Interested in the nature of consciousness -i.e. of the nervous system, -its one of the big unknowns-Humans are aware of, and can tell others, about our thoughts, our perceptions, our memories and our feelings.-We are aware of our own state and can communicate that with other people, i.e. I dont feel good language concept involved-All consciousness is language based-If you cant talk or cant communicate then youre not conscious -Limited definition, i.e. animals?-Figure: skeleton contemplating himself

Clinical examples that illustrate how language is an important part of conscious experience1. Blindsight phenomenon: person has a brain injury to a visual part of brain/visual cortexa. Report that they cant see anything or that theyre blind because of that injuryb. However they do experience some sight but its sight that they arent aware of c. Eyes and brain have to be seeing something but hes not consciously aware that hes seeing anythingd. Walk them around a room and they avoid objects or catch a ball thrown at theme. Report that they cant see anything f. Damage directly to visual cortical area of the braing. Figure 1.2 damage of people with blindsight is to mammalian system but they can walk around and see because the primitive visual system isnt damaged itself2. Split brain: epileptic seizures that are uncontrollable, part of the brain becomes overactive and spreads to other parts of the brain, unconscious, fall down, injure themselves, etc.a. Treated today with drugsb. In the old days, if drug therapies didnt work, desperate method took place prevent overactivity from spreadingc. Corpus collosum (fiber pathway that goes from one part of brain to another hard body in between two hemisphers of the brain)d. Cut the corpus collusum because cut the connecting pathway between hemispheres can no longer transmit inactivity to between hemispheres of the braine. Functionally we dont see any differences, two eyes see things at the same timef. However, there were differences functionally when discussing corpus collusumg. Smelling with a split brain body is aware of something that you cannot expressh. Plug left nostril, smell with right nostril sends smell to right hemisphere left side controls speech but cannot speak that they smell iti. THEREFORE you are only conscious of things that you can verbally express3. Unilateral Neglect : Parietal lobe on both hemispheresa. Damage right lobe you arent conscious of things that happen to your left sideb. Ask a woman to draw a flower, but she only draws half aka the right side of a flower. Demonstrates their unawareness of the left side of things c. Draw only right side of clockd. Ask them to describe a familiar location describe everything on the right sidee. Seeing with both sides but left side is ignored (connected to right lobe)4. Rubber hand illusiona. See figure 1.6b. Parietal lobec. Premotor cortex

Chapter 21. Construction and physiology of the nervous system2. Neuronsa. Integrate informationb. Send information to other parts of the nervous systemc. Refamiliarize with parts of neuron3. Types of synapsesa. presynaptic element and the post synaptic elementb. Synapses can be found on dendrites, on cell body, from one terminal to another terminal directlyc. Figure 2.27 i. Presynaptic specializationii. Postsynaptic specialization iii. Look up jobsd. 2.28i. terminal has a bunch of vesicles which migrate to synapse, fuse, gap, migrate to neurotransmitterse. 2.29i. first evidence that showed that synaptic vesicles come to presynaptic membrane, fuse, release into snaptic space, and interact with postsynaptic membrane omegaf. 2.30i. release of neurotransmitter. Presynaptic membrane becomes larger and larger because keep adding material to itg. 2.32i. recycling of the membrane of synaptic vesiclesii. fusion where release neurotransmitter, becomes larger, release h. 2.33i. neurotransmitter fits into receptor and activates, causes that receptor to open channel allowing ions from outside of neuron to inside of dendrite or particular neuronii. neurons normally slightly negative, action potential, need to let in a lot of positive ions iii. resting neuron -70 millivolts iv. IONOTROPIC RECEPTOR1. Fast acting, short lived2. Presynaptic and postsynaptic (dendrites) very close to one anotheri. 2.34i. surface of a cell body is studiedii. lavender interacts with neurotransmitteriii. when interacts with light blue allows iv. METABOTROPIC RECEPTOR1. Change the state of the neuron, so that its biased to be more or less likely to fire2. Longer time period, seconds or minutes of behaviors3. Gap is longer between elements (pre/post synaptic elements)4. May just bias the neuron5. Bias for several minutesv. Action potential to occur on a long term basisj. Hormonal receptorsi. Inside neuron have receptors for those hormonesii. Can act on receptors on membrane of neuron, in cytosol, in nucleus, to change expression of the genetic materialiii. Take longer to act, and when they begin acting they act longeriv. Farther apartv. Travel through bloodstream andactivate receptors in cytosol in nuclear membranevi. Take longer to be effective and further to travel, but when they activate they are in long term actionk. Figure 2.35i. Can have an exchange of ions across the membraneii. -70 mV in potential iii. neutrotransmitter iv. Action potential occurs when lots of channels open allowing positive ions into post synaptic membrane when neurotransmitter attaches to binding sitev. Kicks out potassium ions (+) neuron becomes more negative and becomes closer to resting potentialvi. Open chloride channels (-) alloing negative charges inside neuron driving it to negative statevii. Reaches resting potentialviii. Calcium (+) facilitates migration, diffusion, and release of neurotransmitters of cellix. Calcium channels also found in dendrites of cell bodies very important in changing structure of the dendrite l. Figure 2.36i. Three mechanisms for removing neurotransmitters from synaptic cleft1. Diffusion2. For some neurotransmitters there is an enxyme looking for neurotrans. And when enxyme finds it it degrades into component parts. Presynaptic membrane will pick up these parts, repack it in membrane and send it out again.3. Active mechanism for seeking neurotransmitter reuptake picks up and brings neurotrans. Back into the neuron4. Enhance reuptake mechanism5. Block mechanism of reuptake and leave neurotransmitter so that it can attach to another receptor again and prolong this actionm. Figure 2.37i. Excidatory effectsii. Excidatory post synaptic potential (EPSP) have enough can get to threshold so that theres an inhibition in the nervous system1. Second image: red (excidatory EPSPs eventually add up to an action potention) and blue (inhibitory IPSPs) 2. Inhibitory action allows potential to lower to even -72 or -75 mV making it even harder for firing to take placen. Figure 2.38i. Synapses happen between terminals and dendrites and terminals and terminalsii. Homosynaptic effectiii. Heterosynaptic effect1. When two terminals are attached while third connection is main to dendrite2. Can have inhibitory or excitatoryiv. Dendrites can release neurotransmitters that can affect receptors that are own their OWN dendritesv. Calms neuron downvi. Autoreceptors are when dendrite affects its own neurono. Figure 2.39i. Gap junctions are rare, four placesChapter 31) Figure 3.1a) Naming conventionsb) i.e. lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) - visualc) Median geniculate nucleus (MGN) auditory2) Table 3.1a) Central nervous system encased in boneb) Peripheral nervous system not encased in bone3) Figure 3.7a) Neural plate developmentb) Neural tubei) Creates brain and spinal cordc) Developing neural streak, cells enlarging to creat invaginationd) Center part comes together and fuses in middlee) Zips up on both sides to create enclosed neural tube, one end brain, one end spinal cordf) Recognizable structure on brain 4) Figure 3.8 a) Brain development b) Identifiable components to the nervous system 5) Table 3.2a) Major divisioni) Forebrain(1) Cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system(2) Thalamus, hypothalamusii) Hindbrain closest to spinal cord(1) Anterior = rostral (towards nose)(2) Posterior = caudal (towards tail)iii) Midbrain b) Figure 3.9i) Cortical developmentii) Nervous system overproduces neurons to ensure that we have enough, but need to get rid of spare(1) Program cell death apoptosis(2) Figure 3.10(a) Effects of learning on neurogenesis(b) Learning new things allows you to develop new neurons after youre born(c) New area of researchiii) 3.11(1) cross sections of brain(2) grey matter(a) Gyrus and sulcus(3) White matter(a) Corpus collusum(4) Limbic system(a) Singular cortex(5) Amygdala(a) Fears (b) Acquired fears in your lifetime(c) emotions(6) Hippocampus(a) Really important for memories(7) Basal ganglia(a) Really important for motor functions(b) Really important in thought processes -> parkinsons thoughts slow c) Figure 3.12i) Left and right hemisphereii) Lateral fissureiii) Central sulcusiv) Central lobe(1) Mostly involved in motor functionsv) Pre frontal cortexvi) Frontal lobevii) Parietal cortex is behind the central sulcusviii) Occipital cortex is associated with visual functionix) Temporal loadx) Association cortexxi) Rhineacephalon d) Figure 3.13i) Lateralii) Medialiii) Ventral (down)e) Fgure 3.15f) mid- saginal g) 3.16i) medial view of brainh) 3.18i) FOREbrain(1) HypothalamusL only 0.5% of total brain volumei) 3.20 hindbraini) cerenbellumii) CINGULATEj) midbrain i) pretty complex structure relatively small in comparisonii) everthing needs to go through ti iii) tube having a small demarcation (1) everything above the line is sensory in nature(2) anything below the line is motor in nature(3) upper part is known as the roof of the midbrain(a) tectum(b) superior colliculus visual in nature (not part of conscious experience)(c) inferior colliculus auditory in nature(4) tegmentum is bottom(a) substantia nigra

