RIRDC Completed Projects in 2007 - 2008 and Research in Progress as at June 2008

NEW ANIMAL PRODUCTS

October 2008 RIRDC Publication No 08/064

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© 2007 Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. All rights reserved. ISBN 1 74151 653 6 ISSN 1440 6845 RIRDC Completed Projects in 2007 - 2008 and Research in Progress as at June 2007 - New Animal Products Publication No 08/064

The information contained in this publication is intended for general use to assist public knowledge and discussion and to help improve the development of sustainable regions. You must not rely on any information contained in this publication without taking specialist advice relevant to your particular circumstances.

While reasonable care has been taken in preparing this publication to ensure that information is true and correct, the Commonwealth of Australia gives no assurance as to the accuracy of any information in this publication.

The Commonwealth of Australia, the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC), the authors or contributors expressly disclaim, to the maximum extent permitted by law, all responsibility and liability to any person, arising directly or indirectly from any act or omission, or for any consequences of any such act or omission, made in reliance on the contents of this publication, whether or not caused by any negligence on the part of the Commonwealth of Australia, RIRDC, the authors or contributors.

The Commonwealth of Australia does not necessarily endorse the views in this publication.

This publication is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, all other rights are reserved. However, wide dissemination is encouraged. Requests and inquiries concerning reproduction and rights should be addressed to the RIRDC Publications Manager on phone 02 6271 4186.

RIRDC New Animal Products Research Manager Dr Peter McInnes RIRDC Level 2 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: 08 8556 7331 Fax: 08 8556 7289 Email: mcinnes2@comstech.com RIRDC Publications Manager Cecile Ferguson Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation Level 2 15 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 PO Box 4776 KINGSTON ACT 2604 Phone: 02 6271 4165 Fax: 02 6271 4199 Email: Cecile.ferguson@rirdc.gov.au Website: http://www.rirdc.gov.au

Published in October 2008 Printed on environmentally friendly paper by Canprint

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Foreword New Animal Products Research in Program, June 2008, contains short summaries of continuing projects as well as those that were completed during 2007-2008. This program aims to accelerate the development of viable new animal industries The complete report on RIRDC’s programs is available in electronic format on our website at http://www.rirdc.gov.au There are three sub-program goals. These are: Goal 1: Develop New Opportunities Goal 2: Stimulate Industry Partnership and Adoption Goal 3: Increase Competitiveness, Capability and Capacity This report is an addition to our extensive catalogue of over 1800 research projects supported by RIRDC.

Please contact us for the latest publications catalogue or view it on our website:

• downloads at www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/Index.htm • purchases at www.rirdc.gov.au/eshop

Peter O’Brien Managing Director Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation

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Contents

1.2 New Animal Products Completed Projects

Project No. Project Title

Researcher

Phone

Organisation

Pg No.

Develop new opportunities

PRJ-000804 The abattoir processing resource for New Animal Products in Australia David Michael (02) 9369 2735

Wondu Business & Technology Services 1

PRJ-000301 Investigating the epidemiology of Chlamydia in farmed crocodiles Ian Jerrett (08) 8999 2240 Department of Primary Industry, Fisheries and Mines - NT 2

PRJ-000835 Catostylus mosaicus anutoimmune stimulant Bruce Rich 0417 700 146 Prindel 4

PRJ-000454 Exploring the commercial potential of sheep milk Roberta Bencini (08) 6488 2521 University of Western Australia 6

PRJ-000450 Improving reproduction and genetics for game birds and ratites Irek Malecki (08) 6488 7025 University of Western Australia 8

PRJ-000582 A review and feasibility study of brain phospholipids extraction Craig Davis (07) 3406 5611 Department of Primary Industry, Fisheries - QLD 10

Increase competitiveness, capability and capacity

PRJ-000659 Crocodile pen design Grahame Webb (08) 8922 4500

Wildlife Management International Pty Ltd 12

PRJ-000081 Management strategies to reduce ostrich chick mortality Phil Glatz (08) 8303 7786 South Australian Research & Development Institute 14

Kangaroo - Industry management PRJ-000695 Maintaining the kangaroo industries freedom to operate John Kelly (03) 6326 7696 Lenah Consulting 16 Kangaroo - Industry practices PRJ-000854 Nutritional Composition of Kangaroo Meat Ron Tume (07) 3214 2007 Food Science Australia 18 Kangaroo - Resource sustainability

PRJ-000855 Research and Development for the US Market for Kangaroo meat and skins Brian Topper (02) 9261 1900 AI Topper & Co 19

1.2 New Animal Products Research in Progress Project No.

Project Title Researcher

Phone

Organisation

Pg No.

Develop new opportunities

PRJ-000901 Emu Oil and Gastrointestinal Disease Chris Gregory 1300368645 Technology Investment Corporation Pty Ltd 20

PRJ-000325 Innovative manufacture, installation of value adding process for farmed rabbits Rob Stout (03) 5444 5520 Bendigo Gourmet Poultry and

Game 21

PRJ-000853 Bactronophorous thoracites health promoting product Bruce Rich 0417 700 146 Prindel 22 PRJ-000545 Efficient environment and bird friendly commercial duck production Jeff Downing (02) 9036 7748 The University of Sydney 23 PRJ-000549 Linkage mapping and QTL analysis in saltwater crocodiles Sally Isberg (08) 8988 5554 The University of Sydney 24 PRJ-000550 Runtism and survival in captive saltwater crocodiles Sally Isberg (08) 8988 5554 The University of Sydney 25

PRJ-0002578 Commercial Silk Production Practices for Australian Sericulture Industry Part 2 Sarita Kulkarni (03) 9547 7858 Brij Bugtrap Conulstancy Pty Ltd 26

PRJ-000661 Captive breeding of Hawksbill turtles Grahame Webb (08) 8922 4500 Wildlife Management

International Pty Ltd 28

PRJ-000042 Enhancing Productivity Improvements in the Australian Water Buffalo Industry Barry Lemcke (08) 8999 2263 Department of Primary Industry,

Fisheries and Mines 31

Increase competitiveness, capability and capacity PRJ-000323 Tracking crocodile skin defects - from farm to product. Grahame

Webb (08) 8922 4500 Wildlife Management International Pty Ltd 32

PRJ-000660 Nutritional requirements feed ingredients and feeding systems for farmed c

Grahame Webb (08) 8922 4500 Wildlife Management

International Pty Ltd 33

PRJ-000086 Crusader improving efficiency & structure of the meat rabbit industry in Aust.

Kathleen Bowerman (02) 6454 4256 Snowy Mountains Gourmet

Rabbit Company 34

PRJ-000327 Redclaw Selective Breeding Program John Stevenson (07) 4772 2036 Queensland Crayfish Farmers

Association Inc 35

Kangaroo - Industry practices PRJ-000315 Obtain perceptions of consumers & foodservice operators regarding

Kangaroo meat Mark Ellis (02) 9873 8969 Sensory Solution Pty Ltd 36

Kangaroo – Product marketing and quality PRJ-000089 Kangaroo meat awareness marketing research for foodservice and

consumer Mel Nathan 0413 616 683 Food Companion International 37

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COMPENDIUMS 2007-2008 Develop new opportunities Project Title

The abattoir processing resource for New Animal Products in Australia

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000804

Start Date: 5/15/2006 Finish Date: 1/1/2008 Researcher: David Michael Organisation: Wondu Business & Technology Services Phone: (02) 9369 2735 Fax: (02) 9369 2737 Email: dmichael@wondu.com Objectives

The project would identify and document the location assets and processing costs of abattoirs used for processing new animal species.

Background

For the NAP supply chains to be internationally competitive the processing activity, and abattoir tasks in particular, take on added importance. Being typically small industries it is an important challenge to start-up and establish an abattoir in a location that can attract sufficient supply of livestock to enable plant capacity to be fully utilized and low processing costs realized.

Research

Data have been collected from abattoir owners and various Commonwealth and State departments of agriculture, health, quarantine, industry and regional development. The data were collected largely by extensive telephone interviews

Outcomes

Improved knowledge about the abattoir resource is expected to be useful for all supply chain participants including producers, processors and support service providers, as well as buyers. It will enable them to make informed decisions about contract processing and plans for development, expansion and procurement of land, labour and capital. Buyers of products are also likely to be interested in knowing where they can source NAP products and what the operational standards are

Implications

Several implications. First, this could be an ongoing compendium that could be updated, say, every two years, with opportunity to enhance it by establishing an online web site to enable continuous updating of information about processors. Second, creates the potential for an NAP processing industry that could be used to advance industry policy for processors. Third, the report is expected to be a valuable aid for buyers, especially those in overseas countries.

