IT2351 SYLLABUSUNIT I ELEMENTARY TCP SOCKETS 9 Introduction to Socket Programming Overview of TCP/IP Protocols Introduction to Sockets Socket address Structures Byte ordering functions address conversion functions Elementary TCP Sockets socket, connect, bind, listen, accept, read, write, close functions Iterative Server Concurrent Server. UNIT II APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT 9 TCP Echo Server TCP Echo Client Posix Signal handling Server with multiple clients boundary conditions: Server process Crashes, Server host Crashes, Server Crashes and reboots, Server Shutdown I/O multiplexing I/O Models select function shutdown function TCP echo Server (with multiplexing) poll function TCP echo Client (with Multiplexing). UNIT III SOCKET OPTIONS, ELEMENTARY UDP SOCKETS 9 Socket options getsocket and setsocket functions generic socket options IP socket options ICMP socket options TCP socket options Elementary UDP sockets UDP echo Server UDP echo Client Multiplexing TCP and UDP sockets Domain name system gethostbyname function Ipv6 support in DNS gethostbyadr function getservbyname and getservbyport functions. UNIT IV ADVANCED SOCKETS 9 Ipv4 and Ipv6 interoperability threaded servers thread creation and termination TCP echo server using threads Mutexes condition variables raw sockets raw socket creation raw socket output raw socket input ping program trace route program. UNIT V SIMPLE NETWORK MANAGEMENT 9 SNMP network management concepts SNMP management information standard MIBs SNMPv1 protocol and Practical issues introduction to RMON, SNMPv2 and SNMPv3.

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STUDY MATERIAL QUESTION BANKUNIT I ELEMENTARY TCP SOCKETSTOPIC : Introduction to Socket Programming Overview of TCP/IP Protocols

1. What are sockets? A socket is defined as an endpoint for communication. A network socket is an endpoint of an inter-process communication flow across a computer network. A socket is an endpoint of a two-way communication link between two programs running on the network. Sockets provide an interface for programming networks at the transport layer. A socket is one of the most fundamental technologies of computer networking. A socket is used to allow one process to speak to another, very much like the telephone is used to allow one person to speak to another. Many of today's most popular software packages -- including Web Browsers, Instant Messaging and File Sharing -- rely on sockets. Sockets were introduced in 1981 as the Unix BSD 4.2 generic interface for Unix to Unix communications over networks. Socket-based communication is programming language independent. That means, a socket program written in Java language can also communicate to a program written in Java or non-Java socket program. A socket address is the combination of an IP address and a port number, much like one end of a telephone connection is the combination of a phone number and a particular extension. Based on this address, internet sockets deliver incoming data packets to the appropriate application process. Clients and servers communicate with each by reading from and writing to socket descriptors. To the kernel, a socket is an endpoint of communication. To an application, a socket is a file descriptor that lets the application read/write from/to the network.

2. Explain socket communication.a) A client making a connection request to the server : A server (program) runs on a specific computer and has a socket that is bound to a specific port. The server waits and listens to the socket for a client to make a connection request.

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b) Session established with temporary ports used for two way communication: If everything goes well, the server accepts the connection. Upon acceptance, the server gets a new socket bounds to a different port. It needs a new socket (consequently a different port number) so that it can continue to listen to the original socket for connection requests while serving the connected client.

3. What is socket programming?In computing, network programming, essentially identical to socket programming or clientserver programming, involves writing computer programs that communicate with other programs across a computer network. The program or process initiating the communication is called a client process, and the program waiting for the communication to be initiated is the server process.

4. What is a protocol ? A protocol is a set of rules of communication. Protocols are the building blocks of a network architecture. When writing programs that communicate across a computer network, one must first invent a protocol, an agreement on how those programs will communicate.

5. Explain TCP. TCP is a transport layer protocol used by applications that require guaranteed delivery. Connection oriented: An application requests a connection to destination and uses connection to transfer data. Point-to-point: A TCP connection has two endpoints (no broadcast/multicast). Reliability: TCP guarantees that data will be delivered without loss, duplication or transmission errors.3

Full duplex: Endpoints can exchange data in both directions simultaneously. Delivering TCP: TCP segments travel in IP datagrams. Internet routers only look at IP header to forward datagrams. Each segment contains a sequence number. Flow Control: Flow control is necessary when a computer in the network transmits data too fast for another computer to receive it .Flow control requires some form of feedback from the receiving peer. This is executed effectively due to the receivers buffer i.e., Window. TCP contains algorithms to estimate the round-trip time (RTT) between a client and server dynamically so that it knows how long to wait for an acknowledgment. For example, the RTT on a LAN can be milliseconds while across a WAN, it can be seconds. Furthermore, TCP continuously estimates the RTT of a given connection, because the RTT is affected by variations in the network traffic.