CHAPTER 41) FIGURE 4.4 very important to studya) Drug effects on synaptic transmissionb) Can make a lot of communication between pre and post synaptic mechanismsc) Agonist facilitates from one element to another, communicates between pre and post synaptic elementd) Antagonist interferes i) No ingredients to make neurotransmitterii) Could make sure its not put into vesiclesiii) Put into degrading vesciblesiv) Vesicles dont dock with neurotransv) Dont release neurotransvi) Uptake mecahnis is effective so that neurotransmitter is taken up too fastvii) Drugs that block the receptor blockere) Makes a snapse more effective so that he learns better or worse2) Figure 4.5a) Direct effectb) Direct agonist i) Open a chanelc) Direct antagonisti) Close a channeld) Second neurotransmitter can indirectly facilitate the opening of a channel so that when second neurotrans comes it easily opens up the channele) Or can have the opposite effect closes in antagonistsic effectf) Direct or indirect effects3) Fig 4.6 a) Heterosynaptic connection b) Neuron above influences the activity of middle terminal to release its neurotransmitterc) Modiefies the calcium channelsi) Can allow opening or closing of channels4) Fig 4.75) Not going to be tested on things below6) Acetylcholine7) Dopamine8) Neuropenefrine9) Gludamate10) Ceratonin11) Can figure out distribution12) The nature on whether or not a chemical is excitatory or inhibitory is entirely dependent on receptor on post synaptic membrane 13) two inhibitory (-) neurons cancel each other out and excite the third neuron (+)14) inhibition of an inhibitory neuron is called disinhibition15) odd and even numbers are dependent, same as basic pos and neg multiplication

-Know where parts of the brain are, anterior or posterior parts/organs

Chapter 5

Every technique has its advantages and disadvantages

Figure 5.221) Chronic microelectrodes2) Connect connecters to amplifies that enhance electrical signal on electrodes monitor signalsa) Firing rate of the cells in that area while the animal is doing the behavior of interestb) Chronic recording long termi) For behaviors of interests studyc) Acute recording only during the surgery d) Single unit recordingi) Similar to what may be done in acute experimentii) Animal is asleep, put recording electrode directly into the neuron of interestiii) Small electrode required, made with small glass pipettes microelectrodesiv) Type of recording typically seen in textbooks within neuronsv) See picture on phonee) Internal spaces of the brain create cerebral spinal fluid in which the brain in floating f) Prevent electrode from staying in place when the animal is awakeg) Instead of using intracellular electrode (as above) use extracellular recordingi) Electrode outside of several neuronsii) Multiple unit recordings many neurons at the same timeiii) However, able to record single neuron from extracellular electrode by touching electrode to neuron itselfiv) Make it really large, can record from 50 or 100 neurons at the same time within cellv) Spike from 0 line above and below is rapid change in action potential and action potential itself7Figure 5.231) EEG2) Looking at average of many action potentials happening at the same time or not at the same time3) If theres a lot of activity large action potential/ vs. small uncoordinated peaks

