new age international journal of agricultural … · new age international journal of agriculture...
TRANSCRIPT
Title Code:-UPENG04282
VOL: 2, No: 1 Jan-June, 2018
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL
OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
NEW AGE MOBILIZATION NEW DELHI – 110043
(Registration No. - S/RS/SW/1420/2015)
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Halfyearly
Published by : New Age Mobilization
New Delhi -110043 REGISTRATION No. : S/RS/SW/1420/2015
Printed by : Pragati Press, Muzaffararnagar, U. P. Date of Publication : 12 Jan, 2018 Printing Place : Muzaffarnagar, U.P. On behalf of : Mrs. Jagesh Bhardwaj President, New Age Mobilization Published by : Mrs. Jagesh Bhardwaj President, New Age Mobilization
EDITOR
Dr. Tulsi Bhardwaj W. Scientist
S.V. P. U. A. & T. Meerut, U.P. India Post Doctoral Fellow (Endeavour Award, Australia)
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Volume 2 Issue 1; 2018
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Halfyearly
Published by : New Age Mobilization, New Delhi-110043 (REGISTRATION No. - S/RS/SW/1420/2015
Eminent Members of Editorial board
Dr. Rajendra Kumar Director General UPCAR Lucknow ,U.P. India [email protected] www.upcaronline.org www.iari.res.in
Dr. Gadi V.P. Reddy Professor Montana State University MT 59425, USA [email protected] http://agresearch.montana.edu
Dr. Rajveer Singh Dean Colege of Veterinary Sc. S.V.P.U.A. T,Meerut, U.P. India [email protected] www.svbpmeerut.ac.in
Dr. Ashok Kumar Director Research S.V.P.U.A.& T Meerut U.P. India [email protected] www.svbpmeerut.ac.in
Dr. Youva Raj Tyagi Director & Head GreenCem BV Netherland, Europe [email protected] http://shineedge.in/about-ceo www.researchgate.net/profile/YouvaTyagi
Dr. S. K. Sachan Professor & Head S.V.P.U.A.& T. Meerut,U.P. [email protected] www.svbpmeerut.ac.in
Dr. Shobhana Gupta Dy. Director Extension RVSKVV Gwalior, M.P.India [email protected]
www.rvskvv.net
Dr. Gaje Singh Professor S.V.P.U.A.& T. Meerut,U.P. [email protected] www.svbpmeerut.ac.in
Dr. S.N. Sushil Principal Scientist ICAR-IISR Lucknow,U.P. [email protected] http://www.iisr.nic.in
Dr. Vinay Kalia Principal Scientist ICAR-NCIPM New Delhi [email protected] www.iari.res.in
Dr. Sumitra Arora Principal Scientist ICAR-NCIPM New Delhi [email protected]
www.ncipm.org.in
Dr.Shantanu kmDubey Principal Scientist ICAR-KVK-ATARI Kanpur, U.P. [email protected]
Dr. Renu Singh Sr. Scientist ICAR-IARI New Delhi [email protected]
www.iari.res.in
Dr. R. S. Bana Scientist ICAR-IARI New Delhi, India [email protected] www.iari.res.in
Dr.Hema Baliwada Scientist ICAR-CTRI Andhra Pradesh [email protected]
www.ctri.org.in
Dr. Shuchi Agarwal Research Scientist,EWTCOI Ngee Ann Polytechnic Singapore [email protected] www.natureindex.com
Gunjan Maheshwar Post Doctorate Fellow Deptartment of Reserach & Consltancy Hindustan University, Chennai [email protected] www.hindustanuniv.ac.in
Dr. Navdeep Bal Resaerch Scholar RMIT University Australia [email protected] www.rmit.edu.au
Dr. Tulika Tyagi Resaerch Scholar University of Rajasthan, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India www.uniraj.ac.in www.researchgate.net/profile/Tulika_Tyagi
Dr. Tulsi Bhardwaj W. Scientist, S.V.P.U.A.& T. Meerut [email protected]
Post Doctoral Fellow (EndeavourAward, Australia)www.svbpmeerut.ac.in www.researchgate.net/profile/Tulsi_Bhardwaj2 scholar.google.com.au/citations?user=1JBN-mwAAAAJ&hl=en
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Volume 2 Issue 1; 2018
New Age Mobilization
New Delhi.110043
EXECUTIVE COMMITTE
President : Smt. Jagesh Bhardwaj
General Secretary : Mr. Anuj Kumar
Tressurerer : Mrs. Shashibala Tyagi
Coordinator : Mr. Parmanand Vikal
Head Office : New Delhi- New Delhi.110043
Northern Branch : Muzaffarnagar, UP. 251001
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
ABOUT THE SOCIETY
NEW AGE MOBILIZATION SOCIETY is established in 2016 as a non-profit
professional society aimed to strengthen the different sectors like health and hygiene, agriculture,
education, medical etc. To boost up country’s economy as well as targeting the backward and poor
masses of our society into the main stream and thus contributing towards formation of New India.
NAMO is determined to empower Nation’s progress and economy by assisting the implementation
of government schemes to target people. The society is also working continuously at grass root
levels to help the down trodden and neglected masses.
Agriculture is an important sector of Indian economy and many others sectors also deepened
upon agriculture sector. In the field of Agricultural sector and to mobilize researchers,
academicians, planners, grass root agri-workers, the society is publishing the NAMO International
Journal of Agricultural Research and Development. Society works on following objectives
To accelerate the growth of nation in different sectors by application of the Government policies
and supporting the units in implementing them.
To help the down trodden of society and ensuring the transfer of benefits of the Government scheme
to the candid and eligible masses
To document the on-farm and adaptive research experiences in multi-disciplinary agri-bio sciences
and extension education.
To offer a platform for sharing the empirical experiences of development professionals, community
mobilizers, academicians, multi-sectoral researchers, students etc. for the benefit of ultimate users.
To facilitate close and reciprocal linkage among the institutions for sustainable rural development.
Promoting potential and practicing entrepreneurs.
To disseminate the documented knowledge to the global partners through approach abstracting and
indexing.
I hope the society would accelerate the progress growth in our nation.
Sincerely,
Jagesh Bhardwaj
President
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH AND
DEVELOPMENT Halfyearly
Published by : New Age Mobilization, NAMO
New Delhi. 110043
New Age Mobilization offers life-memberships; details are as follows
MEMBERSHIP
Life Membership Rs. 2,000 Institutional Membership Rs. 5,000 Corporate Membership Rs. 50,000 Foreign Membership USD 500
Online Indian Subscription Individual/Institutional Rs. 600
Online and Print Indian
Subscription
Individual/Institutional Rs. 900
Online for Foreign Subscription Individual/Institutional USD 60
Online and Print for Foreign
Subscription
Individual/Institutional
USD 90
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
ABOUT THE JOURNAL
The New Age International Journal Agricultural Research and Development is published by NEW
AGE MOBILIZATION, every six months in a year. The main mandate of the journal is –
-to accentuate R and D in the field and to network the scientific community around the world.
New Age International Journal Agricultural Research and Development is also available on
our website http://www.newagemobilization.org and the process has been initiated for the
registration with www.indianjournal.com for national and global abstracting and indexing.
NA-IJARD will facilitate the scholars and researches by informing about the latest
innovation, R&D, training, extension-activities
The aim and scope of the journal are:
To share the innovative and recent research in agriculture and allied fields among the
scientific community and the scholars
To motivate the application and extension of available technology at grass root level
To disseminate the experiences and success stories by providing them a global forum
To sensitize the different stakeholders about the knowledge and innovation management
system in pluralistic agri-rural environment.
To developing network among the related partners for convergence of their efforts for
sustainable academic
It aims to present leading-edge academic argument in a style that is accessible to
practitioners and policymakers.
All correspondence may be made at the following address:
Dr. Tulsi Bhardwaj (Endeavour Fellow, Australia)
W. Scientist
Editor-in-chief, NAMO-IJARD
Department of Entomology
SVPUA&T, Meerut
U.P. India
E-mail: [email protected]
Soft copy of Journal avaialbale at-
Website: www.newagemobilization.org
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
EDITORIAL
The aim of global R & D is to enrich the technology continuously via application of wide range of
technical interventions depending upon the requirement of changing nature of present scenario of
agri-entrepreneur' demand.
Researchers are not only aiming to improve quantity, quality but also targeting to enrich diversity of
the agri-products. The current scenario and the life style requirements of man is changing rapidly. One
can't rely on the traditional crops' variety alone for a healthy life style or for day to day requirement.
Contradictorily, we need to indentify the nutritional values of forgotten crops like millets, coarse
cereals etc. In this direction, oat (Avena sativa) is a very good source of water soluble β-Glucan and
has potential to be explored for its nutritional value.
Similarly the genome of the a crop provides the tremendous opportunity of crop improvement and in
the direction of desired way.
Family farming system in India is very much responsible for cropping pattern and needs to be
revaluated, depending upon the soil of the particular region and the climate. In the same way
conventional means of pest management requires a face-lift and can be applied to combat the
excessive use of hazardous pesticide, as these are affecting ecosystem including the farm animals. The
Lead content found in the parasites of sheep is evident and alarming. So minimizing the unjustified
application of pesticide is mandatory. In the context, pest behaviour needs to be studied thoroughly,
so their management can be better planned. The spotted pod borer (Maruca Vitrata) in pigeonpea has
been analyzed in similar way.
I am very much positive for the quality of the articles included and hope to discuss as well as cover
the other relevant topics in the forthcoming issues the Journal.
I extend my heartfelt thanks to the members of the editorial team, who meticulously edited
the papers to maintain the quality as well to bring out the issue on time. I also express my sincere
gratitude to the authors for making their contribution while providing the journal current shape.
I wish all the best to them.
Editor in chief
Tulsi Bhardwaj
New Age International Journal Agricultural Research and Development Jan-
June, 2018
CONTENT
Title Authors
Page
(1) Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic
viscosities of water extracts
of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β-
Glucan
Gunjan Maheshwari 01-08
(2) Targeted genome editing and its application in crop
improvement
K. Baghyalakshmi & S.
Ramchander
09-20
(3) Family Farming: Status and Strategies
Hema Baliwada 21-32
(4) Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle
Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.)
Rahul Singh, Gaje Singh, Visvash
Vaibhav, Ankush Kumar, Rajat
Deshwal and Nitin
Kumar
33-41
(5) Quantification of Lead Content in Cestode (Moniezia
Expansa; Rudolphi, 1805) found in Indian Agri-
Farm Livestock Sheep
Archana Gupta and Vinod Gupta
42-46
(6) Population build-up and seasonal incidence of
spotted pod borer (Maruca Vitrata) in pigeonpea.
Visvash Vaibhav, Gaje Singh, S. K.
Sachan, D.V. Singh, Prashant
Mishra and Vivek
47-55
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Vol. 2(1), January-June, 2018
Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic viscosities of water extracts
of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β-Glucan
Gunjan Maheshwari* Department of Research, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Padur, Chennai, India.
Abstract Among cereal grains, oat (Avena sativa) is considered as one of the most beneficial grains as it contains a significant amount of a non
starchy water soluble polysaccharide β-Glucan which is a dietary fiber and biologically active compound expressing its vital role in
treatment of various lifestyle born diseases. Biological activities of β-Glucan greatly depends on its molecular weight, molecular
structure, degree of branching and intrinsic viscosity. Water solutions of oat are highly viscus due to the presence of β-Glucan. In present
study, water extraction employing three extraction conditions, has been carried out on the samples of processed oat flakes (Australian
origin) and samples of whole grain oat (Indian cultivar). The intrinsic viscosities of the extracts have been determined by flow-time
measurements of the water extracts of oat using Ostwald viscometer. Extraction temperature was noted to have a significant effect on the
intrinsic viscosity of water extracts containing water soluble dietary fiber (WSDF) β-Glucan. Keywords: Oat, bio-active polysaccharide, β-Glucan, Intrinsic viscosity, hot water extraction.
Cite this article: Maheshwari G., 2018. Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic viscosities of water extracts of oat (Avena sativa),
source of water soluble β-Glucan, The New Age International Journal Agricultural Research and Development,2(1) 01-08.
Received: March 2018 Accepted: May 2018 Published: June 2018 .
Introduction
Cereal grains like oat and barley are
considered to provide a large variety of functional
foods due to the presence of a water soluble dietary
fiber (WSDF) called β-Glucan which is a non-
starchy polysaccharide of D-glucose. Functional
foods are the foods that provide the feeling of
satiation along with the nutrition and health benefits
(Havrlentová et al., 2011). Being an
immunomodulatory compound β-glucan is a
powerful immunity enhancer and biologically
active against various lifestyle diseases such as
cancer, hyper cholesterol, diabetes and obesity
(Daou and Zhang, 2012; Marcotuli, 2016). The
natural sources of β-glucan are mainly grains like
oat and barley, yeast and edible mushrooms and
prebiotic bacteria. β-glucan present in all sources
except grains, is principally water insoluble. Oat is
gaining attention in scientific community as it
contains significant amount of WSDF β-Glucan.
Though, barley is also rich source of water soluble
β-Glucan, but is lower than oats (Aman and
Graham, 987) and is still used mainly as animal
feed maybe due to less suitable for human
consumption and digestion. Oats is known to be
derived from a weed of wheat and barley and
considered as a secondary crop which leaded to its
subsequent cultivation (Zhou et al., 1999). In early
times, oat was mainly used as animal feed crop, but
only in the 19th century it was accepted as a part of
the human diet (Webster, 1996). Now oat is being
cultivated in number of countries for its dietary
benefits. These days due to its numerous health
benefits oat is being used in variety of food
products such as breakfast cereals, beverages, bread
and also infant foods (Yao et al., 2006; Flander et
al., 2007). Oat has been reported as a rich source of
Dietary Fiber (DF) and has potential to be used as
functional ingredient in many foods products (Butt
et al., 2008). WSDF (β-Glucan) content in grains
can be adversely affected by certain farming and
growing conditions such as excessive irrigation or
rainfall or even heat stresses (Aman et al. 1989;
Savin et al. 1997), while grains with high MW β-
Glucan have been harvested when dry conditions
were maintained before harvest. Fig. 1 shows the
various stages of oat grain from farm to industry.
*Corresponding author's email: *[email protected]
Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic viscosities of water extracts of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β-Glucan
2
Fig.1. Oat at various stages
Oat flour can forms highly viscus solutions
in aqueous medium due to its β-Glucan content. In
water solutions of oat flour, β-Glucan solubilizes
and gives it characteristic high viscosity. β-Glucan
in oat is mixed linked polysaccharide of D-glucose
units connected with (1→4) and (1→3) linkage and
potentially express various biological activities such
as antidiabetic, anti-cholesterolaemic, anticancer,
anti-inflammatory etc. in human biological system
(Braaten et al., 1993; Ma¨lkki 2001; Cheung et al.,
2002; Singh et al., 2013). Number of reports are
available on the health benefits of consuming whole
grain oat, due to the presence of WSDF β-Glucan
which is the main source of health potency of oat
grain (Liu, 2004; Marcotuli et al., 2016). Apart from
numerous health benefits, physico-chemical
properties of β-Glucan like high viscosity, gelation
and fermentability by prebiotic bacteria promote the
potential use of β-Glucan in various food industries
(Vasanthan and Temelli, 2008; Ahmed et al., 2010).
Concentration of β-Glucan had been reported
typically, in a range of 2 to 8.5 percent in whole
grain oats and from 6 to 12 percent in oat bran
products respectively (Wood, 1986; Peterson, 2002).
β-Glucan present in oat bran and in endosperm of
the grain may have different viscosities (Wikstrom
et al., 1994). Likewise, β-Glucan from the enriched
oat variety has higher viscosities than that from
conventional varieties (Colleoni-Sirghie et al.,
2003). The property of viscosity and MW of β-
Glucan are the showcase of its functional properties
in food and biological properties in health and
nutrition. Preserving the molecular weight (MW) of
β-Glucan is an important factor, as it determines its
physicochemical properties such as viscosity, which
in turn determines the cholesterol-lowering property
of β-Glucan (Regand et al., 2011). The rheological
behavior of β-Glucan solutions depends on its
molecular structure and molecular weight
(Lazaridou and Biliaderis, 2007). Since the property
of viscosity of polysaccharide is correlated to its
MW (Maheshwari et al., 2017), the comparative
study of intrinsic viscosity of the water extracts of
oat can provide preliminary information about the
MW of β-Glucan present in particular oat variety.
Studies on the physico-chemical properties of β-
Glucan is an important tool to provide primary
information of the biological benefits of β-Glucan
and consequently its source.
In India, around 22 different varieties of
oats are being cultivated (Vinod Kumar, 2013),
however, studies on β-Glucan isolated from Indian
oats are lacking and hence the data on the properties
of β-Glucan present in various Indian oat cultivars,
is not available. Previous studies evident that >80 %
WSDF β-Glucan has been extracted with different
extracts viz. acidic, alkaline, enzymic or water
extracts of oat or barley (Ahmed et al., 2009, 2010).
88.7% SDF was reported with hot water extraction
of β-Glucan from barley flour (Ahmed et al., 2009).
Present study is an attempt to comprehend the effect
of extraction conditions such as temperature and
deactivation of innate enzyme β-Glucanase on
property of intrinsic viscosities of the water extracts
of oat grown in India, by comparing with that of
processed rolled oats of Australian origin consumed
by urban population in India in the form of breakfast
cereals. An initial investigation on the intrinsic
viscosities of water extracts of
Oat cultivation Ready for
harvest
Oat grain with
husk Rolled oats
Maheshwari G.,2018
oat, can provide useful information to
design the new cost effective methods of extracting
β-Glucan from cereal grains.
Materials and methods
Sample of one Indian oat cultivar (hereafter
as IO) was kindly gifted by a farmer near district
Kasganj in Utter Pradesh area. One sample of
processed oat flakes (hereafter as PO) which was of
Australian origin, was procured from local market.
IO sample was subjected to the initial process viz.
removal of husk and cleaning. Both samples were
milled using domestic grinder and screened through
0.6 mm mesh sieve. For extraction 2.5g of the
sample flour was dissolved in 50 ml of double
distilled water. Hot water extraction (HWE) was
performed on both samples under three different
extraction conditions (EC-I, II & III) as described
below –
I) Extraction at 47 ᵒC (no deactivation of
innate β-glucanase),
II) Extraction at 90 ᵒC (deactivation of β-
glucanase by heat treatment during the
extraction itself),
III) Extraction at 47 ᵒC (deactivation of β-
glucanase by refluxing with ethanol)
The methods followed for the above three
conditions were conceived from the hot water
extraction given by Ahmed et al. (2009) with some
modifications. The flow chart of the procedures has
been presented in Fig.2. β-Glucan present in water
extract was not isolated but left in solubilized form
in water. This water extracts were used to measure
the flow time of the extracts to determine the
intrinsic viscosities. Flow-time measurement of the
water extracts of both the samples, was done using
Ostwald viscometer (calibrated at the flow time of
water between 43-45 seconds). Flow times were
taken as the mean of three consecutive values. For
both samples and each condition, flow time was
measured at four different concentrations viz. C-1,
C-2, C-3 and C-4. C-1 was the concentration of the
solute (β-glucan as a major component) in water
extract. This concentration was reduced to half of
the C-1 by diluting it with water to get C-2, then
further half to get C-3 and similarly C-4. Intrinsic
viscosities (η) were determined by using standard
relations. Relative viscosity of the component is
related to the flow time and viscosity of the sample
component and the solvent (water) by following
expression-
η
η
η
Where & are viscosities and t & t0 are flow time
(in seconds) of water extracts of the sample and the
solvent (water), respectively. With the help of η ,
the values of specific viscosity (η
) and reduced
viscosity (η
) was calculated using the following
relation –
= – 1
= / C
Where ‘C’ is the concentration of the solute in
solution expressed in gm/ lit (in present study ‘C’ is
considered to represent the concentration of WSDF
β-Glucan as a major component in water extract).