6. Explain UDP. The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides a connectionless, unreliable transport service. Connectionless means that a communication session between hosts is not established before exchanging data. UDP is often used for communications that use broadcast or multicast Internet Protocol (IP) packets. The UDP connectionless packet delivery service is unreliable because it does not guarantee data packet delivery or send a notification if a packet is not delivered. Because delivery of UDP packets is not guaranteed, applications that use this protocol must supply their own mechanisms for reliability if necessary. Although UDP appears to have some limitations, it is useful in certain situations. Each UDP datagram has a length. The length of a datagram is passed to the receiving application along with the data.

7. Differentiate TCP & UDP.Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a transportation protocol that is one of the core protocols of the Internet protocol suite. Both TCP and UDP work at transport layer.

TCPReliability: TCP is connection-oriented protocol. When a file or message is send it will get delivered unless connections fails. If connection lost, the server will request the lost part. There is no corruption while transferring a message. Ordered: If you send two messages along a connection, one after the other, you know the first message will get there first. You don't have to worry about data arriving in the wrong order Heavyweight: - when the low level parts of the

UDPReliability: UDP is connectionless protocol. When you a send a data or message, you don't know if it'll get there, it could get lost on the way. There may be corruption while transferring a message. Ordered: If you send two messages out, you don't know what order they'll arrive in i.e. not ordered.

Lightweight: No ordering of messages, no 4

TCP "stream" arrive in the wrong order, resend requests have to be sent, and all the out of sequence parts have to be put back together, so requires a bit of work to piece together. Streaming: Data is read as a "stream," with nothing distinguishing where one packet ends and another begins. There may be multiple packets per read call. Examples: World Wide Web (Apache TCP port 80), e-mail (SMTP TCP port 25 Postfix MTA), File Transfer Protocol (FTP port 21) and Secure Shell (OpenSSH port 22) etc.

tracking connections, etc. It's just fire and forget! This means it's a lot quicker, and the network card / OS have to do very little work to translate the data back from the packets. Datagrams: Packets are sent individually and are guaranteed to be whole if they arrive. One packet per one read call. Examples: Domain Name System (DNS UDP port 53), streaming media applications such as IPTV or movies, Voice over IP (VoIP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) and online multiplayer games etc

8. Explain TCP connection establishment.Three-Way Handshake The following scenario occurs when a TCP connection is established: 1. The server must be prepared to accept an incoming connection. This is normally done by calling socket, bind, and listen and is called a passive open. 2. The client issues an active open by calling connect. This causes the client TCP to send a "synchronize" (SYN) segment, which tells the server the client's initial sequence number for the data that the client will send on the connection. Normally, there is no data sent with the SYN; it just contains an IP header, a TCP header, and possible TCP options (which we will talk about shortly).

3. The server must acknowledge (ACK) the client's SYN and the server must also send its own SYN containing the initial sequence number for the data that the server will send on the connection. The server sends its SYN and the ACK of the client's SYN in a single segment. J is the initial sequence number of client and K is that of server. ACK number is the initial sequence number plus 1. 4. The client must acknowledge the server's SYN. As the minimum number of packets required is 3, it is called three way handshake.

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Explain TCP connection termination.While it takes three segments to establish a connection, it takes four to terminate a connection. 1. One application calls close first, and we say that this end performs the active close. This end's TCP sends a FIN segment, which means it is finished sending data. 2. The other end that receives the FIN performs the passive close. The received FIN is acknowledged by TCP. The receipt of the FIN is also passed to the application as an end-of-file (after any data that may have already been queued for the application to receive), since the receipt of the FIN means the application will not receive any additional data on the connection. 3. Sometime later, the application that received the end-of-file will close its socket. This causes its TCP to send a FIN. 4. The TCP on the system that receives this final FIN (the end that did the active close) acknowledges the FIN.

10. Expalin TCP options.TCP SYN can contain TCP options. Common options are: MSS (Maximum Segment Size), Window Scale Option, Time Stamp Option. MSS Option: With this option the TCP sending SYN announces its maximum segment size, the maximum amount of data that it is willing to accept in each TCP segment, on this connection. This option is set by TCP_ MAXSEG socket option.