Figure 5.241) MEG2) Recording magnetic changes3) MAGNETIC FIELD IS ORTHAGONAL TO ELECTRIC FIELD4) Super magnets are very sensitive to picking up magnetic changes originating from the brain itself

Figure 5.251) Rat brain stained for 2) Brain consumes oxygen and glucose3) If radioactively labeled glucose, inject into rat that is behaving, neurons pick it up, able to see which parts of the brain are activated4) 2-deoxyglucose, an alternative form of glucosea) brain cells recognizeb) take into cellsc) want to metabolized) 2-deoxyglucose however cannot be metabolized so it stays in the cellse) going to pull in a lot of the glucose if its very activef) able to see which parts of the brain are very activeg) only inject small amount of 2-dg so they can maintain themselves with other glucose in bodyh) accumulate 2-dgi) after behaves in certain way, take animals brain, slice it, juxtapose and x-ray filmj) corpus collosum didnt pick up radioactivityk) basal ganglia (important for motor functions, parkinsons, operative conditioning, etc.)i) labeled in control animals as wellii) difference seen by arrowiii) identify area of interestiv) unusual amount of radioactivity not seen in control animal(1) part of hypothalamus(2) mammillary nucleus (3) has to do with memory functions

Figure 5.261) FOX2) Called immunocytochemistry3) Looking for genetic expression4) Fox becomes active to facilitate expression of gnese5) C-fox6) Radioactively label7) Immunological reactiona) Add to some chemical that is going to react to a foreign substance b) Light up and tell us where C-fox is expressedc) Early genesd) When become active, call to action to activate certain genese) More involvement of c-fox to show that happeningf) Dark spots show activationi) Lots of activation in medial amygdalaii) Amygdala unlearned natural fears and learned fears/phobias of life

Figure 5.271) PET scan2) Radioactively labeled something, inject into people, while theyre doing something behaviorally interesting, wait for it to show up3) Engaging right hand activity lights up in motor control areas4) Label glucose, oxygen, neurotransmitters (see what parts of the brain activate for neurotransmitter usage)5) PET scans tell us something functional, when hes doing something6) fMRI techniques, pet scans are not as good7) too general, looking at an area that do not show differences in resolution termsa) location/spatial resolutionb) temporal resolution (time wise)8) most of the time make it radioactive for a few minutes but its too short and radioactivity becomes negligible 9) have to have experiment set up next to cyclotron a) expensive big machinesb) severe requirements

5.281) fMRI functional magnetic resonance imaging2) spatial resolution is 1 mm, better than pet3) time is a couple sec, better again4) advantages for sure5) put magnet that aligns the spin of the electrons and positrons of the brain so that they are spinning in the same direction6) send in radio signal to perturb axis of signals7) detects flow of blood into particular regiona) tells you that the location must be very active, pulling in oxygen and glucose8) male brain is active on one side vs both sides for female braina) male brain unilateral b) female bilateral9) different imagesa) place control and experimental on each otherb) see difference between before and afterc) group of individuals as well10) structural fMRIa) gives a good idea of what the brain looks like11) fMRI a) before and after that tells you the difference in activity

5.291) cannula (syringe)2) expose neurotransmitter blocker to one particular area of the brian3) chronic cannulaa) outer and inner cannulab) inner goes slightly past outerc) need to be careful about damaging nucleus of interest during surgeryd) inner cannular is 2 mm longer that outer to deliver druge) able to do an injection while hes behavingf) or withdraw the fluid to see whats being used at the time

5.301) photostimulation2) recognize that dendrites and receptors of neurons3) identify genetic code for creating channels and receptors4) inject coding into neuron/group of neuronsa) in viral form (inject code for the channel and the receptor)b) deliver genetic material into regionc) not there previouslyd) however, attach to the coding fluorescent coding light sensitive elemente) cause channels to open upf) postiviely charged ions enter into the neurong) makes it more positive h) action potentiali) activate area by shining light that gives instruction to open channelsj) blue light tags and yellow lighti) blue light positiveii) yellow light negative, i.e. chloride ionsiii) or turn on or off neuron activity5) sophisticated technique uses cannula to reach deeper area of interest6) take thin fiberoptic cable through cannula and deliver part of the brain7) stimulate part of the brain to activate channels instead of injecting neurochemicals8) see how basal ganglia works

5.311) cause a magnetic field to occur outside of animal2) change electromagnetic field of area stimulate response3) TMS4) Stimulate part of the brain can be overly stimulated and turn off area5) How to turn on or off certain area?a) Vary parameters, intensity, etc.6) Magnetic stimulation of this sort, or imaging techniques have big advantages in that you dont need to open up brains to see whats going on7) Non-invasive techniques8) Invasive techniques can cause infections

Chapter 6

Table 6.11) Rods are peripherally located on the retina, turned to the side of the retina.a) On cell typeb) Changes of light that may existc) Related to this is motion and direction that something is movingd) Peripheral visione) Receptors along margins of retina itself for side vision2) Rods are ON type bipolar cells (Schiller et. al. study using APB to block ON bipolar cellsa) Detect spots that get brighterb) Vision in dim light

3) Conesa) Fovea pit in the center of the retina i) High concentration of conesii) Acuity how easy we can see something