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Project Title

Investigating the epidemiology of Chlamydia in farmed crocodiles

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000301

Start Date: 5/31/2007 Finish Date: 6/30/2008 Researcher: Ian Jerrett Organisation: Department of Primary Industry, Fisheries and Mines Phone: (08) 8999 2240 Fax: (08) 8999 2024 Email: ian.jerrett@nt.gov.au Objectives

1) To implement a sensitive and cost effective test for detection and speciation of chlamydia to facilitate further studies on the disease, particularly relating to epidemiology. 2) To investigate the epidemiology of chlamydial infection in farmed crocodiles with particular reference to: a. Identification of species and genotype(s) of the chlamydia involved to assess whether a single species/genotype occurs and whether the organism is unique to saltwater crocodiles or common to those known to occur in other animal species, b. To establish whether subclinical infection or low grade clinical infection in older animals may represent a significant reservoir of infection for hatchlings, c. To determine whether prevalence of infection in growers and the corresponding risk to hatchlings varies significantly between properties d. To determine if chlamydial infection rates vary between thriving and non-thriving yearling animals and between thriving and non-thriving grow-out animals. e. To determine whether any variance in prevalence of subclinical infection in growers correlates with the occurrence or absence of disease in the hatchlings in the previous or current year.

Background

Chlamydia was implicated as the cause of an eye and throat disease (conjunctivitis-pharyngitis) which caused massive mortality in hatchlings on 2 crocodile farms in 2006. There is concern the disease may reoccur and spread thereby threatening the viability of affected farms. Molecular methods for detecting and identifying chlamydia are suitable tools for gaining an understanding of the disease to allow formulation of targeted measures for disease prevention and control on farms.

Research

Molecular techniques for chlamydial detection and strain identification were established at the Berrimah Veterinary Laboratories. The prevalence of chlamydial infection and signs of eye/throat disease were determined in various groups within the farmed population on properties in the Northern Territory. Chlamydial presence and strain identity was also examined on farms in Queensland and Western Australia. Wild crocodiles and eggs collected from the wild were also examined for the presence of chlamydia.

Outcomes

Chlamydial infection was found to be widespread in some groups of animals on most farms and infected animals were usually clinically normal.. Eggs and hatchlings less than 40 days of age were free of infection. Infection established in many hatchlings between 40 and 120 days of age. The level of infection in yearling or grower groups varied widely between farms and between pens on individual farms. Signs of eye or throat disease of mild to moderate severity were common on some farms and often occurred in animals which tested negative for chlamydia. Chlamydial infection is present in the wild crocodile population.

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Implications

Chlamydial infection is endemic in the farmed crocodile population and minimisation of the impact of infection requires a targeted biosecurity plan to minimise exposure of young hatchlings to infection from older carrier animals. Stresses on hatchlings need to be minimised to prevent mild or inapparent disease developing into severe potentially fatal disease. It is important to search for other potential causative or contributing agents in conjunctivitis-pharyngitis and this will involve the development of new laboratory techniques, particularly methods capable of detecting crocodilian viruses.

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Project Title

Catostylus mosaicus anutoimmune stimulant

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000835

Start Date: 4/16/2007 Finish Date: 5/30/2008 Researcher: Bruce Rich Organisation: Prindel Phone: 0417 700 146 Email: brucerich@dodo.com.au Objectives

Investigate the potential commercial development of therapeutic products from Catostylus mosaicus . Establish handling and processing procedures . Identify the class(es) of active components . Determine degree of activity or range of activity through bioassay) . Gather sufficient data to make Go/No or decisions for commercial development

Background

The Queensland Government for the first time issued collection permits for Catostylus mosaicus (commonly known as the blue jellyfish) in April 2005. This allowed the establishment of a new commercial sector targeting dried food products and value added products, such as therapeutic agents. Catostylus mosaicus belongs to the phylum Cnidaria which consists of a group of animals that exhibit common characteristics (radially symmetrical, body multicellular – few tissues, some organelles, contains internal cavity and mouth, two different forms exist medusa and polyp), One of the most important distinguishing characteristics is the presence of nematocysts, from which coiled thin threads can be triggered to penetrate the skin of its prey or predator and inject a toxin. This toxin exhibits physiological activity such as hemolysis and autoimmune stimulation by elevation of IgM and IgG serum levels in humans. For the sector to enhance commercial viability and realise the true potential of the resource, the value added products are viewed as a vital component. As only very limited research has been performed on C. mosaicus, it is possible that this species of jellyfish could possess novel proteins or peptides that could be used for products of medical significance. One aim of this research was to identify the protein composition of extract from the Catostylus mosaicus oral arms to act as a basis for future investigation.

Research

Research strategies developed in order to meet the stated objectives consisted of: � Specimen Collection and Handling � Extraction, Purification and Characterisation Analysis Analysis of the crude tentacle extract (CTE) and Purified tentacle extract (PCTE) consisted of: - RP-HPLC analysis - MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry analysis - 1D-gel electrophoresis - RP-HPLC analysis of the PCTE using a diode array detector - Spontaneous contraction assay of PCTE Bioassays – Cytotoxicity Assay – Natural Killer (NK) Cell Activity – Phagocytosis Assay In vitro effects of extract on genes in cells of the circulating immune system – Genomics Analysis Total RNA extraction Affymetrix Gene Chip Array Gene Chip Hybridization and Scanning Gene Chip Analysis and Interpretation

Outcomes

The results have shown that: � Biological activity was demonstrated by the jellyfish extract in the form of spontaneous contraction of guinea pig colon by 10µg/mL of the extract. � The extract is not directly cytotoxic. This was demonstrated by lack of observed toxicity due to the extract on P388 and MCF7 cell lines. � The extract showed innate immune function stimulation, demonstrated by apparent stimulation of phagocytosis of granulocytes by the extract in bioassay studies. In addition, a range of gene activities associated with immune function were observed in studies of peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Functions of these genes include phagocytosis, antigen binding, cell adhesion and the cellular defense response. Other genes stimulated by the extract reflect the processes associated with cell proliferation..

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Implications

This study has provided a comprehensive overview of the characteristics of the venom of. Catostylus mosaicus It has for the first time, provided solid data on the nature of the venom attributes. The investigation has shown that activity relating to the immune system exists and the results warrant further investigation. It has provided a sound platform for further investigations as a prelude to investment for commercial development and a way forward for the utilisation of this under-utilised natural resource.

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Project Title

Exploring the commercial potential of sheep milk

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000454

Start Date: 9/1/2004 Finish Date: 5/30/2008 Researcher: Roberta Bencini Organisation: University of Western Australia Phone: (08) 6488 2521 Fax: (08) 6488 1029 Email: rbencini@animals.uwa.edu.au Objectives

Developing feeding strategies to increase the health benefits of sheep milk products to that these products can be commercialised for their health benefits as well as their superior qualities. Researching on the commercial potential of sheep dairy products for the domestic and export markets. Investigating the suitability of behavioural tests to select dairy ewes based on their temperament.

Background

Australia imports some $10m/year in sheep dairy products and to match this demand 250,000 ewes would have to be milked in 100-150 dairies and would provide farmers with opportunities to diversify their production. Despite the advantages of milking sheep, the Australian sheep milking industry is still in its infancy. Consultation with industry resulted in the identification of the following strategies that would assist the fledgling sheep milking industry. Selection of sheep suitable for milking Our industry partners and major importer of Awassi sheep, YHH Holdings, identified the urgent need for research into the developments of rapid and efficient methods for the selection of sheep of a suitable temperament. Significantly no work had been done on this aspect of sheep milking, even in the countries that traditionally have established sheep milking industries. When selecting ewes it is ideal to be able to predict ewes that are most likely to produce more milk but also be more likely to behave suitably. A viable sheep milking industry could only be established by developing local and export markets for sheep milk products. Our previous research showed that it is possible to produce special health enhanced milk by feeding particular diets to the sheep so that desirable compounds such as omega 3 fatty acids (Kitessa et al. 2003) and CLA (Hutton 2003) are translocated into the milk. Clearly, the health benefits associated with the consumption of this milk would be an important selling point for these products. However, since these compounds are essentially unsaturated fatty acids, and their effects on the processing performance of the milk or on the flavour and taste of the final dairy products was still largely unknown.

Research

To conduct this research we appointed a PhD student, Mr Travis Murray, with support of the RIRDC, to investigate the relationship between temperament, behaviour and milk production in sheep. We used behavioural tests developed at UWA on our industry partners’ sheep and then correlated the results of the tests with their performance in the dairy with the aim of providing the industry with a practical instrument to select ewes of suitable behaviour. We also investigated feeding strategies to increase the unsaturated fatty acids concentration of sheep milk by feeding canola and brewers grains and then processed this ‘health enhanced’ milk into cheese to examine its suitability for cheese making. We tested the cheeses though semi-trained panels to assess the consumers’ acceptance of these dairy products. Results from this work will help the establishment of markets for specialty sheep milk products.