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Window scale option: The maximum window that either TCP can advertise to the other TCP is 65535 as the corresponding field in the TCP header occupies 16 bits. But high speed connections (45 Mbps/sec) or long delay paths require larger window which can be set by left shifting (scaling) by 0-14 bits giving rise to one gigabyte. This is effected with SO_RCVBUF socket option. Timestamp option: This option is needed for high speed connections to prevent possible data corruption caused by lost packets that then reappears. The latter two are sometimes called the "RFC 1323 options," as that RFC [Jacobson, Braden, and Borman 1992] specifies the options. They are also called the "long fat pipe options," since a network with either a high bandwidth or a long delay is called a long fat pipe.

11. Explain the concept of port in computer networking.In computer networking a port is an application-specific or process-specific software construct serving as a communications endpoint in a computer's host operating system. A port is associated with an IP address of the host, as well as the type of protocol used for communication. The purpose of ports is to uniquely identify different applications or processes running on a single computer and thereby enable them to share a single physical connection to a packet-switched network like the Internet. The protocols that primarily use ports are the Transport Layer protocols, such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite.

12.Explain the concept of port numbers.Port Numbers A port is identified for each address and protocol by a 16-bit number, commonly known as the port number. The port number, added to a computer's IP address, completes the destination address for a communications session. That is, data packets are routed across the network to a specific destination IP address, and then, upon reaching the destination computer, are further routed to the specific process bound to the destination port number. Both TCP and UDP use 16-bit integer port numbers to differentiate between these processes.

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When a client wants to contact a server, the client must identify the server with which it wants to communicate. Both TCP and UDP define a group of well-known ports to identify well-known services. Clients, on the other hand, use ephemeral ports, that is, short-lived ports. The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) maintains a list of port number assignments.

The port numbers are divided into three ranges: 1. The well-known ports: 0 through 1023. These port numbers are controlled and assigned by the IANA. When possible, the same port is assigned to a given service for TCP, UDP, and SCTP. For example, port 80 is assigned for a Web server, for both TCP and UDP, even though all implementations currently use only TCP. 2. The registered ports: 1024 through 49151. These are not controlled by the IANA, but the IANA registers and lists the uses of these ports as a convenience to the community. When possible, the same port is assigned to a given service for both TCP and UDP. For example, ports 6000 through 6063 are assigned for an X Window server for both protocols, even though all implementations currently use only TCP. 3. The dynamic or private ports: 49152 through 65535. The IANA says nothing about these ports. These are what we call ephemeral ports.

TOPIC : Introduction to Sockets Socket address Structures

1)What is Socket Address Structure? There are various structures which are used in Unix Socket Programming to hold information about the address and port and other information. Most socket functions require a pointer to a socket address structure as an argument. Each supported protocol suite defines its own socket address structure Socket address structures are an integral part of every network program. We allocate them, fill them in, and pass pointers to them to various socket functions. Sometimes we pass a pointer to one of these structures to a socket function and it fills in the contents.8

We always pass these structures by reference (ie. we pass a pointer to the structure, not the structure itself ), and we always pass the size of the structure as another argument. When a socket function fills in a structure, the length is also passed by reference, so that its value can be updated by the function. We call these value-result arguments. Always set the structure variables to NULL (i.e. '\0' ) by using memset() or bzero() functions otherwise it may get unexpected junk values in your structure.

2)Explain the different types of socket address Structures ?Most socket functions require a pointer to a socket address structure as an argument. Each supported protocol suite defines its own socket address structure. IPv4 Socket Address Structure An IPv4 socket address structure, commonly called an "Internet socket address structure," is named sockaddr_in and is defined by including the header. The POSIX definition of IPv4 SAS(Socket Address Structure) is shown below. struct in_addr { in_addr_t s_addr; }; struct sockaddr_in { uint8_t sin_len; sa_family_t sin_family; in_port_t sin_port; struct in_addr sin_addr; char sin_zero[8]; }; sin_len, added in 4.3 BSD, is not normally supported by many vendors. It facilitates handling of variable length socket address structures. Various data types that are commonly used are listed below: Description Signed 8 bit integer Unsigned 8 bit integer Header 9

/* 32-bit IPv4 address */ /* network byte ordered */

/* length of structure (16) */ /* AF_INET */ /* 16-bit TCP/UDP port number */ /* network byte ordered */ /* 32-bit IPv4 address */ /* network byte ordered */ /* unused */

DataType int8_t uint8_t

int16_t uint16_t int32_t uint32_t sa_family_t socklen_t in_addr_t in_port_t

Signed 16 bit integer Unsigned 8 bit integer Signed 32 bit integer Unsigned 32 bit integer Address family of socket address structure Length of socket address,normally uint32_t IPv4 address, normally uint32_t TCP or UDP port normally uint16_t

The POSIX specification requires only three members in the structure: sin_family, sin_addr, and sin_port. Both the IPv4 address and the TCP or UDP port number are always stored in the structure in network byte order. The 32-bit IPv4 address can be accessed in two different ways. For example, if serv is defined as an Internet socket address structure, then serv.sin_addr references the 32-bit IPv4 address as an in_addr structure, while serv.sin_addr.s_addr references the same 32-bit IPv4 address as an in_addr_t (typically an unsigned 32-bit integer).