Figure 6.81) Photoreceptors (light affects/rods/cones)2) Bipolar cell second element, intermediatora) Two protrusions one dendritic extension, one is an axon with associated terminals3) Ganglion cell receives information from photo/bi cella) Axons of cell make up optic nerve, second cranial nerve itself4) Interior of the eye are way too the right5) If light is absorbed to ganglion cell the light is absorbed and you cant see6) Therefore its not directly behind structure, somewhat offset7) Eye can collect a lot more light than we need to see8) Transduction property of all sensory systemsa) Some sort of receptive elements designed to convert some kind of energy or movement into an electrical signal that the nervous system can eventually understandb) Cant see without transductive elementsi) Flash of light for long time, blind for some timeii) Exhausted all the material needed for this processiii) Regenerates quickly, unless you damage the cells by looking at the sunc) Photoreceptor: look at neurotransmitter it usesi) Uses glutamate neurotransmitter(1) Excitatory neurotransmitter normally(2) But in this case it inhibits the bipolar cell(a) Glutamate receptors in bipolar cell are inhibitory in natureii) In the dark photoreceptors leak out glutamate and therefore are constantly inhibiting bipolar cells(1) Called the dark current(2) Measurable (3) Communication stops vision(4) When photon of light comes in however, photoreceptor closes positive ion channels (sodium ie) and as a result bipolar cell is released from inhibition (5) Remove suppression by light, remove inhibition by bipolar cell, so that it can undergo some activity(a) Can in turn excite ganglion cell in turn exciting central nervous system9) Neurons with axons vs. without axonsa) Signal travels along axon itselfb) Long distance neuron communication requires axonc) If neuron is very close to cells of interest doesnt need axon doesnt need action potential associated with iti) Action potential if one photon of light hit photoreceptor it would turn off the inhibition proportionally. Two photons of light effect x2. Etc(1) Coding amount of information by amplitude of the signal (2) Action potentials always the same size(3) Cells with axons code for magnitude based on action potential ii) Graded potential (1) Bipolar cell exposed to light (2) Depolarizing membrane potential (3) Intracellular recordingiii) Ganglion exposed to disinhibited bipolar cell(1) Increased rate of firing

10) In fovea close to 1:1:1 relationship for photoreceptor bipolar ganglion11) Normally its much higher ratio, i.e. for peripheral vision

Figure 6.91) Cortex2) Lateral geniculate nucleusa) Part of the thalamus (sensory relay area of brain)b) In human braini) Different layersii) Layers 2 +4iii) Layers 4 + 5?iv) Layers represent which eyeball info is coming from right or leftv) Ipsilateral = same side as eyeballvi) Contralateral = opposite side eyeballvii) Retinotopic map(1) Topographical map for what we see with the eyeviii) When signal sent from lateral geniculate nucleus to cortex preserve map = called geniculo striate (1) First name refers to where it started(2) Second to where it ends upc) Striate cortexi) Cortex has six layers to itii) Striate cortex is synonymous with primary visual cortexiii) Visual in nature extra striate cortex(1) Refers to secondary and tertiary visual cortical areas(2) Figure 6.10

Figure 6.111) Visual Field2) Eyeball overlap in visual field allows stereopsis detect distances of objects3) Cells in cortex getting info from both eyes 4) Left and right visual field5) Right field ends up in left hemisphere and vice versa6) Combine these two things by corpus collosum

Figure 6.121) Central visual area precise, 1:1:12) Peripheral visual field gross vision a) Many receptors vs. just one b) No way of telling which elements detected the lightc) Only know that somewhere in the visual field you saw something3) Cones have detailed visions = fine detail detection = acuity

Figure 6.131) If light is in center of central peripheral field, ganglion can become active2) If spot of light is off to the side, inhibit ganglion cell3) Allow to detect more finely, more acuity 4) Off or on ganglion cell5) On center off surround6) Off center on surround 7) Allows for greater detail in peripheral vision8) Processing is preserved in all levels

Color visionFigure 6.171) Three kinds of color cones in eyesa) Redb) Greenc) Blued) Individuals born without red photoreceptor e) Trichromatic color theoryi) Red green blindnessii) Lacking rediii) Called protanopiaiv) Deuteranopia (lacking green)v) Tritanopia (lack of blue receptors - blue/green blindness)f) Can detect stimuli if you have the photoreceptorg) Limited to the kinds of sensory receptors2) Figure 6.18a) Opponent processing theoryi) Explains why we cannot see certain combinations of color3) Figure 6.19a) Theoretical understandingb) When we see red, red light hits red cone, excites ganglion cellc) Ganglion cell is either excited by red or inhibited by green4) Organization of retina fulfill the trichromatic theory (see certain colors), but why we can only see certain color combinations is due to

Figure 6.24 (not tested) Dorsal stream-important for detecting where image happened and is it moving-identifying basic shape-low freq.Ventral stream of the cortex necessary to identify objects-depends on spaces between lines-interested in identify that im looking at a person and distinguishing them from someone else-high spatial freq.

Figure 6.251) Low spatial frequency on the left (fewer sine waves than in high spatial freq.)a) Magnocellular formi) Cares about movement vs. precise nature of itii) Large axons to them(1) Send information very quickly in the visual system(2) Milenated (3) Its more important to react to begin with in a defensive manner than recognizing, defense and survival factor (4) Without necessarily knowing why(5) Fast, for brightness changes(6) Form of the objectb) Overall shape and form of object, not specifics or particulars about the object (not distinguishable faces)2) High spatial freq.a) Specifics and distinguishable facesb) Parvocellular detail (small cell)i) Smaller axons, not nearly as fast at sending information as you get from magoncellular ii) Detailed informationiii) Associated with ventral visual pathway(1) Includes projections coming from parvocellular system(a) V1,v2, etc.(b) Koniocellular refers to cells that exists in between layers, related to blue visual component(c) Cones in the eye

Change in illumination is an edge Abe Lincoln pictures

Figure 6.271) Spatial filtering

Figure 6.292) Small section of primary visual cortex, lots associated with ita) Modular processing fine detail analysis of information that you see in inb) Stereopsis visual cortex has cells that detect information from specific objects

Figure 6.311) Higher visual processing2) How we actually make perceptions3) Perception of an object depends on background