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Outcomes

Mr Murray has now completed the experimental work and is writing his PhD dissertation. His work demonstrated that there is indeed a relationship between the temperament of sheep, their behaviour in the dairy and their subsequent performance as dairy animals. These rapid temperament tests have been the subject of large research projects in the lamb and wool producing sectors of the sheep industry. It is hoped that they will rapidly be adopted by sheep dairy producers. Feeding canola increased the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in the milk. Feeding brewers grains resulted in maintaining lactation in sheep that were at the end of their lactation and warrants further investigation.

Implications

Our work demonstrated the existence of a relationship between the temperament of sheep, their behaviour in the dairy and their subsequent performance as dairy animals. Therefore we hope that rapid temperament tests will be adopted by sheep dairy producers as they should assist them in the selection of suitable stock for milking. Feeding canola increased the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in the milk and did not result in any processing problems. Feeding brewers grains resulted in maintaining lactation in sheep that were at the end of their lactation and warrants further investigation.

Publications

Murray T (2008). PhD thesis. The University of Western Australia. In progress. Bencini R & Murray T (2008). Exploring the commercial potential of sheep milk. A report for The Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation. In press. Bencini R. (2008). Lactation in dairy animals. in “Comparative Lactation”. Proceedings of the 14th 14th International Conference of The International Society for Research in Human Milk and Lactation, Perth 31st January-5th February 2008, Murray T.M, Blache D.B. and Bencini R. (2006). Calm dairy ewes produce more milk than nervous dairy ewes. Proceedings Australian Society of Animal Production. 26, 44.

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Project Title

Improving reproduction and genetics for game birds and ratites

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000450

Start Date: 7/1/2005 Finish Date: 6/29/2008 Researcher: Irek Malecki Organisation: University of Western Australia Phone: (08) 6488 7025 Fax: (08) 6448 1040 Email: imalecki@animals.uwa.edu.au Objectives

The project will address production constraints in the management, reproduction, nutrition and genetics of game birds. This will provide industries with clear breeding and husbandry strategies leading to improved efficiency of production. Progress will be made towards development of AI technology for the ratite industry.

Background

Game bird industries in Australia are affected by inadequately performing breeding flocks, as is evident from the low ratio of wholesale birds to laid eggs. Their production efficiency was reported low, ranging from 50% (quail, pheasant) to 70% (squab, duck). The ratite industries on the other hand, after surviving the ‘boom and bust’ times, need to move to a stage of AI based selective breeding but reliable methods for semen collection and artificial insemination need to be developed.

Research

We studied fertility and hatchability rates in ducks, pigeons and pheasants and breeding efficiency of some industry flocks. Pigeon pairs were studied at the UWA field station and on farms and traits such as egg production, hatchability, squab body weight and squab production were measured with support from duck, pheasant and squab producers. The effect of protein and lysine levels on egg weight, 14- and 28-day squab body weight and energy requirement for breeding pigeons was determined in collaboration with researchers from Poultry Research Centre of the Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. Semen collection and artificial insemination methods were developed in collaboration with researchers in Poland and the fertile period of female ostriches was determined in collaboration with researchers from South Africa (Elsenburg Institute of Agriculture) using fresh eggs laid after the last copulation.

Outcomes

Methods have been developed for objective diagnosis of fertility and hatchability in ducks, pheasants and pigeons. Low and high body weight duck lines showed highly variable fertility. Sperm supply and penetration rates in duck flock reach maximum levels by 36 weeks of age but then decline several folds. This appears to parallel reduced hatchability. Pheasant flocks show high rates of fertility but hatchability remains unsatisfactory. Fertility and hatchability are affected by season and egg production declines with female age. There is significant variation in reproductive traits between pigeon pairs mainly in the number of eggs produced, fertility, hatchability, squab growth rate and squab weaning weight. Semen collection and artificial insemination methods have been developed for ostriches. They are reliable and friendly to humans and birds. Female ostriches lay fertilized eggs for just over two weeks.

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Implications

There is considerable variation in sperm supply and penetration rates within High and Low Body Weight duck lines that may underpin fertility rates in commercial crosses and a test to identify them could prove useful. Unsatisfactory hatch rates in the pheasant may suggest inbreeding depression. Keeping a high proportion of 1 year old females could improve egg and chick production but selective breeding needs to be introduced to reduce variation and improve growth rate. Squab production will benefit from improved management and selective breeding and these programs need to be introduced. The ostrich industry can move into AI based selective breeding with new reliable methods for semen collection and artificial insemination.

Publications

Malecki, I.A. & G.B. Martin (2006). The effect of season and hen age on egg production and fertility of commercial pheasants in Australia. In Proceedings of the Australian Poultry Science Symposium, 14-16 February 2007, Sydney, Australia. Rybnik, P.K., Horbanczuk, J.O., Naranowicz, H., Lukaszewicz, E., & I.A. Malecki (2007). Semen collection in the ostrich (Struthio camelus) using a dummy or a teaser female. British Poultry Science, 48 (5), 635-643. Malecki, I.A., Rybnik, P.K. & G.B. Martin (2008). Reproductive technologies (AI) for ratites: a review. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, xix-xix. Special issue of the 4th International Ratite Science Symposium held in conjunction with the XXIII World’s Poultry Congress, 29 June-4 July 2008, Brisbane, Australia. Malecki, I.A., Cheng, K.M. & P.J. Marini (2008). Squab production – a review. An invited review for the XXIII World’s Poultry Congress, 29 June-4 July 2008, Brisbane, Australia. Cloete, S.W.P., Brand, Z., Bunter, K.L. & I.A. Malecki (2008). Responses in breeding values to selection of ostriches for live weight and reproduction. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, xix-xix, Special issue of the 4th International Ratite Science Symposium held in conjunction with the XXIII World’s Poultry Congress, 29 June-4 July 2008, Brisbane, Australia. Malecki, I.A., Rybnik, P.K., Lukaszewicz, E. & J.O. Horbanczuk (2008). Crouching behaviour and oviposition rate in female ostriches reared without males. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48, xix-xix (1 page paper presented at the 4th International Ratite Science Symposium with XXIII World’s Poultry Congress, 29 June-4 July 2008, Brisbane, Australia.

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Project Title

A review and feasibility study of brain phospholipids extraction

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000582

Start Date: 9/1/2006 Finish Date: 5/30/2008 Researcher: Craig Davis Organisation: Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries Phone: (07) 3406 8611 Fax: (07) 3406 8677 Email: craig.davis@dpi.qld.gov.au Objectives

To undertake a comprehensive review of the literature relating to value-adding opportunities from brain tissue (the major focus will be on the lipid composition of brain tissue). To perform laboratory extractions on representative samples of brain tissue from various species. To assess to economic feasibility of commercial extraction from brain tissue.

Background

About 10% of the wet weight of the brain (50% of the dry weight) is lipid. More than half of this brain derived lipid comprises a particular group of lipids (phospholipids). They are the functional ingredients of lecithins, emulsifiers, and have well documented therapeutic benefits. The primary use for lecithins is as an emulsifier, stopping the separation of fat and the water soluble constituents of a product. The nutritional properties of the phospholipids are negligible with quantities in food products ranging between 0.3 and 1.0%. Phospholipids in the form of liposomes can be used to increase the bioavailability of a compound. Significant savings can be made using liposomes for oral drug delivery because less active ingredient is required. Another use of phospholipids is in the formulation of cosmetic or dermopharmaceutical products to maintain stability of the dispersions in an aqueous phase where the product is not miscible with water. Sphingolipids and their metabolites (ceramide and sphingosine) are thought to play an important role in cancer prevention. Sphingomyelin has been shown to act as a tumour suppressor lipid by binding to bile salts (which are possibly involved in cancer aggravation). Sphingomyelin, ceramide and other phospholipids play a protective role in atherogenesis and have also been widely used in cosmetic formulations. The current usage of the head and the brain of most slaughtered animals is essentially zero. This research offers a potential benefit to the farmer and to the slaughter facility, as well as presenting an opportunity to a processor to manufacture a high value product from a current waste. Currently, most phospholipids are plant derived (e.g. soy lecithin) and imported from overseas. This research will make a wider range of phospholipids available from domestically sourced material. The utilisation of wastes makes this work ecologically sustainable.

Research

Rabbit and crocodile brains were obtained from Margaret James and John Lever, respectively. Camel brain was not able to be sourced. Rabbit heads were cut in half using a band saw and the brain tissue removed and processed. The crocodile brains were very small and difficult to remove without contaminating them with other tissue. Brain samples were freeze dried, ground to a fine powder and stored at 4°C until required. Samples of the rabbit brain were extracted using supercritical CO2 and hexane (Soxhlet extraction). The phospholipid composition of the extracts was then assessed using HPLC.