The sin_zero member is unused, but we always set it to 0 when filling in one of these structures.sin_family refers to the protocol family and the containd constant values .For eg AF_INET refers to IPv4 protocols.

Generic Socket Address Structure A socket address structure is always passed by reference when passed as an argument to any socket functions. Any socket function that takes one of these pointers as an argument must deal with socket address structures from any of the supported protocol families. A problem arises in how to declare the type of pointer that is passed. The solution chosen was to define a generic socket address structure in the header, which is as shown below :

struct sockaddr { uint8_t sa_family_t char };

sa_len; sa_family; sa_data[14];

/* address family: AF_xxx value */ /* protocol-specific address */

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The socket functions are then defined as taking a pointer to the generic socket address structure, as shown here in the ANSI C function prototype for the bind function: int bind(int, struct sockaddr *, socklen_t);

This requires that any calls to these functions must cast the pointer to the protocol-specific socket address structure to be a pointer to a generic socket address structure. For example, struct sockaddr_in serv; /* IPv4 socket address structure */ * fill in serv{} */ bind(sockfd, (struct sockaddr *) &serv, sizeof(serv));

From an application programmer's point of view, the only use of these generic socket address structures is to cast pointers to protocol-specific structures. From the kernel's perspective, another reason for using pointers to generic socket address structures as arguments is that the kernel must take the caller's pointer, cast it to a struct sockaddr *, and then look at the value of sa_family to determine the type of the structure.

IPv6 Socket Address Structure Defined by # include header. The structure is shown below: struct in6_addr { uint8_t

s6_addr[16];

/* 128-bit IPv6 address */ /* network byte ordered */

#define

}; SIN6_LEN

/* required for compile-time tests */

struct sockaddr_in6 { uint8_t sin6_len; / sa_family_t sin6_family; in_port_t sin6_port; uint32_t sin6_flowinfo; struct in6_addr sin6_addr; uint32_t sin6_scope_id; };

* length of this struct (28) */ /* AF_INET6 */ /* transport layer port# */ /* network byte ordered */ /* flow information, undefined */ /* IPv6 address */ /* network byte ordered */ /* set of interfaces for a scope */

The SIN6_LEN constant must be defined if the system supports the length member for socket address structures. The IPv6 family is AF_INET6, whereas the IPv4 family is AF_INET.

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The members in this structure are ordered so that if the sockaddr_in6 structure is 64bit aligned, so is the 128-bit sin6_addr member. On some 64-bit processors, data accesses of 64-bit values are optimized if stored on a 64-bit boundary. The sin6_flowinfo member is divided into two fields: o The low-order 20 bits are the flow label o The high-order 12 bits are reserved The sin6_scope_id identifies the scope zone in which a scoped address is meaningful, most commonly an interface index for a link-local address.

New Generic Socket Address Structure A new generic socket address structure was defined as part of the IPv6 sockets API, to overcome some of the shortcomings of the existing struct sockaddr. Unlike the struct sockaddr, the new struct sockaddr_storage is large enough to hold any socket address type supported by the system. The sockaddr_storage structure is defined by including the header, which is as show below :

struct sockaddr_storage { uint8_t ss_len; /* length of this struct (implementation dependent) */ sa_family_t ss_family; /* address family: AF_xxx value */ /* implementation-dependent elements to provide: * a) alignment sufficient to fulfill the alignment requirements of * all socket address types that the system supports. * b) enough storage to hold any type of socket address that the * system supports. */ }; The sockaddr_storage type provides a generic socket address structure that is different from struct sockaddr in two ways: If any socket address structures that the system supports have alignment requirements, the sockaddr_storage provides the strictest alignment requirement. The sockaddr_storage is large enough to contain any socket address structure that the system supports. The sockaddr_storage must be cast or copied to the appropriate socket address structure for the address given in ss_family to access any other fields

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3.Compare the different Socket Address Structures.The figure below shows a comparison of the five socket address structures: IPv4, IPv6, Unix domain, datalink , and storage. In this figure, we assume that the socket address structures all contain a one-byte length field, that the family field also occupies one byte, and that any field that must be at least some number of bits is exactly that number of bits.