6.34stereopsis

Hierarchical organization

Color constantly constancy

achromatopsia without color vision TEO1) Cortical color blindness

TE appreceptive visual agonosia2) Cant necessarily see things to count them but visual experience is lost

6.323) Summary of many visual cortical areas that we have4) Looking at right hemisphere from a backward idrectiion 5) Calcarine sulous

Table 6.2

Figure 6.361) Fusiform face areaa) Temporal lobe fusiform face area becomes active when you see various objectsb) Slightly activated, typical to see areas activated outside of the areac) These areas are important in detecting categorization of facesd) Damage to this area called prosopagnosiai) Lack of being able to tell the difference between facesii) Strokes, other injuriesiii) Farmer could no longer recognize cowse) Born with the ability to distinguish facesf) General area where learning of facial recognition occurs, throughout lifetime theres plasticity that allows us to learn how to recognize categories of thingsg) Is it specifically there to detect faces? Or is the flexible face area, meaning you can learn a lot of things from this area

Figure 6.411) Activation for child is less than adult for fusiform face area2) Develop over time3) Right side more active, hemispherical differences?

Figure 6.421) Infants spent more time looking at things that are face like in there correct orientation2) Evolutionary advantage for kids to recognize faces early on, identify caregivers etc.a) In young infants, magnocellular is the first to develop in people3) Some individuals born early with prosopagnosiaa) Can recognize that there is a person/faceb) Magnocellular is developed, less developed is parvocellular4) Some people born with cataracts, clouded lensa) Test between 9-21 shows people are able to distinguish people from objects but not individuals, parvocellular system not as developed5) People born with only one cataracta) Left eyeball to right hemisphere, and vice versa when youre youngerb) Cataract in left eyeball i) People are most impaired with prosopagnosiac) Cataract in right eyeballi) Can recognize faces early, can recognize individuals, as adultsii) Fusiform face area right side is more important than the left side for detecting individuals in temporal cortex

What is the function of the FFA, born detecting the outline of faces but we have to develop the recognizable ability to faces themselves-autistic children arent social and miss social interaction that people give by facial expression themselves b/c dont look in the eye

Figure 6.351) Lateral occipital cortex (LOC)a) Tools, kinds of tools, animalsb) Letters and numbers is important in the left hemisphere (as are most visual areas)2) Man could identify man but not the objects or vegetables and flowers and things that make up the man a) Damaged LOC

Figure 6.381) FFA is activated by faces and implied faces2) Extrastriate body area (EBA) activated by headless bodies and body partsa) Specialization of different area for face vs. parts of the bodyb) Posterior to FFAc) Activated by photos, silhouettes, drawings3) TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation)a) Directly stimulate EBA, they lose perception of body parts, its disruptedb) Stimulate FFA and lose ability to recognize facesc) Stimulate and lose ability to categorize objects4) Parahippocampal place areaa) Coretex just next to the hippocampusb) Important for detecting locations youre atc) Natural or manmade scenery or background d) Activate this area

Figure 6.391) PPA2) Associative visual agnosia

Ventral what is it that I'm looking at, perceptual experiences, specialization for face knowledge and categorization of

V5MSTMST+dMST

ST- superior temporal cortexMiddle temporal gyrus all the same place

Akinesia Optic flow (V5)

Intraparietal sulcus-grasping-pointing-reaching

Figure 6.471) Anterior interparietal sulcus (AIPS or aIP)a) Important (location) because it tells us where and object is and how to acquire that particular objectb) Reach for bottle, anterior part becomes activated for grasping an object and making sure that hand is in correct orientation for grasping that object of interestc) Have to know location, have to know orientation hand should be in from this area2) Point at object vs. picking it upa) Ventral part of interparietal sulcusb) Important for pointing3) Medial part reaching for object youve pointed to 4) Central part is important for stereopsis (depth perception)5) ALL PART OF DORSAL STREAM (answers the question 6) Ventral stream answer the question where is it and how do I interact with it?

Eyeball and muscles are not important

Chapter 7

Transduction

Figure 7.51) Bottom picturea) Sound comes in through external auditory maileusb) Humans are very sensitive to soundc) Little bones in ear help to amplify signal being picked up by ear drum, mechanical advantage, final bone therefore vibrates even more in amplitude d) Oval window attached to e) Wave itself deflects and pushes down on central structure called organ of corti

7.4 organ of corti1) Oval window on top2) Round window on bottom3) Base and roof and transducting elements are in between, where you find the receptors for hearinga) Roof i) Tectum ii) Receptor elements in betweeniii) Basiliar membraneiv) Roof collapses at preferred frequency for particular sound that runs into receptor elements for hearing:(a) Outer hair cells (not receptor elements but effector element efferents)(b) 3x as many outer hair cells as there are inner hair cells(c) attached between tectum and basiliar membrane, when they contract they pull elements together.(i) Afferent (information coming into a particular location) vs. efferent (where does this nucleus project to, a motor function, output for a particular brain region)(d) Selective hearing(e) Can contract outer hairs cells along outer membrane, activate inner hair cells, detect very small sound(f) Motor in function(2) Inner hair cells (afferent structures/in terms of hearing, are the transducing elements themselves; detect sound)(a) Only attached to basiliar membrane(b) Sensory in functionv) Nerve 8, primary associated with hearing coming from inner hair cells

4) Wave passes through structure, depress roof to run into receptor elements5) How they react where there is depression results in change of hearing, see figure 7.56) Large frequencies result in depression by oval window7) Lower frequencies of sound results in depression towards tail, receptor elements towards tail end are the ones who react8) High 20,000 Hz at base9) Low 200 Hz at apex low frequency location10) Tonotopic map11) Wherever there is deformation 12) Rate coding (200-20 Hz) membrane vibrates 13) Damage to inner hair cells cant be regained 14) Place stimulating electrodes on membrane to stimulate structure and produce rudimentary sound, learn that the thing youre hearing is a sounda) Adding an auditory prosthesis so that a person can hear