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Outcomes

The supply of brain tissue from crocodiles was small, and the difficulty of isolating the brain from the head made the prospect of using crocodile unfeasible. Camel brain was not able to be sourced, but the supply should be available as the camel meat industry develops. Rabbit head is available and the brain was able to be easily collected. The drying of the brain material was straight-forward and made the brain material available for the lipid extraction. Solvent extraction is not desirable as it leaves residues of the solvent (e.g. hexane) and extracts the total lipid fraction (triglycerides, phospholipid, etc.) from the brain. Supercritical CO2 extraction allows the phospholipid to be collected with CO2 and ethanol after the other lipid material has been removed with CO2 alone. The composition of the phospholipids from rabbit brain (phosphatidylethanolamine, phosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin) does not show any particular qualities that would make it a desirable product for the cosmetic or pharmaceutical markets.

Implications

The extraction of phospholipids from the brains of lesser animal species has the potential to add value to the waste streams of these developing industries. However, the access to sufficient material, the processing (drying and milling), the extraction and the potential market for the final product all represent significant problems to be overcome. Until there is sufficient resource and there is an identified need for these phospholipids, the waste brain tissue will remain a low- or no-value waste.

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Increase competitiveness, capability and capacity Project Title

Crocodile pen design

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000659

Start Date: 9/1/2004 Finish Date: 5/30/2008 Researcher: Grahame Webb Organisation: Wildlife Management International Pty Ltd Phone: (08) 8922 4500 Fax: (08) 8947 0678 Email: gwebb@wmi.com.au Objectives

The proposal aims to investigate two areas of pen design with captive breeding and raising of Saltwater Crocodiles.

Background

The Australian crocodile farming industry relies heavily on the production of captive-bred Saltwater crocodile hatchlings. Pen construction represents the primary capital cost of crocodile farming, yet there has been little formal experimentation with pen design and its cost-effectiveness - the balance between construction costs and the efficiency with which the pen maximises production efficiency. There is also very limited understanding of the role that different environmental, physical and behavioural variables play in the effectiveness of each pen design. Captive breeding has typically involved large communal enclosures, which typically result in low hatchling production per female. Both males and females are territorial. Raising of juveniles is carried out in communal pens, where interactions can lead to damage to the skin, the main product. Strategies for reducing negative social interactions have yet to be identified and tested. Unitised pens used in the final stages of growout prior to culling eliminate social interactions altogether, but the cost of construction per crocodile is higher than it is in communal pens.

Research

Research focused on three main areas of production. 1. Communal breeding pens were modified to reduce visual and physical contact, and nest/egg production compared to unitised (1 male, 1 female) pens. Different adult sex ratios (1M:1F, 1M:2F, 1M:3F) were also examined, using barriers to reduce interactions. 2. Hatchlings were raised in conventional and different prototype pens, including floating enclosures, outdoor cages and enclosures providing both indoor and outdoor areas. 3. Juveniles (Less Than 1.0 m TL) were raised in a protype communal enclosure with access to deep water (2-3 m) relative to conventional growout pens, and with modified land areas that provided increased surface heating. Larger juveniles (Less Than1.6 m TL) were raised for the last 6-18 months prior to culling in unitised enclosures, and performance and skin quality monitored.

Outcomes

Modification of "small" communal breeding pens with barriers was insufficient to prevent interaction between individuals, and experiments were discontinued to prevent physical injury and mortality to the animals. Annual nesting and egg fertility was greatly reduced relative to enclosures with one male and one female. Management (feeding, cleaning) of hatchlings in floating pens was difficult. This was overcome with outdoor enclosures with both water and land areas, but maintenance of warm conditions was not considered economical. The principles were applied to new and existing pens where hatchlings were able to access outside areas. Even when ambient conditions were considered suboptimal (Greater Than 25C), hatchlings were found out at night. They would also seek outside areas during the day, when surface temperature were very high (Greater Than 50C). Notwithstanding possible clutch effects, growth and survival in the modified pens was superior. It should be noted that a disease outbreak (2004) resulted in very high hatchling mortality, and interupted the

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study. Raising pens with deep water greatly reduced labour (cleaning) and produced high growth rates. The design of the pen simulates the situation in the wild, where crocodiles are able to access deep water for "security" and warm basking areas are available. Management of crocodiles (eg sorting) requires future attention, but costs in this regard are largely outweighed by savings in labour. Unitised cages for "finishing" crocodiles before culling also produced high growth rates and good skin quality. Few crocodiles did not adapt to the unitised enclosure. Initially designed to take crocodiles up to 1.7-1.8 m tail length, they would need some modification (strengthening) for larger animals (Greater Than 2.3 m tail length). The ability to keep blocks of cages separate from other blocks, for example for water treatment, would also impove their utility.

Implications

There is little doubt that pen design is implicated in performance of Saltwater crocodile hatchings, particularly in the first few weeks of life. The premise that hatchlings require constant temperature for optimum growth and survival requires more detailed investigation. The development of a juvenile raising pen with increases cost-effectiveness (reduced labour and construction costs) is significant, although mecahnisms to improve management of crocodiles requires requires further attention.

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Project Title

Management strategies to reduce ostrich chick mortality

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000081

Start Date: 1/14/2008 Finish Date: 5/30/2008 Researcher: Phil Glatz Organisation: South Australian Research & Development Institute Phone: (08) 8303 7786 Fax: (08) 8303 7689 Email: glatz.phil@saugov.sa.gov.au Objectives

A literature review will be undertaken to examine the effect of management issues on chick mortality. Issues to be examined include: Floor materials (eg. concrete floors with rub mats, native grass or lucerne pasture and earth floor), litter materials (eg. chopped straw, lucerne hay, dry hay and sheep manure covered with wire grids), housing/sheds (eg. traditional, mobile shed and eco-sheds), heating (eg. temperature and methods and sources of heating), stocking rate, probiotics and enzymes, preventative health measures (eg. clostridial, avian influenza and avian pox vaccination), feeding fibre (eg. sources of fibre and chopped length of fibre), egg collection time (eg. collection methods), egg cleaning (eg. cleaning methods), egg pre-storage (eg. storage period, temperature and relative humidity), incubation and hatching conditions (eg. temperature, carbon dioxide levels, relative humidity levels, oxygen level and ventilation).

Background

High chick mortality in commercial ostrich farming is a problem around the world. In Australia and South Africa, chick mortality is reported to be 50% up to 3 months of age (Smith et al., 1995). More (1996) reported that average mortality for chicks in Queensland at 4 months was 37.1%. In Israel, mortality rates range from 15-50%. Increasing chick survivability will increase profitability for ostrich farmers and will make the ostrich industry more competitive. Chicks are especially vulnerable during the first few weeks after hatching and frequently succumb to diseases, various disorders and stress (Huchzermeyer, 1994; Samson, 1997). Stressors potentially are not only a direct cause of mortality but can also make chicks susceptible to disease and infection (Jensen et al., 1992). Other factors affecting the survivability include: 1) Starvation; 2) Leg problems; 3) Naval infection and; 4) Yolk sac infection. However, low mortality (10-15%) can be achieved by proper feeding and good management.

Research

Extensive literature searching of materials on the internet and through literary data bases was used to track past and current research on the effect of management on chick mortality. Consultation was made with various ostrich farmers in Australia.

Outcomes

Through this literature review, the following issues should be addressed in order to reduce ostrich chick mortality. These include: • Collecting eggs soon after lay and keeping them under proper storage conditions results in good hatchability since ratite eggs can be easily contaminated by bacteria, • Proper setting up of incubator and hatcher parameters and keeping both areas clean, • Ostrich chicks are sensitive to cold and susceptible to infection and disease. Good brooding systems including keeping brooding area clean, proper bedding, not over stocking, proper heating and exercise also is very important to maintain chick health, • Proper nutrition and feeding, adequate exercise and allowing chicks to forage outside as early as possible results in good chick health, • Spending time with chicks after hatching will help chicks condition themselves to human presence and make it easy to handle birds later, • Proper facilities, gentle restraint, handling and transporting of ostriches reduces bird stress,

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injuries and improves animal welfare, • Good biosecurity, good hygiene and proper vaccination will reduce the bird infection of diseases. Good management and husbandry will reduce ostrich chick mortality.

Implications

Ostrich farmers should be aware of the factors contributing to chick mortality on their own farm and improve the management and rearing conditions accordingly. Using appropriate management strategies could reduce the mortality and make savings of $50/chick. This equates to a saving of $1.125m/year for the ostrich industry based on 22,500 ostriches predicted to be slaughtered in Australia in 2008.

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Kangaroo - Industry management Project Title

Maintaining the kangaroo industries freedom to operate

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000695

Start Date: 7/1/2006 Finish Date: 6/30/2008 Researcher: John Kelly Organisation: Lenah Consulting Phone: (03) 6326 7696 Fax: (03) 6326 2790 Email: lenah@tassie.net.au Objectives

Ongoing dissemination of factual information on the kangaroo industry to enable further growth in market size and value. In particular the project will ensure key personnel and decision makers in government and major industry clients (such as Adidas) are regularly updated with factual information on industry developments. This project addresses an Objective in the current Kangaroo Industry Strategic Plan given a highest priority ranking.

