neuroprosthetics seminar report

Semester : VII

Branch : ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION

Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS

Toc H Institute of Science & Technology

Arakkunnam – 682 313

1. INTRODUCTION

Neuroprosthetics (also called Neural Prosthetics) is a discipline related to

neuroscience and biomedical engineering concerned with developing neural

prostheses, artificial implantable devices to replace or improve the function of an

impaired nervous system.

Neuroprosthetics are the set of physical devices that interact with the brain or

other neural tissue to augment, restore, or otherwise impact function.

Neuroprosthetics are electrical stimulation technologies that replace or assist

damaged or malfunctioning neuromuscular organ systems and attempt to restore

normal body processes, create or improve function, and/or reduce pain. These

systems are either implanted or worn externally on the body. Such assistive

devices range from intramuscular stimulation systems designed to limit limb

atrophy in paralysis, to implanted bladder voiding systems and more complex

implanted neuromuscular control.

The process of transitioning this technology into a clinically useful device will

require two parallel paths of research.

In the first path, experimental paradigms involving microelectrode array recordings

in behaving animals will be developed in conjunction with signal processing

techniques for studying the unknown aspects of neural coding and functional

neurophysiology. These signal processing techniques will then be implemented in

portable, low-power, wireless hardware.

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



The second path, high-density array ECoG recordings in humans, provides a less

invasive technique for neural interfaces however it still remains unknown how to

extract BMI control signatures that are sufficiently spatially and temporally

resolved.

Neuroprosthetics is an area of intense scientific and clinical interest and rapid

progress. The word‟ prosthesis‟ is derived from the Greek word for „addition‟. A

breakdown of the word includes „pros‟ meaning „to‟, and „thesis‟, meaning „a

placing‟.

Neuroprosthetic are in their infancy just now, but they offer two things that are truly

wonderful:

1. Bypassing the body, and letting the mind interface directly with VR, for the

ultimate immersive experience – the virtual body becomes as the normal

functioning body

2. Augmented body parts will be able to be fitted to the body, and controlled by the

brain as if you were born with them – after a little training, without conscious

thought.

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



2. HISTORY

The first cochlear implant dates back to 1957. Other landmarks include the first

motor prosthesis for foot drop in hemiplegic in 1961, the first auditory brainstem

implant in 1977 and a peripheral nerve bridge implanted into spinal cord of adult

rat in 1981.

Paraplegics were helped in standing with a lumbar anterior root implant (1988)

and in walking with Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES). Regarding the

development of electrodes implanted in the brain, an early difficulty was reliably

locating the electrodes, originally done by inserting the electrodes with needles

and breaking off the needles at the desired depth. Recent systems utilize more

advanced probes, such as those used in deep brain stimulation to alleviate the

symptoms of Parkinson's disease.

Over the past four decades, research in Neuroprosthetic has generated a handful

of clinical successes and has gained lasting acceptance in the scientific

community noteworthy advances have been made.

Fig 1. Electrode

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



3. BLOCK DIAGRAM

BMI is currently growing with exponential speed, with real successes in linking

human brains to computers, and the control of virtual, and physical prosthetic

limbs via pure thought control as in fig 2

Fig 2-Block diagram

Neuroprosthetics, brain emulation and mind uploading are together perhaps the

most extreme end of the trend towards virtual reality. All three are BMI, or Brain-

Machine Interface. BMI is an old field, stretching back over six decades,

concerned with direct-connecting the human brain to machines, in order to

improve the function of both.

A BMI uses a computer to implement brain models that translate signals from

individual neurons into artificial limb commands. Discovery of the knowledge

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



needed to uncover the unknown aspects of systems-based neural encoding and

decoding for complex tasks needs highly demanding computational modeling. The

architecture consists of multiple forward-inverse pairs of dynamic models for

movement planning and control. The movement commands are the combined

outputs of selected pairs of models on the basis of real-time feedback signals

The research aims to (1) identify the types, numbers and combinations of models

for complex movement control and (2) deploy the cyber infrastructures for both

BMI implementation and research. It uses closed loop experiments where a

computer processes brain signals from rats to control robotic movements

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



4. TODAYS NEED OF NEUROPROSTHETICS

Whether caused by disease, an accident, or a necessary surgery, damage to

major nerves extends be-yond the cellular level. Without speech, completely

immobile individuals can be cut off from friends and family. Loss of limb function to

paralysis may trans-late into a loss of independence and good health. And the

deaf or blind may be severed from their work in addition to the sights and sounds

of everyday life.