7.81) Cilia on inner hair cells, vary in sizes2) No sound is happening whatsoever, little tension in connectionsa) Mechanical deformation of the channels that are found on ciliab) Allows positive ions to come into the receptor elementc) Positivity leads to an action potential, or a graded potentiald) More that you have open at the same time, more positive, inner hair cells release neurotransmitter (glutamate, actually excitatory) and is interpreted as excitatory and send signal to central nervous system3) Bend hair cells in direction towards larger cilia, pull open and mechanically deform channels and cause more positive ions to enter inner hair cell potassium and calcium4) Push towards smaller cilia relaxes tension on channels and they close, little positive charge comes on no activity whatsoever5) Hearing something, tectum is pushing down and vibrating hair cells, lots of deformation and positive charges, lots of glutamate released6) Intentional plaques attached to channels, kind of receptor called TRP (Transient Receptor Potential)a) Associated with hearing is called TRPA1 receptorsb) Found in other sensory systems touch temp and taste

7.111) Basiliar end (oval window) higher frequencies vs. apex is lower2) Tonotopic map there is a physical representation on basiliar membrane that represents sounds a) Represented at many levels of nervous systemb) Cochlear nuclei dorsal and ventral cochlear nucleusi) Have a tonotopic representationc) Superior olivary complexi) Also has tonotopic rep.ii) Multiple nuclei as welliii) Complex of structures with tonotopic repsd) All structures are close to where auditory nerve comes in area of brain steme) Two structures above send projections to midbrain to inferior colliculus (auditory in nature)i) In turn projects up to the thalamus (major sensory relay to cortex) medial geniculate nucleus projects to primary auditory cortexf) Olivary structure has superior and inferior olivei) Superior/inferior olivary complex/nucleusii) Send to cochlea which sends to auditory hair cells amplified perception but also selective attention controlled by superior oliveiii) Olivocochlear bundle - goes from superior olive and ends up in cochlear membrane making synaptic connections with outer hair cells

Depending on how much deformation there is we have the perception of loudness-large deformation sounds loud-smaller deformation -individual inner hair cells have a range of responding for detecting tones if the tone is loud there are many action potentials for that particular frequency-when you have a loud sound and deform basiliar membrane, you deform neighbors and activate more of the inner hair cells at the same time-loudness based on number of action potentials activated but also deformations-pitch and loudness

7.131) Tuning curves2) Put recording electrode into inner hair cell (intracellular recording) 3) Set range of sounds4) Three different inner hair cells with different preferences5) Blue will respond to a range of frequencies on either side 6) If reacts to certain frequency, turn down the volume7) See that with a very low intensity of the stimulus, still reacting with 500 Hz8) Certain cells require different intensities9) So you are interested in frequencies and intensities10) Can then inactivate or poison outer hair cells red is very sharp line, if you poison it loses its sensitivity 11) Selectively amplify 12) Damage causes loss of sensitivity

7.91) Thalamus, cortical strucures2) Further down, take another section, horizontal to the ground (horizontal or transverse section)3) Auditory or 8th cranial nerve has projections that go to the dorsal/ventral cochlear nucleusa) Projects to the opposite side, in one ear and ends up on opposite sideb) Also projects to the trapezoid body and the superior olivary complexc) Superior olivary complex has projections on same and different sidesd) Superior olivary nucleus sends information on the same side to the inferior colliculuse) Immediately crosses over but some stays on the same sidef) Its difficult to tell which ear the information came fromg) Diagram only represents what happens with one earh) Both ears cross very earlyi) Superior olive is getting information from BOTH EARSi) One side is faster than the other(1) Object must be to the sideii) If source of sound is in front, hears at same time(1) Superior olives recognize same time sound, therefore object in front must be in frontiii) Mandatory relay, regardless of sides there is a synapseiv) Lateral fissure on sides in cortex(1) Temporal gyrus of auditory cortex