‘C’ was calculated by subtracting the weight of
residue (collected from centrifuge tube) from the
initial weight of sample + water taken for extraction.
All The value of intrinsic viscosity (η) was
estimated by extrapolating the value of η
to the
‘0’ concentration in the plot of η
against ‘C’.
Results and Discussion Water extracts of IO and PO contains
mainly WSDF as a major component (as during the
extraction procedure other major components such
as lipids, starch and protein and other water
insoluble components present in the sample were
removed). The PO sample has β-Glucan assay of
4.3% while assay of β-Glucan in IO sample is not
known. Water extraction of sample of PO and IO
under EC-I, EC-II and EC-III was done following
the modified procedure given by Ahmed et al., 2009.
Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic viscosities of water extracts of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β-Glucan
4
Sample flour : water (1:50) ratio
↓
Held for 30 minutes at RT
↓
EC-I, II, &III
EC (i) EC (ii) EC (iii)
↓
Reflux with 80% EtOH (1-h / 85 ºC)
↓ ↓ Dry at 40 ºC for 12-h
Extraction for 60 min. at 47 ºC Extraction for 60 min. at 90 ºC ↓
↓ ↓ Sample flour : water (1:50) ratio
Centrifuge (7000 g / 15 min) Centrifuge (7000 g / 15 min) ↓
↓ ↓ Extraction for 60 min. at 47 ºC
Supernatant (pH 8.5 with NaOH) Supernatant (pH 8.5 with NaOH) ↓
Centrifuge (7000 g / 15 min)
↓
Centrifuge (4000 g / 10 min) Centrifuge (4000 g / 10 min) Supernatant (pH 8.5 with NaOH)
↓ ↓ ↓
Supernatant (pH 4.5 with citric acid) Supernatant (pH 4.5 with citric acid) Centrifuge (4000 g / 10 min)
↓ ↓ ↓
Centrifuge (4000 g / 10 min) Centrifuge (4000 g / 10 min) Supernatant (pH 4.5 with citric acid)
↓ ↓ ↓
Supernatant liquid Supernatant liquid Centrifuge (4000 g / 10 min)
(Water extract of sample oat) (Water extract of sample oat) ↓
Supernatant liquid
(Water extract of sample oat)
Fig.2. Flowchart of the procedure followed for the hot water extraction of oat
It is important to mention that the ratio of
water during the hot water extraction need to be
taken very high due to thickening of the slurry at
high temperature. However, starch is not soluble in
water at low temperature, the thickening may be due
to the tendency of starch to be solubilized and
gelatinized at the temperature above 47ºC (Skendi et
al., 2003), and also due to high viscosity of WSDF
β-Glucan present in solution.
Values of C, ηr and ηred under each
extraction condition were calculated as per the
relations given above, and have been presented in
Table-1 for PO sample and in Table-2 for IO
sample. It was observed that the values of ηr and ηred
for each sample under each extraction condition was
reduced with the decrease in concentration ‘C’. The
concentration of WSDF in IO sample was reduced
in the order EC-III > EC-II > EC-I, while it was in
order of EC-III > EC-I > EC-II for PO sample. The
higher concentration of WSDF (β-Glucan) in water
extracts of both samples extracted under EC-III may
be the attribution of the deactivation of innate β-
Glucanase by refluxing with ethanol before the
extraction. As leaving the enzyme active in EC-I and
EC-II leaded to the depolymerization of β-Glucan
and its subsequent lower concentration in their
respective water extracts. However, under EC-III as
extraction temperature was not high, even high
concentration of WSDF in extracts could not
resulted in high intrinsic viscosity. Hence,
temperature plays a crucial role in extracting high
MW β-Glucan (Maheshwari et al., 2017).
The values of intrinsic viscosities have been
determined by plotting a graph of η
against ‘C’.
By extrapolating the value of ηred to the zero
concentration, the value of intrinsic viscosity have
been measured. The highest intrinsic viscosity was
observed for the IO sample when extracted under
EC-II viz. 60 minutes extraction at 90 ºC, while
lowest intrinsic viscosity was for IO sample
extracted under EC-I (Fig.2). Overall, for both
the samples (IO and PO), values of intrinsic
viscosities were higher with EC-II.
Maheshwari G.,2018
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2. Plot of Intrinsic viscosity of water extract (a) for PO, and (b) for IO when followed EC-II
The mass extracted in water might contain
protein and lipids in addition to β-glucan. No large
variation was observed in the mass extracted in
water under all extraction conditions. The higher
values of the intrinsic viscosities of the extracts,
extracted at 90 ᵒC (EC-II) even after lower
concentration of extracted WSDF, may be attributed
to the higher MW polysaccharide in aqueous
solution. Higher intrinsic viscosities of IO sample
than that of PO sample supports the previous studies
suggesting that MW of β-glucan is degraded in
processed food (Kerckhoffs et al., 2003). Least
values of intrinsic viscosity for the extracts of PO
and IO extracted at 47 ᵒC (EC-I) without
deactivating the innate β-glucanase enzyme may be
due to depolymerization of β-glucan. Intrinsic
viscosities are higher when extraction was
performed at higher temperature and low
temperature extraction was not helpful in getting
higher Intrinsic viscosities even after deactivating
the innate β-glucanase enzyme.
Conclusion
Hot water extraction was performed on whole grain
oat of Indian origin and processed rolled oats of
Australian origin. Intrinsic viscosities were
determined for the water extracts of oat grain which
contains WSDF as a major component. Since, oat is
a rich source of WSDF β-glucan, its aqueous
solutions are highly viscus due to its high MW.
Intrinsic viscosity is the preliminary information of
the MW of polysaccharide. In present study,
increased intrinsic viscosity has been recorded for
both the samples (IO and PO) extracted at 90ºC.
Intrinsic viscosities of IO sample is recorded higher
than that of PO sample. The study reveals that
extraction conditions such as temperature and
deactivation of innate enzyme, had an influence on
the intrinsic viscosities of WSDF present as a main
component in the extract. More repetitions involving
various parameters, are required for better
understanding of the influence of extraction
conditions on the properties of WSDF β-glucan,
present in oat grains.
Future direction - A new cost effective and
ecofriendly extraction method need to be designed
to extract WSDF from cereal grains involving low
and high extraction temperature in a single process.
Acknowledgement
Author is thankful to the Hindustan Institute of
Technology and Science, Chennai for providing
consumables and laboratory space and equipment
for conducting the work.
[Y VALUE]
[Y VALUE] [Y VALUE]
[Y VALUE]
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
-1.500 0.500 2.500 4.500 6.500 8.500
ηre
d
Concentration of PO (g/l)
Intrinsic Viscosity - PO ( 90 ºC (non-deactivated)
[Y VALUE]
[Y VALUE] [Y VALUE]
[Y VALUE]
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
-1.000 1.000 3.000 5.000 7.000
ηre
d
Concentration of IO (g/l)
Intrinsic Viscosity - IO ( 90 ºC (non-deactivated)
Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic viscosities of water extracts of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β-Glucan
6
REFERENCES1. Ahmed A, Anjum FM, Zahoor T, Nawaz H,
Ahmed Z. 2009. Physicochemical and
functional properties of barley β-glucan as
affected by different extraction procedures.
Intl J Food Sci Technol 44:181–7.
2. Ahmed A, Anjum FM, Zahoor T, Nawaz H,
Ahmed Z. (2010). Extraction and
characterization of β-Glucan from oat for
industrial utilization. Intl J Biol Macromol
46:304–9.
3. Aman, P., Graham, H. (1987). Analysis of
Total and Insoluble Mixed-Linked (1→3),(
1→4)-β-D-Glucans in Barley and Oats. J.
Agric. Food Chem., 35(5): 704 – 709.
4. Aman, P., Graham. H. and Lilly, A. C.
(1989). Content and solubility of mixed
(1→3) (1→4)-/3-D-glucan in barley and
oats during kernel development and storage'.
J Cereal Sci, 10: 45-50.
5. Braaten, T. J., Wood, P. J., Scott, F. W.,
Wolynetz, M. S., Lowe, M. K., Bradley-
Whyte, P. (1994). Oat b-glucan reduces
blood cholesterol concentration in
hypercholesterolemic subjects. Eur J Clin
Nutr., 48:465–474.
6. Butt, M. S., Nadeem, M. T., Khan, M. K. I.,
Shabir, R. (2008). Oat: unique among
cereals. Eur. J. Nutr., 47, pp. 68-79.
7. Cheung, N. K. V., Modak, S., Vickers, A.,
Knuckles, B. (2002). Orally administrered
β-glucans enhance anti-tumor effects of
monoclonal antibodies. Cancer Immunol
Immunother 51 (10):557–64.
8. Colleoni-Sirghie, M., Kovalenko, I. V.,
Briggs, J. L., Fulton, B., White, P. J. (2003).
Rheological and molecular properties of
water soluble (1 fi 3) (1 fi 4)-b-D-glucans
from high-b-glucan and traditional oat lines.
Carbohyd. Polym., 52:439–447.
9. Daou C, Zhang H. (2012). Oat beta-glucan:
its role in health promotion and prevention
of diseases. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf.,
11:355–65.
10. Flander L, Salmenkallio M, Suortti T, Autio
K. 2007. Optimization of ingredients and
baking process for improved wholemeal oat
bread quality. LWT-Food Sci Technol
40:860–70.
11. Havrlentová, M., Petrul´akov´a, Z.,
Burg´arov´a, A., Gago, F., Hlinkov´a, A.,
ˇSturd´ık, E. (2011). Cereal β-glucans and
their significance for the preparation of
functional foods – a review. Czech J Food
Sci 29(1):1–14.
12. Kerckhoffs, D., Hornstra, G. and Mensink.
R. (2003). Cholesterol-lowering effect of β-
glucan from oat bran in mildly
hypercholesterolemic subjects may decrease
when Ø-glucan is incorporated into bread
and cookies. Am J Clinical Nutri, 78: 221-
227.
13. Lazaridou, A. and Biliaderis, C.G. (2007).
Molecular aspects of cereal b-glucan
functionality: Physical properties,
technological applications and physiological
effects. J. Cereal Sci. 46: 101–118.
14. Lazaridou, A., and Biliaderis, C. G. (2007).
Molecular aspects of cereal b-glucan
functionality: physical properties,
technological applications and physiological
effects. Journal of Cereal Science, 46, 101-
118.
15. Liu, R.H. (2004). Potential synergy of
phytochemicals in cancer prevention:
Mechanism of action; J. Nutr., 134, 3479S–
3485S
16. Ma¨lkki, Y. (2001). Physical properties of
dietary fiber as keys to physiological
functions. Cereal Food World, 46:196–199.
17. Maheshwari, G., Sowrirajan, S., Joseph, B.
(2017). Extraction and Isolation of β-Glucan
from Grain Sources—A Review. Journal of
Food Science, 82(7): 1535 – 1545.
18. Marcotuli, I., Houston, K, Schwerdt, J. G.,
Waugh, R., Fincher, G. B., Burton, R. A.,
Blanco, A., Gadaleta, A. (2016). Genetic
Diversity and Genome Wide Association
Study of β-Glucan Content in Tetraploid
Wheat Grains. PLoS One. Apr 5;11(4),
online publication.
19. Peterson, D. M. (2002). Oat Lipids:
Composition, Separation and Applications.
Lipid Technol., 14(3), 56-59.
20. Rajinder singh, Subrata De, and Asma
Belkheir. (2013). Avena sativa (Oat), A
Potential Neutraceutical and Therapeutic
Maheshwari G.,2018
Agent: An Overview. Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition, 53:126–144.
21. Regand, A., Chowdhury, Z., Tosh, S. M.,
Wolever, T. M. S., Wood, P. (2011). The
molecular weight, solubility and viscosity of
oat beta-glucan affect human glycemic
response by modifying starch digestibility.
Food Chem., 129, 297–304.
22. Savin, R., Stone, P. J., Nicolas, M. E. and
Wardlaw, I. F. (1997). Grain growth and
malting quality of barley. 1. Effects of heat
stress and moderately high temperature.
Austf Agric Res. 48: 615-624.
23. Skendi, A., Biliaderis, C. G., Lazaridou, A.,
Izydorczyk, M. S. (2003). Structure and
rheological properties of water soluble β -
glucans from oat cultivars of Avena sativa
and Avena bysantina. J Cereal Sci., 38:15–
31.
24. Vasanthan, T. and Temelli, F. (2008). Food
Research International, 41: 876–881.
25. Vinod Kumar. 2013.
http://agropedia.iitk.ac.in/content/oats-
varieties-india.
26. Webster FH. 1996. Oats. In: cereal grain
quality. London, United Kingdom: Springer.
p 179–203.
27. Wikstrom K, Lindahl L, Andersson R,
Westerlund E. (1994). Rheological studies
of water-soluble (1→3) (1→4)-β-D-glucans
from milling fractions of oat. J Food Sci.,
59:1077–1080.
28. Wood, P. J. (1986). Oat β-glucan: Structure,
location, and properties; Oats: Chemistry
and Technology, pp. 121-152.
29. Yao N, Jannink JL, Alavi S, White PJ. 2006.
Physical and sensory characteristics of
extruded products made from two oat lines
with different β-G concentrations. Cereal
Chem 83: 692–9.
30. Zhou, X., Jellen, E. N., and Murphy, J. P.
(1999). Progenitor germplasm of
domesticated hexaploid oat. Crop Science.
39: 1208–1214.
Influence of extraction conditions on intrinsic viscosities of water extracts of oat (Avena sativa), source of water soluble β-Glucan
8
S. No EC-I EC-II EC-III
C (g/l) ηr=(t/t0) ηred C (g/l) ηr=(t/t0) ηred C (g/l) ηr=(t/t0) ηred
1. 8.240 4.74 0.454 8.020 5.96 0.618 9.14 3.79 0.305
2. 4.120 2.02 0.248 4.010 2.13 0.282 4.57 1.88 0.193
3. 2.060 1.37 0.180 2.050 1.46 0.224 2.285 1.33 0.144
4. 1.030 1.21 0.204 1.025 1.13 0.127 1.143 1.12 0.105
Table -1: Values of C, ηr and ηred obtained for sample PO under EC-I, II and III
S. No. EC-I EC-II EC-III
C (g/l) ηr=(t/t0) ηred C (g/l) ηr=(t/t0) ηred C (g/l) ηr=(t/t0) ηred
1. 6.621 1.19 0.029 6.960 2.42 0.204 10.000 1.56 0.056
2. 3.311 1.12 0.036 3.480 1.58 0.167 5.000 1.23 0.046
3. 1.656 1.05 0.030 1.740 1.26 0.149 2.500 1.09 0.036
4. 0.828 1.02 0.024 0.970 1.12 0.124 1.250 1.05 0.04
Table -2: Values of C, ηr and ηred obtained for sample IO under EC-I, II and III
S. No. Parameters PO IO
1. Extraction Condition EC-I EC-II EC-III EC-I EC-II EC-
III
2.
Quantity taken (g) / volume of
water 2.5 in
50 mL
2.5 in
50 mL
2.5 in
50 mL
2.5 in
50 mL
2.5 in
50 mL
2.5
in
50
mL 3. C : Mass extracted in water (g) 0.412 0.401 0.457 0.331 0.348 0.50
4. Intrinsic viscosity
( , in ml/g) 0.08 0.09 0.07 0.02 0.11 0.032
Table-3: Intrinsic viscosities determined from the plots
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Vol. 2(1), January-June, 2018
REVIEW ARTICLE
*Corresponding author's email:[email protected]
Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement
K. Baghyalakshmi
1* and S. Ramchander
2
1& 2 Division of Crop Improvement, Indian Council of Agricultural Research-Central Tobacco
Research Institute, Rajahmundry, A.P.
ABSTRACT The demand for Agricultural products has increased tremendously from the past few decades. The agricultural scientists are
working with the available diversity to increase the production and productivity of the food crops. Now the diversity is being
saturated with the species. So the scientists has to work with tools with which they can create new diversity in the gene pool or
can edit the gene of interest to make it possible to be used in the breeding process. One such tool is genome editing tool which is
getting popular today. There are two methods of gene targeting viz., chimeric RNA/DNA oligonucleotide – directed gene
targeting and homologous recombination dependent gene targeting. Through site-directed mutagenesis specific and intentional
changes to the DNA sequence of a gene and any gene products can be achieved. Desired DNA sequence modifications are
initiated or stimulated by a double stranded break (DSB) in the target DNA molecule. To create any insertion or deletion in the
Chromosome the most required phenomenon is double strand break in the DNA. After the DSB the gene of interest could be
edited using any of the advance tools based on the requirement. Here in this review it is focused on four different such tools
namely Meganucleases, Zinc Finger Nucleases, TALENS and CRISPR/Cas along with the principle behind each editing tool.
Key Words: Targeted genome, application crop improvement
Cite this article: Baghyalakshmi K and Ramchander S., 2018. Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement,
New Age International Journal Agricultural Research and Development,2(1) 09-18. Received: March 2018 Accepted: May 2018 Published: June 2018
INTRODUCTION The world population is continuously
increasing and it is the duty of the breeder to
meet the food requirement of the growing
population. To bring in improvement in any crop
there has to be a selection process. The selection
process is possible only when there is a variation
in the available source. We have almost reached
the yield plateau and the variation has
diminished for most of the traits. Mutation have
been driving advances in crop development for
thousands of years, while thinking of creating
variation in crop plants. Classical mutational
methods (radiation/chemical) have been safely
used for close to a century but introduce
multiple unknown mutations throughout the
plant. Thus traditional mutations are randomly
introduced into the plants. On the other hand
targeted mutations are knowledge based DNA
changes with minimal unintended side effects.
Hence editing technologies continues the history
of improving crop development through modern
targeted mutation. Gene targeting refers to the
alteration of a specific DNA sequence in an
endogenous gene at its original locus in the
genome. There are two methods of gene
targeting viz., chimeric RNA/DNA
oligonucleotide – directed gene
targeting and homologous recombination
dependent gene targeting (Hohn and puchta,
1999). The chimeric RNA/ DNA
oligonucleotide – directed gene targeting
generates site specific base changes, while the
homologous recombination dependent gene
targeting can lead to both base changes and gene
replacement events in a specific manner (figure
1).