Scientists are hotly pursuing a means to repair nerves, in particular by using stem

cells to replace or support function of injured neurons. However, this field is in its

early stages, and learning how to manipulate therapeutic cells will likely take

several years.

Neural prostheses can be engineered to take on the role of impaired neural cells,

relaying electrical signals between parts of the body or between the body and a

specialized machine. Such devices have already enabled the immobile to operate

computers by thought alone, the partially paralyzed to walk and groom

themselves, the deaf to hear, and the blind to see.

Today‟s prostheses demonstrate varying degrees of success and, even at their

best, cannot match the performance of natural tissues. Certainly, we are far from

the times of Luke Skywalker, when replacement robotic parts can be installed

upon the night of an injury. Nevertheless, application of this technology has

realized initial steps toward this dream and offered new hope to many patients.

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



5. TYPES OF NEUROPROSTHETICS

There are three main types of neuroprosthetics –

1. Sensory prosthetics.

2. Motor prosthetics.

3. Cognitive prosthetics.

1) SENSORY PROSTHETICS:

Sensory prosthetics get information into sensory areas like hearing and sight.

5.1 Visual prosthetics

A Visual prosthetics or bionic eye is a form of neutral prostheses intended to

partially restored lost vision or amplified existing vision. It usually takes the form of

an externally worn camera that is attached to a stimulator on the retina, optical

nerve, or in the visual cortex, in order to produce perceptions in the visual cortex

Research has produced visual prostheses that give patients fuzzy vision with a

pixel resolution of about 20 x 20, but these are just experimental and not ready for

mass use.

Other visual prostheses place the implant elsewhere, including the sub-retinal

space at the back of the eye, the optic nerve, and the visual cortex. Placed close

to its target cells, the sub-retinal implant requires relatively low energy output to

stimulate neuronal signaling one drawback is that its necessarily small size limits

its capacity to generate power. A solar cell-based prosthetic, stimulated and

powered by light, may resolve this concern and is undergoing clinical trials.

5.2 Auditory prosthetics:

Cochlear implant and auditory brainstem implant

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



Cochlear implant and auditory brainstem implant. A cochlear implant (or "bionic

ear") is a surgically implanted device that can help provide a sense of sound to a

person who is profoundly deaf or severely hard of hearing. Unlike hearing aids,

the cochlear implant does not amplify sound, but works by directly stimulating any

functioning auditory nerves inside the cochlea with electrical impulses. External

components of the cochlear implant include a microphone, speech processor and

transmitter.

Cochlear implant includes:

Ear clip -Microphone -Speech processor -Transmitter coil -Receiver coil -Lead

wires –Cochlea (hearing organ) –Auditory nerve.

Fig 3.Cochlear implant

5.3 Prosthetics for pain relief

Biphasic, charge balanced stimulation does not produce tissue damage if each

phase is below 0.3 micro Coulombs.

The human DBS system is biphasic, charge balanced. The cathodal pulse is

short and high amplitude while the anodal pulse is shallow and of longer

duration. Rebase current is the smallest current still capable of exciting a neural

element regardless of the pulse width.

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



The brain is of profound importance. It is the place that houses our sense of self,

our mind. It contains all of whom and what we are. As technologies advance,

Brain-Machine interfaces will become more and more sophisticated, and our

understanding of the brain's functions will become ever-greater.

Spinal cord stimulators were developed based on the Gate Control Theory of

pain transmission. Spinal cord stimulators provide a constant light sensory

stimulus and help keep the Gate closed.

Acupuncture is thought to work by stimulating A-fibers and thus closing the Gate.

The Spinal Cord Stimulator or (Dorsal Column Stimulator) is used to treat

chronic neurological pain. It is implanted near the dorsal surface of the spinal

cord and an electric impulse generated by the device provides a "tingling"

sensation that alters the perception of pain by the patient. A pulse generator or

RF receiver is implanted in the abdomen or buttocks. A wire harness connects

the lead to the pulse generator.