7.101) Primary auditory cortex to anterior parts of the temporal lobe = ventral stream2) Other direction = dorsal auditory stream3) Similar to ventral and dorsal functions to visual system4) Anterior or ventral hearing system asks, what is it that im hearing5) Dorsal or posterior system asks where is the sound coming from, how do I respond in terms of location, and can this help me navigate through environment a) i.e. blind people hear echos6) medial geniculate nucleus goes to core (primary auditory cortex, A1) projects to area immediately surrounding area aka the belt or A2 ventral stream projects to the frontal cortex as well; premotor cortex; prefrontal cortex (decisions about the nature of that sound) dorsal stream asks where was it that I heard it; goes to parietal cortex (understanding location and space); sends projections to anterior regions as well7) damage to primary auditory cortex and belt region one thinks they cant hear anything, but they can actually hear things they just arent sure what or where the sound came froma) train animals to do an action with different tones, how sensitive are animals to detecting similar soundsb) damage primary and secondary auditory cortex they lose the abilty to discriminate between sounds and they lose the action that they are expected to have c) parabelt region below is sensitive to environmental sounds: legit sounds you would hear in the environment (animals, wind, trees, etc.); growl vs. purr as welld) reactions to primary auditory cortex for same sounds, both regions become activated if you play the sound. If you play the sound backwards the primary auditory cortex still reacts, but the parabelt region no longer reacts has to be meaningful for the region to react appropriatelye) agnosia (lack of understanding)f) auditory agnosia would be caused by parabelt region damage (couldnt recognize sound)g) associative auditory agnosia associate particular sound with label, thats joe, whateveri) something that has been learned to attach label to soundii) primarily due to the anterior regions of the temporal cortex, and sometime frontal cortex damageh) musici) in young infants present sounds and record brains 1-3 year olds show altered brain activity when they hear sounds that dont go togetherii) musicians have well developed system, larger auditory representations and regions are more active(1) better you are the more active your regions areiii) music has pitches, timbres (complex of frequencies occurring at the same time, various pitches, rhythm, simultaneous notes pleasant/unpleasant, aspect of intervals, pauses, melodies)iv) parts of the cortical area (1) inferior frontal cortex particularly important in recognizing harmonies(2) auditory frontal cortex drum beat(3) right cortex- emotional music/character(4) left cortex rhythm that exists, repeating patterns(5) structures like cerebellum and basal ganglia important for understanding motor movements and timing in music(6) musical training changes the activity of all of these places(7) Amusia - people born without being able to appreciate music(a) I.R. patient extensive damage, had normal hearing, could understand speech, converse, environmental sounds but couldnt sing, think of music in her hear, but she insisted that she enjoyed listening to music, particularly because of right hemisphere(b) Some people born with it = congenital amusia, about 4% of the population(c) Genetic basis for loss of function passed on from generation(d) Close genetic relatives are likely to have similar kinds of problemsv) Figure 7.16(1) Coincidence detectors that are detecting from phase(2) Determination of right from left?vi) Figure 7.15(1) Low frequencies are easier for ear to detect which side sound came from(2) Left ears hear out of phase(3) Right ears hear in phase(4) Superior olivary nucleus/complex(5) High frequency sounds can be distinguished by right or left(a) Tell us things about right and left (b) And up and down(6) Ears fixed top part of the ear will result in a lower sound than sound that hits bottom part of the ear in lower canal itself(7) Blind people have a harder time distinguishing up from down8) Figure 7.18a) Humans are different than cats. For humansi) Discriminating right/left and up/down (1) Phase differences (low freq.)(2) Intensity differences (high freq.)(3) Less intense on opposite side, means it had to come from louder side(4) Same cues for up and down in humans, due to shape of the earii) Discriminating front and back(1) Timbre differences (like a cat)9) Figure 7.19a) Damage in higher auditory systems results in agnosia (without knowing or without knowledge)i) Apperception auditory agnosia not able to perceive, recognize that you heard a sound but cant recognize where the sound came from or the nature of that soundii) Associative agnosia connect verbal label to what you had heard, recognize its a voice but sue or joe unsureb) Ventralc) Dorsal (not posterior)10) Figure 7.10a) Left hemisphere identify whatb) Right identify where11) 7.21a) Infants are sensitive to musicb) Amusia congeaital