Background

The kangaroo industry’s image has improved dramatically over the past few years, as have industry fortunes. However both remain extremely vulnerable to campaigns based on emotive animal welfare arguments by anti industry groups. Protecting the industry against attack and creating an environment of acceptance (which enables market growth) requires ongoing facts to be disceminated. In particular the Australian community needs to be continually told the truth about the industry to counter the wide range of mis-information spread by anti industry activists. The industry’s ‘freedom to operate’ needs to be preserved and maintained by ensuring decision makers in government and key customers are regularly updated on the issues surrounding the kangaroo harvest. Factual information flow about the industry is essential to prevent misconceptions developing. A study of how other industries with similar issues manage information flow to key decision makers would assist in ensuring best practice. The kangaroo industry had attacks in the past and has some level of industry wisdom in dealing with them. However the industry has no formal response strategy and has made no effort to learn in detail from other industries’ experiences. Preparation of a formal response strategy to anti industry campaigns based on case study research, which all industry members could refer to, would seem wise insurance.

Research

This project attempted to: 1) disseminate information about industry developments via a regular, electronically distributed newsletter. This documented the environmental sustainability of the industry, its value in environmental management as well as industry developments. Each edition was also posted on the Kangaroo Industries Association of Australia (KIAA) website. 2) generate and respond to industry related media coverage. The project was available as a point of contact for detailed information for domestic and international media wishing to cover the industry. In particular the project responded to press enquiry resulting from anti industry activity. 3) ensuring that key government and client decision makers were personally updated on industry developments.

Outcomes

The project facilitated an unprecedented level of positive media coverage on the kangaroo industry. In addition it successfully countered a new major anti-industry campaign by an animal liberation group. In particular it convinced a range of media outlets not to cover the campaign as a 'story'. This and other initiatives of the project have helped create a favourable public opinion environment for kangaroo product market development.

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Implications

The project's report suggests that the kangaroo industry is now in a position where it should aggressively seek media attention. In the past it has only done so reluctantly and spasmodically. This project suggests that attitudes in domestic and international media have changed significantly and that the industry will now receive a much more positive benefit form media attention than it would have expected in the past.

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Kangaroo - Industry practices Project Title

Nutritional Composition of Kangaroo Meat

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000854

Start Date: 5/1/2007 Finish Date: 2/29/2008 Researcher: Ron Tume Organisation: Food Science Australia Phone: (07) 3214 2007 Fax: (07) 3214 2103 Email: ron.tume@csiro.au Objectives

Determining the nutrient composition of specific fat components in four muscle cuts of two different species of kangaroo from two geographic locations. The work will provide the industry with information they require regarding specific nutrients in their products.

Background

Food Science Australia FSA) recently completed a study for RIRDC, Composition of New Meats – Analyses and nutrient composition of innovative meat industries (RIRDC Publication No. 07/036). This research covered seven different genus types including buffalo, camel and crocodile. Through RIRDC, the kangaroo industry expressed interest in determining the fat content and lipid composition (not total nutrients) of specific fat components from four muscle cuts of two different species from two different geographical locations.

Research

In consultation with the nominated industry supplier (by RIRDC) Food Science Australia undertook the organisation of collection of kangaroo meat samples for various lipid analyses to be conducted by the National Measurement Institute (NMI). The species selected for analysis were Red kangaroo and Grey kangaroo. The four muscle cuts selected for analysis were topside, fillet, rump and knuckle from two geographical locations, South Australia and Queensland with five samples from each of these variates; a total of 80 samples were analysed. The samples were supplied frozen to NMI for analysis. Information on product slaughter date, location, carcase weight, product trace back identity and company trading name was also obtained. Lipid analysis included: • Fat content (g/100g raw meat) • Cholesterol content (mg/100g raw meat) • Fatty acid profiles (% distribution) • Total omega-3 content (mg/100g raw meat) • CLA content (mg/100g raw meat)

Outcomes

The investigation showed that the fat content and lipid composition of four commercial muscle cuts from two species of kangaroo from each of two geographical regions confirmed that kangaroo meat is very low in fat and the fat present is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids and contained conjugated linoleic acid. Meat samples obtained from carcases (mean weights 19-20 kg) generally contained less than 1g ether-extractable fat/100g meat. This comprised about 32% saturated fats, 31% mono-unsaturated fats and 37% polyunsaturated fats. There was a tendency for kangaroo meats from QLD, irrespective of species or cut, to be higher in saturates and lower in polyunsaturates compared with meats from SA. It was also found that meat from the Red kangaroo from QLD had lower cholesterol contents compared with the other samples measured. These differences observed for polyunsaturation and cholesterol content should be re-investigated using a larger number of samples taken over a longer time period and from broader locations in each State in order to confirm the reported observations.

Implications

This investigation has confirmed that kangaroo meat is very lean and has a high proportion of polyunsaturated fats. Differences between two species from different geographical locations were not great.

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Kangaroo - Resource sustainability Project Title

Research and Development for the US Market for Kangaroo meat and skins

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000855

Start Date: 7/1/2007 Finish Date: 5/5/2008 Researcher: Brian Topper Organisation: AI Topper & Co Phone: (02) 9261 1900 Fax: (02) 9264 1466 Email: briant@aitopper.com.au Objectives

Assist in the rearching and development of effective material dealing with the history and lack of need to ban the sale of kangaroo products in California (USA)

Background

The Australian kangaroo industry has been working with Adidas and DFAT for some time to attempt to have the legislation changed for Australia to have market access of kangaroo products into California

Research

The project assisted the researching and development of material dealing with the history and proposing the reasons why there is a need for a change in the legislation. A plan was developed to support the legal implications.

Outcomes

The long drawn out legal case is over. The Californian Government signed on 14 October 2007 an amendment to their laws making the sale of kangaroo products in that state legal. The inputs came from Australian government, Adidas, RIRDC and the KIAA.

Implications

A spin off from the process, especially towards the end, was a considerable degree of positive media coverage for kangaroo leather products. There were many leading global newspapers and sporting magazine articles addressing the issue and some of these stated that kangaroo leather sport shoes are the best there is.

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RIPS 2007-2008 Develop new opportunities Project Title

Emu Oil and Gastrointestinal Disease

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000901

Start Date: 8/1/2007 Finish Date: 8/1/2008 Researcher: Chris Gregory Organisation: Technology Investment Corporation Pty Ltd Phone: 1300368645 Email: chris@emutracks.com.au Objectives

Via rat models the efficacy of emu oil will be tested in decreasing inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract. The experimental design has six treatments with rats. Chemotherapy induced Mucositis will be induced by the administration of 5 Fluorouracil and then emu oil will be given. Measurements eg body weight, food intake, faeces and urine outputs, sucrase breadth tests and histology will occur after killing the rats 48, 72 and 96 hours later. The experimental design has been approved by the Woman and Children Hospital and University of Adelaide's Animal Ethics Committees.

Current Progress

Emu oil was orally administered to rats with intestinal mucositis induced by injection of the common chemotherapy drug, 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU). The study revealed that emu oil had a profound beneficial effect on myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity. MPO is an indicator of acute intestinal inflammation. The results indicated that the anti-inflammatory effects of emu oil were evident in all regions of the small intestine, persisting until 96 hours after 5-FU was administered. Although as yet untested, it is likely that this effect could be sustained beyond the 96 hour time-point. This important finding was accompanied by a surprising increase in the depth of intestinal crypts following emu oil treatment, accompanied by a lesser effect on lengthening of the absorptive villi. Together this effect indicated improved growth of the intestine following 5-FU-induced damage. The effect was most impressive in the distal small intestine (ileum) and was still evident 96 hours after chemotherapy. The mechanism of the crypt lengthening needs to be defined but could represent increased proliferation (and hence improved repair), decreased apoptosis (decreased cell death) or even hypertrophy (increased cell size). To conclude, emu oil decreased acute inflammation in the chemotherapy-damaged intestine and improved small intestinal re-growth after damage.

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Project Title

Innovative manufacture, installation of value adding process for farmed rabbits

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000325

Start Date: 5/30/2007 Finish Date: 12/1/2008 Researcher: Rob Stout Organisation: Bendigo Gourmet Poultry and Game Phone: (03) 5444 5520 Fax: (03) 5444 5520 Email: rstout@wnagagragame.com.au Objectives

To design, manufacture and install a custom made, inside outside rabbit carcass washer and drip chill line to increase the level of automation in rabbit processing. The benefits to the industry of the installation of this equipment include a reduction in the economic, social and environmental impacts of the process and the availability of this equipment as an example to other processors of a cheaper and more efficient method of processing meat rabbits

Current Progress

Order equipment 1/2/08. Commence construction 10/4/08. Installation of supports for drip line. Installation of supports for corner posts in evisceration area and packing room. Modification of evisceration and packing room walls to allow chain to travel from evisceration room to packing room. Modification of corner wheels to suit application for rabbit drip line. Installation of corner wheels. Fitting of drive units. Modification of inside/outside washer for farmed rabbit application. Installation of chain conveyor line. Fitting of trolleys and chain to line. Modification to unloader to suit farmed rabbits.