Two of the socket address structures are fixed-length, while the Unix domain structure and the datalink structure are variable-length. To handle variable-length structures, whenever we pass a pointer to a socket address structure as an argument to one of the socket functions, we pass its length as another argument.

4.Explain Value-Result Arguments. When a socket address structure is passed to any socket function, it is always passed by reference. That is, a pointer to the structure is passed. The length of the structure is also passed as an argument so that its value can be updated by the function. The way in which the length is passed depends on which direction the structure is being passed: from the process to the kernel, or vice versa.

Socket address structure passed from process to kernel Three functions bind, connect, and sendto pass a socket address structure from the process to the kernel.13

One argument to these three functions is the pointer to the socket address structure and another argument is the integer size of the structure. Since the kernel is passed both the pointer and the size of what the pointer points to, it knows exactly how much data to copy from the process into the kernel.

Figure : Socket address structure passed from process to kernel

Socket address structure passed from kernel to process Four functions, accept, recvfrom, getsockname, and getpeername, pass a socket address structure from the kernel to the process. Two of the arguments to these four functions are the pointer to the socket address structure along with a pointer to an integer containing the size of the structure. The reason that the size changes from an integer to be a pointer to an integer is because the size is both a value when the function is called (it tells the kernel the size of the structure so that the kernel does not write past the end of the structure when filling it in) and a result when the function returns (it tells the process how much information the kernel actually stored in the structure). This type of argument is called a value-result argument.

Figure :Socket address structure passed from kernel to process

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TOPIC : Byte Ordering Functions

1.Explain little-endian byte order and big-endian byte order.Consider a 16-bit integer that is made up of 2 bytes. There are two ways to store the two bytes in memory: with the low-order byte at the starting address, known as little-endian byte order, or with the high-order byte at the starting address, known as bigendian byte order.

Figure :Little-endian byte order and big-endian byte order for a 16-bit integer

The terms "little-endian" and "big-endian" indicate which end of the multibyte value, the little end or the big end, is stored at the starting address of the value.

2.Explain the need for byte ordering functions.What are the four functions used to convert between the 2 byte orders. There is no standard between the two byte orderings- "little-endian" and "bigendian" and there are systems that use both formats.The byte ordering used by a given system is referred to as the host byte order. Network programmers must deal with these byte ordering differences because networking protocols must specify a network byte order. For example, in a TCP segment, there is a 16-bit port number and a 32-bit IPv4 address. The15

sending protocol stack and the receiving protocol stack must agree on the order in which the bytes of these multi byte fields will be transmitted. POSIX specification say that certain fields in the socket address structures must be maintained in network byte order. The following four functions to convert between these two byte orders.

TOPIC : Byte Manipulation Functions

1.What are Byte Manipulation Functions?There are two groups of functions that operate on multibyte fields, without interpreting the data, and without assuming that the data is a null-terminated C string. We need these types of functions when dealing with socket address structures because we need to manipulate fields such as IP addresses, which can contain bytes of 0, but are not C character strings. The first group of functions, whose names begin with b (for byte), are from 4.2BSD and are still provided by almost any system that supports the socket functions. The second group of functions, whose names begin with mem (for memory), are from the ANSI C standard and are provided with any system that supports an ANSI C library. First Berkeley derived functions are shown. #include void bzero(void *dest, size_tnbytes); void bcopy(const void *src, void *dest, size_tnbytes); int bcmp(const void *ptr1, const void *ptr2, size_tnbytes); Returns: 0 if equal, nonzero if unequal const qualifier indicates that the pointer with this qualification, src, ptr1, ptr2 are not modified by the function.. That is memory pointed to by the cost pointer is read but not modified by the function. bzero ( ) sets the specified number of bytes to 0 in the destination. This function is often used to initialize a socket address structure to 0. bcopy ( ) moves the specified number of bytes16

from the source to the destination. bcmp ( ) compares two arbitrary byte strings . The return value is zero if the two byte strings are identical; otherwise it is nonzero. The following functions are the ANSI C functions: #include void *memset(void *dest, intc, size_tlen); void *memcpy(void *dest, const void *src, size_tnbytes); int memcmp(const void *ptr1, const void *ptr2, size_tnbytes); Returns: 0 if equal, 0 if unequal (see text) memset sets the specified number of bytes to the value c in the destination. memcpy is similar to bcopy, but the order of the two pointer arguments is swapped. bcopy correctly handles overlapping fields, while the behavior of memcpy is undefined if the source and destination overlap. The ANSI C memmove function must be used when the fields overlap. memcmp compares two arbitrary byte strings and returns 0 if they are identical. If not identical,the return value is either greater than 0 or less than 0, depending on whether the first unequal byte pointed to by ptr1 is greater than or less than the corresponding byte pointed to by ptr2.The comparison is done assuming the two unequal bytes are unsigned chars.