Oligonucleotide directed targeted point
mutations Site-directed mutagenesis is a molecular
biology method that is used to make specific and
intentional changes to the DNA sequence of a
gene and any gene products. Also called site-
specific mutagenesis or oligonucleotide-directed
mutagenesis, it is used for investigating the
structure and biological activity of DNA, RNA,
and protein molecules, and for protein
engineering. The three approaches in site
directed mutagenesis are Kunkel’s method,
Cassette mutagenesis, PCR site-directed
mutagenesis, whole plasmid mutagenesis and in
vivo site directed mutagenesis.
Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement
Figure 1: homologous recombination –
dependent gene targeting and chimeric
RNA/DNA oligonucleotide –directed targeted
point mutations.
It has been 15 years now that the Cre/lox
system has been used as a way to artificially
control gene expression. If your radar hasn’t
picked it up yet, you’re missing out on a clever
way to move pieces of DNA around in a cell.
Over the years, this system has allowed
researchers to create a variety of genetically
modified animals and plants with the gene of
their choice being externally regulated. This has
contributed to our understanding of how
individual genes and proteins work.
How it works The system begins with the cre gene,
short for cyclization recombination, which
encodes a site-specific DNA recombinase
logically named Cre (Latchman, 2002). A site-
specific DNA recombinase means that the Cre
protein can recombine DNA when it locates
specific sites in a DNA molecule (Figure 2).
These sites are known as loxP (locus of X-over
P1) sequences, which are 34 base pairs long and
magnets for the Cre to recombine the DNA
surrounding them (Perkins, 2002).
Figure 2. A model of Cre Function. The loxP
sites recognized by Cre are represented with
thick arrows and their DNA sequence is shown
at the bottom.
When cells that have loxP sites in their
genome also express Cre, the protein springs
into action, catalyzing a reciprocal
recombination event between the loxP sites
(Figure 1). Here the double stranded DNA is cut
at both loxP sites by the Cre protein and then
ligated back together. As a result, the DNA in
between the loxP sites is excised and
subsequently degraded. It is a quick and efficient
process.
DSB Double Strand Break Desired DNA sequence modifications
are initiated or stimulated by a double stranded
break (DSB) in the target DNA molecule. To
create any insertion or deletion in the
Chromosome the most required phenomenon is
double strand break in the DNA. It occurs in two
different situations, one during cell division
which results in homologous recombination and
other throughout the life cycle. The resultant of
DSB during the life cycle leads in non
homologous end joining.
Figure 3. Double strand break and repairing
mechanism
Baghyalakshmi K and. Ramchander S., 2018
11
When there is a DSB, the DNA try to repair by
two mechanisms:– Homology Directed Repair
(HDR) and Non-Homologous End Joining
(NHEJ). The DSB created by the nuclease is
repaired by the host cell’s non-homologous end
joining (NHEJ) DNA repair pathway that often
results in small DNA insertions or deletions
(indels) at the break site. This is naturally
occurring phenomenon. Rarely horizontal gene
transfer happens through HDR, when they repair
through NHEJ – there will be error at certain
frequency and to repair by HDR, we supply our
gene of interest
Homologous Recombination-Dependent
Gene Targeting This was first reported by Oliver
Smithies in 1985 where a part of inserted DNA
segment has homology with targeted sequence
within the genome. The foreign gene must be
flanked by DNA sequence having homology to
the targeted site.
Homologous recombination-dependent
gene targeting in higher plants has a longer
history than chimeric RNA/DNA
oligonucleotide-directed gene targeting. Since
the first report of successful gene targeting of an
artificially truncated and integrated drug-
resistance gene in the tobacco genome
(Paszkowski et al., 1988), various approaches
for gene targeting based upon homologous
recombination in higher plants have revealed
that the integration of a transgene by somatic
homologous recombination occurs in the order
of 10-3
to 10-6
compared with random integration
by non-homologous end-joining (Hohn and
Puchta, 1999; Hohn and Puchta, 2003; Reiss,
2003; Iida and Terada, 2004). The
overwhelming occurrence of random integration
of transgenes by non-homologous end-joining
relative to targeted homologous recombination is
the main obstacle to the development of an
efficient system for homologous recombination-
dependent gene targeting. In addition to random
integration mediated by non homologous end-
joining, the occurrence of aberrant
recombination events associated with
homologous gene targeting, called one-sided
invasion and ectopic targeting, has also been
reported (Risseeuw et al., 1995; Puchta, 1998;
Hanin et al., 2001; Hohn and Puchta, 2003; Iida
and Terada, 2004). One-sided invasion results
from one homologous recombination event and
another non-homologous end-joining event at
the target locus, whereas ectopic targeting is
thought to be generated by ectopic integration
(integration elsewhere in the genome without
altering the target gene) of a recombinant
molecule produced by homologous
recombination between the introduced transgene
and a copy of the target sequence.
Plant Genome Editing Biotechnologies
The four steps necessary for modifying
a plant gene through genome engineering
include (i) designing and developing an
engineered nuclease construct, (ii) delivering the
construct and perhaps donor molecule into the
plant (typically by genetic transformation), (iii)
inducing nuclease expression, and (iv) screening
the plants for the desired DNA sequence change.
The critical step in site-directed genome
engineering is generating a DSB at a specific
chromosomal location. Three types of
engineered nucleases have been used to date for
this purpose: LAGLIDADG homing
endonucleases (LHEs), often termed
meganucleases, zinc finger nucleases (ZFNs)
and transcription activator-like effector
nucleases (TALENs). All three nucleases
operate by the same general principle, as they
are engineered proteins consisting of a DNA
binding domain (which accounts for site
specificity) and a endonuclease domain (which
functions as the DSB-causing enzyme). The
recent one is CRISPR/Cas which are explained
below.
1. Meganucleases are DNA cutters found
in single cell organisms
2. Zinc Finger Nucleases - here ZF
domains coupled to a nuclease to form
endonucleases
3. TALENS - Proteins linking to DNA
coupled to a nuclease to form
endonucleases
4. CRISPR/Cas - RNA-guided DNA
endonucleases
Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement
Meganuclease Naturally occurring endonucleases from
different organisms such as bacteria, fungi and
algae. They have a long DNA recognition site
with variable size differing between 12 and 30
bp. Naturally occurring meganucleases can be
modified by introducing changes to the amino
acids found in the recognition site of the protein
to adapt for restriction of a specifically chosen
sequence. Meganucleases are endodeoxyribonucleases characterized by a large
recognition site (double-stranded DNA
sequences of 12 to 40 base pairs); as a result this
site generally occurs only once in any given
genome. For example, the 18-base pair sequence
recognized by the I-SceI meganuclease would
on average require a genome twenty times the
size of the human genome to be found once by
chance (although sequences with a single
mismatch occur about three times per human-
sized genome). Meganucleases are therefore
considered to be the most specific naturally
occurring restriction enzymes.
Among meganucleases, the
LAGLIDADG family of homing endonucleases
has become a valuable tool for the study of
genomes and genome engineering over the past
fifteen years. Meganucleases are "molecular
DNA scissors" that can be used to replace,
eliminate or modify sequences in a highly
targeted way. By modifying their recognition
sequence through protein engineering, the
targeted sequence can be changed.
Meganucleases are used to modify all genome
types, whether bacterial, plant or animal. They
open up wide avenues for innovation,
particularly in the field of human health, for
example the elimination of viral genetic material
or the "repair" of damaged genes using gene
therapy.
Zinc Finger Nucleases (ZFNs): ZFNs are artificial restriction enzymes
composed of a fusion between an artificial
Cys2His2 zinc-finger protein DNA-binding
domain and the cleavage domain of the FokI
endonuclease (Figure 4). The DNA-binding
domain of ZFNs can be engineered to recognize
a variety of DNA sequences. The FokI
endonuclease domain functions as a dimer, and
digestion of the target DNA requires proper
alignment of two ZFN monomers at the target
site. Efficient and coordinated expression of
both monomers is thus required for the
production of DSBs in living cells. Zinc finger
domains can be engineered to target desired
DNA sequences and this enables zinc-finger
nucleases to target unique sequences within
complex genomes. By taking advantage of
endogenous DNA repair machinery; these
reagents can be used to precisely alter the
genomes of higher organisms.
Figure 4: Zinc Finger Nucleases
DNA cleavage domain: The non-specific cleavage domain from
the type IIs restriction endonuclease FokI is
typically used as the cleavage domain in ZFNs
This cleavage domain must dimerize in order to
cleave DNA and thus a pair of ZFNs are
required to target non-palindromic DNA sites.
Standard ZFNs fuse the cleavage domain to the
C-terminus of each zinc finger domain. In order
to allow the two cleavage domains to dimerize
and cleave DNA, the two individual ZFNs must
bind opposite strands of DNA with their C-
termini a certain distance apart. The most
commonly used linker sequences between the
zinc finger domain and the cleavage domain
requires the 5' edge of each binding site to be
separated by 5 to 7 bp.
DNA binding domain: The DNA-binding domains of
individual ZFNs typically contain between three
and six individual zinc finger repeats and can
each recognize between 9 and 18 bp (Figure 5).
If the zinc finger domains are perfectly specific
for their intended target site then even a pair of
3-finger ZFNs that recognize a total of 18 bp can
target a single locus.
Baghyalakshmi K and. Ramchander S., 2018
13
Figure 5: DNA binding domain
FokI nuclease:
Fok I: Flavobacterium okeanokoites
GGATGNNNNNNNNN^NNNN Its molecular mass is 65.4 kDa and it is
composed of 587 amino acids with C-terminal
cleavage domain and N-terminal DNA binding
domain.
DNA recognition domain: 5'-GGATG-
3':3'-CATCC-5'
Cleavage specificity: In the 1st strand,
the cleavage is 9 nucleotides downstream and in
the 2nd
, 13 nucleotides upstream of the nearest
nucleotide of the recognition site.
Mechanism of action of ZFNs: During S and G2
of the cell cycle, homology-directed repair is
common because the two sister chromatids are
in close proximity, providing a nearby homology
donor. Homology-directed repair includes
homologous recombination (HR) and single-
strand annealing (SSA). At any time in the cell
cycle, double-strand breaks can be repaired by
non homologous DNA end joining (NHEJ).
ZFN design and selection methods: Various strategies have been developed
to engineer Cys2His2 zinc fingers to bind desired
sequences. Several different protein engineering
techniques have been employed to improve both
the activity and specificity of the nuclease
domain used in ZFNs. These include both
"modular assembly" and selection strategies that
employ either phage display or cellular selection
systems. The most straightforward method to
generate new zinc-finger arrays is to combine
smaller zinc-finger "modules" of known
specificity. The most common modular
assembly process involves combining three
separate zinc fingers that can each recognize a 3
bp DNA sequence to generate a 3-finger array
that can recognize a 9 bp target site. Other
procedures can utilize either 1-finger or 2-finger
modules to generate zinc-finger arrays with six
or more individual zinc fingers. The main
drawback with this procedure is the specificities
of individual zinc fingers can overlap and can
depend on the context of the surrounding zinc
fingers and DNA. Without methods to account
for this "context dependence", the standard
modular assembly procedure often fails unless it
is used to recognize sequences of the form
(GNN)N.
Numerous selection methods have been
used to generate zinc-finger arrays capable of
targeting desired sequences. Initial selection efforts utilized phage display to select proteins
that bound a given DNA target from a large pool
of partially randomized zinc-finger arrays. More
recent efforts have utilized yeast one-hybrid
systems, bacterial one-hybrid and two-hybrid
systems, and mammalian cells. A promising new
method to select novel zinc-finger arrays utilizes
a bacterial two-hybrid system and has been
dubbed "OPEN" by its creators. This system
combines pre-selected pools of individual zinc
fingers that were each selected to bind a given
triplet and then utilizes a second round of
selection to obtain 3-finger arrays capable of
binding a desired 9-bp sequence. This system
was developed by the Zinc-Finger Consortium
as an alternative to commercial sources of
engineered zinc-finger arrays.
Transcription activator like effector
nucleases (TALEN): Transcription activator like effector
nucleases are a combination of the catalytic
domain of an endonuclease most frequently FokI
fused with the DNA binding domain derived
from transcription activator like effectors from
Xanthomonas species. TALENs consist of
multiple repeats of a 33–35 amino acids long
sequence containing a so-called repeat variable
diresidue (RVD) which are the amino acids nos.
12 and 13. Each repeat binds to a certain single
base pair. TALENs are commonly used as a pair
to introduce double strand breaks (DSBs) to the
DNA, as FokI only introduces DSBs as a dimer.
Transcription activator-like effector nuclease
(TALEN) systems are a fusion of TALEs
derived from Xanthomonas spp. to a
Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement
endonuclease FokI. By modifying the amino
acid repeats in the TALEs, one can customize
TALEN systems to specifically bind target DNA
and induce cleavage by the nuclease between the
two distinct TAL array binding sites (Figure 6).
A variety of plasmid are available which allow
creation of custom repeat arrays for easy
TALEN preparation. The different TALEN tool
kits use various cloning techniques and
protocols to enable custom TALEN design and
preparation.
Figure 6. TALENS model and cutting of DNA
CRISPR/Cas9 (CRISPR associated (Cas)
system) Genome editing is enabled by the
development of tools to make precise, targeted
changes to the genome of living cells. Recently,
a new tool based on a bacterial CRISPR-
associated protein-9 (Cas9) nuclease from
Streptococcus pyogenes has generated
considerable excitement. This follows several
attempts over the years to manipulate gene
function, including homologous recombination
and RNA interference. RNAi, in particular,
became a laboratory staple, enabling
inexpensive and high-throughput interrogation
of gene function. However, the technique has
been hampered by providing only temporary
inhibition of gene function and unpredictable
off-target effects.
The simplicity of the CRISPR nuclease
system, with only three components (Cas9,
crRNA and tracrRNA) makes this system
amenable to adaptation for genome editing. By
combining the crRNA and tracrRNA into a
single synthetic guide RNA (sgRNA), a further
simplified two-component system can be used to
introduce a targeted double-stranded break. This
break activates repair through error prone Non-
Homologous End Joining (NHEJ) or Homology
Directed Repair (HDR). In the presence of a
donor template with homology to the targeted
locus, the HDR pathway operates, allowing for
precise mutations to be made. In the absence of
a template, NHEJ is activated, resulting in
insertions and/or deletions (indels), which
disrupt the target locus.
CRISPR/Cas9 (CRISPR associated
(Cas) system): Clustered regularly interspaced
short palindromic repeats allow bacteria an
adaptive immunity against viruses and plasmids
by using CRISPR RNAs (crRNA) and trans
activating crRNA (tracrRNA) to guide the
silencing of invading nucleic acids. Three types
of CRISPR/Cas system exist. Type II in which
Cas9 is guided by a crRNA–tracrRNA target
identification to cut DNA at the identified
region, is used in an altered form for genome
engineering in a couple of organism (Figure 7).
Figure 7: CRISPR/Cas9 in vivo. Source:
crispr.mit.edu
Baghyalakshmi K and. Ramchander S., 2018
15
Applications in plant genome editing: 1. Allele editing: ZFNs are also used to
rewrite the sequence of an allele by
invoking the homologous recombination
(HR) machinery to repair the DSB using
the supplied DNA fragment as a template.
The HR machinery searches for homology
between the damaged chromosome and
the extra-chromosomal fragment and
copies the sequence of the fragment
between the two broken ends of the
chromosome, regardless of whether the
fragment contains the original sequence. If
the subject is homozygous for the target
allele, the efficiency of the technique is
reduced since the undamaged copy of the
allele may be used as a template for repair
instead of the supplied fragment.
2. Disabling an allele: ZFNs are used to
disable dominant mutations in
heterozygous individuals by producing
DSBs in the DNA of the mutant allele,
which can be repaired by NHEJ. NHEJ
repairs DSBs by joining the two ends
together and usually produces no
mutations, provided that the cut is clean
and uncomplicated. In some instances,
however, the repair will be imperfect,
resulting in deletion or insertion of base-
pairs, producing frame shift and
preventing the production of the harmful
protein.
3. Targeted gene addition in plants:
Targetted gene addition in plants using
ZFNs have been recently reported in
Arabidopsis thaliana and Zea mays. In
Arabidopsis thaliana, using ZFN-assisted
gene targeting, two herbicide-resistant
genes (tobacco acetolactate synthase
SuRA and SuRB) were introduced to SuR
loci with as high as 2% transformed cells
with mutations. In Zea mays, disruption of
the target locus was achieved by ZFN-
induced DSBs and the resulting NHEJ.
ZFN was also used to drive herbicide-
tolerance (PAT) gene expression cassette
into the targeted endogenous locus IPK1
in this case. Such genome modification
observed in the regenerated plants has
been shown to be inheritable and was
transmitted to the next generation.
4. To date, ZFN, TALEN, and CRISPR
editing tools have not been applied to the
genetic modification of fruit crops. Most
transgenic fruit crop plants have been
developed using Agrobacterium-mediated
transformation, and among those that have
been developed, only papaya has been
commercialized. Existing EU regulation
on GM organisms may consider the plants
produced by ZFNs, TALENs, and
CRISPRs as non-GM, depending on the
interpretation of the EU commission and
member state regulators (Pollock and
Hails, 2014). The public awareness of the
absence of foreign gene introduction
perceived by the consumer, along with the
effort to explain the advantages of using
these new friendly genetic editing tools by
central authorities, might reverse the
actual dichotomy (Kanchiswamy et
al.,2015).
Future improvements in crop traits It is expected that CRISPR/Cas9 will
play a large role in future efforts to improve crop
traits and engineer plants for synthetic biology
purposes. Invariably many of these traits will be
directed toward improvements in biotic and
abiotic stress tolerance, crop yield, shelf life,
color, and nutritional content. But how will
CRISPR/Cas9 impact the process of crop
improvement? We anticipate that the
CRISPR/Cas9 will positively alter multiple
aspects of the engineering process. Such changes
will include reducing the time required to
introduce new traits, provide an alternative
method to produce cisgenic modifications, allow
genetic editing in crops wherein tissue culture or
transformation procedures are not available,
permit the targeted introduction or deletion of
large genomic regions, allow for alterations in
ploidy level, and enable a breeder specified
control of gene/metabolite production. These
changes in crop improvement will be facilitated
through a number of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated
technologies including gene knock-in, viral
delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 machinery,
improvements in genomic resources, multiplexing, chromosome alterations (induction
of haploidy, large fragment insertions/deletions),
Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement
and the development of tools for breeding.
(Scott and Nakata, 2015)
REFERENCES 1. Fauser, F., Schiml, S., Puchta, H. 2014.
Both CRISPR/Cas-based nucleases and
nickases can be used efficiently for
genome engineering in Arabidopsis
thaliana, Plant J. 79. 348–359.
2. Feng, Z. et al., 2013. Efficient genome
editing in plants using a CRISPR/Cas
system, Cell Res. 23, 1229–1232.
3. Hanin, M., Volrath, S., Bogucki, A.,
Briker, M., Ward, E. and Paszkowski, J.
2001. Gene targeting in Arabidopsis.
Plant J. 28: 671–677.