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Project Title

Bactronophorous thoracites health promoting product

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000853

Start Date: 5/1/2007 Finish Date: 1/1/2009 Researcher: Bruce Rich Organisation: Prindel Phone: 07 3409 1225 Email: brucerich@dodo.com.au Objectives

A pilot study to: • Determine the degree of activity (or range of activity) on human cells

through bioassays including genomic-based assays • Investigate the potential commercial development of therapeutic products

derived from Bactronophorous thoracites based on traditional/cultural use and current market perceptions on developing a complementary medicines product

• Establish handling and processing procedures including cultural context to derive and identify the classes of active components

• Gather sufficient data to make Go/No Go decisions for commercial development and to guide the direction of possible subsequent developments.

Current Progress

Samples of B. thoracites have been collected from Harvey Bay and from Melville Island in the Northern Territory. The samples have been prepared for analysis at the Mater Hospital in Brisbane. The samples were used to stimulate peripheral blood mononuclear cells (“PBMCs”) at different time points. The MTT assay was used as a method for evaluating whether the extract had any effect on the cells at a cellular level. Once a positive effect had been observed, further cells were analysed on a GeneChip genomics platform, representing probes for genes in the human genome. The gene expression changes at different time points will be compared. At the time of writing this progress report the results have not yet been fully analysed and interpreted. This is expected to be carried out and completed by the end of June.

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Project Title

Efficient environment and bird friendly commercial duck production

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000545

Start Date: 9/1/2006 Finish Date: 10/1/2009 Researcher: Jeff Downing Organisation: The University of Sydney Phone: (02) 9036 7748 Email: jeffd@camden.usyd.edu.au Objectives

Develop growth models to more precisely predict market ages for the most desired market weight and the highest yield of high-value breast meat so that industry can more accurately meet consumer demands. Use of dietary intervention to provide more uniform market weights, higher yield of breast, and reduce feed input costs. Potential to also develop niche markets based on modifying the duck tissue profiles through use of specific dietary ingredients.

Current Progress

Task 4. Study 2 – Winter growth trail. An extensive report of this study was provided in November 2007. There was the need to complete the carcass analysis from this study. This has been done. Task 5: Study 3. Summer growth trial in year 2 of the project. The results from the studies in year 1 indicated that the duck strains used by Pepe’s excreted large amounts on nitrogen suggesting that the conventional diets used were providing excessive protein. This observation formed the basis for the nutritional studies in study 3. Study 3, was conducted in March 2008. The two genetic strains used by “Pepe’s Pty Ltd’, The ‘Cherry Valley (CV) and ‘Grimaud Freres (GF)’ and the reciprocal crosses from these two strains, CV male x GF female and GF male x CV female (4 strains), where reared from day old until market aged (6 weeks). These 4 strains were fed 3 diets. 1) The conventional industry diet (starter 22% and grower 19% protein). 2) Low protein diet (starter 19% and grower 16%) 3) 30% of the wheat in the conventional diet replaced with sorghum This gave a total of 12 treatments (4 strains x 3 diets) with four replicate pens for each treatment (38 birds /pen at placement). Because in year 1 we found no effects of single sex rearing all pens were mixed sex. Birds were individually identified and weighed weekly. Feed and water intake were determined weekly on a pen basis. Each week one bird was sacrificed and various organs and tissues removed and weighed. At 3 and 6 weeks the whole carcass from one bird in each pen was processed for determined of whole body composition. At the end of the study the birds remaining where processed at “PEPE’s” commercial facility. We have completed the growth analysis and the laboratory analysis continues with only the whole carcass analysis to be completed.

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Project Title

Linkage mapping and QTL analysis in saltwater crocodiles

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000549

Start Date: 7/1/2005 Finish Date: 9/30/2009 Researcher: Sally Isberg Organisation: The University of Sydney Phone: (08) 8988 5554 Fax: (02) 9351 2114 Email: sally@crocfarmsnt.com Objectives

The major objective is to enable producers to select future breeding crocodiles based on the animal's genotype in addition to phenotypic observations made on the individual and its relatives.

Current Progress

The first genetic linkage map for the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), and indeed for any other reptile, has now been constructed. Currently, the map consists of twelve linkage groups incorporating 161 microsatellites, presumably covering twelve of the seventeen (n=17) C.porosus chromosomes. The extent of genome coverage will be confirmed upon physical anchorage of the linkage groups. Interestingly, the female and male linkage maps revealed uncommonly large differences in recombination rates between sexes with the female being almost six times greater for females than in males. This is the second greatest difference reported for a vertebrate species and is an important finding for a species without sex chromosomes. Physical mapping of BAC clones via fluorescent in-situ hybridization (FISH) is currently underway to anchor and orientate the current linkage map. BAC filters were screened for microsatellites situated at the terminal ends of the linkage groups. Positive BAC clones have been identified and will soon be FISH mapped. The generation of the first crocodilian linkage map has facilitated preliminary Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) scans for both head length (HL) and number of scale rows (SR). A statistically significant effect for SR was identified on LG1. This is the first ever QTL identified for a crocodilian, and indeed any other reptilian.

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Project Title

Runtism and survival in captive saltwater crocodiles

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000550

Start Date: 9/1/2005 Finish Date: 9/1/2008 Researcher: Sally Isberg Organisation: The University of Sydney Phone: (08) 8988 5554 Fax: (02) 9351 2114 Email: sally@crocfarmsnt.com Objectives

The major objective is to evaluate the specific risk factors associated with juvenile mortality in particular runtism and disease susceptibility within a genetic framework. This will help producers identify the main causes of juvenile mortality on their farms and determine whether mortalities are clutch-related year-related or more unlikely randomly occurring events. The major objective of the histopathology study is to examine the issue of runtism and attempt to observe any differences between 'normal' and 'runt' crocodiles. This will provide clues of why runtism occurs. Similar studies have been conducted in other crocodilians but not for saltwater crocodiles. Since this is an area of major profit loss within the Australian crocodile industry this pilot histopathology study is of great importance.

Current Progress

Observations from 2171 offspring of known-parentage were collected between 2005 and 2007. The data were collected in a categorical fashion (congenital, runt, disease, stress, management/miscellaneous) to allow a competing risk survival analysis to be conducted. Rather unexpectedly, all the categories have a heritability of 0.70 (SE 0.08) under a pair (analogous to sire model) plus common environment effect model. Year, Season and Clutch Size effects were significant for some traits but not in others and all variance component estimates were of different magnitude warranting further investigation of this co-incidence. The second phase histopathology included only the examination of significant tissues found in phase 1 with the additional investigation of serum corticosterone levels. Overall, there were no differences with respect to bacterial culture or faecal parasitology. Haematological and serum biochemical findings in runts included marked non-regenerative anaemia and hypoalbuminaemia, likely secondary to cachexia (prolonged poor-doing). Runts also had significantly lower serum phosphorus and decreased growth plate activity likely reflecting poor growth. Histologically, there was severe lymphoid atrophy, most notably involving the thymus and tonsils. The adrenal glands in runts appeared relatively active whilst serum corticosterone levels were higher (mean 18.8 ng/ml runts, 8.3 ng/ml normals) suggesting increased stress levels.

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Project Title

Commercial Silk Production Practices for Australian Sericulture Industry Part 2

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-002578

Start Date: 7/30/2006 Finish Date: 9/1/2010 Researcher: Sarita Kulkarni Organisation: Brij Bugtrap Consultancy Pty Ltd Phone: (03) 9547 7858 Email: sarita@bbtcpl.com Objectives

1. Launch the prototype sericulture farm in South-East Australia mainly in Victoria on a commercial basis by end of 2110. 2. Cultivate the local varieties of mulberry on large scale and import international varieties of mulberry and reproduce to a large number. 3. Conduct research, develop and breed suitable and sustainable varieties of silkworm/mulberry for Australian conditions from imported silkworm parent race if possible from India and China. 4. Practice and develop the best techniques needed to rear best commercial quality silkworm hybrids for Australian farmers producing best quality silk in the world. 5. Invite sericulture scientist from India and China to visit Australia during October 2006/2007/2008/2009. 6. Visit and train in the elite sericulture institutes in the world. 7. Conduct research and train in the Silkworm Seed Production and Research Centre in India and China. 8. Train and develop a technique in the Cooperative testing centre for the Pebrine disease in the Silkworm moth. 9. Visit China and India to conduct further research in the related aspect during June 2007/2008/2009/2010. 10. Develop a personal rapport to receive and get mentoring support for Australia for future research from China and India. 11. Train the techniques employed in rearing silkworm and harvesting mulberry by inviting interested farmers in Australia to setup a model demonstration farm in various parts of Australia. 12. Aim to establish a rural-based sericulture industry (moriculture, sericulture and silk reeling) in South-East Australia by setting a reeling unit on commercial basis for producing raw silk for the Australian textile market with the potential for future export. 13. Combat the weed problem by using environmentally friendly activities such as intercropping that is at present used in India. 14. Establish a tested and suitable systems for (a) the production of silkworm moth eggs (seed) (b) incubation and rearing of young silkworm larvae (chawki raring) (c) growing, harvesting and storage of mulberry leaves (d) collection, packaging and transport of cocoons (e) marketing of cocoons to silk spinners (f) reeling unit. 15. Assess possible future export opportunities in dried cocoons, raw silk, and other silk by-products to potential export markets globally. 16. Provide an avenue for the Australian rural community for a home-based remunerative employment program