TOPIC : Address Conversion Functions

1.Explain the Address Conversion Functions.There are two groups of address conversion function that convert the Internet address between ASCII strings (readable form) to network byte ordered binary values (values that are stored in socket address structures) and vice versa. 1) inet_aton, inet_ntoa, and inet_addr convert an IPv4 address from a dotted-decimal string (e.g., "206.168.112.96") to its 32-bit network byte ordered binary value. You will probably encounter these functions in lots of existing code. 2) The newer functions, inet_pton and inet_ntop, handle both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses. inet_aton( ) : converts the C character strings pointed to by the strptr into its 32 bit binary network byte ordered value which is stored through the pointer addptr. If successful 1 is returned otherwise a 0. #include int inet_aton (const * strptr, strut in_addr * addptr);

inet_addr( ) : does the same conversion, returning the 32 bit binary network byte ordered value as the return value. Although the IP address (0.0.0.0 through17

255.255.255.255) are al valid addresses, the functions returns the constant INADDR_NONE on an error. This means the dotted-decimal string 255.255.255.255 cannot be handled by this function since its binary value appears to indicate failure of the function. This is deprecated and the new code should use inet_aton instead

inet_ntoa ( ) : The function inet_ntoa ( ) function converts a 32 bit binary network byte ordered IPv4 address into its corresponding dotted decimal string. The string pointed to by the return value of the function resides in static memory. This function takes structure as its arguments, not a pointer to a structure. (This is rare). inet_pton ( ) and inet_ntop( ) : These two functions are new with the IPv6 and work with both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses. The letter p and n stands for presentation and numeric. Presentation format for an address is often ASCII string and the numeric format is the binary value that goes into a socket address structure.

# include int inet_pton (int family, const char *strptr, void *addrptr); Returns: 1 if OK, 0 if input not a valid presentation format, -1 on error const char *inet_ntop (int family, cost void *addrptr, char *strptr, size_t len); Returns: pointer to result if OK, NULL on error The family argument for both function is either AF-INET or AF_ INET6. If family is not supported, both functions return an error with errno set to EAFNOSUPPORT. inet_pton ( ) : The first functions tries to convert the string pointed to by strptr, storing the binary results through the pointer addrptr. IF successful, the return value is 1. If the input string is not valid presentation format for the specified family, 0 is returned. inet_ntop( ) : This function does the reverse conversion from numeric (addrptr) to presentation (strptr). The len argument is the size of the destination, to prevent the function from overflowing the callers buffer. To help specify this size, following two definitions are defined by including the header:

#define INET_ADDRSTRLEN 16 /*for IPv4 dotted-decimal */ #define INET6_ADDRSTRLEN 46 /*for IPv6 hex string */18

If LEN is too small to hold the resulting presentation format including the terminating null, a null pointer is returned and errno is set to ENOSPC. The strptr argument to inet_ntop cannot be a null pointer. The caller must allocate memory for the destination and specify its size. On success this pointer is the return value of the function. Following figure shows the summary of address conversion functions.

2.Explain sock_ntop function.A basic problem with inet_ntop is that it requires the caller to pass a pointer to a binary address. This address is normally contained in a socket address structure, requiring the caller to know the format of the structure and the address family. To solve this problem, sock_ntop() is used which takes pointer to a socket address structure as an argument, calls the appropriate function and the presentation address is returned.

#include "unp.h" char *sock_ntop(const struct sockaddr *sockaddr, socklen_t addrlen); Returns: non-null pointer if OK, NULL on error

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TOPIC : Elementary TCP Sockets socket, connect, bind, listen, accept, read, write,close functions

1.Explain readn, writen, and readline FunctionsStream sockets (e.g., TCP sockets) exhibit a behavior with the read and write functions that differ from normal file I/O. A read or write on a stream socket might input or output fewer bytes than requested, but this is not an error condition. The reason is that buffer limits might be reached for the socket in the kernel. All that is required to input or output the remaining bytes is for the caller to invoke the read or write function again. Some versions of UNIX also exhibit this behavior when writing more than 4,096 bytes to a pipe. This scenario is always a possibility on a stream socket with read, but is normally seen with write only if the socket is nonblocking. Nevertheless, we always call our writen function instead of write, in case the implementation returns a short count. We use the following three functions when ever we read from or write to a stream socket : #include "unp.h" ssize_t readn(int filedes, void *buff, size_t nbytes); ssize_t writen(int filedes, const void *buff, size_t nbytes); ssize_t readline(int filedes, void *buff, size_t maxlen); All return: number of bytes read or written, 1 on error