4. Hohn, B. and Puchta, H. 1999. Gene
therapy in plants. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
USA 96: 8321–8323.
5. Hohn, B. and Puchta, H. 2003. Some
like it sticky: targeting of the rice gene
Waxy. Trends Plant Sci. 8: 51–53.
6. Iida, S. and Terada, R. 2004. A tale of
two integrations, transgene and T-DNA:
gene targeting by homologous
recombination in rice. Curr. Opin.
Biotechnol. 15: 132–138.
7. Jacobs, T.B., LaFayette, P.R., Schmitz,
R.J. and Parrott, W.A. 2015. Targeted
genome modifications in soybean with
CRISPR/Cas9, BMC Biotechnol. 15 -
16.
8. Kanchiswamy C. N., Daniel James
Sargent, Riccardo Velasco, Massimo E.
Maffei, and Mickael Malnoy. 2015.
Looking forward to genetically edited
fruit crops Trends in Biotechnology,
Vol. 33, No. 2
9. Latchman DS. 2002. Gene Regulation:
A Eukaryotic Perspective. Cheltenham:
Nelson Thornes. 323p.
10. Li, T. et al., 2012. High-efficiency
TALEN-based gene editing produces
disease-resistant rice, Nat. Biotechnol.
30: 390–392.
11. Mansour, S.L., Thomas, K.R. and
Capecchi, M.R. 1988. Disruption of the
proto-oncogene int-2 in mouse
embryoderived stem cells: a general
strategy for targeting mutations to non-
selectable genes. Nature 336: 348–352.
12. Nekrasov, V., Staskawicz, B., Weigel,
D., Jones, J.D.G. and S. Kamoun. 2013.
Targeted mutagenesis in the model plant
Nicotiana benthamiana using Cas9
RNA-guided endonuclease, Nat.
Biotechnol. 31; 691–693.
13. Paszkowski, J., Baur, M., Bogucki, A.
and Potrykus I. 1988. Gene targeting in
plants. EMBO J. 7: 4021–4026.
14. Perkins AS. 2002. Functional Genomics
in the Mouse. Functional & Integrative
Genomics 2(3): 81-91.
15. Piatek, A., et al., 2015. RNA-guided
transcriptional regulation in planta via
synthetic dCas9-based transcription
factors, Plant Biotechnol. J. 13 578–589.
16. Pollock, C.J., Hails R.S. 2014. The
case for reforming the EU regulatory
system for GMOs Trends Biotechnol.,
32 .pp. 63–64
17. Puchta, H. 1998. Repair of genomic
double-strand breaks in somatic plant
cells by one-sided invasion of
homologous sequences. Plant J. 13:
331–339.
18. Risseeuw, E., Franke-van Dijk, M.E.
and Hooykaas, P.J. 1997. Gene targeting
and instability of Agrobacterium T-
DNA loci in the plant genome. Plant J.
11: 717–728.
19. Schiml, S., Fauser F., Puchta, H. 2014.
The CRISPR/Cas system can be used as
nuclease for in planta gene targeting and
as paired nickases for directed
mutagenesis in Arabidopsis resulting in
heritable progeny, Plant J. 80. 1139–
1150.
20. Scott M. S., Nakata, P A. 2015.
CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing
and gene replacement in plants:
Transitioning from lab to field Plant
Science 240; 130–142.
21. Scott M. Schaeffer, P. A. Nakata. 2015.
CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing
and gene replacement in plants:
Transitioning from lab to field. Plant
Science., 240; 130–142.
22. Shan Q., et al., 2013Targeted genome
modification of crop plants using a
CRISPR-Cas system, Nat. Biotechnol.
31: 686–688.
Baghyalakshmi K and. Ramchander S., 2018
17
23. Xie, K., and Y. Yang. 2013. RNA-
guided genome editing in plants using a
CRISPR–Cas system, Mol. Plant 6,
1975–1983.
24. Zhou, H., Liu, B., Weeks, D.P.,
Spalding, M.H. and B. Yang. 2014.
Large chromosomal deletions and
heritable small genetic changes induced
by CRISPR/Cas9 in rice, Nucleic Acids
Res.,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/nar/gku806.
Targeted genome editing and its application in crop improvement
Phenomenon Species Year Reference Current/potential use in crop
improvement or functional studies
Insertion/deletion
Simple indel
Arabidopsis thaliana 2013 Li, et al, Feng, et al.,
Altering gene reading frame
Generate mutant populations for
phenotypic screening
Nicotiana benthamiana 2013 Nekrasov et al, Li, et
al
Oryza sativa 2013 Xie et al., Shan et al.,
Feng, et al
Triticum aestivum 2013 Shan et al.,
Double nickase Arabidopsis thaliana 2014 Fauser et al., Reduced off-target editing
Target specific allele(s)
Nuclease fusion Arabidopsis thaliana 2014 Fauser Reduced off-target editing
Target specific allele(s)
Multiplexing Arabidopsis thaliana 2013 Li, et al., Mao et al Editing of multiple genes
Removal of large genomic fragments Nicotiana benthamiana 2013 Li, et al
Large fragment
deletion Oryza sativa 2014 Zhou et al
Removal of multiple genes
Resolving gene(s) associated with QTL
Transcriptional regulation
Activation Nicotiana benthamiana 2015 Piatek et al Generate activation pools for
phenotypic screening
Repression Nicotiana benthamiana 2015 Piatek et al
Alternative to RNA silencing, VIGs,
and RNAi
Generate repression pools for
phenotypic screening
Gene insertion/replacement
Gene knock-in Arabidopsis thaliana 2014 Schiml et al Cisgenesis
Insertion of large genomic loci
Table 1. Current and future CRISPR/Cas9 technologies in plant systems.
(Source : Scott M. Schaeffer, Paul A. Nakata, 2015)
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Vol. 2(1), January-June, 2018
Review Article
*Corresponding author's email: [email protected] 21
Family Farming: Status and Strategies
Hema Baliwada
ICAR-Central Tobacco Research Institute, Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh
ABSTRACT Family Farming is a means of organizing agricultural, forestry, fisheries, pastoral and aquaculture production which is managed
and operated by a family and predominantly reliant on non-wage family labor, including both women’s and men’s (FAO 2014).
Both in developing and developed countries, family farming is the predominant form of agriculture in the food production sector.
The world’s 500 million smallholder family farms produce four-fifths of the food in developing countries (UN 2014). The
women and men engaged in family farming produce 70% of world’s food, and generate food and income for hundreds of
millions of rural people, both within the family farms and in related enterprises. Family farming has diverse dimensions in terms
of food production, income generation, equity, entrepreneurship and environment and is the predominant form of agriculture in
the food sector. Family farms provide for preservation and sustainable use of natural resources, that distinguishes them from large
scale specialized farming. The diverse agricultural activities of family farms promote environmental sustainability, conserve
biodiversity and contribute to healthier and balanced diets. Realizing the important contributions that family farming is making
towards food security and eradicating poverty, the year 2014 has been declared as the ‘International Year of Family Farming’
(IYFF) at the 66th Session of the United Nations General Assembly.
Key words; Family Farming, Status, Strategies, cropping System
Cite this article: Baliwada H., 2018. Family Farming: Status and Strategies, New Age International Journal of Agricultural
Research and Development,2(1) 21-32.
Received: March 2018 Accepted: May 2018 Published: June 2018
INTRODUCTION
Family Farming (also Family
Agriculture) is a means of organizing
agricultural, forestry, fisheries, pastoral and
aquaculture production which is managed and
operated by a family and predominantly reliant
on non-wage family labor, including both
women’s and men’s (FAO, 2014). The family
and the farm are linked, co-evolve and combine
economic, environmental, reproductive, social
and cultural functions. Family Farming
considers men and women farmers, artisan
fishers (The livelihoods of some 357 million
people depend directly on small-scale fisheries,
which employ over 90% of capture fishers of the
world), pastoralists (Extensive livestock
production systems cover about 25% of the
Earth's terrestrial surface, produce about 10% of
meat used for human consumption and support
20 million households), gatherers and landless
peasants, as well as indigenous people.
Family farming is often more than a
professional occupation, as it reflects a lifestyle
based on beliefs and traditions about living and
work. It ensures food security even while
meeting rising societal expectations for food
safety, quality, value, origin and diversity of
food. It also maintains rural lifestyle and
contributes to socio-economic and
environmental sustainability of the rural areas.
The objective of this paper is to get through
understanding of the status of the family farming
and discussing the roles to be played for
capacity development at various levels and the
task of extension as a catalytic role in linking the
family farmers to outside world to acquire skills,
augment their income and undertake more
productive activities.
Need of family farming:
The earth has many mouths to feed. And
every minute, a hundred and sixty more are
added. To satisfy increased demand, global food
production will have to increase by more than 50
per cent by 2050. Despite the very real progress
since the year 2000, there are still over 1 billion
people living in extreme poverty, many of whom
live in rural areas, as well as more than 800
million people in the world that are still
Family Farming: Status and Strategies
undernourished. The world’s 500 million
smallholder family farms produce four-fifths of
the food in developing countries. They are also
the custodians of much of the world’s agro-
biodiversity. Yet today, these small-scale
producers belong to the "forgotten world”.
Family farming in India:
The contribution of small farmers to
total farm output in India exceeds 50%, while
they cultivate 44% of land. Small farmers are the
ones who have lesser capital but higher use of
labour and other family-owned inputs, and
usually have a higher index of cropping intensity
and diversification. Family farms grow a wide
variety of cultivars, many of which are
landraces. These landraces are genetically more
heterogeneous than modern varieties, and thus
would offer greater resilience against
vulnerability and enhance harvest security in the
midst of diseases, pests, droughts and other
stresses. The diversity in farming, crops and
livestock, often results in higher productivity
than the large farms practising usually
monoculture.
Growing food demand in India:
The demand for food and processed
commodities is increasing due to growing
population and rising per capita income. There
are projections that demand for food grains
would increase from 192 million tonnes in 2000
to 345 million tonnes in 2030. Hence in the next
20 years, production of food grains needs to be
increased at the rate of 5.5 million tonnes
annually (Vision 2030 of ICAR). Our agriculture
is dominated by small farmers, having small
landholdings for cultivation. The average size of
the landholding declined to 1.32 ha in 2000-01
from 2.30 ha in 1970-71, and absolute number
of operational holdings increased from about 70
million to 121 million. If this trend continues,
the average size of holding in India would be
mere 0.68 ha in 2020, and would be further
reduced to a low of 0.32 ha in 2030. This is a
very complex and serious problem, average size
of landholding is contracting when share of
agriculture in gross domestic product is
declining, and number of operational holdings is
increasing.
Importance of Family Farming:
Shift in focus:
Farmer first of ICAR to Family farming
first of FAO
Family Farms: Farm, Feed & Flourish
by ICAR
Zero hunger vision of Indian
Government
Family Farming, a reality present on all
continents and on a massive scale in
developing countries is currently subject
to great challenges and serious
uncertainties.
And yet, although in many places family
farmers –men and women– have been
forgotten and are neglected by policy
makers, they continue to be the basis of
sustainable food production in the
world's effort toward food security and
sovereignty, they play a key role in the
management of rural and marine
environments and their biodiversity
They are the source of significant
cultural heritage of the local people in
each country, and, in short, they are a
fundamental pillar of the comprehensive
development of nations.
1. Guarantee of food supply
70% of the world food production is
provided by family farmers
Key to fight Hunger and Malnutrition.
Small farms are often more productive
and sustainable per unit of land and
energy consumed.
Baliwada, H., 2018
23
2. Generates welfare
A total of 40% of world households
depend on family farming
Out of the 3,000 million rural people in
developing countries, 2,500 belong to
families engaged in Family Farming.
Also contributes to stabilize the
population in rural areas, to preserve
historical and cultural values, to
generate income and consumption.
3. Poverty alleviation
At least twice more effective than other
production sectors in the prevention of poverty
GDP growth originated in agriculture is
at least twice more effective in reducing
poverty than GDP growth generated in
other sectors.
Agricultural and rural growth also
benefits the poor in urban areas, due to
the abundance and proximity of food.
4. Biodiversity protection
Great potential for the conservation of
local varieties
Throughout history, we have used about
7,000 plants to meet basic needs.
Nowadays there are over 150 species
grown commercially, of which 30
constitute 90% of the calories in the
human diet and only four (rice, wheat,
corn, potato) account for more than half
of the caloric contribution.
Family Farming, besides being a source
of genetic agro-diversity, can ensure
their preservation through the use of
native seed varieties and native livestock
breeds well adapted to various
environments.
5. Women as farmers
Women make nearly half of agricultural
labor in developing countries
In most cases, the woman cooks and
puts food on the table, sells farm
products and deals with the health of the
family. She is the first educator of their
children, to whom gives birth.
Women contribute a significant
proportion of agricultural labor force in
developing countries. FAO estimates
this figure at 43%, while UNIFEM
estimates between 60-80%.
The International Year of Family
Farming IYFF-2014:
Timeline:
2008: A global food crisis drew renewed
attention to food security issues.
2008: An initiative was launched by the World
Rural Forum in collaboration with more than
350 civil society and farmers’ organizations to
declare an International Year of Family Farming
(IYFF).
2010: IFAD’s President formally supported the
call for the IYFF.
2011: The Government of the Philippines, at the
37th Session of the FAO Conference, proposed
that the United Nations declare 2014 as the
IYFF.
2011: At the 66th session of the General
Assembly of the United Nations, 2014 was
formally declared the International Year of
Family Farming.
2013: Establishment of the International
Steering Committee for the IYFF 2014, approval
of the Master Plan and organization of five
Regional Dialogues Events by FAO.
International Year of Family Farming
The United Nations declared 2014 the
International Year of Family Farming (IYFF) to
recognize the importance of family farming in
reducing poverty and improving global food
security.
The IYFF aims to promote new
development policies, particularly at the national
but also regional levels, that will help
smallholder and family farmers eradicate
hunger, reduce rural poverty and continue to
Family Farming: Status and Strategies
play a major role in global food security through
small-scale, sustainable agricultural production.
The IYFF provides a unique opportunity to pave
the way towards more inclusive and sustainable
approaches to agricultural and rural development
that:
Recognize the importance of
smallholder and family farmers for
sustainable development
Place small-scale farming at the
centre of national, regional and
global agricultural, environmental
and social policies
Elevate the role of smallholder
farmers as agents for alleviating
rural poverty and ensuring food
security for all; as stewards who
manage and protect natural
resources; and as drivers of
sustainable development.
The IYFF has four key objectives:
Ending hunger and poverty is within our reach,
but only if we place family and smallholder
farmers at the centre of rural development
efforts.
Support the development of policies that
will foster sustainable family farming;
Increase knowledge and public
awareness on the vital role that family
farmers play in the agricultural and
development sectors
Raise awareness of the needs and
potential of family farmers, along with
the constraints that they face, and ensure
that they have access to technical
support
Create synergies for sustainability
Other objectives:
Recognize the role and rights of women
in family farming
Strengthen the legitimacy of farmers’
organizations and their capacity to
effectively represent and defend the
interests of family farmers
Create rural economic opportunities for
family farmers that provide alternatives
to migration to urban areas
Promote local and indigenous
knowledge and know-how
Encourage research that improves food
security and supports sustainable rural
development, safeguards cultural
heritage, protects the environment and
maintains biodiversity
Promote dialogue on policy and decision
making processes
Identify and share lessons learned and
successful pro-family farming policies,
and capitalize relevant knowledge on
family farming
Enhance communication, advocacy and
outreach.
IFAD initiatives for family farming:
1. Creation of National Committees:
The national level is where governments
and organizations of smallholder and family
farmers can most effectively reach agreements
on measures to improve the conditions offamily
farming. Smallholder and family farming are
central to IFAD’s mission of reducing poverty
and hunger in the rural areas of the developing
world.
IFAD-supported programmes help poor
rural people improve their food and nutrition
security, increase their incomes and strengthen
their resilience. IFAD is unique in being an
international financial institution and a United
Nations agency, and is exclusively focused on
agricultural and rural development in developing
countries.
More than 60 National Committees in
the five continents have promoted the
establishment of National Committees to
organise IYFF-2014 in each country so that
more than 60 platforms of this type have been
Baliwada, H., 2018
25
set up to promote Family Farming in their
respective countries.
These 60 National Committees, focal
points for awareness-building in favour of
family farming, bring together under the
leadership of farming organisations, producers’
associations, NGOs, research centres and other
entities with the objective of planning goals and
activities for the Year in each country. Many of
these committees have incorporated
governments and international organisations
with a view to establishing a dialogue leading to
improved public policies affecting men and
women family farmers.
2. Increase Investment:
Investing in family farming is investing
in a sustainable, food secure future. The IYFF
presents a window of opportunity for
policymakers to act responsibly to both present
and future generations in a way that will reduce
poverty and eradicate hunger in their respective
countries.
3. Changes at policy level:
Encourage policy changes that will
make family farming a more secure, profitable
and attractive livelihood, including for rural
women and youth. Support programmes that
enable smallholder and family farmers to invest
in their businesses, link to markets and
overcome poverty and vulnerability; Promote
incentives to family farmers to manage their
land, water, biodiversity and other natural
resources in a more sustainable way.
4. Mobilization:
Underlying this were the huge efforts
coordinated by the World Rural Forum and
supported by more than 360 organisations
worldwide: farmers’ federations, NGOs,
research centres, institutions etc. In over three
years’ campaigning which attracted increasing
support the declaration was finally unanimously
adopted by the UN General Assembly -in itself a
well-deserved recognition of the silent toil of so
many men and women family farmers, peasants,
indigenous communities, artisanal fishers and
pastoralists, whose work and potential has been
so often forgotten and underestimated.
5. FAO publications: Innovation in family
farming
The State of Food and Agriculture 2014:
Analyses family farms and the role of
innovation.
For sustainable intensification and
improvements in rural livelihoods.
Enabled to innovation can:
• Increase production
• Preserve natural resources
• Raise rural incomes.
• Need of an innovation system
that meets the needs of family
farms.
Innovation systems for family farming:
• One fundamental driver for all
innovators – including family
farmers – is access to markets
that reward their enterprise.
• Farmers with access to markets,
including local markets, for
their produce – whether it be
food staples or cash crops –
have a strong incentive to
innovate
• Technologies help farmers to
enter the market by allowing
them to produce marketable
surpluses.
• Innovation and markets depend
on, and reinforce, each other.
Case studies on family farming:
1. Bara et al., 2009. Any future needs
family farming
Family farming, commonly considered
old-fashioned, resistant to change and unable to
respond effectively to market opportunities, is
gaining recognition as a viable model for the
future of agriculture. Governments and donors
need to recognize the potential of family farming
and support its development.
Family Farming: Status and Strategies
2. Toulmin et al., 2005. Is There a
Future for Family Farming in West
Africa
Family farms in West Africa face a
challenging future as local markets and food
systems become increasingly globalised. The
diversity of farming households and their
differential ability to respond to market
opportunities, invest in productive assets and
meet their needs has led some observers to
predict the end of the family farm.