Current Progress

Mulberry Culture (Moriculture) Imported mulberry have been transplanted in the field. These were imported and released from AQIS late last year 2007. For the first time we had a high yield of Mulberry fruit from 2 of the local varieties. The season lasted from October 2007 to December 2007. Fruits were harvested and marketed. This can become a secondary crop from this industry. Local varieties which were propagated are being transplanted in the field during June, July and August 2008. Sericulture (Silkworm Farming). Silkworm varieties that were brought into the country did not flourish well in the AQIS environment and again we did not have any released from the quarantine facility. Silkworm eggs were donated which were reared and we have managed to harvest around 12kgs of dry cocoons. A sample of these cocoons as sent to be tested in Japan. A sample of silk thread was sent back with report in regards to the quality of the silk. According to the Japanese laboratory - rearing of silkworm was good but can be improved. Australia can get better quality silk in comparison to other silk growing countries and can be successful in the silk market. Due to the lack

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of appropriate equipment we used very primitive drying techniques and equipment - which deteriorated the quality of silk. With more funding towards the right equipment and tools Australia can grow and develop the silk industry and be a player in the global silk market.

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Project Title

Captive breeding of Hawksbill turtles

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000661

Start Date: 2/19/2007 Finish Date: 3/3/2010 Researcher: Grahame Webb Organisation: Wildlife Management International Pty Ltd Phone: (08) 8922 4500 Fax: (08) 8947 0678 Email: gwebb@wmi.com.au Objectives

To investigate the captive breeding of Hawksbill Turtles and their successful production as a source of stock for commercial raising

Current Progress

Although the captive-raised hawksbill turtles continue to leave the water and dig "test" holes in the sand, no eggs have been produced to date. Based on previous results with a prototype breeding pen for Hawksbill turtles, temperature is still considered to be an important factor affecting rearing of turtles. Water temperatures during the previous wet season (warm) were maintained within acceptable limits through alterations to the roofing of the enclosure. At the time of writing the cool weather at the beginning of the dry season had yet to begin. Cost-effective mechanisms such as solar heating are being trialled now, pending installation and testing as the weather changes. The volume of water that may be required to heat smaller sections of the pond have yet to be clarified, and in situ testing is unclear will be required.

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Project Title

Advancing artificial insemination in camelids, particularly the alpaca

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000054

Start Date: 5/31/2007 Finish Date: 8/1/2010 Researcher: Chis Maxwell Organisation: The University of Sydney Phone: (02) 9351 4864 Fax: (02) 9351 3957 Email: chism@vetsci.usyd.edu.au Objectives

The main aims of this project are to identify the sources and constituents of the viscous seminal plasma; and investigate ways of reducing the viscosity of camelid seminal plasma. The project also aims to continue the work of RIRDC project US-138A and AAA-1A. Considerable progress was made during RIRDC project US-138A and we have clearly demonstrated: 1. Addition of a diluent to the container during semen collection increases semen quality 2. Ejaculated sperm can remain viable for up to 96 hours during liquid storage 3. Epididymal sperm tolerate liquid storage, freezing and thawing procedures and retain their function better than ejaculated sperm 4. Enzyme addition to semen reduces seminal plasma viscosity but alters membrane properties of sperm 5. Mechanical separation of sperm from the viscous seminal plasma is effective, but recovery rates are low (40-60 %) Nevertheless, the key problem for storage of semen from all camelids remains the viscous seminal plasma. If the industry is to achieve the practical application of liquid and frozen sperm storage, and a viable system of artificial insemination (AI) in camelids, particularly llamas and alpacas, the following basic questions must be answered: (1) What are the sources and constituents of the viscous seminal plasma? and (2) What is the basic protein content, structure and function of camelid seminal plasma? Analysing the source and constituents responsible for semen viscosity is critical to developing methods to overcome or circumvent the deleterious effects of the seminal plasma. This has been achieved in other species with problematic seminal plasma, for example the goat, but has either been ignored or considered too difficult in camelids. The proposed project aims to answer the two questions using modern proteomic analysis techniques, further determine the effects of seminal plasma on the viability and integrity of ejaculated and epididymal sperm, and investigate several methods (both surgical and non-surgical) to overcome/circumvent the deleterious effects of seminal plasma on the integrity and longevity of sperm. In addition, the project will also further refine the techniques for liquid and frozen storage of alpaca sperm (established during RIRDC project US-138A) so that rapid progress in the development of AI technology can occur after the characterisation of the viscous seminal plasma.

Current Progress

Seminal plasma samples have been collected and banked using an artificial vagina fitted inside a wooden mannequin. To facilitate semen collection, a new mannequin was designed and construction based on the dimensions of a female alpaca. This has enabled the training of further males for semen collection and has allowed the reliable collection of samples from 9 of the 10 males. The use of 2D gel electrophoresis for the assessment of camelid seminal plasma proteins has been successfully developed, and analysis of the protein content of camelid seminal plasma is in progress. This technique aims to determine the basic protein content of camelid seminal plasma and identify the proteins responsible for seminal plasma viscosity. An assay has been developed to determine the glycosaminoglycan concentration of seminal plasma, and analysis is underway. This assay will help determine the major glycosaminoglycans in alpaca seminal plasma and their role in seminal plasma viscosity. An AQIS permit has been

30

obtained to enable the importation of camelid seminal plasma samples. Short-term future work involves the continuation of protein and glycosminoglycan analysis, the development of scanning and transmission electron microscopy for alpaca seminal plasma, and the development of methods for the assessment of sperm integrity and function.

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Project Title

Enhancing Productivity Improvements in the Australian Water Buffalo Industry

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000042

Start Date: 7/1/2007 Finish Date: 2/1/2012 Researcher: Barry Lemcke Organisation: Department of Primary Industry, Fisheries and Mines Phone: (08) 8999 2263 Fax: (08) 8999 2043 Email: barry.lemcke@nt.gov.au Objectives

Task 1. It is proposed that the Artificial Insemination (AI) project continues in order to refine procedures and test in more locations. This will involve other drug synchronising protocols and during the off-breeding season so that dairies can even out their seasonal production. Carry out a minimum of 2 rounds per year for3 years on local and interstate herds. Task 2. We want to get tenderness tests carried out on a range of TenderBuff meat samples from various ages of animals and rates of growth to help determine the acceptable maximum age/size targets for TenderBuff. During 2008 season collect 20 samples of 4 wt/age classes between 180 kg and 280 kg to determine changes in Tenderness with wt/age using shear and compression testing at a Meat Testing Laboratory eg Cannon Hill Task 3. (a)We would like to part-subsidize the continuation of milk testing at Millaa Millaa Qld in order to collect milking data to go into the genetic analysis of the Riverine cross. This would entail completing 9 tests per year for a period of 3 years. Task 3 (b) Engage a consultant with dairy expertise to carry out a literature review on the quality and componentry of buffalo milk to determine what are it's unique characteristics that separate it from cow's milk and provide directions for genetic selection of desirable traits within the current population and possible sources of superior genetic material. This would involve writing a terms of reference, and calling for expressions of interest from qualified persons to carry it out during Jul-Dec 2008. Task 4. We want to encourage the studbook registry by providing a data entry service based in Darwin using DPIFM facilities and a casual data entry person as required, and subsidise the registry costs per animal by 50% to encourage early registration in the first 2 years of establishment. Task 5. Monitoring feedlot production in Indonesia, particularly the performance of Riverine cross compared to Swamp animals. Task 6. Prepare for publication a "Best Practice Manual for Water Buffalo in Australia". The time line for this would be post the final report by 3 months so that both are not due simultaneously. Task 7. Prepare a paper on R&D from both DNT 33A and current RIRDC projects for presentation at the 9th IBF Congress in Argentina in 2010 with a paper outlining industry and research progress in Australia.