Deep Brain Stimulator:

V = IR

The resistance of the brain/electrode system will varies depending on the tissue

stimulated. White matter is 1200 ohms transversely and 200 ohms long. Gray

matter is about 300 ohms. Typical impedance for human DBS is 1000 ohms.

Current density = current/area

Area of one DBS contact = 6mm2

Charge density = current density * pulse width

Axons and neurons have different thresholds for activation

Large axons have a lower threshold than small axons and thus will be activated

first.

The threshold for Activation is described as:

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



K = current/distance2.

Biphasic, charge balanced stimulation does not produce tissue damage if each

phase is below 0.3 micro Coulombs.

The human DBS system is biphasic, charge balanced. The cathodal pulse is

short and high amplitude while the anodal pulse is shallow and of longer

duration. Rebase current is the smallest current still capable of exciting a neural

element regardless of the pulse width.

Fig 4 Electrode surface

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



6. MOTOR NEUROPROSTHETICS

A Motor prosthetics device, or brain computer interface, is a machine that can

take some type of signal from the brain and convert that information into overt

device control such that it reflects the intentions of the user's brain.

In essence, these constructs can decode the electrophysiological signals

representing motor intent. With the parallel evolution of neuroscience,

engineering, and rapid computing, the era of clinical neuroprosthetics is

approaching as a practical reality for people with severe motor impairment.

In the somatic nervous system attempts to aid conscious control of movement

includes Functional electrical stimulation and the lumbar anterior root stimulator.

The Brain Gate system is a neuromotor prosthetic device consisting of an array

of one hundred silicon microelectrodes; each electrode is 1mm long and thinner

than a human hair.

The electrodes are arranged less than half a millimeter apart on the array, which

is attached to a 13cm-long cable ribbon cable connecting it to a computer. This

experimental paradigm opens many new questions about optimal neural

decoding, techniques for neuronal sampling.

Sacral anterior root stimulator:

Where a spinal cord lesion leads to paraplegia, patients have difficulty emptying

their bladders and this can cause infection. From 1969 onwards Brindley

developed the sacral anterior root stimulator, with successful human trials from

the early 1980s onwards.

This device is implanted over the sacral anterior root ganglia of the spinal cord;

controlled by an external transmitter, it delivers intermittent stimulation which

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



improves bladder emptying. It also assists in defecation and enables male

patients to have a sustained full erection.

Motor prosthetics for conscious control of movement

Brain-computer interface:

Researchers are attempting to build motor neuroprosthetics that will help restore

movement and the ability to communicate with the outside world to persons with

motor disabilities such as tetraplegia or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

To capture electrical signals from the brain, scientists have developed

microelectrode arrays smaller than a square centimeter that can be implanted in

the skull to record electrical activity, transducing recorded information through a

thin cable.

The technology behind motor neuroprostheses is still in its infancy. Investigators

and study participants continue to experiment with different ways of using the

prostheses. Having a patient think about clenching a fist, for example, produces

a different result than having him or her think about tapping a finger. The filters

used in the prostheses are also being fine-tuned, and in the future, doctors hope

to create an implant capable of transmitting signals from inside the skull

wirelessly, as opposed to through a cable.

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



Fig 5: brain implantation

Sensory/Motor prosthetics

In 2002 an implant was interfaced directly into the median nerve fibers of the

scientist Kevin Warwick. The electrode array inserted contained 100 electrodes, of

which 25 could be accessed at any one time. The signals produced were detailed

enough that a robot arm developed by Warwick's colleague, Peter Kyberd, was

able to mimic the actions of Warwick's own arm and provide a form of touch

feedback via the implant.

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



7. COGNITIVE NEUROPROSTHETICS

Sensory and motor prostheses deliver input to and output from the nervous

system respectively. Theodore Berger at the University of Southern California

defines a third class of prostheses[8] aimed at restoring cognitive function by

replacing circuits within the brain damaged by stroke, trauma or disease. Work

has begun on a proof-of-concept device a hippocampal prosthesis which can

mimic the function of a region of the hippocampus a part of the brain responsible

for the formation of memories.

