-Tibetica III.l).
28. Ibid., preface, p. xix.
27. L.M. Joshi, Studies in Buddhist Culture of India. New Delhi, 1977, p. 281.
28. D.L.Snellgrove and T.Skorupski, The Cultural Heritage of Ladakh, New Delhi, vol.11, p. 30.
29. K.H.Verma, The Indian Technique of clay Modelling, Shantiniketan, 1970, p. 7.
30. Ibid., p. 19.
31. Gumrang is a small village on the right bank of Bhaga river. In the personal temple of the local thakur there are broken clay sculptures, which provide a good material for the study of clay sculptures.
32. This local grass grows wild on the bank of streams in the Spiti valley.
33. A.H. Francke, Antiquities of Indian Tibet, pt. i, p.38, Romi Khosla, Buddhist Monasteries in the Western Himalaya, Kathmandu, p. 43, O.C.Handa Buddhist Monasteries in Himachal Pradesh, 1987, p. 92.
34. During our field study we noticed inscribed metallic statues at Tashigang, Kamru and Chitkul.
35. Romi Khosla, op. cit., p. 35, G.Tucci, The Temples of Western Tibet and their Artistic Symbolism, Indo-Tibetica, pt. III.l, New Delhi, 1988, p. 64.
36. The space leading to the sanctum is not sufficient to accommodate four statues.
228
37. Thomas J. Pritzker, 'The Wall Paintings of Tabo', Orientations, vol. 20, no. 2, February 1989, pp. 38-47; Deborah Kliwiburg Salter, ed. , Tabo: A Lamp for the Kingdom, Milan, 1997.
38. Vairocana is in bodhyangi-mudra and not in dharmacakra-mudra as pointed out by G.Tucci, op. cit., p. 40.
39. The mudra of, Vairocana is referred to in the Sarva-tathagata^al^va-sahgraha. chapter I, p . 30 .
40. The crowns of the statues in Tabo's gTsug-lag-khan are triple pointed also having a tripple crescent.
41. G.Tucci, op. cit., p.183.
42. A.H.Francke, op. cit., p.32.
43. G. Tucci , op. cit., p.168-72.
44. Ibid., pp. 168-72.
45. Trefoliated arch and triangular gable was the speciality of Kashmiri art.
46. These deities possibly belong to the mandala of Prajnaparamita.
47. Here Vairocana is single bodied and four-headed but eight arms with different attributes or postures are shown, whereas at Tabo it is four-bodied and each having two arms.
48. No help was provided by the monastic community of Dankhar.
49. The lamas of the monastery did not show us all the chapels of the complex. They were demanding permission from the incarnate lama of the monastery, who was residing at Delhi at that time.
50. This information was provided by the lamas of the monastery.
51. D.L.Snellgrove and T.Skoruprki, The Cultural Heritage of Ladakh, vol. II, p. 95.
52. Because they are depicted in The lalita-asana in the gSer-khan at Tabo.
53. B.Bhattacharyya, op. cit., p. 142.
54. A. Getty, Gods of Northern Buddhism, p. 53.
229
55. D.L.Snellgrove and T.Skorupski, op. cit., p. 95.
56. According to a local informer they were made at Tsarang in 1971.
57. Laxman S.Thakur, 'A Magnificent Bronze Statue of Avalokitesvara from Kamru and Its Himalayan Legacy, OA, vol. XLIV, no. 3, 1998, pp. 57-61.
58. Snellgrove and Skorupski, op. cit., p. 95 at sr. no. XVIII.
59. A local resident Sh.Ramesh Negi and the incharge of the monastery provided us this information.
60. The stone inscription lies in an agricultural field in the Koro village near Pooh.
61. Inf ormation was provided by the lamas of the monastery.
62. This statue is one of the most popular of the three statues of Mila ras-pa, the other two are at Gyabang in (Kinnaur) and Gemur in Lahaul.
64. The present researcher is thankful to the Trustees of British Museum, London, for supplying this photograph for analysis.
230