Current Progress

2 AI Trials have been carried out at Beatrice Hill Farm during January and March 2008. The first used the entire purebred cow herd all of whose calves had been weaned in Dec 07. 10 head became pregnant to a single insemination. After checking by ultrasound at 42 days, a second round was organised. This time the remaining 16 head were split into 2 groups using 2 different protocols.- Ovsynch and Cue-Mate®. In May 08 ultrasound testing gave 4 /8 Ovsynch pregnant and 0/8 for the Cue-Mates®. A final round on the balance of 12 cows will occur in June 08 before a bull is used to clean up the tail. Milk testing has been carried out at ADBC dairy in Millaa Millaa Qld, carried out by Dairy Express P/L. The tests can be uploaded into the Agriculture Business Research Institute’s Buffalo Database direct from Dairy Express. Tests were carried out in Jun, July, Sept, Oct, Nov 07 and Jan, Feb, May 08. There are currently no abattoir facilities in the Darwin area to be able to do the Age vs live-weight combination testing of Tenderbuff steer turnoff. Will be held in abeyance for a further 18 months should a suitable opportunity arise.

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Increase competitiveness, capability and capacity Project Title

Tracking crocodile skin defects - from farm to product.

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000323

Start Date: 12/21/2007 Finish Date: 9/30/2009 Researcher: Grahame Webb Organisation: Wildlife Management International Pty Ltd Phone: (08) 8922 4500 Fax: (08) 8947 0678 Email: gwebb@wmi.com.au Objectives

This study aims to track crocodile skins from the live animal through the tanning process, and to examine the possible relationships between the raising environment and the nature and extent of common defects.

Current Progress

The project is in its early stages. To date, growth rates and environmental and physical variables in raising enclosures continue to be monitored. Two shipments (total of 441 skins) of Saltwater crocodile skins have been sent to France following inspection by WMI and skin agents. Defects were identified, including "wrinkling" on some skins. Since the project was submitted, Singapore has become a minor market for Saltwater crocodile skins from Australia.

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Project Title

Nutritional requirements feed ingredients and feeding systems for farmed crocodiles

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000660

Start Date: 7/1/2006 Finish Date: 5/30/2009 Researcher: Grahame Webb Organisation: Wildlife Management International Pty Ltd Phone: (08) 8922 4500 Fax: (08) 8947 0678 Email: gwebb@wmi.com.au Objectives

To determine an arrangement of feeding requirements, feed ingredients and feeding systems for farmed crocodiles at different stages of growth, relying on a minimum amount of fresh and stored meat. To determine the need for supplements and additives to improve optimal growth and feed conversion in these feeding systems. To determine costs of the feeding requirements and systems including collection, transport, storage and handling and compare with existing costs that rely heavily on fresh meat or by-products. To identify ways and propose experiments and techniques to minimise variability in the performance of crocodiles within and between clutches.

Current Progress

Various experiments were undertaken over the last two nesting seasons, looking at ways to minimise variability in growth (and survival) of crocodoiles within and between clutches. The type of food is but one variable that may be responsible for variability, and environmental conditions and social interactions are also important considerations. Our understanding of why caimans and alligators are able to utilise plant protein and carbohydrates in the diet far more efficiently compared to crocodiles, including saltwater crocodiles, advanced greatly over the last 12 months. Experiments that indicated differences in gut physiology and perhaps enzyme activity between alligators and crocodiles will be expanded in conjunction with food trials on juvenile crocodiles to be phased in as weather conditions improve (ie warm). Work was slowed over the lst two years following a disease outbreak that is currently under investigation, but which persists in some larger, juvenile animals, and may still operate with hatchlings.

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Project Title

Crusader improving efficiency & structure of the meat rabbit industry in Aust.

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000086

Start Date: 7/1/2007 Finish Date: 9/30/2010 Researcher: Kathleen Bowerman Organisation: Snowy Mountains Gourmet Rabbit Company Phone: (02) 6454 4256 Fax: (02) 6454 4256 Email: bowerman@snowy.net.au Objectives

1. Introduce new traits to the existing industry breeding program, Crusader, to improve enterprise profit. Traits under investigation will be feed efficiency, doe longevity, improved doe health and meat quality. The hypothesis being tested is that economic returns from a selection index that currently includes growth rate, litter size and resistance to bacterial infection can be improved by the inclusion of additional traits. 2. Establish the importance of genetic and environmental factors on eating quality of rabbit meat. Effects under investigation are - length of travel time before slaughter, sire genetic potential for growth rate, and maturity/age at slaughter. As well as testing each hypothesis this objective will provide basic information on the level of phenotypic variation in quality of rabbit meat in Australia. 3. Compare the performance of unselected rabbits (fed feed mixtures supplemented with antibiotics) with Crusader stock (on un-supplemented feed) that have been selected for resistance to bacterial infection. The hypothesis being tested is that the level of genetic resistance in Crusader rabbits is high enough to allow a comparable level of performance and health to unselected rabbits fed prophylactic antibiotics.

Current Progress

To date the project has focused on measurement of feed intake, to allow the calculation of feed conversion efficiency, a potential new trait for introduction to the breeding program. The Crusader facility has been modified to allow individual feed intake measurements to be collected on up to 120 grower rabbits at any one time. Immediately post-weaning animals selected to go on test are moved to these cages and feed intake and liveweight gain measured over a 5 week growing period. These data will be used to examine the feed efficiency of rabbits during the growing phase. As all animals cannot be tested due to limited resources, a sub-set of the male rabbits weaned each week are tested. They are selected in a manner so as to allow estimation of breeding values for growth rate in individual pen and group pen environments. Collection of feed intake data has been hindered over the last 6 months by difficulties in sourcing reliable and safe feed supplies. Genetic trends for traits under selection - number of kittens weaned, growth rate and resistance to disease in growing rabbits, continue to be favourable.

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Project Title

Redclaw Selective Breeding Program

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000327

Start Date: 7/1/2007 Finish Date: 12/30/2011 Researcher: John Stevenson Organisation: Queensland Crayfish Farmers Association Inc Phone: (07) 4772 2036 Fax: (07) 4771 5966 Email: jhstevo@bigpond.com Objectives

To develop a program that can be used indefinitely to combat inbreeding depression while selecting for faster growth and to produce pathogen free stock.This will avoid the disasterous consequences of inbreeding, at least double the production of redclaw farms and enhance survival and growth as a result of the animals being disease free.

Current Progress

The first mating and juvenile production cycle was successfully completed in December 2007. 90,000 Stage Three Juveniles (S3J) were distributed to the participating farms for the growout phase. A coordinated mid term sample was taken by all farms on the 27th April, 2008, which demonstrated much better than normal growth and survival. Full results from this growout will not be available until the harvest in August. Ozonation of the incubator system as reccomended by James Cook University is being trialed in the off season. Early results of this work indicate it will mean a simplification of bacteria control and aeration. A/Prof Leigh Owens is initiating a PhD student project to validate our claims of producing SPF crayfish from the incubator. The work will be in accordance with the international code as set by OIE, and will be completed within twelve months. A meeting of the project committee and Dr Dean Jerry was held on 15th May to fine tune the procedures for the second mating cycle starting in August. Dr Jerry has instituted procedures to monitor the animals for any undesirable traits developed as a by product of the selection process. The project is on track and showing all signs of reaching a successful conclusion.

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Kangaroo - Industry practices Project Title

Obtain perceptions of consumers & foodservice operators regarding Kangaroo meat

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000315

Start Date: 10/19/2007 Finish Date: 1/1/2009 Researcher: Mark Ellis Organisation: Sensory Solutions Pty Ltd Phone: (02)9873 8969 Fax: (02) 9894 2218 Email: m.ellis@sensorysol.com.au Objectives

To identify and understand key barriers in the acceptance of kangaroo meat in the food services industry

Current Progress

We have started the study and have had a number of discussions with John Kelly (Executive Officer of KIAA) – including visiting John at his office in Tasmania. Prior to the meetings with John Kelly we attended the recent workshop at UNSW to discuss current market development research which was sponsored by RIRDC – this included a short presentation of Consumer attitudes to kangaroo meat products. This was then followed by comments and assessment of kangaroo dishes at a restaurant in Sydney. We have now drafted a questionnaire which we have sent to John Kelly which he is assessing and once we have agreement it will be forwarded on to other interested parties for comments. Once we have an approved questionnaire we will start drawing up the sample frame and we aim to go into field in mid June.

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Kangaroo Product marketing and quality Project Title

Kangaroo meat awareness marketing research for foodservice and consumer

RIRDC Project No.:

PRJ-000089

Start Date: 1/1/2008 Finish Date: 1/1/2010 Researcher: Mel Nathan Organisation: Food Companion International Phone: 0413 616 683 Fax: (02) 9223 7761 Email: mel@foodcompanion.com Objectives

Facilitate kangaroo meat editorial and marketing research and analysis into a cross section of various foodservice and cooking magazines, newsletters, chefs association newsletters and chef focus groups.

Current Progress

Two events have been held to date. On 5 April 2008, some kangaroo dishes were prepared for assessment at the Wildfire Restaurant, Circular Quay, Sydney. Information gained assisted in further preparation and assessment of kangaroo dishes at the Sofitel, Gold Coast, Queansland.