HOW TO IMPLEMENT

A Neuroprosthetic device (arrow) translates brain signals into actions on a

computer screen, allowing a paralyzed man to draw, check e-mail, and play

games. The below fig shows it

Fig6: BMI

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



Fig 7: BMI implanting on RAT.



games.

Fig 8: HAND SIMULATION

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



Fig 9 NEUROPROSTHETIC DEVICE



games.

To realize this, an electrode array (arrowhead) implanted into the brain records the

firing b, of individual neurons as a paralyzed man (Figure 1) imagines actions

(such as opening and closing a hand). A device (arrow) converting this information

into original signals that can be used to manipulate a robotic hand or generate

movements on a computer screen.

The brain-computer interface has the potential to surpass the shortcomings and

enhance both communication and motor functionality. In a concerted effort with

Massachusetts General Hospital, Brown University, and CY-be kinetics (Figure

10).

An implant of 96 electrodes into the primary motor cortex of the brain read the

changing voltage of neurons that control voluntary movement (Figure 2A). The

signals are digitally filtered and interpreted in an external device (Figure 2B), then

sent to a machine to trigger actions

Signaling at some electrodes was lost in one patient, possibly due to a short circuit

in the array several months after the device‟s insertion

Electroencephalography (EEG) interfaces, which take readings of brain activity

from the scalp. These systems do not support the high control conferred by the

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



electrode array, which can monitor many individual neurons; EEG interfaces also

require weeks to calibrate to a given user whereas Brain Gate requires only a

matter of minutes (3). As implants mediate increasingly complex functions and

become more durable, they may become the preferred long-term medium. Non-

invasive devices, on the other hand, may be better suited to fulfill short-term

needs.

Fig 10. Signals in brain

Moving On After Paralysis

An alternative strategy for gaining mobility and functionality is available to

amputees and partially paralyzed patients. Peripheral-machine inter-faces do not

read motor signals from the brain. Rather, in what is called functional electrical

stimulation (FES), they generate and feed signals to nerves. An external

transmitter sends radio waves to an implanted receiver-stimulator. This in turn

relays signals to electrodes placed in bundles of muscle fibers, which can then

execute movements (Figure 11). In this case, the transmitter discharges signals

derived from the movement of a functional region, like a shoulder or wrist

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



Figure 11 EAR STIMULATION

Bionic sight and sound.

Figure (12.a), the most successful neuroprostheses, the cochlear implant has

allowed over 100,000 people to hear again. Sound detected from a microphone is

coded into signals, sent from a transmitter to an implant that stimulates electrodes

in the cochlea, and processed in the brain‟s auditory cortex.

Figure (12.b), In common forms of blindness, information-gathering cells called

photoreceptors die. Retinal prostheses make sure their targets, retinal ganglion

cells, are stimulated by electrodes on the retina‟s surface (epiretinal) or under it

(sub retinal). Input received by the visual cortex may originate from a

camera/processor or light alone. Physical problems that frequently afflict the

paralyzed.

Signaling Sights and Sounds

Bionic devices are not limited to communicating motion-related tasks, but can also

mimic the senses. Some cells are stimulated by frequencies as low as 20 Hz,

others as high as 20 kHz, and many others register pitches in between. When any

combination of these cells fire, their signals are relayed to the auditory nerve, the

auditory brainstem, and ultimately the auditory cortex of the brain. The bionic

hearing differs in multiple ways.

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



Perhaps only 22 electrodes may be available to distinguish the several kHz

ranges of frequencies, whose detection usually requires thousands of hair cells.

The importance of this bridging process is reflected in the differential ability to

learn languages. While the implant does not achieve the natural level of acuity, its

overall functionality peaks to its success, as does its wide distribution to over

100,000 adults and children worldwide

Both conditions involve massive death of photoreceptor cells, neurons of the

outer retina that detect light and color. Instead of stimulating these lost cells,

Humayan‟s bionic system feeds signals from a spectacle-mounted camera to a

4x4 electrode array on the inner retinal surface The result is a crude form of vision

with 16 Pixels, instead of the millions naturally achieved by the eye.