3. Family Farming in India: Economic
Program Reform to Eliminate
Poverty by Wilson
The family farm exists as one of the
most important factors in food production in
India. Whole families run the farms and, because
of the rural location, are less educated than their
urban countrymen. The improvement of
economic programs would vastly improve the
life of the subsistence farmer. Through the
establishment of central markets and increased
availability and affordability of new technology,
the farmer would be given a boost in self-
sufficiency, rather than merely catered to.
4. Swaminathan. 2014. Strengthening
family farming in India. Financial
Chronicle
In the area of empowerment of family
farmers, equal attention should be paid to the
women and men in the farm family. Women
play a critical role in all aspects of agriculture,
but invariably their intellectual role and
managerial skills remain unrecognized. The
IYFF affords a unique opportunity to engender
all agricultural policies and programmes.
To provide a new deal to family
farmers, we need to attend to the following four
areas of importance to sustainable food security
and elimination of hunger. i.e., Conservation,
Cultivation, Consumption and Commerce.
5. Putting family farmers first to
eradicate hunger, FAO report 2014:
FAO report urges enabling the world’s half
billion family farmers to be agents of change
Family farms are also the custodians of
about 75 per cent of all agricultural
resources in the world, and are therefore
key to improve ecological and resource
sustainability.
They are also among the most
vulnerable to the effects of resource
depletion and climate change.
While evidence shows impressive yields
on land managed by family farmers,
many smaller farms are unable to
produce enough to provide decent
livelihoods for the families.
Effective and inclusive producer
organizations can support innovation by
members, helping them gain access to
markets, and facilitating linkages with
others in the innovation system, besides
ensuring that family farms have a voice
in policy making, the report
emphasizes.
To encourage family farmers to invest in
sustainable agricultural practices, which
often have high start-up costs and long
pay-off periods, authorities should seek
to provide an enabling environment for
innovation.
Policies meant to catalyze innovation
will need to go beyond technology
transfer, according to SOFA (State of
Food and Agriculture).
They must also be inclusive and tailored
to local contexts, so that farmers have
ownership of innovation, and take
gender and intergenerational issues into
consideration, involving youth in the
future of the agricultural sector.
Baliwada, H., 2018
27
Challenges that family farmers face:
Smallholder and family farmers are faced with
numerous challenges:
Climate change and climate variability
Lack of tenure security in a context of
increasing competition for land and
water (population growth, urbanization)
and inadequate governance of land
tenure
Limited access to financial resources,
inputs, technology, training, research
and advisory services, and education
Price volatility (energy, food, etc.) and
limited access to markets.
Five key demands to be transmitted to
decision makers:
1. Each nation should have the right to develop
its own food production as the basis for Food
Security on the way to achieving Food
Sovereignty, taking into account climate change
as one of the serious threats to Family Farming.
2. Governments must assume as an urgent
priority the implementation of the Voluntary
Guidelines on the Responsible Governance of
Tenure of Land, Fisheries and Forests which
they themselves approved within the Committee
on Food Security –CFS.
3. In order to promote Family Farming, nations
the majority of whose population is active in
agriculture must proceed with the transparent
and adequate allocation of financial resources to
national agriculture budgets. The same criteria
should apply to development aid and public
investments on the basis of the meaningful
participation of family farmers' organisations as
well as other Civil Society entities.
4. Institute the equality of rights between men
and women family farmers. Women who live
and work in rural areas are frequently
discriminated against in terms of equitable
access to productive resources such as land,
water, credit and extension services.
5. Policies in favour of the insertion of youth in
agriculture must be approved, taking into
account that only genuine public support to
Family Farming will make this profession
attractive to them.
Technological empowerment for family
farming:
National Policy for Farmers (2007) of the
Government of India:
One of the intents of the policy is to
improve economic viability of farming
by substantially increasing the net
income of farmers and to ensure that
agricultural progress is measured by
advances made in their income.
Increase in productivity and area
(number in case of livestock) are the two
sources of growth in domestic
production to meet future demands.
As there is little scope for horizontal
expansion of area under cultivation,
vertical expansion is possible through
increased cropping intensity.
This can be achieved by developing
crop varieties that are of short duration,
can be grown under moisture stress, and
are tolerant to climatic conditions of
lean period during which agricultural
land remains fallow. In this context, it is
important to develop technologies that
can enhance productivity by raising
input use efficiency and by reducing
risks of crop failure and yield loss.
Farmers require appropriate and
authentic advice based on
meteorological, marketing and
management information for land-use
decisions and investments.
Infrastructure support would be needed
to minimize post-harvest losses and
enable agro-processing and value-
addition in the villages to enhance
employment and income.
Farmers’ organizations and other
entities like small farmers’ estates need
Family Farming: Status and Strategies
to be encouraged, so that farmers get a
fair deal and enjoy economies of scale.
Producer groups and cooperatives have
to be strengthened to promote agro-
processing industries.
National Agricultural Innovation Project:
Researches in the Sustainable Rural
Livelihood component of the ongoing
National Agricultural Innovation Project
(2007-2014; Component 3) laid
emphasis on most suitable farming
systems and allied off-farm activities in
less favourable environments, regions
and groups, so that livelihood of the
rural poor improves through assured
food, nutrition, employment and
income, while ensuring sustainability of
socio-economic and natural resources.
Particular attention was given to rainfed,
hill and mountain, and coastal and island
eco-regions.
The technologies developed under the
component could be adopted either by a
farmer individually or collectively by a
group of farmers involving farm men
and women, the farm labourer, the input
supplier, the rural industry entrepreneur
or the researcher.
Roles to be played to promote family
farming:
The success or the failure of the small
farms is determined strongly by policy
environment and access of farmers to inputs and
information. Categorization of farms according
to the scale of operation, particularly those in the
household sector, is important for formulating
appropriate policies for each section of the
farming community. A differentiation is needed
in the treatment, and hence in choice of policy
instrument, of different categories of farmers
due to their differences in resource endowment,
inputs use pattern, source of farm labour, use of
output and market access.
Policy support:
Stop increasing fragmentation:
Shrinking agricultural land is a stark
reality. The per capita availability of agricultural
land has declined from 0.48 ha in 1951 to 0.16
ha in 1991, and is likely to reduce further to 0.08
ha in 2035 and even less by 2050 due to growth
in human population and infrastructure required
for tourism, transport, industry, mining, etc. The
newly created farms require fresh efforts to plan
out farm layout, as division of farms continues
from generation to generation, thus raising a
question about the ultimate sustainability of a
small farm.
Stop Natural resource degradation:
Total area in the country affected by
different forms of land degradations is over121
mha, of which 105mha fall under arable land
and 16.53 million ha under open forest. To
restore and maintain land suffering from such
disorders would be a challenge, that needs
immediate and long-term attention with requisite
ameliorative measures. Reclamation and
rejuvenation of vast stretches of land with
appropriate technological interventions is the
way forward for ensuring
livelihoods of millions in these areas.
Enhancing resource-use efficiency:
The current levels of efficiency of
natural resources and man-made inputs are
rather low. Furthermore, when resources and
inputs are used inefficiently, both cost of
cultivation and
threat to biosphere pollution increase, and
consequently the production decreases. This has
received the attention of the researchers and
policy makers alike.
Access to quality inputs:
Productivity enhancement, post-harvest
management and value addition are critical for
ensuring sustainability and increasing farm
Baliwada, H., 2018
29
income and profitability. Timely availability of
quality inputs, particularly the seed and planting
material, fertilisers, or the feed and fodder in
case of livestock, has been a matter of concern
for the small farmers.
Small farm mechanization:
Acute labour shortage and rising cost of
agricultural production have brought
engineering inputs in agriculture into focus.
Timeliness, precision and resource conservation
in farm operations are of utmost importance to
realise potential yields of technologies.
Therefore, mechanization of small farms is the
need of the hour, along with efficient energy
management.
Enhanced energy usage:
The structure of energy consumption in
Indian agriculture has changed and there is a
need for introducing technological change
involving energy-efficient farm machinery and
irrigation system. Use of non-conventional and
renewable sources of energy in agriculture is
urgently required. Smaller the farm, greater is
the need for marketable surplus, so that small
farmers are ensured with a sound income.
Achieving this goal will be possible only if we
develop and disseminate eco-technologies
rooted in principles of ecology, economics,
equity and employment generation.
Other ways of policy support are:
Secure access to land, credit, inputs
and appropriate mechanization
Institutional and Infra-Structural
Support
Risk Management
Supporting marketing associations
Developing rural investment for
rural infrastructure
liberalization of the land-lease
Market relaxation of the constraints
to interstate movement of
agricultural produce
Institutional support to new models
of agricultural co-operatives.
Recognize the role of pluralistic and
mixed systems
Policies promoting on-farm and off-
farm gender-smart and climate-
smart investments.
Public investment in agricultural
R&D and extension services should
be increased to emphasize
sustainable intensification and
closing yield and labour
productivity gaps.
Good governance, stable
macroeconomic conditions,
transparent legal and regulatory
regimes and secure property rights
A decent price for the produce and
services needs to be obtained.
Take gender and intergenerational
issues into consideration, involving
youth in the future of the
agricultural sector.
Expanding domains of proprietary
rights over innovations (PPVFRA)
Appropriate income, targeted
policies, programs and projects are
essential (Recent ARYA
programme of ICAR)
Research support:
The overarching concerns are nutritional
and livelihood security, poverty alleviation,
profitability, gender equity, ecology and
environment, and competitiveness in terms of
cost and quality are major researchable issues
before the NARES. Priority issues that call for
attention include availability of water and its
quality, soil health, genetic resource
conservation, insulating farm production against
increasing biotic and abiotic stresses, managing
climate change, enhancing input-use efficiency,
energy management, diversification, and post-
harvest management.
Investments in agricultural R&D and
rural infrastructure have resulted in high rates of
Family Farming: Status and Strategies
return. In the tenth five-year plan, the
expenditure on agricultural research and
development as percentage of agricultural GDP
was 0.59% and in eleventh plan it was 0.70 per
cent. There is a need to raise it to a level of at
least 1% urgently and ultimately to a level of 2
per cent.
The research focus should be to
evolve technologies and
management options to suit needs of
smallholders’ agriculture, and also
to involve them in agri-supply chain
through institutional innovations.
International cooperation can make
research efforts more effective.
Role of Extension:
1. Region wise best practices of coping
mechanisms should be widely
disseminated:
Frontline demonstrations at farmers’
fields and at experimental farms show
that productivity of crops, livestock and
fisheries at the farm level can
significantly be enhanced by adopting
already developed improved
technologies and practices.
More far-reaching, participatory
information and communication
technologies need to be developed to
effectively link research
accomplishments with stakeholders.
The farmers need to be sensitized about
the whole range of agri-business,
production systems, research
institutions, programmes and schemes of
the development departments, open
markets both at domestic and global
scale, and other partners, to be provided
through training, demonstration,
literature, and other human resources
development support, including
interface at different levels.
Provide access to productive resources
and assets
Development of co-operatives and
farmers’ organizations.
Socially responsible partnerships with
civil society organizations and with the
private sector
Interaction between research, education,
extension and enterprise services is
needed
Encourage women’s participation in
decision making
Gender sensitization: Raising awareness
on the role of women in family farming
management and promote women’s
equal access to land, credit, education,
technology, networks and decision-
making processes.
More research should be carried out in
gender to study the situation and reasons
Create conditions for private delivery of
advisory services
Participative research, knowledge
transfer and Life Long Learning should
be promoted
Attracting youth to keep young people
on the farm
Change the mindset …..The social
sustainability of family farming is based
on the next generation’s willingness to
take part in farming
Expand the role for information
technology
Strengthen its global
coordination, bringing farmers in melas
and explaining the significance of
family farming
2. Entrepreneurship: Agriculture to
Agribusiness; Farmer to Agripreneur
Small farmers, in general, are faced with
resource constraints, especially the poor
or weaker sections.
Baliwada, H., 2018
31
Such farmers can be organized into
groups for resource sharing or as
commodity-based and market-orientated
groups.
The farmers can thereby, make
agriculture more viable by sharing input
costs, machinery rentals, cutting down
on transport costs, getting better banking
deals and marketing linkages.
Our approach should be to promote
diversification to enhance income and
employment, minimize risks and allow
efficient and sustainable use of natural
resources’ community-based approaches
as means to address poverty and
livelihood as well as facilitate
integration of disaster-risk reduction,
development, and climate change
adaptation.
Potential areas (Labour intensive):
Vegetable cultivation, intercropping,
mixed cropping, organic farming, Dairy
etc
Contract and collective farming should
be encouraged
Custom hiring centers for farmers
3. Linking of farmers with markets:
The smallholder farmers face challenges
and opportunities of a rapidly changing
market environment brought about by
trade liberalization and globalization.
Smallholders often have limited access
to markets for both inputs and outputs,
and this has a significant effect on their
production activities.
The efforts towards regulated markets
have helped in mitigating market
handicaps of producers/ sellers at the
wholesale assembling level.
However, the rural periodic markets, in
general, and the tribal markets in
particular, remained out of its
developmental ambit.
Smallholders, due to their small
surpluses in production, generally are
exposed to high degrees of risk and
transaction costs.
There is a need for promotion of agro-
processing centres in rural
sector/production catchments for value
addition of agricultural produce
including technological back-up
support.
Appropriate strategies will have to be
worked out to address issues relating to
marketing/infrastructure required, the
most immediate need being
development of local transport network.
Direct marketing through SHGs or
informal groups, NGOs, cooperatives,
Farmers Associations, Companies,
partnerships, joint ventures need to be
encouraged. Farmer Producer
Organizations (FPOs) are a way forward
in this context.
Community radio
Required an agricultural innovation
system that recognizes farmers
themselves as innovators
Innovative farming training guides
should be prepared
Encourage innovations across different
sectors
Farmer-led innovation and formal
research should complement each other
Conclusion:
The 2014 World Food Day theme -
Family Farming: “Feeding the world, caring for
the earth” - It focuses world attention on the
significant role of family farming in eradicating
hunger and poverty, providing food security and
nutrition, improving livelihoods, managing
natural resources, protecting the environment,
and achieving sustainable development, in
particular in rural areas. This is a strong signal
that the international community recognizes the
Family Farming: Status and Strategies
important contribution of family farmers to
world food security and also providing resources
for Women and Young Farmers. In economic
terms, family farming is identified with specific
entrepreneurial skills, business ownership and
management, choice and risk behaviour,
resilience and individual achievement. Family
farming is often more than a professional
occupation, as it reflects a lifestyle based on
beliefs and traditions about living and work. It
ensures food security even while meeting rising
societal expectations for food safety, quality,
value, origin and diversity of food. It also
maintains rural lifestyle and contributes to socio-
economic and environmental sustainability of
the rural areas. Family farms have an inherent
capacity for quick production expansion and key
to sustainable food production, if given an
appropriate policy environment.
References:
1. Bara Gueye, Paulo Peterson and
Robert. 2009. Any future needs
family farming. “The Broker” –
Connecting worlds of knowledge
Online publication. pp 1-3.
2. Camilla Toulmin and Bara Gueye.
2009. Is There a Future for Family
Farming. Wiley online library. pp
1-6.
3. FAO report 2014
http://www.fao.org/family-farming-
2014
4. M S Swaminathan. 2014.
Strengthening family farming in
India. Financial chronicle.
5. UN. 2014. International Year of
Family Farming
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Vol. 2(1), January-June, 2018
*Corresponding author's email: [email protected]
Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.)
Rahul Singh*, Gaje Singh
1, Visvash Vaibhav
2, Ankush Kumar3, Rajat Deshwal
4 and Nitin
Kumar5
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut- 250110, (U.P.)
ABSTRACT A series of investigation to explore the efficacy of edible oils against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis (Linn.) in stored
chickpea seeds were carried out in the laboratory of the department of Entomology, SVP University of Agriculture and
Technology- Meerut during July 2016 to February 2017 at 28 2o C temperature and 75 5 per cent relative humidity
replicated three times in completely randomized Design. Among all edible oil treatments the mustard oil (1ml/100g seeds) was
found best and recorded consistently increased rate of adult mortality 3136.67, 43.67,49, 55.67 65.67 and 74.67 per cent after
1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 15, and 21 days, respectively. The treatment also recorded with minimum seed damaged of 7.6, 9.23, 12.10, 15.60,
18.80, 21.00, 23.03 and 25.90 per cent. This treatment also recorded with minimum weight loss of 9.33, 12, 15.67, 18.67,
21.33, 24.67, 27.67 and 30.00 per cent. This treatment was recorded best again with maximum progeny reduction of 63.20,
58.80, 51.26, 49.47, 48.53, 46.83, 44.46, and 43.70 per cent after 33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days, respectively.
Keywords: Chickpea, Edible oils, Callosobruchus chinensis
Cite this article: Singh R. et.al., 2018. Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.) New Age
International Journal of Agriculture Research & Development, 2(1) 33-41.
Received: March 2018 Accepted: May 2018 Published: June 2018
INTRODUCTION Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is a
highly nutritious pulse cultivated throughout the
world and is placed third in the importance list
of the food legumes. India is the largest producer
of this pulse contributing to around 63% of the
world’s total production (ICRISAT,
2007).Chickpea is used in arrange of different
preparation in our cuisine and has a good source
of energy i.e. 416 calories/100gm chickpea
(Shrestha, 2001). In India, there are about 200
species of pest insects which cause damage to
stored grains and grain products in storage. The
pulse beetle Callosobruchus chinensis is a major
economically important pest of all pulses and
causes 40-50% in losses of pulses storage (Gosh
et al. 2003). There is a steady increase in the use
of edible oils as a cheaper and ecologically safer
means of protecting stored products against
infestation by insects.
MATERIAL AND METHODS The present investigation were
conducted under the Laboratory, Department of
Entomology, College of Agriculture, Sardar
Vallabhbhai Patel
University of Agriculture and Technology,
Meerut-250110 (U.P.) India.
Insect culture Adults of test insect i.e. C. chinensis
were collected locally from naturally infested
stored chickpea grains. The culture of C.
chinensis was maintained at 28 20C
temperature and 70 5% relative humidity in
B.O.D. at laboratory of department of
Entomology. The culture was raised by 50 pairs
of newly emerged C. chinensis adults into 500g
of chickpea seeds in large plastic container.
After 35 days newly emerged (F1) 2-3 days old
adults were collected and used to infest the
experimental chickpea samples. Ten pairs of C.
chinensis was release in each 100g of
experimental and control seeds which would be
kept in plastic jars capped with cotton cloth to
insure ventilation. The jars were maintained in
B.O.D. at laboratory of Department of
Entomology on 28 20C temperature and 70
5% relative humidity.
Singh, et.al, 2018
Treatments The experiment was conducted with 9
treatments with 3 replication in completely
randomized design.
Table No.1: Treatments
Observation procedure The treatments with edible oils i.e.