2.What are the elementary socket functions required to write a complete TCP client and server.The following figures shows the Socket functions for elementary TCP client/serversocket(),connect(),bind(),listen(),accept(),read(),write(),close() functions. First server is started, then sometimes later a client is started that connects to the server. The client sends a request to the server, the server processes the request, and the server sends back reply to the client. This continues until the client closes its end of the connection, which sends an end of file notification to the server. The server then closes its end of the connections and either terminates or waits for a new connection.

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3.Explain the socket() function.To perform network I/O, the first thing a process must do is call the socket function, specifying the type of communication protocol desired (TCP using IPv4, UDP using IPv6, Unix domain stream protocol, etc.). #include int socket (int family, int type, int protocol); Returns: non-negative descriptor if OK, -1 on error family specifies the protocol family and is one of the constants AF_INET , AF_INET6 , AF_LOCAL, AF_ROUTE or AF_KEY . socket type is one of the constants SOCK_STREAM ,SOCK_DGRAM ,SOCK_SEQPACKET,SOCK_RAW . The protocol argument to the socket function should be set to the specific protocol type (IPPROTO_TCP, IPPROTO_UDP, IPPROTO_SCTP) or 0 to select the system's default for the given combination of family and type.21

4.Explain the connect() function.The connect function is used by a TCP client to establish a connection with a TCP server. #include int connect(int sockfd, const struct sockaddr *servaddr, socklen_t addrlen); Returns: 0 if OK, -1 on error sockfd is a socket descriptor returned by the socket function. The second and third arguments are a pointer to a socket address structure and its size. The socket address structure must contain the IP address and port number of the server. In the case of a TCP socket, the connect function initiates TCP's three-way handshake. The function returns only when the connection is established or an error occurs. There are several different error returns possible.

5.What are the different types of errors possible when a TCP socket Initiates a connect() function. If the client TCP receives no response to its SYN segment, ETIMEDOUT is returned. Some systems provide administrative control over this timeout. If the server's response to the client's SYN is a reset (RST), this indicates that no process is waiting for connections on the server host at the port specified (i.e., the server process is probably not running). This is a hard error and the error ECONNREFUSED is returned to the client as soon as the RST is received. An RST is a type of TCP segment that is sent by TCP when something is wrong. Three conditions that generate an RST are: when a SYN arrives for a port that has no listening server , when TCP wants to abort an existing connection, and when TCP receives a segment for a connection that does not exist.

If the client's SYN elicits an ICMP "destination unreachable" from some intermediate router, this is considered a soft error. The client kernel saves the message but keeps sending SYNs with the same time between each SYN as in the first scenario. If no response is received after some fixed amount of time , the saved ICMP error is returned to the process as either EHOSTUNREACH or ENETUNREACH. It is also possible that the remote system is not reachable by any route in the local system's forwarding table, or that the connect call returns without waiting at all.

6.Explain the bind() function. The bind function assigns a local protocol address to a socket. With the Internet protocols, the protocol address is the combination of either a 32-bit IPv4 address or a 128-bit IPv6 address, along with a 16-bit TCP or UDP port number. #include int bind (intsockfd, const struct sockaddr *myaddr, socklen_taddrlen); Returns: 0 if OK,-1 on error22

bind assigns a protocol address to a socket, and what that protocol address means depends on the protocol. The second argument is a pointer to a protocol-specific address, and the third argument is the size of this address structure. With TCP, calling bind lets us specify a port number, an IP address, both, or neither. Servers bind their well-known port when they start.If a TCP client or server does not do this, the kernel chooses an ephemeral port for the socket when either connect or listen is called. It is normal for a TCP client to let the kernel choose an ephemeral port, unless the application requires a reserved port but it is rare for a TCP server to let the kernel choose an ephemeral port, since servers are known by their well-known port.

7.Explain the listen() function.The listen function is called only by a TCP server and it performs two actions: When a socket is created by the socket function, it is assumed to be an active socket, that is, a client socket that will issue a connect. The listen function converts an unconnected socket into a passive socket, indicating that the kernel should accept incoming connection requests directed to this socket. In terms of the TCP state transition diagram , the call to listen moves the socket from the CLOSED state to the LISTEN state. The second argument to this function specifies the maximum number of connections the kernel should queue for this socket.