TOTAL PROCESS OF COCHLEAR IMPLANTATION:

Fig 12 cochlear implant

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NEUROPROSTHETICS



Fig 13.Hearing mechanism

Fig 14 Device placement

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8. CURRENT TECHNOLOGY

Medtronic and Advanced Bionics are significant commercial names in the

emergent market of Deep Brain Stimulation. Cyber kinetics is the first venture

capital funded neural prosthetic company.

Research into Neuroprosthetic is an ongoing and cutting-edge area of science.

We should expect to see many more developments in the future, some of which

will challenge common assumptions about the interface between the mind and

machines.

The Current of Bionics:

The demonstrated potential of neural prosthetics has engendered both hopes and

concerns. Once normal hearing and vision are restored, our sensory repertoire

could conceivably be expanded to include infrared wave-lengths or ultrasound.

Replacement limbs could feature increased power and utility than organic ones. If

the mind today can move a robotic arm, tomorrow‟s devices might allow

manipulation of an entire robot. Implant engineers continue to face hurdles, such

as supplying power to electrodes and preventing corrosion of metals in the body‟s

aqueous and oxygenated environment.

Non-invasive Neuroprosthetic

Nature reports that by simply recording the brain's electrical signals from

electrodes on the scalp, researchers have enabled trained participants to reliably

control computer equipment, a feat normally associated with physical implants in

the brain.

One of the disadvantages, well known to scientists who use forms of EEG

recording to research the brain, is that the skull 'smears' the signal from the brain.

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



Furthermore, muscle activity can introduce large amounts of electrical noise into

the recording.

With the development of „smart‟ chips, which have thousands of chemically

sensitive switches on their surface, we can in theory now create sensors to

replace these sensory neurons.

Epilepsy Neuroprosthetic:

A growing body of research indicates that controlling seizure activity can be

achieved through direct or indirect (vagal nerve) brain stimulation.

Uncontrolled epilepsy poses a significant burden to society due to associated

healthcare costs and chronic under-unemployment of otherwise physically and

mentally competent individuals. The advancement of new antiepileptic therapies

with novel, rational mechanisms of action into clinical testing is an essential

process toward the creation of new treatments for drug refractory disease and/or

therapies with fewer side effects.

fig 15. Parts of brain where electrode is implanted

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NEUROPROSTHETICS



9. ADVANTAGES

Replacement of the impaired function part of the human body

like brain, heart, ears, retinal devices called bionical devices

Not only that but also the hand, legs interaction takes place by using

software‟s and hardware‟s which is equivalent to the electronic circuit which

is easy to implement.

Not only that but also all parts of the man parts like kidney, teeth also.

Replacing of lost neural tissue damage

Electrode systems, from micro wires and platinum disc electrodes to

penetrating microarrays, are capable of effectively and chronically

interfacing with the human nervous system which increases the capability.

Neuroprosthetic devices, and have curbed neuroprostheses markets to the

point of commercial non-viability. As such, Medicare coverage and

reimbursement policies constitute both the most pernicious and most easily

changed hurdle faced by neuroprostheses commercialization efforts.

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



10. CHALLENGES

Cranial Nerves

There are twelve cranial nerve pairings (making 24 nerves in total) which split out

from the brain, and move to cover the needs of the cranium and face, rather than

make their way down through the central spinal cord. These nerves are important

to consider, as most are of critical importance to sensory data, yet do not pass

through the central cord, and so cannot be intercepted at the same juncture.

IBM's blue brain project

The blue brain project's mission is to recreate a human brain through simulation,

replacing neuron by connection. But the project is still in development due to the

complex organization of brain ,and yet need to be decoded for any further

advancement.

Interrupting the Brainstem

The brainstem is the part of the brain that descends just in front of the cerebellum.

It drops down from the brain to meet and meld with the spinal cord rising from the

body. The issue is, how do we go about hijacking the brainstem, to splice a virtual

body, or artificial body parts onto it

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



11. APPLICATIONS AND LIVE EXAMPLES

Christopher Reeve Used System

Christopher Reeve was among the first users of this new system. Therapy System

furnished improved circulation, cardiopulmonary exercise, reduced spasticity,

more range of motion for his joints, along with added protection against undue

pressure and skin breakdown.