Mustard oil, Groundnut oil, Coconut oil and
Sunflower oil were thoroughly mixed with
healthy Chickpea seeds (each treatment with
1ml & 0.75ml per 100g seeds) and placed in
plastic containers. Ten pairs of newly emerged
adults (one day old) were released in each
container and covered with muslin cloth, secured
with rubber band and kept in B.O.D. at 28 20C
temperature and 70 5% relative humidity for
oviposition. Each treatment was replicated
thrice. The efficacy of edible oils against C.
chinensis was assessed considering adult
mortality, adult’s emergence, seed infestation
and seed weight loss done.
Percent seed infestation and weight loss
was determined at the completion of adult
emergence. The sample of each replicate was
examined carefully and damaged and healthy
seeds were separated, cleaned, counted and
weighed. The per cent infestation and weight
loss was recorded at 33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63
and 66 days after released of adult’s
confinement. The total number of grains was
counted and Per cent seed infestation computed
by using the following formulae.
Percent infestation =
x100 (Enobakhare
and Law-Ogbomo, 2002)
Where,
Nb = Number of damaged seeds,
Tn = Total number of seeds;
The per cent weight loss was calculated by
following formula;
Per cent weight loss =
(Lal,
1988) Where,
U = Weight of healthy seeds,
D = Weight of damaged seeds, Nu =
Number of healthy seeds, Nd = Number of
damaged seeds.
Adult mortality
To collect the adult mortality data the
whatman No.1 filter papers treated with different
testing doses were fixed at bottom of containers
and 100g of chickpea seeds were filled in each
container. In control the ethanol treated filter
papers were fixed at bottom of containers. The
10 pairs freshly emerged (2-3days old) adults
were released in each container and kept in BOD
at 28±20C temperature and 75±5 % Relative
humidity. Three replications were maintained
with each treatment. The adult mortality was
recorded at 1, 3, 5, 7, 15 and 21 days after
released. The following formula was used to
calculate the per cent mortality;
Percent adult
mortality
=
Total No. of
dead adult insects
------------------------X 100
Total No. of release adult
insects
Progeny build up After 21 days all adults (dead and live)
were removed and the seeds with treatment
remained at same conditions for an additional 28
days. The chickpea seeds of each treatment were
checked for progeny production after 33, 38, 43,
48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days of adult confinement.
The percentage of reduction in progeny
production was calculated by following formula;
Treatments Common
name
Dose
T1 Mustard Oil 1 ml per 100g seeds
T2 Mustard Oil 0.75 ml per 100g
seeds
T3 Groundnut
Oil
1 ml per 100g seeds
T4 Groundnut
Oil
0.75 ml per 100g
seeds
T5 Coconut Oil 1 ml per 100g seeds
T6 Coconut Oil 0.75 ml per 100g
seeds
T7 Sunflower
Oil
1 ml per 100g seeds
T8 Sunflower
Oil
0.75 ml per 100g
seeds
T9 Control -
Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.)
35
Percent
Reduction
=
No. of progeny in control –
No. of progeny in treatment
------------------------- x 100
No. of progeny in control
RESULT AND DISCUS SION Percent mortality
The observation presented in (Table 1.) The
maximum C. chinensis adult mortality of 36.67,
43.67,49, 55.67 65.67 and 74.67 per cent was
found in treatment mustard oil (1ml/100 g seeds)
after 1, 3, 5, 7, 15 and 21 days followed by
mustard oil (0.75/100 g seeds) was recorded
with adult mortality of 34.67, 42.33, 48.67,
54.33, 63.67 and 72.67 per cent, groundnut oil
(1ml/100 g seeds) with adult mortality of 31.00,
39.00, 45.67, 50.00, 60.33 and 69.00 per cent,
groundnut oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) with adult
mortality of 30.33, 38.33, 43, 48.67, 57.67, and
66.67 per cent, coconut oil (1ml/100 g seeds)
with adult mortality of 27.67, 35, 39.67, 42,
54.67 and 62.67 per cent, coconut oil (1ml/100 g
seeds) with adult mortality of 26.33, 34, 38,
40.67, 53.67 and 60.33 per cent, sunflower oil
(1ml/100 g seeds) with adult mortality of 23.67,
31.67, 35.67, 38.33, 51 and 56.67 per cent after
1, 3, 5, 7, 15 and 21 days, respectively. The
minimum C. chinensis adult mortality of 22.33,
30.33, 34.67, 37, 50.33 and 54.33 per cent with
treatment sunflower oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) at
1, 3, 5, 7, 15 and 21 days, respectively. The
findings of Ali et al. (1983) also supported the
present findings evaluated the efficacy of
mustard against pulse beetle. These oils were
used @ 0.2 and 0.1 ml/100g seeds green gram.
Mustard oil infested 100% egg mortality at 0.1
ml/100g of seeds. The another findings was
supported by of Begum and Quiniones (1991)
who evaluated the efficacy of mustard and
groundnut oil applied to moong bean seeds
infested by C. chinensis at 3 ml/ kg reduced the
population effectively up to 3 month than seeds
treated with same oil at 0.5 ml /kg.
Percent seed damage
Observation presented in (Table 2.) after 33, 38,
43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days of treatment used
all the treatments were found significantly
superior over control to decrease the seed
damaged. The minimum seeds damage of 7.6,
9.23, 12.10, 15.60, 18.80, 21.00, 23.03 and
25.90 per cent was recorded in mustard oil
(1ml/100 g seeds) after 33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58,
63 and 66 days followed by mustard oil
(0.75/100 g seeds) was recorded with seed
damage of 8.1, 10, 13, 16.12, 19.36, 21.72,
23.66 and 26.33 per cent, groundnut oil
(1ml/100 g seeds) with 9.5, 12.1, 14.6, 17.96,
21.16, 23.58, 25.70 and 28.33 per cent,
groundnut oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) with 10.1,
13, 15.08, 18.46, 21.86, 24, 26.18 and 28.92 per
cent, coconut oil (1ml/100 g seeds), 11.70,
15.06, 16.72, 20.13, 23.82, 25.98, 28 and 31 per
cent, coconut oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) with 12.6,
16.4, 17.33, 21.84, 24.2, 26.67, 28.67 and 31.76
per cent, sunflower oil (1ml/100 g seeds) with
14.29, 17.35, 19.02, 22.77, 26, 28.07, 29.07 and
33.88 per cent after 33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63
and 66 days, respectively. The maximum seed
damaged of 15, 18.15, 19.78, 23.04, 26.4, 28.67,
29.62 and 34.2 per cent with treatment
sunflower oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) at after 33,
38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days, respectively.
The present experimental findings supported by
Kumari et al. (1990) who found the efficacy of
vegetable oils viz., mustard oil, linseed oil, til
oil, groundnut oil, soybean oil and sunflower oil
as grain protestants against C. chinensis (linn).
The results revealed that all the vegetable oils
each at 1 % level proved equally effective for
reduction in the percentage of damage grains.
The findings of Neog and Singh (2012) are
closely related to the present findings as they
reported the efficacy of mustard @ 1% v/w
were tested as grain protectants against C.
chinensis (L.) on green gram seeds. The mustard
oil provided maximum protection up to two
months resulting in 9.11% infestation and
32.60% in untreated seeds.
Percent weight loss
Data presented in (Table 3.) the minimum
weight loss of 9.33, 12, 15.67, 18.67, 21.33,
24.67, 27.67 and 30.00 per cent was recorded in
mustard oil (1ml/100 g seeds) after 33, 38, 43,
48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days, respectively. This
treatment proved best among all the treatments
Singh, et.al, 2018
and followed by mustard oil (0.75ml/100 g
seeds) was recorded with weight loss of 10.33,
13, 16.33, 19.33, 22, 25.33 , 28.33 and 30.67 per
cent, groundnut oil (1ml/100 g seeds) with 12,
15, 18.33, 21.33, 24, 27, 30.33 and 32.67 per
cent, groundnut oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) with
12.67, 15.67, 19, 22, 25.33, 27.67, 31 and 33.33
per cent, coconut oil (1ml/100 g seeds) with
14.33, 17.67, 21, 24, 27.33, 29.33, 33 and 35.33
per cent, coconut oil (0.75m/100 g seeds) with
15, 18.33, 21.67, 24.67, 28, 30, 34 and 36 per
cent, sunflower oil (1ml/100 g seeds) with
16.33, 20, 23.33, 26.67 30, 31.67, 35.67 and 38
per cent at after 33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and
66 days, respectively. The maximum weight
loss of 17.33, 20.67, 24, 27.33, 30.67, 32.33,
36.33 and 38.67 per cent with treatment
sunflower oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) at after 33,
38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days, respectively.
Similarity was observed with the findings of
Parsai et al. (1990) also reported that the
efficacy of mustard oil, groundnut oil @ 0.3 per
cent concentration on C. chinensis and caused
grain weight loss. They observed grain weight
loss decreased with increase in oil concentration.
The another findings was also supported by
Kumari et al. (1990) who evaluated the efficacy
of mustard and groundnut as grain protestants
against C. chinensis (Linn). The results revealed
that all the mustard oil each at 1 % level proved
equally effective for reduction in the percentage
of weight loss.
Effect of edible oils on progeny emergence of
C. chinensis The observation presented in (Table 4.)
the maximum C. chinensis progeny reduction of
63.20, 58.80, 51.26, 49.47, 48.53, 46.83, 44.46,
and 43.70 per cent was found in treatment
mustard oil (1ml/100 g seeds) after 33, 38, 43,
48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days, respectively. This
treatment proved best among all the treatments
and followed by mustard oil (0.75ml/100 g
seeds) with 62.39, 57, 50.86, 48, 46.9, 45.93,
43.63 and 42.6 per cent, groundnut oil (1ml/100
g seeds) with 57.70, 52.87, 47.10, 44.50, 43.63,
41.13, 40 and 39.80 per cent, groundnut oil
(0.75ml/100 g seeds) with 56.36, 50.63, 46.1,
43.8, 42.06, 40.6, 39 and 38.5 per cent , coconut
oil (1ml/100 g seeds) with 51.22, 45, 42.60,
39.16, 38.70, 36.83, 35.30 and 34.27 per cent,
coconut oil (0.75ml/100 g seeds) with 49.86,
43.67, 41.03, 38.56, 37.33, 35.86, 34.26 and
33.27 per cent, sunflower oil (1ml/100 g seeds)
with 46.76, 41.36, 37.50, 36.76, 34.60, 32.27,
31.03 and 29.60 per cent progeny reduction after
33, 38, 43, 48, 53, 58, 63 and 66 days,
respectively. The treatment of sunflower oil
(0.75ml/100 g seeds) revealed the minimum
progeny reduction of 45.65, 39.16, 36.26, 33.6,
32.6, 31.63, 29.5 and 28.2 after 33, 38, 43, 48,
53, 58, 63 and 66 days, respectively. The
findings of Bhargava and Meena (2002) are
closely related to the present findings as they
reported the efficacy of mustard (Brassica
juncea L.), groundnut were tested against C.
chinensis (Linn.) in cowpea. The treatment
mustard oil @ 1.0 ml/100 g seeds caused
maximum reduction in adult emergence in F1
generation with (83.7%), groundnut oil (73.3%).
The present experimental findings supported by
Lakhanpal et al. (1995) who evaluated the
efficacy of edible oil mustard, groundnut and
coconut were evaluated as gram protestants
against Callosobruchus analis infesting black
gram (Vigna mungo) seeds when applied at 1, 2
and 4 ml/kg was the most effective, followed by
groundnut and coconut oil which resulted low
fecundity and prevented adults emergence for up
to 150 days.
Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.)
37
REFERENCE
1. Ali, S.I., Singh, O.P. and Mishra,
U.S. 1983. Effectiveness of plant oils
against pulse beetle Callsobruchus
chinensis (Linn). Indian journal of
Entomology, 45 (1): 6-9
2. Bhargava, M. C., Meena B. L. 2002. Efficacy of some vegetable oils
against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus
chinensis (Linn.) on cowpea, Vigna
unguiculata (L.). Indian Journal of
Plant Protection, 30 (1): 46- 50
3. Kumari, K., Sinha, M.M., Mehto,
D.N. and Hammed, S.F. 1990. Effect
of some vegetable oil as protectants
against pulse beetle, Callosobruchus
chinensis (Linn.) Bulletin Grain
Tecnology, 28 (1) : 66-69
4. Lakhanpal, G.C., Kashyap, N.P.
and Mehta, P.K. 1995. Evaluation of
edible oils as grain protectants against
pulse beetle, Callosobruchus analis
(Fab.) in black gram (Vignamungo L.).
Journal of Unsect Science, 8 (1): 66-
69.
5. Parsai, S.K., Shaw, S.S., Despande,
R.R., Verma, R.S., Badaya, A.K.
and Mandloy, K.C. 1990. Studies on
fecundity longevity of C. chinensis
and caused grain weight loss and
efficacy of edible oils against
Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) on
mungbean. Indian journal of Pulse
research, 3(1): 61-65.
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Volume 2 Issue 1; 2018
Table 2. Efficacy of edible oils against Callosobruchus chinensis
*DAT- Days after treatment
* Values in parentheses are original ones
Treatments
1 DAT 3 DAT 5 DAT 7 DAT 15 DAT 21DAT
T1 Mustard oil of 1ml
per 100g sedes
37.24 (36.67)e 41.34 (43.67)
d 44.40 (49.00)
g 48.23 (55.67)
d 54.32(65.67)
e 59.76 (74.67)
e
T2 Mustard oil 0.75ml
per 100g sedes
36.05 (34.67)e 40.57 (42.33)
d 44.21 (48.67)
g 47.46 (54.33)
d 52.91 (63.67)
e 58.47 (72.67)
e
T3 Groundnut oil 1ml
per 100g sedes
33.80 (31.00)d 38.62 (39.00)
c 42.49 (45.67)
f 44.98 (50.00)
c 50.94 (60.33)
d 56.14 (69.00)
d
T4 Groundnut oil
0.75ml per
100g seeds
33.40 (30.33)d 38.23 (38.33)
c 40.95 (43)
e 44.21 (48.67)
c 49.39 (57.67)
d 54.72 (66.67)
d
T5 Coconut oil 1ml per
100g seeds
31.71 (27.67)c 36.24 (35.00)
b 39.01(39.67)
d 40.37 (42.00)
b 47.66 (54.67)
c 52.32 (62.67)
c
T6 Coconut oil 0.75ml
per 100g seeds
30.85 (26.33)c 35.64 (34)
b 38.04 (38)
d 39.60 (40.67)
b 47.08 (53.67)
c 50.94 (60.33)
c
T7 Sunflower oil 1ml per
100g seeds
29.08 (23.67)b 34.22 (31.67)
b 36.65(35.67)
c 38.23 (38.33)
b 45.55 (51.00)
b 48.81 (56.67)
b
T8 Sunflower oil 0.75ml
per 100g seeds
28.18 (22.33)b 33.39 (30.33)
b 36.04 (34.67)
b 37.44 (37)
b 45.17 (50.33)
b 47.47 (54.33)
b
T9 Control 0.00 (0.00)
a 21.66 (13.67)
a 30.62 (26.00)
a 34.22 (31.67)
a 38.22 (38.33)
a 41.91 (44.67)
a
SEm± 0.70 0.87 0.88 0.93 0.78 0.88
CD at 5 % 2.09 2.60 2.66 1.98 2.35 2.66
S.No Treatments Per cent seed damage
Singh et.al. 2018
39
*DAT- Days after treatment * Values in parentheses are original ones
Table 3. Effect of edibles oil on grain damage
Per cent Seed damage
33 DAT 38 DAT 43 DAT 48 DAT 53 DAT 58 DAT 63 DAT 66 DAT
T1 Mustard oil of 1ml per
100g seeds
15.99(7.60)a 17.67(9.23)
a 20.34(12.10)
a 23.25(15.60)
a 25.68(18.80)
a 27.28(21.0)
a 28.66(23.03)
a 30.57(25.9)
a
T2 Mustard oil 0.75ml per
100g seeds
16.5 (8.1)a 18.42(10.00)
a 21.12(13.00)
a 23.67(16.12)
a 26.09(19.36)
a 27.77(21.72
a 29.09(23.66)
a 30.85(26.33)
a
T3 Groundnut oil 1ml per
100g seeds
17.93(9.50)b 20.34 (12.1)
b 22.44 (14.6)
b 25.06(17.96)
b 27.37(21.16)
b 29.05(23.58)
b 30.44(25.7)
b 32.13(28.33)
b
T4 Groundnut oil 0.75ml
per 100g seeds
18.51(10.1)b 21.11(13)
b 22.84(15.08)
b 25.42(18.46)
b 27.85(21.86)
b 29.31 (24)
b 30.76(26.18)
b 32.49(28.92)
b
T5 Coconut oil 1ml per
100g seeds
19.99(11.70)c 22.82(15.06)
c 24.10(16.72)
c 26.62 (20.13)
c 29.18(23.82)
c 30.62(25.98)
c 31.93(28.0)
c 33.81(31.0)
c
T6 Coconut oil 0.75ml per
100g seeds
20.78(12.6)c 23.62(16.4)
c 24.56 (17.33)
c 27.85 (21.84)
c 29.45 (24.2)
c 30.94(26.47)
c 32.35(28.67)
c 34.29(31.76)
c
T7 Sunflower oil 1ml per
100g seeds
22.20(14.29)d 24.61(17.35)
d 25.85(19.02)
d 28.48(22.77)
d 30.64 (26)
d 31.99(28.07)
d 32.60(29.07)
d 35.59(33.88)
d
T8 Sunflower oil 0.75ml
per 100g seeds
22.77 (15)d 25.21(18.15)
d 26.40(19.78)
d 28.66(23.04)
d 30.88 (26.4)
d 32.35(28.67)
d 32.94(29.62)
d 35.76(34.2)
d
T9
Control
28.96(23.50)e 30.83(26.33)
e 31.65(28.26)
e 34.18(31.60)
e 35.70(34.10)
e 37.08(36.44)
e 38.80(39.33)
e 40.76(42.66)
e
SEm± 0.43 0.36 0.53 0.45 0.56 0.46 0.81 0.52
CD at
5 %
1.28 1.09 1.59 1.37 1.69 1.38 1.70 1.55
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Volume 2 Issue 1; 2018
Table 4. Effect of edibles oil on Weight loss
*DAT- Days after treatment
* Values in parentheses are original ones
S.No Treatments Per cent weight loss
33 DAT 38 DAT 43 DAT 48 DAT 53 DAT 58 DAT 63 DAT 66 DAT
T1
Mustard oil of 1ml
per 100g seeds
17.75 (9.33)a 20.24(12.00)
a 23.29(15.67)
a 25.57(18.67)
a 27.49(21.33)
a 29.76(24.67)
a 31.71(27.67)
a 33.19(30.00)
a
T2 Mustard oil 0.75ml
per 100g seeds
18.73(10.33)a 21.11 (13)
a 23.81(16.33)
a 26.06(19.33)
a 27.95 (22)
a 30.20(25.33)
a 32.14(28.33)
a 33.6(30.67)
a
T3 Groundnut oil 1ml
per 100g seeds
20.24(12.00)b 22.77(15.00)
b 25.33(18.33)
b 27.49(21.33)
b 29.31(24.0)
b 31.29(27.0)
b 33.40(30.33)
b 34.8(32.67)
b
T4 Groundnut oil
0.75ml per 100g
sedes
20.83(12.67)b 23.29(15.67)
b 25.82 (19)
b 27.95 (22)
b 30.20(25.33)
b 31.71(27.67)
b 33.81 (31)
b 35.2(33.33)
b
T5 Coconut oil 1ml per
100g seeds
22.23(14.33)c 24.84(17.67)
c 27.26(21.00)
c 29.31(24.00)
c 31.50(27.33)
c 32.77(29.33)
c 35.04(33.0)
c 36.4(35.33)
c
T6
Coconut oil 0.75ml
per 100g seeds
22.77 (15)c 25.34(18.33)
c 27.72(21.67)
c 29.76(24.67)
c 31.93 (28)
c 33.19 (30)
c 35.65 (34)
c 36.85 (36)
c
T7 Sunflower oil 1ml
per 100g seeds
23.82(16.33)d 26.55(20)
d 28.87(23.33)
d 31.07(26.67)
d 33.19 (30)
d 34.22(31.67)
d 36.65(35.67)
d 38.04 (38)
d
T8
Sunflower oil
0.75ml per 100g
sedes
24.58(17.33)d 27.02(20.67)
d 29.31(24)
d 31.50(27.33)
d 33.60(30.67)
d 34.63(32.33)
d 37.05(36.33)
d 38.4(38.67))
d
T9 Control 26.78(20.33)
e 30.42(25.67)
e 32.13(28.33)
e 34.02(31.33
e 35.84(34.33
e 37.44(37.0
e 38.82(39.33
e 40.7(42.67)
e
SEm± 0.46 0.44 0.52 0.50 0.47 0.46 0.54 0.49
CD at 5% 1.37 1.32 1.57 1.52 1.41 1.38 1.64 1.47
Singh et.al. 2018
41
Table 5. Effect of edibles oil on progeny emergence of Callosobruchus chinensis
S.No Treatments
Percent Reduction in Progeny Emergence
33 DAT 38 DAT 43 DAT 48 DAT 53 DAT 58 DAT 63 DAT 66 DAT
T1 Mustard oil of 1ml
per 100g seeds
52.64 (63.20)e 50.04 (58.80)
e 45.70 (51.26)
e 44.67(49.47)
e 44.14(48.53)
e 43.16(46.83)
e 41.80(44.46)
e 41.36(43.70)
e
T2 Mustard oil 0.75ml
per 100g seeds
52.16 (62.39)e 49.00 (57)
e 45.47 (50.86)
e 43.83 (48)
e 43.20 (46.9)
e 42.64(45.93)
e 41.32(43.63)
e 40.72 (42.6)
e
T3 Groundnut oil 1ml
per 100g seeds
49.41(57.70)d 46.62(52.87)
d 43.31(47.10)
d 41.82(44.50)
d 41.16(43.63)
d 39.87(41.13)
d 39.21(40.00)
d 39.09(39.80)
d
T4 Groundnut oil
0.75ml per 100g
sedes
48.65(56.36)d 45.34(50.63)
d 42.78 (46.1)
d 41.41 (43.8)
d 40.41(42.06)
d 39.77 (40.6)
d 38.62 (39)
d 38.32 (38.5)
d
T5 Coconut oil 1ml per
100g seeds
45.68 (51.22)c 42.11 (45.00)
c 40.72 (42.60)
c 38.72 (39.16)
c 38.45(38.70)
c 37.35 (36.83)
c 36.43 (35.30)
c 35.81(34.27)
c
T6
Coconut oil 0.75ml
per 100g seeds
44.90(49.86)b 41.34 (43.67)
c 39.81 (41.03)
c 38.37(38.56)
c 37.68(37.33)
c 36.77(35.86)
c 35.81(34.26)
c 35.20(33.27)
c
T7 Sunflower oil 1ml per
100g seeds
43.12(46.76)b 39.42(41.36)
b 37.74(37.50)
b 37.30(36.76)
b 36.01(34.60)
b 34.59(32.27)
b 33.83(31.03)
b 32.94(29.60)
b
T8 Sunflower oil 0.75ml
per 100g seeds
42.49(45.65)b 38.13(39.16)
b 37.00(36.26)
b 35.40 (33.6)
b 34.79 (32.6)
b 34.20(31.63)
b 32.87(29.5)
b 32.05 (28.2)
b
T9
Control
0.00(0.00)a 0.00 (0.00)
a 0.00 (0.00)
a 0.00(0.00)
a 0.00 (0.00)
a 0.00 (0.00)
a 0.00 (0.00)
a 0.00 (0.00)
a
SEm±
0.94 0.84 0.77 0.77 0.75 0.70 0.66 0.63
CD at 5% 2.82 2.52 2.31 2.30 2.26 2.10 1.99 1.91
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Vol. 2(1), January-June, 2018
*Corresponding author's email :[email protected]
Quantification of Lead Content in Cestode (Moniezia Expansa; Rudolphi,
1805) found in Indian Agri-Farm Livestock Sheep
Archana Gupta* and Vinod Gupta
Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, U.P.