#include #int listen (intsockfd, intbacklog); Returns: 0 if OK, -1 on error This function is normally called after both the socket and bind functions and must be called before calling the accept function. The kernel maintains two queues and the backlog argument to the listen function has historically specified the maximum value for the sum of both queues.These queues are : An incomplete connection queue, which contains an entry for each SYN that has arrived from a client for which the server is awaiting completion of the TCP three way handshake. These sockets are in the SYN_RECD state. A Completed Connection Queue which contains an entry for each client with whom three handshake has completed. These sockets are in the ESTABLISHED state.

8.Explain the accept() function.The accept() is called by a TCP server to return the next completed connection from the front of the completed connection queue. If the completed connection queue is empty, the23

process is put to sleep (assuming the default of a blocking socket). #include int accept (intsockfd, struct sockaddr *cliaddr, socklen_t *addrlen); Returns: non-negative descriptor if OK, -1 on error The cliaddr and addrlen arguments are used to return the protocol address of the connected peer process (the client). addrlen is a value-result argument : before the call, we set the integer value pointed to by *addrlen to the size of the socket address structure pointed to by cliaddr and on return this integer value contains the actual number of bytes stored by the kernel in the socket address structure. If accept is successful, its return value is a brand new descriptor that was automatically created by the kernel. This new descriptor refers to the TCP connection with the client.

9.Explain the fork() function.: fork is the function that enables the Unix to create a new process #inlcude pid_t fork (void); Returns 0 in child, process ID of child in parent, -1 on error There are two typical uses of fork function: 1. A process makes a copy of itself so that one copy can handle one operation while the other copy does another task. This is normal way of working in a network servers. 2. A process wants to execute another program. Since the only way to create a new process is by calling fork, the process first calls fork to make a copy of itself, and then one of the copies(typically the child process) calls exec function to replace itself with a the new program. This is typical for program such as shells. 3. fork function although called once, it returns twice. It returns once in the calling process (called the parent) with a return value that is process ID of the newly created process (the child). It also returns once in the child, with a return value of 0. Hence the return value tells the process whether it is the parent or the child. 4. The reason fork returns 0 in the child, instead of parents process ID is because a child has only one parent and it can always obtain the parents process ID by calling getppid .A parent, on the other hand, can have any number of children, and there is no way to obtain the process Ids of its children. If the parent wants to keep track of the process Ids of all its children, it must record the return values form fork.

10.Explain the exec() function.The only way in which an executable program file on disk is executed by Unix is for an existing process to call one of the six exec functions. exec replaces the current process image with the new program file and this new program normally starts at the main function. The process ID does not change. The process that calls the exec is the calling process and the newly executed program as the new program. The differences in the six exec functions are: a. whether the program file to execute is specified by a file name or a pathname. b. Whether the arguments to the new program are listed one by one or reference through an24

array of pointers, and c. Whether the environment of the calling process is passed to the new program or whether a new environment is specified. #include int execl (const char *pathname, const char arg 0, / (char *) 0 */); int execv (const char *pathname, char *const argv[ ]); int execle (const char *pathname, const char *arg 0, ./ * (char *)0,char *const envp[] */); int execve (const char *pathname, char *const arg [], char *const envp[]); int execlp (const char *filename, const char arg 0, / (char *) 0 */); int execvp (const char *filename, char *const argv[]); These functions return to the caller only if an error occurs. Otherwise control passes to the start of the new program, normally the main function.

11.Explain the close() function.The normal Unix close function is also used to close a socket and terminate a TCP connection. #include int close (intsockfd); Returns: 0 if OK, -1 on error

The default action of close with a TCP socket is to mark the socket as closed and return to the process immediately. The socket descriptor is no longer usable by the process: It cannot be used as an argument to read or write. But, TCP will try to send any data that is already queued to be sent to the other end, and after this occurs, the normal TCP connection termination sequence takes place

TOPIC : Iterative Server Concurrent Server

1.Differentiate Iterative & Concurrent servers.An iterative server handles both the connection request and the transaction involved in the call itself. Iterative servers are fairly simple and are suitable for transactions that do not last long. However, if the transaction takes more time, queues can build up quickly. In the following figure , after Client A starts a transaction with the server, Client B cannot make a call until A has finished

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Figure : An iterative server

For lengthy transactions, a different sort of server is needed the concurrent server, as shown in the figure below. Here, Client A has already established a connection with the server, which has then created a child server process to handle the transaction. This allows the server to process Client B's request without waiting for A's transaction to complete. More than one child server can be started in this way.

Figure : A concurrent server

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