Muscle stimulation acts as a prosthesis by replacing aspects of an incapacitated

nervous system. In patients with upper motor neuron damage (spinal cord injury,

stroke, cerebral palsy, multiple sclerosis, head injury), it bypasses the impaired

part of the brain or cord and stimulates the motor nerves directly. This makes the

muscles contract. The stimulator's microprocessor and controller execute and

coordinate commands to each muscle, instructing which ones to contract and

which ones to relax at any given moment. A muscle stimulator's level of

sophistication determines the complexity of movement it imparts to the body as

well as what level of muscle force and firing sequence to emulate.

Strengthening Muscles, Reducing Spasticity

Muscle stimulation can be used in patients with incomplete spinal cord injury to

strengthen muscles and reduce spasticity, so that the body operates more

efficiently and effectively. For example, many persons with incomplete injuries

having voluntary control over the quadriceps can stand and walk longer and more

effectively when the quadriceps muscles are strengthened.

Reducing Pain

Another area found electrical stimulation to be immensely helpful is the reduction

of chronic pain. While most clinicians are familiar with TENS, few are aware that

Semester : VII


Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



muscle stimulation can be used as well. The difference is that muscle stimulation

is a stronger stimulus and is capable of contracting and relaxing muscles in a

cyclic manner. My clinical experience shows that muscle stimulation is better at

blocking pain than TENS.

Electrode Garment:

The purpose of the garment is to help align and hold electrodes in place. The

material comprising the body of the garment is a flexible spandex. The electrodes

are made of silver cloth and are highly conductive. I make the garments in such a

way that wires do not interfere with or restrict body movement. The garment fitting

is a three to five stage process which varies, depending on the complexity of the

case. Patients doing therapy can don the garment, then remove it after a few

hours, or if being used for pain relief, it can be worn under clothes throughout the

day, sometimes even at night when the patient sleeps. Because the garment is

worn directly on the skin and is worn for extensive periods of time, it must fit just

right. Otherwise, skin irritation and breakdown might occur.

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Seminar Title :

NEUROPROSTHETICS



12. FUTURE SCOPE

1. Self-charging implants that use bioenergy to recharge would eliminate the need

for costly and risky surgeries to change implant batteries.

2. Memory/Brain off-loading and subsequent uploading to learn new information

quickly. Researchers at the Georgia Institute of Technology are researching

mammalian memory cells to determine exactly how we learn. The techniques

used in the Potter Lab can be used to study and enhance the activities of neural

prosthetics devices.

3. Controlling complex machinery with thoughts instead of converting motor

movements into commands for machines would allow greater accuracy and

enable users to distance themselves from hazardous environments.

4. Other future directions include devices to maintain focus, to stabilize/induce

mood, to help patients with damaged cortices feel and express emotions, and to

enable true telepathic communication, not simply picking up visual/auditory cues

and guessing emotional state or subject of thought from context.

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NEUROPROSTHETICS



13. CONCLUSION

In present days with different types of neural disorders and malfunctioning of

human organs. Loss of various vital organs of human body due to various reasons

lacks to victim to lead a normal life. Neuroprosthetic has been boon to these

victims to overcome their handicaps.

The new technology which is getting advanced in all parts of human body

from the past four decades is bringing a good change in the Neuroprosthetic

world. But Neuroprosthetic research will not be easily or quickly overcome, but

existing technology offers solutions sufficient for meaningful clinical applications.

Physical therapy in not the only venue for electrical simulation and

Neuroprostheses. Neuroprostheses industry may prove instrumental in uniting

venture capilists with researchers, and in helping both groups to identify further

broadly applicable trends in Neurotechnology. All current Neuroprosthetic devices

rely on the electrode-nerve interface as the sole means including neural response,

and thus restored function.

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NEUROPROSTHETICS



14. BIBILIOGRAPHY

1. LAURA BAILEY, “University of Michigan news service ”,February 6,2006

2. Berger Tetal “restoring lost cognitive function” IEEE engineering in

medicine and biology magazine”,2005.

Handa G (2006) "Neural Prosthesis – Past, Present and Future" Indian

Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation 17(1)

3.

neuroprosthetics seminar report

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