ABSTRACT
Inorganic elements play an important role in the physiology of parasites but some heavy metals like Pb, Hg, Cd. etc are
environmental pollutants. Thus, the presence of these metals in parasites, also indicates its presence in its host’s environment
.So, they act as bioindicators for that heavy metal. Also they have the potential for the accumulation of heavy metals from
their surroundings more efficiently than their hosts, so help in bioremediation of environment and also have useful and
beneficial effects on their hosts by reducing their toxic content by accumulating in itself. In present study Pb was
determined quantitatively in immature , mature and gravid proglottids of Moniezia expansa by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry. It was present in small amount and Moniezia expansa can be considered as an bioindicator for Pb in
terrestrial environment.
Key words : Cestode, Moniezia expansa , Lead, Heavy metal, Bioindicator
Cite this article Gupta A. * and Gupta V., 2018. Quantification of Lead Content in Cestode (Moniezia Expansa; Rudolphi,
1805) found in Indian Agri-Farm Livestock Sheep New Age International Journal of Agriculture Research & Development,
2(1) 42-46.
Received: March 2018 Accepted: May 2018 Published: June 2018
INTRODUCTION
Sheep and goats are important species of
livestock for India. They contribute greatly to
the agrarian economy, especially in areas
where crop and dairy farming are not
economical, and play an important role in the
livelihood of a large proportion of small and
marginal farmers and landless labourers.
Inorganic elements play an important role in
the physiology of parasites. These are
intimately related with growth, maintenance of
acid-base equilibrium and synthesis of organic
material. Apart from important inorganic
elements some of them are toxic heavy metals
like Cd ,Hg and Pb which are major health risk
concern for human.
Lead is a well known non-biodegradable toxic
metal in the environment and now, it has
become a global health issue for human as
well as domestic animals. Sources of Pb
pollution in India are industrial due to the
particulates generated by coal burning and
roasting of minerals i.e. iron pyrite, dolomite,
alumina, etc and domestic mainly from
cooking by use of the solid fuels (i.e. coal,
biomass, agricultural waste, etc.), paints,
ceramic glazes, cosmetic and folk remedies,
drinking water, food, etc. Among various
environments, i.e. agricultural regions, the
neighboring cities, industrial plants and busy
highways, Pb contamination of plants from
industrial areas and nearby busy roads was
higher than that of plants from agricultural
areas.
As an environmental pollutant, Pb affect
biological functions and are potentially
dangerous because of bio-accumulation
through the food chain and its hazardous
effects depends upon the dietary concentration,
absorption by the system, homeostatic control
of the body for it and also the species of the
animal involved .
Thus, Pb is harmful due to their
bioaccumulation potential, persistent nature
and harmful biological effects (Sharma et al ,
2010) but at the same time its presence in
parasites may indicate its presence in host
environment. Thus, its presence in M.expansa
might be used as an accumulation indicators or
bioindicator system for heavy metal pollution
in terrestrial bioptopes.
Lots of work has been done in this field on
Quantification of Lead Content in Cestode (Moniezia Expansa; Rudolphi, 1805) found in Indian Agri-Farm Livestock Sheep
43
trematodes and nematodes but not much in
cestodes. Notable contribution is of
Jankovska,I. et al (2010) who studied Pb in
M. expansa.
No work has been done in India, on Pb
content in M. expansa. So, in the present
study an attempt has been made to determine
some of the inorganic elements in immature,
mature and gravid proglottids of sheep cestode
Moniezia expansa by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Specimens of Moniezia expansa were
procured from the intestines of infected sheep
slaughtered at local abattoirs and were washed
thoroughly with normal saline until they were
free from the debris, washed well with
distilled water and separated into immature,
mature and gravid regions. Tissues were
blotted quickly on filter paper to soak the
adhering moisture on body and were weighed.
A portion of each sample was weighed and
were dried at 100°C ± 5ºC for 24 hrs in hot
air oven and used for determining the dry
weight percentage. The weighed fresh tissues
were transferred to conical flasks and 10 ml of
digestion mixture (HNO3 and perchloric acid
mixture in 6:1 ratio) was added to all conical
flasks including 2 blanks.The digestion of
tissues was done on hot plate in the fuming
chamber and the acid was evaporated
completely until white fumes appeared.
After digestion, the samples were reconstituted
by adding 10 ml of distilled water to each
flask. The samples were read for heavy metal
Pb on a atomic absorption spectrophotometer
model Varian 250 plus against the suitable
standards for each metal in the linear range of
0.5 to 5 ppm. Standards used were purchased
from Sigma, USA.
RESULTS
Concentration of lead (Pb) in immature,
mature and gravid proglottids of Moniezia
expansa in percentage dry weight of tissues is
shown in following Table 1. The values are
mean ± S.D. of five samples in duplicate.
DISCUSSION
The amount of Lead (Pb) found is 0.0005%,
0.00004% and 0.0002% respectively in
immature, mature and gravid proglottids of
Moniezia expansa which is similar to that of
Jankovsky et al (2010) who reported
0.0000145% in M. expansa. It is higher in
immature and gravid than mature proglottid.
Lead is one of the most toxic of the trace
elements occurring in food and is not at all an
essential constituent of any living organism.
So, significance of its presence is not
understood. It may be possibly due to the
contaminated host diet.
Kegley et al. (1970) confirmed the ability of
Mesocestoides corti larvae to concentrate
experimental cations into the calcareous
corpuscles. They found, many trace elements
including lead and cadmium present in very
low amount in the medium or environment of
the parasite, to be incorporated in the
calcareous corpuscles as major constituent.
Helminthic parasites ( acanthocephalans and
cestodes) can also be considered as a suitable
biological indicator for measuring heavy
metals because the worms against to their host
tissue are the stable and reliable indicator for
evaluating the environmental pollution. Also
they have the potential for the accumulation of
heavy metals from their surroundings more
efficiently than their hosts, so help in
bioremediation of environment and also have
useful and beneficial effects on their hosts by
reducing their toxic content by accumulating
in itself. Intestinal parasites acquire inorganic
substances largely from the intestinal contents
of their hosts and gut less parasites acquire
these inorganic substances through the surface
(Von Brand T, 1973). Several helminthes are
able to accumulate considerable concentration
of elements from the host body ( Barus et al.
2003; Lafferty,1997; Sures,2004).
The mechanism of action in heavy metal
uptake by helminthic parasites: Helminthic parasites mostly live in gut of the host and
since they cannot build their required
cholesterol and fatty acids, they absorb
nutrients from the host’s intestinal lumen. In
Gupta and Gupta, 2018
the meantime, the organometallic compounds,
which have been absorbed by the host along
with bile salts after the passage of the bile
duct, are ingested in the small intestine of the
host by these parasites. The bile salts are
essential to activate the larval stage of the
parasitic especially acanthocephalan larval
stage (cystacanth) and increase the absorption
by adult worm . In other words, the
mechanism which enable acanthocephalans to
take up heavy metals from the intestinal of the
host shows to be based on the presence of bile
acids, which form organo-metallic complexes
that are simply absorbed by the worms due to
their lipophilicity, which a similar mechanism
may also occur in cestoda . Also,it is found
that cestodes with a relatively large tegumental
surface in respect to its weight reach high
bioaccumulation factors and therefore
considered potentially good bioindicators.
Consequently, endoparasites can reduce heavy
metals from the host intestinal wall and store
in their own and thus high metal accumulation
in worms (cestoda, acanthocephala) affected
the metal levels in the tissues of a definitive
host (Sures & Siddal, 1999). Overall,
helminthic parasites act as a filter to absorb
heavy metals from the host tissue and can have
beneficial effects for human and animal health.
Heavy metals can be hazardous to human
health due to consumption of fish and other
marine originated proteins as well as their
application in the poultry industry, helminthic
parasites can be used as filters to absorb heavy
metals from the host tissues and have
beneficial effects for overall human and
animal health .
Thus, it may be possible that these trace
elements present in very small amounts in the
environment may be taken in the body of
parasite and may constitute a significant part
of its chemical composition . Thus these
cestode may be a bioindicator of such toxic
element in host’s environment
(Jankovska,I.2010).
The first terrestrial model involving a cestode
parasite of rodents studied for the possible
capacity of lead accumulation Rattus
norvegicus / Hymenolepis diminuta, is proved
to be a promising bioindicator for lead in
urban ecosystems [Sures, B.et al. 2002,2003].
The A. sylvaticus / G. arfaai and A. sylvaticus
/ S. lobata model was tested and proven to be a
useful tool for biomonitoring lead pollution in
terrestrial habitats [Torres,
J.et.al.2004,2006.].With respect to models
involving parasites of terrestrial birds, the
model Columba livia / Raillietina micracantha
was proposed as another promising
bioindicator to evaluate environmental toxic
element exposure, particularly Pb and Mn
[Torres, J.,et.al.2010].
So, sheep cestode Moniezia expansa might
also act as a bioindicator of Pb in terrestrial
environment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Authors are thankful to Dr. P.K. Seth,
Former Director, I.T.R.C., Lucknow and Dr.
Jai Raj Behari, Scientist, I.T.R.C., Lucknow
for providing the laboratory facilities of the
institute.
Financial assistance (Junior Research
Fellowship ) provided by C.S.I.R. to Archana
Gupta is duly acknowledged.
REFERENCE
1. Barus,V., Tenora,F., Sumbera,R., (2003)
Relative concenterations of four heavy
metals in the parasites Protospirura
muricola ( Nematoda) and Inermicapsifer
arvicanthidis (Cestoda) in their definitive
host silvery mole rat ( Heliophobius
argeneocinereus : Rodentia ).
Helminthologia, 40:227-232.
2. Jankovskva,I., Vadlejch,J., Szakova,J.,
Miholova,D., Kunc,P., Knizkova,I.,
Langrova,I. (2010a) Experimental studies
on lead accumulation in the cestode
Moniezia expansa (cestoda :
Anoplocephalidae) and its final host (Ovis
aries). Ecotoxicol. 19, 928-932.
3. Lafferty, K.D. (1997) Environmental
parasitology : What can parasites tell us
about human impacts on the environment?
Parasitol.Today, 13:251-255.
4. Kegley, L.M.; Baldwin, J.; Brown, B.W.;
and Berntzen, A.K. (1970) Mesocestoides
Corti: environmental cation concentration
in calcareous corpuscles. Exp. Parasitol.
27: 88-94.
Quantification of Lead Content in Cestode (Moniezia Expansa; Rudolphi, 1805) found in Indian Agri-Farm Livestock Sheep
45
5. Sharma , R.K., Agarwal, M., Agarwal,
S.B. (2010). Physiological, biochemical,
and growth responses of lady’s finger(
Abelmoschus esculentus L.) plants are
affected by Cd contaminated soil. Bull.
Environ. Contam. Toxicol., 84 ;765-770.
6. Sures, B., Grube, K. & Taraschewski, H.
(2002) Experimental studies on the lead
accumulation in the cestode Hymenolepis
diminuta and its final host, Rattus
norvegicus. Ecotoxicology, 11, 365-368.
7. Sures, B. and Reimann, N. (2003)
Analysis of trace metals in the Antarctic
host-parasite system Notothenia coriiceps
and Aspersentis megarhynchus
(Acanthocephala) caught at King George
Island, South Shetland Islands. Polar Biol.
26, 680–686
8. Sures, B. (2004) Environmental
parasitology: relevancy of parasites in
monitoring environmental pollution.
Trends parasitol; 20: 170-177.
9. Sures, B. & Siddall, R.
(1999) Pomphorhynchus laevis: the
intestinal acanthocephalan as a lead sink
for its fish host, chub (Leuciscus
cephalus). Experimental Parasitology, 93,
66-72.
10. Torres J, de Lapuente J, Eira C, et al.
(2004). Cadmium and Lead concentration
in Galleogides arfaai (Cestoda:
Anoplocephalidae) and Apodemus
sylvaticus (Rodentia : Muridae) from
Spain. Parasitol Res, 94: 468–470.
11. Torres, J., Peig, J., Eira, C., Borrás, M.
(2006) Cadmium and lead concentrations
in Skrjabinotaenia lobata (Cestoda:
Catenotaeniidae) and in its host,
Apodemus sylvaticus (Rodentia: Muridae)
in the urban dumping site of Garraf
(Spain).Environ Pollut.143(1):4-8.
12. Torres,J.,Foronda, P., Eira,C., Miquel,J.,
Feliu,C.(2010) Trace element
concentrations in Raillietina micracantha
in comparison to its definitive host, the
feral pigeon Columba livia in Santa Cruz
de Tenerife (Canary Archipelago,
Spain).Arch.Environ. Contam.
Toxicol.,58(1):176-182
13. Von Brand, T. (1973) Biochemistry of
parasites. 2nd
Edition. Academic Press.
N.Y.
Gupta and Gupta, 2018
Test
elem
ent
Whole Parasite Immature
proglottids
Mature proglottids Gravid
Proglottids
Lead 0.0002±0.00004 0.0005±0.00006 0.00004±0.00000000
1
0.0002±0.0001
Table 1: Concentration of Lead (Pb) in percentage ( %) dry weight of tissue in
immature, mature and gravid proglottids of M. expansa.
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT, Volume 2 Issue 1; 2018
Corresponding Author Email: : [email protected]
POPULATION BUILD-UP AND SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF SPOTTED
POD BORER (Maruca vitrata) IN PIGEONPEA
Visvash Vaibhav
1, Gaje Singh
2, S. K. Sachan
3, D.V. Singh
4, Prashant Mishra
5 and Vivek
6
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology, Meerut 250110, (U.P.)