12) 7.25a) cutaneous sense touch coming from the skini) pressureii) vibrationiii) heat/coldiv) painb) senses for body position(1) i.e. joints kinesthetic sensesc) organic senses sense of muscle linings and gastrointestinal sensesd) auditory sense trpA1 type receptor e) trpC1 receptor for cutaneous sensesf) Types of receptors that can be identified vary depending on these properties variables for receptive fields:i) adaptation fast/slow(1) fast adapting only interested in changes of touch(2) slowly adapting touch part of the skin, immediately recognizes that its being touched, lots of activity recognizes how long youre being touchedii) receptor field small/large in nature(1) have a hard time localizing where im being touched if same receptor remains active tested with a two point discrimination: if you can touch points of the skin and can still recognize that its two points = receptive field must be very small(a) i.e. finger tips detailed information(2) two points, but continue to separate and you still cant recognize that its two points = large receptive fieldiii) borders diffuse/sharp(1) whether or not there is overlap of receptive fields(2) diffused borders lots of overlap between them, share some of the same skin, touch that area both receptors are activated at the same time(3) sharp able to distinguishg) see picturesh) Rullfini corpusclei) Static force/stretchii) Slowiii) Largeiv) diffusei) Merkels disksi) Form of objects that youre touchingii) Smooth or roughiii) Slowly adapting receptorsiv) Small receptive fieldsv) Sharp bordersvi) Finger tipsj) Meissners corpusclei) Rapid ii) Small fieldsiii) Sharp bordersiv) Contours of objectsv) Rapidly adapting have to be changesvi) Important for reading brailvii) Esp. fingers: edges, contours, brailk) Pacinian corpusclei) Rapidly adapting interested in changes vibrationsii) Largeiii) Diffused bordersiv) Extension (tools)v) Know where the hammer will hit the nail, idea of distances, elongated tooll) Free nerve endingsi) Pain ii) Tempiii) Hair movementiv) Caress/limbic massages, petting an animalv) Dont have specialized receptor elements13) Two categoriesa) Free nerve endings Figure 7.26i) Temperature cold and heatii) Trp receptors (transient receptor potential)iii) TRPA1 plays a role in reaction to temperature, esp. cold temperatureiv) TRPMS(1) Cold receptor as well(2) Most active around 11/12 less active as you get warmerv) TRPM4 +TRPM5(1) Warm receptorvi) 13 deg C(1) differences in activity at different levels(2) cold and heat receptor overlap at 20 deg Cvii) TRP receptors originally identified in the tongueviii) Also found in other places for other sensesix) TRP names(1) A auditory(2) M menthol(3) V vanilloid (e.g. capsaicin)x) What you need to know:(1) Several different receptors(2) Pattern of activity due to overlap of receptors(3) Some respond to heat vs. cold(4) Found in mouth, others found in ear?b) Specialized receptorsc) Categories are carried into spinal cord and remain separated in nervous system to some degree14) Table 7.115) Figure 7.27a) Detecting touchb) Is that cold or notc) Painful or not d) See picturee) Fast onesi) Associate with specialized receptorsf) Free nerve endings are slower kindg) Cortex perceptioni) Cross sections of the nervous systemii) Two different colored axonsiii) SPINOTHALAMIC(1) Pain and temperature(2) Spino where it originates and where it ends(3) Red neuron thalamus synaptic connection continues to cortex(4) So its the slower systemiv) DORSAL COLUMN(1) Touch (2) Kinesthetic sense(3) Limbic touch(4) Specialized receptors(5) Comes from looking at spinal cord itself long elongated structure, with columns on backside (dorsal) = dorsal columns(6) Blue axon in dorsal columnv) Both pathways follow a rule as soon as there is a synapse, then there is immediately crossing over to the other side(1) Unipolar neuron from cell body(2) Single pole coming off of it(3) Divides(4) Part of the axon goes to periphery(5) Part goes to spinal cord itself(6) Neural signal follows red axon to central nervous system, past cell body(7) Action potentioal gets to subterminal fields synaptic connection(8) Second neuron immediately crosses over and goes to spinal cord to brain(9) = contralateral representation(a) crossing over from one side to other on spinal cordvi) unipolar neuron vii) action potential continues on into the spinal cordviii) no synapse for connectionix) gets to nedulary levels where there exists the synaptic connectionx) immediate crossing to the other side, contralateral representationxi) red and blue are now on opposite sidesxii) ventral posterior nuclei in thalamusxiii) project to somatosensory cortexxiv) DECUSSATION = crossing to the other sidexv) Midbrain connections, and connection in thalamus (ventral posterior nuclei) still segregated in somatosensory cortexxvi) Move up or down the spinal cord achieve a map xvii) So different cells activated in somatosensory cortex 16) 7.28a) appreceptive agnosiai) left parietalii) drawings would not show what youre feelingiii) no perception of what youre feelingiv) Patient ECb) associative tactile agnosiai) bilateral angular gyrusii) patient MTiii) draw what youre feeling but when feeling not able to recognize it17) 7.29a) ascending pain pathwaysb) mechano receptorsi) nociception perception of painii) sharp, alittle faster in the nervous system, associated with quick withdrawl reflexesiii) only felt for duration of contact with the stimulusc) TRPV1 receptorsi) Free nerve endings reacting to extremes of heat or extremes of acidsii) Originally identified in the tongueiii) i.e. capceasiniv) dull pain experiencesv) burning sensationvi) pain but cant identify exactly where that pain was vii) remove the burning stimulus, pain persists and lasts for a long timed) ATPi) Receptors on neurons themselvesii) Detect free floating ATPiii) Energy substance for cellsiv) Damaged cells that leak out ATP, receptors that detect that ATP has been releasede) Cutaneous stimulii) Touchii) Temperature iii) Painiv) Itch(1) Not going to be tested v) Somatosensory pathways(1) Higher pathways that are associated with painf) Suggests that different experiences are associated with paini) Hurtsii) Emotional reaction to the pain can last for longer tooiii) Prefrontal cortex areas remember painful experiences that changes how we react to life in generalg) Nociceptive information from spinal cordi) DM or VPL body/VPM faceii) Sm1(1) Not only sensory in nature, but also some motor function as welliii) Sm2iv) Insula + ACC = unpleasantness(1) Can be considered to be part of limbic system (unpleasantness of pain perception we have)v) PFC (1) Long term emotional consequences18) Figure 7.30a) fMRIi) individuals experiences painful stimulation (shock, cold, etc.)ii) primary somatosensory cortex becomes activeiii) normal patient see limbic areas (1) anterior cingulate cortex becomes very activeiv) hypnotize subject(1) primary somatosensory cortex are similar(2) hypnotic suggestion reduces pain perception and activity in ACCv) without hypnosis, just suggesting its a good idea, or making it a contest(1) normal people can keep their hands in longer than someone with hypnosisvi) how are you individually suppressing it?19) 7.31a) ascending pain pathwayi) spinal cord to cortexb) descending pain pathwaysi) how to hypnosis/suggestion workii) suppress systems with pain like functioniii) interact with opiate systems iv) body has receptors for opiats and creates recpetorsc) DLPFC (dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex)d) PAG midbrain (between tectum and tegmuentum)i) Inhibiting an inhibitory neuron results in a release of inhibiton and activates PAG neuronse) At spinal cord level you block painful information from being sent from spinal cord to the cortexi) Block asending pain pathwayii) i.e. acupunctureiii) counter irritation f) implant a stimulating electrode into PAG to suppress pain perceptioni) do this kind of psychosurgery in desperate situations/chronic painii) i.e. someone with cancerg) discovered by accident i.e. frontal lobotomyi) cut themselves and dont care cause dont feel painii) pre frontal cortexh) opiates are most common use for pain perception, however not good for suppressing long term or chronic pain because we develop a tolerance for the drugsi) generally have patient awake for surgery so they can assess pain differencesj) some people immune to pain = chronic congenital (born with it) pain insesntivity i) born without receptors for pain detectionii) genetic?iii) Can be acquired tumor or stroke damages pain pathwaysiv) Damage to spinal cord itselfv) i.e. patient could no longer feel sharp pain lower half of spinal cord dorsal columnvi) upper spinal cord sensations still there20) Figure 7.32a) Placebo effect (inert pill or chemical)b) Psychological effect of placeboc) Opioid receptors become very active in nucleus accumbens and anterior cingulate cortexd) NAC (nucleus accumbens) most activei) Pleasure center or brainii) Placebo causes pleasurable experience21) 7.33a) placebo effect based on expense of medicationb) less pain perception for regular pricec) more pain perception for low priced) placebo effect quite powerfule) since 1970 all studies in psych journals have to have a control group accound for placebo effectsf) ubiquitous effect 22) 7.34a) placebo effect activates PAG (periaqueductal grey)23) phantom limb pain is something very difficult to get rid ofa) somatosensory cortex has map of body b) area can still be active and give you the impression/perception that the limb still existsc) even though cells are no longer receiving signals from those cells

Figure 7.241) Color coated to indicate different smells2) Colors become segregated in the brain3) Olfactory bulb4) Smells originally scattered all over the place but comes together in one location5) Own place in the brain 6) Segregation very early in representation of smell on cortical surfacing7) Basic smells

Figure 7.441) Fifth lobe2) Primary olfactory cortex allows smells to combine 3) 10,000 different smells we are capable to detecting 4) Activation of multiple regions at the same time5) Patterns of activities is very important for all of cortical processing