ABSTRACT
The field experiment conducted at Crop Research Centre, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel University of Agriculture and Technology,
Meerut-250110 (U.P.) during Kharif, 2016 and 2017. The observation on seasonal incidence of M. vitrata in pigeonpea recorded
from flowering stage (38th standard week) to maturity of crop (51st standard week) during Kharif, 2016 and 2017. The larval
population of M. vitrata during Kharif, 2016 was firstly reported at 38th standard week (3rd week of September) with 2.67 larvae
per ten plants when the maximum and minimum temperature 35.00˚C and 24.74˚C, respectively, relative humidity 81.05 per cent
and rainfall 21.20 mm was recorded. The larval population of M. vitrata ranged from 2.67 to 22.00 larvae per ten plants from
September to November. The pest activity increased from the second week of October and reached its peak at 44th standard week
(last week of October) with 22.00 larvae per ten plants when the maximum and minimum temperature 30.59˚C and 14.14˚C,
respectively, relative humidity 70.84 per cent and rainfall 0.0 mm was recorded. The seasonal incidence of M. vitrata in
pigeonpea during Kharif, 2017. The larval population was rapidly increased from the third fortnight of October and attained its
peak of 21.00 larvae per ten plants during 45th standard week while the maximum and minimum temperature 26.00˚C and
10.70˚C, respectively, relative humidity 82.90 per cent and rainfall 0.0 mm was recorded, respectively.
Key words: Maruca vitrata, seasonal incidence, population build-up, abiotic factors, pigeonpea.
Cite this article: Vaibhav V.* et.al., 2018. Population Build-Up And Seasonal Incidence Of Spotted Pod Borer (Maruca Vitrata)
In Pigeonpea, New Age International Journal of Agriculture Research & Development, 2(1) 47-54.
Received: March 2018 Accepted: May 2018 Published: June 2018
1. Introduction:
Pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.)
Millsp.] is an important legume crop from
the family Fabaceae. Pigeonpea commonly
known as 'Arhar' or 'Tim' is mainly
consumed in the form of split pulse as 'dal'
The food value of pigeonpea is the most
essential due to its protein content (22.3 %)
and also rich in iron, iodine and essential
amino acids like lysine, cystine and arginine.
It has better quality of fiber, 7g/100g of
seeds (Kandhare, 2014).
Pigeonpea is an important pulse-
cum-grain legume crop in semi-arid, tropical
and subtropical areas of the world. In the
World, pigeonpea is grown in 5.40 million
ha with an annual production of 4.48 million
tonnes and 829 kg ha-1 of productivity and
in India the pigeonpea grown in 3.88 million
ha with an annual production of 2.84 million
tonnes and 733 kg ha-1 of productivity
(Anonymous, 2016). Maharashtra is the
major pigeonpea producing state of India
with around 1.38 million tonnes production
and followed by Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh and Gujarat with 0.86, 0.78, 0.36,
respectively. In Uttar Pradesh, it occupies an
area of 0.33 million ha with an average
production of 0.33 million tonnes, 902 kg/ha
of productivity and contributes 7.30 % of
total production (Anonymous, 2017).
There are many abiotic and biotic
factors responsible for low productivity of
pigeonpea. Among the biotic factors insect
pests damage the pigeonpea resulting in low
yield and heavy loss to pigeonpea growers.
Pigeonpea is attacked by several insect pests
from seedling stage till harvesting. Insects
damaging the reproductive parts cause the
maximum reduction in grain yield. Amongst
pod borers Maruca vitrata and Helicoverpa
POPULATION BUILD-UP AND SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF SPOTTED POD BORER (Maruca vitrata) IN PIGEONPEA
armigera are the key insect pests inflicting
80-90% of yield loss.
2. Materials and Methods:
An untreated control plot was
selected for the studies on the population
buildup and seasonal abundance of spotted
pod borer, M. vitrata was carried out at Crop
Research Center (CRC), Sardar Vallabhbhai
Patel University of Agriculture and
Technology, Meerut-250110 (U.P.) during
Kharif 2016 and 2017. The crop was raised
following all the recommend package of
practices and was kept completely under
unprotect conditions. Observations on major
pod borer’s larvae were recorded from 10
randomly selected plants at three locations
in the plot at weekly intervals starting from
flower initiation to maturity stage. The trend
of pod borer population build-up was
determined by working out the mean
number of larvae/ 10 plants. Simultaneously,
weather parameters i.e., temperatures,
relative humidity and rainfall were collected
from meteorological observatory, IIFSR,
Modipuram, Meerut was used for correlation
and regression studies to know the influence
of weather parameters on the population of
major pod borers. The influence of key
meteorological parameters on the pest
incidence was worked out with simple
correlation (Gomez and Gomez, 1984).
2122 /)]Sy)(Sx[(
Sxyr
Where,
r = Simple correlation
coefficient
Sx2 = Correlated sum of
squares for meteorological parameter
Sy2 = Correlated sum of
squares for pest incidence
Sxy = Correlated sum of
cross products.
3. Results and Discussion:
3.1 Seasonal incidence of Maruca vitrata
during Kharif, 2016
The seasonal incidence of M. vitrata
in pigeonpea during Kharif, 2016 presented
in (Table-1). The observation on seasonal
incidence of M. vitrata in pigeonpea
recorded from flowering stage (38th
standard
week) to maturity of crop (51st standard
week) during Kharif, 2016. The larval
population of M. vitrata during 2016 was
firstly reported at 38th
standard week (3rd
week of September) with 2.67 larvae per ten
plants when the maximum and minimum
temperature 35.00˚C and 24.74˚C,
respectively, relative humidity 81.05 per
cent and rainfall 21.20 mm was recorded.
The larval population of M. vitrata ranged
from 2.67 to 22.00 larvae per ten plants from
September to November. The pest activity
increased from the second week of October
and reached its peak at 44th
standard week
(last week of October) with 22.00 larvae per
ten plants when the maximum and minimum
temperature 30.59˚C and 14.14˚C,
respectively, relative humidity 70.84 per
cent and rainfall 0.0 mm was recorded. The
larval population started declined (18.33
larvae per ten plants) during the 45th
standard week (1st week of November)
when the maximum and minimum
temperature 28.66˚C and 9.99˚C,
respectively, relative humidity 71.31 per
cent and rainfall 0.0 mm was recorded. The
minimal population 0.33 larvae per ten
plants of M. vitrata were recorded during
51st standard week (3
rd week of December).
3.2 Seasonal incidence of Maruca vitrata
during Kharif, 2017
The seasonal incidence of M. vitrata
in pigeonpea during Kharif, 2017 presented
in (Table-2). The larval population of M.
vitrata was ranged from 2.00 to 21.00 larvae
Vaibhav et.al., 2018
49
per ten plants. The larval population was
rapidly increased from the third fortnight of
October and attained its peak of 21.00 larvae
per ten plants during 45th
standard week
while the maximum and minimum
temperature 26.00˚C and 10.70˚C,
respectively, relative humidity 82.90 per
cent and rainfall 0.0 mm was recorded. The
larval population started declined (17.33
larvae per ten plants) during the 46th
standard week when the maximum and
minimum temperature 27.70˚C and 13.10˚C,
respectively, relative humidity 73.80 per
cent and rainfall 0.0 mm was recorded. The
minimal pest population (1.33 larvae per ten
plants) were recorded during 50th
standard
week (2nd
week of December). The present
findings uphold the views of Akhauri and
Yadav (2002), who reported that larval
population of M. vitrata peaked during
November. which support the present
investigation. The present findings are
dissimilar with Sreekanth et al. (2015),
Sujithra et al. (2014) who reported that the
larval population of M. vitrata its peak
during 3rd
week of December (51st standard
week) during Kharif, 2017.
3.3 Correlation between larval population
of M. vitrata and weather factors during
Kharif, 2016 and 2017
The data Correlation between larval
population of M. vitrata and weather factors
during Kharif 2016 and 2017 presented in
(Table 3 & 4). After analysis of simple
correlation coefficient (r) between M. vitrata
larval population and weather parameters,
the results revealed that the correlation
showed that the maximum temperature and
M. vitrata larvae population had non-
significant positive correlation (r= 0.396 &
0.011) during Kharif 2016 and 2017. The
minimum temperature showed non-
significant positive correlation (r= 0.107)
during 2016 and the minimum temperature
showed non-significant negative correlation
(r= -0.305) during subsequent season with
larval population of M. vitrata. The average
relative humidity showed significant
negative correlation with pest population
during 2016 season, (r= -0.633) while in the
second year crop season the average relative
humidity showed non-significant positive
correlation (r= 0.053) with the larval
population. During Kharif, 2016 and 2017
rainfall showed a non-significant negative
correlation with the M. vitrata larval
population with r= -0.277 & -0.389,
respectively.(Table: 3 & 4)
The interactions between M. vitrata
larval population and prevailing weather
parameters as obtained in the present
investigation are in line with the findings of
Sahoo and Behera (2001), Reddy et al.
(2001), who also reported that larval
population of M. vitrata exhibited positive
correlation with maximum and minimum
temperature and negative correlation with
relative humidity and rainfall, which support
the present investigation. The present
findings of Kharif 2017 min. temperature
had negative and max. temperature had
positive correlation with M. vitrata
population the findings also supported by
Saxena and Ujagir (2007). who reported that
the temperature and RH had positively
correlated with larval population. The
present investigation are in accordance with
findings of Sonune et al. (2010), Reddy et
al. (2017) who stated that maximum and
minimum temperatures showed significant
negative correlation with M.vitrata larval
population while humidity positively
correlated.
REFERENCE
1. Akhauri, R. K. and Yadav, R. P.,
(2002). Population dynamics, damage
pattern and maneagement of spotted pod
borer (Maruca testulalis Geyer.) in early
pigeonpea under North Bihar conditions.
J. Ent. Res., 26(2): 179-182.
POPULATION BUILD-UP AND SEASONAL INCIDENCE OF SPOTTED POD BORER (Maruca vitrata) IN PIGEONPEA
2. Anonymous (2016). (Food and
agriculture organization)
http.//faostat.fao.org.
3. Anonymous (2017). (Directorate of
Pulses Development)
http://dpd.dacnet.nic.in
4. Gomez, K. A. and Gomez, A. A.
(1984) Statistical Procedures for
Agricultural Research. John Wiley and
Sons. pp. 644 – 645.
5. Kandhare, A. S. (2014). Different seed
categories of pigeonpea and its seed
mycoflora. International Research
Journal of Biological Sciences, 3(7):74-
75.
6. Reddy, C. N., Singh, Y. and Singh, V.
S. (2001). Infuence of abiotic factors on
the major insect pests of pigeonpea.
Indian J. Entomol.,63(3):211-214.
7. Reddy, S. S., Reddy, C. N., Srinivas,
C., Rao A. M. and Reddy S. N. (2017).
Studies on Population Dynamics of
Spotted Pod Borer Maruca vitrata in
Dolichos Bean, Lablab purpureus L.
and their Relation with Abiotic Factors.
Int. J. Pure App. Biosci. 5 (4): 1232-
1239.
8. Sahoo, B. K. and Behera, U. K.
(2001).Influence of abiotic factors on
the incidence of pigeonpea pod borers in
coastal belt of Orissa. Environment and
Ecology. 19(4):882-884.
9. Saxena, K. and Ujagir, R. (2007). Effect of temperature and relative
humidity on pod borer in pigeonpea.
Journal of Food Legumes, 20(1) 121-
123.
10. Sonune, V. R., Bharodia, R. K.,
Jethva, D. M. and P. L., Dabhade
(2010). Seasonal incidence of spotted
pod borer, Maruca testulali on
blackgram. Legume Research 33(1):61-
63
11. Sreekanth, M. and
Seshamahalakshmi, M. (2012). Studies
on relative toxicity of biopesticides to
Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) and
Maruca vitrata (Geyer) on pigeonpea
(Cajanus cajan L.) Journal of
Biopesticides 5(2): 191-195.
12. Sujithra, M. and Subhash, C. (2014).
Seasonal incidence and damage of major
insect pests of pigeon pea, Cajanus
cajan (L.). Indian Journal of
Entomology. 76(3): 202-206.
Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.)
Fig 1: Seasonal incidence of M. vitrata in pigeonpea during Kharif, 2016
Fig 2: Seasonal incidence of M. vitrata in pigeonpea during Kharif, 2017
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Rainfall (mm)
Avrage No. of M. vitrata larvae/ 10 Plants
Standard week
Mea
n R
.H.
an
d R
ain
fall
(m
m)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Rainfall (mm) Avrage No. of M. vitrata larvae/ 10 Plants Max. Temp. Min. Temp. R.H. %
Vaibhav et.al., 2018
52
Table-1: Seasonal incidence of pigeonpea pod borers, Maruca vitrata in relation to abiotic
factors during kharif, 2016
Standers
metrological
week
Date of
observation
No. of Larvae
M. vitrata /10
Plants
Temperature (0c) Relative
Humidity
%
Rainfall
(mm)
Max. Min. Mean
38 19-09-2016 2.67
35.00 24.74 81.05 21.20
39 26-09-2016 5.33
34.57 23.44 78.86 0.00
40 03-10-2016 9.67
34.50 24.33 79.77 1.20
41 10-10-2016 11.33
27.01 21.19 74.47 0.00
42 17-10-2016 18.33
33.10 16.34 65.32 0.00
43 24-10-2016 20.67
32.33 15.97 69.19 0.00
44 31-10-2016 22.00
30.59 14.14 70.84 0.00
45 7-11-2016 18.33
28.66 9.99 71.31 0.00
46 14-11-2016 13.00
28.56 10.66 70.99 0.00
47 21-11-2016 7.33
27.69 10.30 75.03 0.00
48 28-11-2016 4.33
27.43 10.21 71.04 0.00
49 05-12-2016 2.67
23.21 8.90 80.92 0.00
50 12-12-2016 1.33
23.14 9.36 77.96 0.00
51 19-12-2016 1.00
23.90 5.64 70.26 0.00
Effects of Edible Oils against Pulse Beetle Callosobruchus Chinensis (Linn.)
Table-2: Seasonal incidences of pigeonpea pod borers, Maruca vitrata in relation to abiotic
factors during kharif, 2017
Standers
metrological week
Date of
observation
No. of Larvae
M. vitrata /10
Plants
Temperature (0c)
Relative
Humidity
%
Rainfall
(mm)
Max. Min. Mean
38 18-09-2017 2 30.8 21.3 82.5 57
39 25-09-2017 2.33 33.4 21.0 78.8 0.0
40 02-10-2017 5.00 33.3 19.5 75.1 0.0
41 09-10-2017 7.67 32.5 18.2 73.1 0.0
42 16-10-2017 12.67 32.7 14.4 70.2 0.0
43 23-10-2017 16.33 30.6 13.3 75.1 0.0
44 30-10-2017 19.67 28.2 9.7 74.4 0.0
45 06-11-2017 21.00 26.0 10.7 82.9 0.0
46 13-11-2017 17.33 27.7 13.1 73.8 0.0
47 20-11-2017 13.67 25.1 6.7 43.0 0.0
48 27-11-2017 6.33 24.9 6.1 62.1 0.0
49 04-12-2017 2.67 24.3 7.9 58.2 0.0
50 11-12-2017 1.33 20.0 8.4 71.5 10.0
Vaibhav et.al., 2018
54
Table-3: Correlation between mean larval population of Maruca vitrata and weather
parameters Kharif, 2016
Season Weather parameter
Correlation coefficient (r)
Kharif- 2016-2017
Max. Temp (°C) 0.396
Min. Temp (°C) 0.107
Relative Humidity (%) *-0.633
Rainfall (mm) -0.277
* and ** indicate significant of value at P=0.01 and 0.05 is (r = ± 0.6835) and (r = ± 0.5529) ,
respectively
Table-4: Correlation between mean larval population of Maruca vitrata and weather
parameters Kharif, 2017
Season Weather parameter
Correlation coefficient (r)
Kharif- 2017-2018
Max. Temp (°C) 0.011
Min. Temp (°C) -0.305
Relative Humidity (%) 0.053
Rainfall (mm) -0.389
* and ** indicate significant of value at P=0.01 and 0.05 is (r = ± 0.6835) and (r = ± 0.5529) ,
respectively
AUTHOR GUIDELINES
1. NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH &
DEVELOPMENT welcomes original articles. Articles (not exceeding 25,00-3,000 words) must be
typed on one side of the paper, double-spaced, with wide margins on all four sides. An abstract (not
exceeding 100-120 words) must accompany the article. The format followed must be Title, Name of
the author(s), their affiliation, abstract, introduction, methodology, major findings, conclusion and
reference.
2. E-mail the article in original as an attachment in MS Word to [email protected]. The author(s)
should furnish a certificate stating that the paper has neither been published nor has been submitted
for publication elsewhere.
3. Within the text, adopt the author-date method of citation minus the comma, for example, (Singh
2002). If more than one work of the author is cited, separate the years of publication with a comma
(Pandey 1996, 1999). When more than one author is cited, the entries should be chronological with
works of different authors separated by a semicolon (Pareek 1990; Sinha 1994; Dixit 1997). If
gazetteers, reports and works of governmental organizations are cited, mention the name of the
organisation/institution sponsoring the publication in the citation, fully spelt out at its first occurrence
(Government of India 2003), and use its abbreviation/ acronym in subsequent citations (GOI 2003).
4. Give separately the bibliographic details of all works cited in the article under References in the
following sequence: (a) Article: the name(s) of the author(s); the year of publication; title of the
article (within single inverted commas); the name of the journal (italicised); and the volume number,
the issue number, the beginning and ending page numbers. (b) Chapter in an edited work or
compilation: the names(s) of the author(s); the year of publication; title of the chapter (within single
inverted commas); the name(s) of the editor(s)/compiler(s); title of the book (italicized); the beginning
and ending page numbers of the chapters; place of publication; and the name of the publisher. (c)
Book: the name(s) of the author(s); the year of publication; title of the book (italicized); place of
publication; and the name of the publisher. The listing in References must follow the alphabetical
order of the last name of the (first) author.
5. Use British, rather than American, spellings (labour, not labor; programme, not program).
Similarly, use’s’,rather than ‘z’, in ‘ise’, ‘ising’, ‘isation’ words.
6. Write numerals between one and ninety-nine in words, and 100 and above in figures. However, the
following are to be in figures only: distance: 3 km; age: 32 years old; percentage: 64 percent; century:
20th century; and years: 1990s.
7. Contributors are also required to provide on a separate sheet their name, designation, official
address and E-mail ID.
8. All tables, charts and graphs should be typed on separate sheet. They should be numbered
continuously in Arabic numerals as referred to in the text.
NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Halfyearly
Published by New Age Mobilization
New Delhi 110043 REGISTRATION No.
S/RS/SW/1420/2015
Printed by
Pragati Press
Muzaffararnagar, U. P. Date of Publication
18 NOV, 2017
Printing Place
Muzaffarnagar, U.P.
Published by (On behalf of)
Mrs. Jagesh Bhardwaj President, New Age Mobilization
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Dr. Tulsi Bhardwaj Scientist-DST-WOS-B
S.V. P. U. A. & T. Meerut U.P. India Post Doctoral Fellow (Endeavour Award, CSIRO, Australia)
Published by: “New Age Mobilization”, at Northern Office-Rohana House, 111 A 112,
Gher Kale Rai, Hanuman Chawk, Shamli Road, Muzaffarnagar, U.P., India, Printed &
Publisher- Mrs. Jagesh Bhardwaj, Printed at: Pragati Press, 35/2, Civil lines South,
Prakash Talkies Road, Muzaffarnagar, U.P., India, Editor: Dr. Tulsi Bhardwaj, Scientist
DST--SVPUAT , Meerut, U.P. India